Gsm Vs Cdma
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Presentation on GSM/CDMA Network PRESENTED BY ANOOP SINGH (2K-81-IB-07)
History Of GSM :
Developed by Group Spéciale Mobile (founded 1982) which was an initiative of CEPT ( Conference of European Post and Telecommunication )
:
Aim : to replace the incompatible analog system
:
Presently the responsibility of GSM standardization resides with special mobile group under ETSI ( European telecommunication Standards Institute )
:
Full set of specifications phase-I became available in 1990 . Under ETSI, GSM is named as “ Global System for Mobile communication “
GSM Phone
What Is GSM The full form of GSM is Global system for
Mobile Communication. GSM is one of the most famous working standards for mobile phones all over the world. Over two billion people use the GSM services across 212 countries and territories in the world. The utility of GSM makes national and international roaming very simple and easy between mobile phone operators, which enable users to use their cell phone in various parts of the world.
First GSM Launched
15 years ago: the first produced GSM phone Fifteen years ago , Nokia launched the world's first commercially available GSM digital phone, the Nokia 1011, the model number coming from the launch date: 10 November 1992.
Nokia's 1011: GSM first The 475g 1011 was rather heavier than today's slimline models. A lot of the weight came from the unit's nickelcadmium rechargeable battery, which yielded a low - by today's standards - talk time of just 90 minutes. It could stay operational for 12 hours in stand-by mode. The 195 x 60 x 45mm handset could hold 99 phone numbers and the names of their owners, any of which could be displayed on the 1011's two-line screen. There was no colour, no camera, no Bluetooth, no memory card slot and the handset had to have an extendible antenna. But it did introduce one innovation that phone owners now use without a second thought: text messaging.
Services Rendered
Call related services : • Call Waiting- Notification of an incoming call while on the handset • Call Hold- Put a caller on hold to take another call • Call Barring- All calls, outgoing calls, or incoming calls • Call Forwarding- Calls can be sent to various numbers defined by the user • Multi Party Call Conferencing - Link multiple calls together • CLIP – Caller line identification presentation • CLIR – Caller line identification restriction • CUG – Closed user group
GSM Frequency Regions In World
GSM Frequency
1 GSM frequency bands 1.1
GSM-900 and GSM-1800 1.2 GSM-850 and GSM-1900
GSM Frequency Cont.
GSM-900 and GSM-1800 are used in most parts of the world: Europe, Middle East, Africa and most of Asia. In South Americas it is in Costa Rica (GSM-1800), Brazil (GSM-850, 900 and 1800), Guatemala (GSM-850, GSM-900 and 1900),Salvador (GSM-850, GSM-900 and 1900).
GSM Frequencies
GSM-850 and GSM-1900 are used in the United States, Canada, and many other countries in the Americas. Another less common GSM version is GSM-450. It is a first generation (1G) mobile phone system which was primarily used in Nordic countries, Eastern Europe
History And Development Of CDMA
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Assess) is first used in military based communication technology used during World War II by English allies to Stop German attempts to decode transmissions
A Company named Qualcomm created communications chips and designs for CDMA technology and later claimed patents on the technology.
Claude Shannon and Robert Pierce had provided CDMA framework in 1949.
CDMA Phone
How CDMA works 1 Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
2.Time division multiple access (TDMA) 3.Code division multiple access (CDMA)
Thus CDMA is one access technology which cell phones uses to transmit and receive data.. That is FDMA puts each call on a separate frequency and TDMA assigns each call a certain portion of time on a designated frequency for the above mentioned purpose. But CDMA gives a unique code to each call and spreads it over the available frequencies. All these are multiple access systems because more than one user can use the specified At a Time
Comparision
TDMA of GSM. The data transmission in TDMA is actually not continuous. It occurs in bursts. But the time between these bursts for a single mobile phone user is very very short, so that he never knows that the speech of the other person is discontinuous! But the CDMA system has a soft capacity limit. That is increasing the number of users will decreases the system performance.( any comments Reliance users..?..!!).
CDMA Ad/Dis
Advantages of CDMA include: Increased cellular communications security. Simultaneous conversations. Smaller phones. Low power requirements and little cell-to-cell coordination needed by operators. Extended reach - beneficial to rural users situated far from cells. Disadvantages of CDMA include: CDMA is relatively new, and the network is not as mature as GSM. CDMA cannot offer international roaming, a large GSM advantage.
GSM Ad/Dis Advantages of GSM: GSM is already used worldwide with over millions of subscribers. International roaming permits subscribers to use one phone
throughout Western Europe. CDMA will work in Asia, but not France, Germany, the U.K. and other popular European destinations. GSM is mature, having started in the mid-80s. This maturity means a more stable network . CDMA is still building its network. GSM's maturity means engineers cut their teeth on the technology, creating an unconscious preference. The availability of Subscriber Identity Modules, which are smart cards that provide secure data encryption give GSM advantages. Disadvantages of GSM: Lack of access to burgeoning American market
Some Facts
GSM is a widely spread standard and CDMA is a patented technology. That is you must pay a royalty for using CDMA! . So being a GSM user you have virtually an international roaming. You can easily use a GSM phone in any of Available countries while roaming. GSM users are almost 8 times in number than CDMA users worldwide. By being a GSM user you will be part of the largest mobile community. And coming to voice quality GSM is far better than CDMA.
Conclusion
In general I say both GSM and CDMA are frontier
technologies and both have good and bad qualities. And in the case of mobile handsets the fact is that GSM handsets are very popular and many of the new facilties are readily available in GSM phones with lesser price. The reason is simple...nokia and motorola needs profit...and they will invest more in GSM because GSM has 8 times more users than CDMA.
GSM still holds the upper hand however. There's the
numerical advantage for one thing: 456 million GSM users versus CDMA's 82 million
Service Provider In India
Bharti Mobinet Limited - Brand name AirTel Mobile Service Area : Chennai (Metro) Address: Paramount Plaza, 22, Mahatma Gandhi road, Chennai 600034 . India Telephone 91 44 -2822 4595 Bharti Mobinet Limited Website : www.airtelworld.com Bharti Mobitel Limited - Brand name AirTel Mobile Service Area : Calcutta / Kolkatta (Metro) India Address : Infinity Building, 5th floor, Salt lake electronics complex, Bidhannagar, Block G P, Sector 5, Kolkata -700091 Telephone : 91 -33- 23575332 Bharti Mobitel Limited Web site : www.airtelworld.com
Cont…… Hexacom India Limited - Brand name Oasis Cellular
Address : Raghu Prakash building, C-30 Lajpat Marg, CScheme Jaipur 302001 India. Mobile service area : Rajasthan, North East Telephone : 91- 141 -2374 471 / 72 Oasis Cellular web site : www.oasiscellular.com Hutchison Essar South Limited - Brand name Hutch Address : Prestige Blue Chip, Ground Floor, Block -1, No. 9, Hosur road, Bangalore - 560029. India Mobile service area : Karnataka, Chennai, Andhra Pradesh. Telephone : 91 -80 -4193000 web site : www.hutch.co.in
Cont….
Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited - Brand name Dolphin Address : Jeevan Bharti tower-1, 124, Connaught Circus, New Delhi-110001 . India Telephone : 91- 11 -2371 9020 Mobile service area : Mumbai, Delhi web site : www.mtnl.net.in Reliance Telecom Limited - Brand name Reliance India Mobile Address : Reliance Infocomm Ltd.,Dhirubhai Ambani Knowledge City,Thane, Belapur road, Navi Mumbai 406709. India Telephone : 91 -022 -2762 4000 Mobile Service area : web site : www.ril.com
Cont…
Limited - Brand name Hutch Address : 6th floor, Sakar II, Ellisbridge, Ahmedabad- 380006. Gujarat. India Mobile service area : Gujarat Telephone : 91- 79- 2657 7228 / 9 Fascal Mobile web site : www.hutch.co.in Hutchison Telecom East Limited - Brand name Hutch Address : Constantia Office Complex, 4th floor, 11, Dr. U N Brahmachari Rd, Kolkatta 700 017. India Telephone : 91 -33- 2280 3427 Mobile service area : Kolkatta ( calcutta ) web site : www.hutch.co.in
Cont…. RPG Cellular Services Limited - Brand name
RPG Cellular Address : 5th Floor, Spencer Plaza, 769 Anna Salai, Chennai -600002 . India Telephone : 91 44 2855 0550 Mobile Service area : Chennai (Metro) web site : www.rpgcellular.com
Spice Communications Limited - Brand name Spice Address : Hemkunt Towers, 98, Nehru Place, New Delhi-110019. India Telephone : 91- 11 -2643 4544 Mobile service area : Karnataka, Punjab web site www.spiceindia.com www.spicetele.com
Cont..
Bharti Telenet Limited - Brand name AirTel Address: C-25, Phase -II, industrial area, Mohali, Punjab , India Mobile Service Area : Himachal Pradesh ( H.P ), India Telephone : 91 -172 -397281 / 2 Bharti Telenet Limited Web site www.airtelworld.com BPL Cellular Limited - brand name BPL Mobile. Address : BPL Innovision Centre, No. 54, Richmond road, Bangalore -560025 India Mobile service area : Kerala, Maharashtra,Tamil Nadu Telephone : 91 -80 - 5095 509/559 4911 BPL Cellular Ltd site :
Cont…
Aircel Limited. Brand Name: Aircel Mobile Service area : Tamil Nadu ( India ) Address: Viscose Towers, 4th floor,107-B, Avinashi road, Coimbatore -641018, India Telephone: 91 422 2217 517. Fax: 91 422 2218 907 Aircel Limited Web site: www.aircel.com Aircel Digilink India Limited. Brand Name : Essar Cellphone Mobile Service Area : Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh (E) . India Address: X-7, Okhla Industrial area, Phase II, New Delhi 110020 . India Telephone : 91 11 2638 8701 Aircel Digilink India Limited Web site : www.essarcellular.com
Cont…. IDEA Cellular Limited - Brand name Idea
Address : 5-9-62 Khan Lateef Khan estate, Fateh Maidan Rd, Hyderabad 500 001 . India Telephone : 91 -40 -656 2000 Mobile service area : Andhra Pradesh web site : http://www.ideacellular.com Koshika Telecom Limited - Brand name Ushafone Address : Usha Bhavan, A-41, Mohan Co-operative Industrial area, Mathura road, New Delhi 110044. India Telephone : 91 -11 -2695 9200/300 Mobile service area : Uttar Pradesh web site : www.koshika.com
Cont….
Bharti Cellular Limited - Brand Name : AirTel Mobile Service Area : New Delhi (Metro), Mumbai (Metro), Uttar Pradesh (W), Haryana, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, GujaratMaharashtra, Tamil Nadu, . ( India ) Bharti Cellular Limited Web site : www.airtelworld.com Bharti Mobile Limited - Brand name : Airtel Mobile Service areas : Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka & Punjab under the brand name Address: 47, Millers Tank Bund road ,Bangalore -560052 . India Telephone : 91 80 228 2211 Bharti Mobile Limited Web site : www.airtelworld.com
Cont….
BPL Mobile Communications - brand name BPL Mobile Address :BPL Telecom Center, 127, Manmala Tank road, Taikalwadi, Mahim, Mumbai -400 016 . India Telephone : 91 -22 -2437 1777 / 4977 Mobile service area : Mumbai (Metro) BPL Mobile web site : www.bplmobile.com Escotel Mobile Communications - Brand name Escotel Mobile Address : A-36, Mohan Co-operative Industrial estate, Mathura road, New Delhi- 110044 India Mobile Service area : Haryana, Kerala, Uttar pradesh Telephone : 91 -11-2695 9364/236 Escotel web site : www.escotelmobile.com
Cont….
Hutchison Essar Telecom Limited - Brand name Hutch Address : C-48, Okhla Industrial Area Phase II, New Delhi 110020 . India Mobile service area : Delhi (Metro) Telephone : 91 -11-2638 5004 web site : www.hutch.co.in Hutchison Max Telecom Limited - Brand name Orange Address : Stanrose House, 1st flr Standard Mills compound, New Prabhadevi Road, Mumbai -25 . India Telephone : Mobile service area : Mumbai city (Metro) Web site : www.orange.co.in
Thanks
Sources
www.wisegeek.com/what-is-thedifference-between-gsm-andcdma.htm www.m-indya.com/gsm/CDMAvs-GSM.htm www.mouthshut.com/review/GS M_Mobile_Technology_Vs_CD MA_Mobile_Technology-655041.html - 70k
History Of GSM :
Developed by Group Spéciale Mobile (founded 1982) which was an initiative of CEPT ( Conference of European Post and Telecommunication )
:
Aim : to replace the incompatible analog system
:
Presently the responsibility of GSM standardization resides with special mobile group under ETSI ( European telecommunication Standards Institute )
:
Full set of specifications phase-I became available in 1990 . Under ETSI, GSM is named as “ Global System for Mobile communication “
GSM Phone
What Is GSM The full form of GSM is Global system for
Mobile Communication. GSM is one of the most famous working standards for mobile phones all over the world. Over two billion people use the GSM services across 212 countries and territories in the world. The utility of GSM makes national and international roaming very simple and easy between mobile phone operators, which enable users to use their cell phone in various parts of the world.
First GSM Launched
15 years ago: the first produced GSM phone Fifteen years ago , Nokia launched the world's first commercially available GSM digital phone, the Nokia 1011, the model number coming from the launch date: 10 November 1992.
Nokia's 1011: GSM first The 475g 1011 was rather heavier than today's slimline models. A lot of the weight came from the unit's nickelcadmium rechargeable battery, which yielded a low - by today's standards - talk time of just 90 minutes. It could stay operational for 12 hours in stand-by mode. The 195 x 60 x 45mm handset could hold 99 phone numbers and the names of their owners, any of which could be displayed on the 1011's two-line screen. There was no colour, no camera, no Bluetooth, no memory card slot and the handset had to have an extendible antenna. But it did introduce one innovation that phone owners now use without a second thought: text messaging.
Services Rendered
Call related services : • Call Waiting- Notification of an incoming call while on the handset • Call Hold- Put a caller on hold to take another call • Call Barring- All calls, outgoing calls, or incoming calls • Call Forwarding- Calls can be sent to various numbers defined by the user • Multi Party Call Conferencing - Link multiple calls together • CLIP – Caller line identification presentation • CLIR – Caller line identification restriction • CUG – Closed user group
GSM Frequency Regions In World
GSM Frequency
1 GSM frequency bands 1.1
GSM-900 and GSM-1800 1.2 GSM-850 and GSM-1900
GSM Frequency Cont.
GSM-900 and GSM-1800 are used in most parts of the world: Europe, Middle East, Africa and most of Asia. In South Americas it is in Costa Rica (GSM-1800), Brazil (GSM-850, 900 and 1800), Guatemala (GSM-850, GSM-900 and 1900),Salvador (GSM-850, GSM-900 and 1900).
GSM Frequencies
GSM-850 and GSM-1900 are used in the United States, Canada, and many other countries in the Americas. Another less common GSM version is GSM-450. It is a first generation (1G) mobile phone system which was primarily used in Nordic countries, Eastern Europe
History And Development Of CDMA
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Assess) is first used in military based communication technology used during World War II by English allies to Stop German attempts to decode transmissions
A Company named Qualcomm created communications chips and designs for CDMA technology and later claimed patents on the technology.
Claude Shannon and Robert Pierce had provided CDMA framework in 1949.
CDMA Phone
How CDMA works 1 Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
2.Time division multiple access (TDMA) 3.Code division multiple access (CDMA)
Thus CDMA is one access technology which cell phones uses to transmit and receive data.. That is FDMA puts each call on a separate frequency and TDMA assigns each call a certain portion of time on a designated frequency for the above mentioned purpose. But CDMA gives a unique code to each call and spreads it over the available frequencies. All these are multiple access systems because more than one user can use the specified At a Time
Comparision
TDMA of GSM. The data transmission in TDMA is actually not continuous. It occurs in bursts. But the time between these bursts for a single mobile phone user is very very short, so that he never knows that the speech of the other person is discontinuous! But the CDMA system has a soft capacity limit. That is increasing the number of users will decreases the system performance.( any comments Reliance users..?..!!).
CDMA Ad/Dis
Advantages of CDMA include: Increased cellular communications security. Simultaneous conversations. Smaller phones. Low power requirements and little cell-to-cell coordination needed by operators. Extended reach - beneficial to rural users situated far from cells. Disadvantages of CDMA include: CDMA is relatively new, and the network is not as mature as GSM. CDMA cannot offer international roaming, a large GSM advantage.
GSM Ad/Dis Advantages of GSM: GSM is already used worldwide with over millions of subscribers. International roaming permits subscribers to use one phone
throughout Western Europe. CDMA will work in Asia, but not France, Germany, the U.K. and other popular European destinations. GSM is mature, having started in the mid-80s. This maturity means a more stable network . CDMA is still building its network. GSM's maturity means engineers cut their teeth on the technology, creating an unconscious preference. The availability of Subscriber Identity Modules, which are smart cards that provide secure data encryption give GSM advantages. Disadvantages of GSM: Lack of access to burgeoning American market
Some Facts
GSM is a widely spread standard and CDMA is a patented technology. That is you must pay a royalty for using CDMA! . So being a GSM user you have virtually an international roaming. You can easily use a GSM phone in any of Available countries while roaming. GSM users are almost 8 times in number than CDMA users worldwide. By being a GSM user you will be part of the largest mobile community. And coming to voice quality GSM is far better than CDMA.
Conclusion
In general I say both GSM and CDMA are frontier
technologies and both have good and bad qualities. And in the case of mobile handsets the fact is that GSM handsets are very popular and many of the new facilties are readily available in GSM phones with lesser price. The reason is simple...nokia and motorola needs profit...and they will invest more in GSM because GSM has 8 times more users than CDMA.
GSM still holds the upper hand however. There's the
numerical advantage for one thing: 456 million GSM users versus CDMA's 82 million
Service Provider In India
Bharti Mobinet Limited - Brand name AirTel Mobile Service Area : Chennai (Metro) Address: Paramount Plaza, 22, Mahatma Gandhi road, Chennai 600034 . India Telephone 91 44 -2822 4595 Bharti Mobinet Limited Website : www.airtelworld.com Bharti Mobitel Limited - Brand name AirTel Mobile Service Area : Calcutta / Kolkatta (Metro) India Address : Infinity Building, 5th floor, Salt lake electronics complex, Bidhannagar, Block G P, Sector 5, Kolkata -700091 Telephone : 91 -33- 23575332 Bharti Mobitel Limited Web site : www.airtelworld.com
Cont…… Hexacom India Limited - Brand name Oasis Cellular
Address : Raghu Prakash building, C-30 Lajpat Marg, CScheme Jaipur 302001 India. Mobile service area : Rajasthan, North East Telephone : 91- 141 -2374 471 / 72 Oasis Cellular web site : www.oasiscellular.com Hutchison Essar South Limited - Brand name Hutch Address : Prestige Blue Chip, Ground Floor, Block -1, No. 9, Hosur road, Bangalore - 560029. India Mobile service area : Karnataka, Chennai, Andhra Pradesh. Telephone : 91 -80 -4193000 web site : www.hutch.co.in
Cont….
Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited - Brand name Dolphin Address : Jeevan Bharti tower-1, 124, Connaught Circus, New Delhi-110001 . India Telephone : 91- 11 -2371 9020 Mobile service area : Mumbai, Delhi web site : www.mtnl.net.in Reliance Telecom Limited - Brand name Reliance India Mobile Address : Reliance Infocomm Ltd.,Dhirubhai Ambani Knowledge City,Thane, Belapur road, Navi Mumbai 406709. India Telephone : 91 -022 -2762 4000 Mobile Service area : web site : www.ril.com
Cont…
Limited - Brand name Hutch Address : 6th floor, Sakar II, Ellisbridge, Ahmedabad- 380006. Gujarat. India Mobile service area : Gujarat Telephone : 91- 79- 2657 7228 / 9 Fascal Mobile web site : www.hutch.co.in Hutchison Telecom East Limited - Brand name Hutch Address : Constantia Office Complex, 4th floor, 11, Dr. U N Brahmachari Rd, Kolkatta 700 017. India Telephone : 91 -33- 2280 3427 Mobile service area : Kolkatta ( calcutta ) web site : www.hutch.co.in
Cont…. RPG Cellular Services Limited - Brand name
RPG Cellular Address : 5th Floor, Spencer Plaza, 769 Anna Salai, Chennai -600002 . India Telephone : 91 44 2855 0550 Mobile Service area : Chennai (Metro) web site : www.rpgcellular.com
Spice Communications Limited - Brand name Spice Address : Hemkunt Towers, 98, Nehru Place, New Delhi-110019. India Telephone : 91- 11 -2643 4544 Mobile service area : Karnataka, Punjab web site www.spiceindia.com www.spicetele.com
Cont..
Bharti Telenet Limited - Brand name AirTel Address: C-25, Phase -II, industrial area, Mohali, Punjab , India Mobile Service Area : Himachal Pradesh ( H.P ), India Telephone : 91 -172 -397281 / 2 Bharti Telenet Limited Web site www.airtelworld.com BPL Cellular Limited - brand name BPL Mobile. Address : BPL Innovision Centre, No. 54, Richmond road, Bangalore -560025 India Mobile service area : Kerala, Maharashtra,Tamil Nadu Telephone : 91 -80 - 5095 509/559 4911 BPL Cellular Ltd site :
Cont…
Aircel Limited. Brand Name: Aircel Mobile Service area : Tamil Nadu ( India ) Address: Viscose Towers, 4th floor,107-B, Avinashi road, Coimbatore -641018, India Telephone: 91 422 2217 517. Fax: 91 422 2218 907 Aircel Limited Web site: www.aircel.com Aircel Digilink India Limited. Brand Name : Essar Cellphone Mobile Service Area : Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh (E) . India Address: X-7, Okhla Industrial area, Phase II, New Delhi 110020 . India Telephone : 91 11 2638 8701 Aircel Digilink India Limited Web site : www.essarcellular.com
Cont…. IDEA Cellular Limited - Brand name Idea
Address : 5-9-62 Khan Lateef Khan estate, Fateh Maidan Rd, Hyderabad 500 001 . India Telephone : 91 -40 -656 2000 Mobile service area : Andhra Pradesh web site : http://www.ideacellular.com Koshika Telecom Limited - Brand name Ushafone Address : Usha Bhavan, A-41, Mohan Co-operative Industrial area, Mathura road, New Delhi 110044. India Telephone : 91 -11 -2695 9200/300 Mobile service area : Uttar Pradesh web site : www.koshika.com
Cont….
Bharti Cellular Limited - Brand Name : AirTel Mobile Service Area : New Delhi (Metro), Mumbai (Metro), Uttar Pradesh (W), Haryana, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, GujaratMaharashtra, Tamil Nadu, . ( India ) Bharti Cellular Limited Web site : www.airtelworld.com Bharti Mobile Limited - Brand name : Airtel Mobile Service areas : Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka & Punjab under the brand name Address: 47, Millers Tank Bund road ,Bangalore -560052 . India Telephone : 91 80 228 2211 Bharti Mobile Limited Web site : www.airtelworld.com
Cont….
BPL Mobile Communications - brand name BPL Mobile Address :BPL Telecom Center, 127, Manmala Tank road, Taikalwadi, Mahim, Mumbai -400 016 . India Telephone : 91 -22 -2437 1777 / 4977 Mobile service area : Mumbai (Metro) BPL Mobile web site : www.bplmobile.com Escotel Mobile Communications - Brand name Escotel Mobile Address : A-36, Mohan Co-operative Industrial estate, Mathura road, New Delhi- 110044 India Mobile Service area : Haryana, Kerala, Uttar pradesh Telephone : 91 -11-2695 9364/236 Escotel web site : www.escotelmobile.com
Cont….
Hutchison Essar Telecom Limited - Brand name Hutch Address : C-48, Okhla Industrial Area Phase II, New Delhi 110020 . India Mobile service area : Delhi (Metro) Telephone : 91 -11-2638 5004 web site : www.hutch.co.in Hutchison Max Telecom Limited - Brand name Orange Address : Stanrose House, 1st flr Standard Mills compound, New Prabhadevi Road, Mumbai -25 . India Telephone : Mobile service area : Mumbai city (Metro) Web site : www.orange.co.in
Thanks
Sources
www.wisegeek.com/what-is-thedifference-between-gsm-andcdma.htm www.m-indya.com/gsm/CDMAvs-GSM.htm www.mouthshut.com/review/GS M_Mobile_Technology_Vs_CD MA_Mobile_Technology-655041.html - 70k
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