Group 4

http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/04/business/04alaskaoil.ht ml

Meagan Slagle Greg Hausler Alex Harrison John Houston Zibing Wang Ziren Wang William Halen

http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/aborig/fp/fpz3a01e.shtml

The Inuit Eskimos are made up of several groups, each determined on their location geographically. Those called Inupiat are located in Northern Alaska, near the Barter Islands. They were Nomadic prior to the meeting of whalers, and remained nomadic until the

The Inupiat have been in Northern Alaska for nearly 11,000 plus years. They rely heavily on subsistence hunting/fishing and whaling to survive. The whales would provide food, materials for clothing, housing, tools, weapons, etc.

Russian Control Government sent crews to survey the area. Lt. Otto Von Kotzebue “discovered” Kotzebue Sound in 1816 US Control 1863 US buys Alaska Explorers navigated the interior of Alaska and they discovered gold The prospectors that had stayed in the area after the rush, usually married into the Native families.

1890’s-1900’s Barter Island was an important stopping ground for Whalers. 1920’s fur trading allowed for stable income but only for a short period of time. 1923: Tom Gordon established a fur trading post for the H.B. Liebes Company of San Francisco. 1943: 95% of the trading posts were closed. 1945: The U.S. Coast Guard and the Geodetic Survey brought some employment to the Island.

POST WWII WWII had little effect on the region. With the start of the Cold War, and its close proximity to Russia the region became increasingly active. The US Air Force had installed a Distant Early Warning system on the island in the 1940s. 1947 US Air Force constructed a runway and hangar on the village site, which forced the residents of the island to relocate. This turned Kaktovik, a base in the Inupiat territory, into a military reserve.

Government activities increased in the region and established schools, which effectively caused the increase in population. In 1950 the population was 50, and in 1953 it was approximately 150. Climate changes: Warming trend Thinning of sea ice Increase in flooding Increase in traveling hazards Erosion of the coast The thinning ice makes it harder to harvest Bowhead Whales, seals, walrus, and other foods and trade goods. With the ice shelves forming later in the year, it becomes more difficult to predict the ice movements, which in turn hinders the ability to transport goods or just travel in general.

The Inupiat of Alaska live in an area encompassed by mountain groups, seas, and rivers. The significant mountains in this areas are a part of a range called the Brooks Range. The mountains include The Baird, De Long, Endicott, and Schwarka, all of which are glaciated. A significant sea in this part is the Chukchi Sea. The

The territory of the Alaskan Inupiat is also filled with low, gray hills, lowlands covered by thawed lakes, marshes, pingos, and patterned ground, and few sand Dunes.

The Inupiat of Alaska live in an area that has a generally cold climate. The warmest month of July consist of temperatures that ranges in the 50°s F and the coldest month of February has an average temperature of -10°F. Average temperature is 9.4 degrees Fahrenheit. Summers are very short with many hours of daylight.

Inupiaq Eskimo Family

Transportation The major source of transportation for the Inupiat Eskimos are dog sleds. The sleds are used to transport food and move families from their summer home to winter home.

Inupiaq Dwellings Winter homes are called “Inne”. The Inne’s are built underground. Igloos are only used for temporary shelter. Summer houses resemble tents made from animal skins.

Modernized Dwellings In some areas the Inupiaq have set up permanent settlements These settlements have modern luxuries that include, electricity and plumbing. These settlements have recently become much more popular.

Clothing “Parkas” are made from animal skins and are sewn together using bone needles and sinew. Pants and boots are made the same way. Their clothing is often decorated with significant Inupiaq symbols

Inupiaq Family Structure

The Men Traditionally men do all of the hunting and fishing. Men are usually the head of the household and make all the decision making. The also drive the dog sleds which are used for transportation.

The Women Usually take care of the children at home. Cook for the family and clean the dwellings. They often make the “Parkas”. Occasionally hunt but only out of necessity

The Women (Continued)

They are not part of the urban underclass. The majority have stable incomes from employment and craft production and are homeowners.

The Children Young boys usually stay with their mothers until they can begin to hunt and fish. Young girls learn at an early age from their mothers to cook and take care of the home. Infanticide was very common before

The Elderly Many communities are run by respected elderly men. Cases of assisted suicide are common when food becomes scarce.

The Elderly (Continued)

In ancient times the Elders sat in designated areas up front during a community activity. The Elders were so respected that no one walked in front of them. The Elders were the traditional teachers, but replaced by U.S. government certified teachers. Only recently the Elders importance was realized again by villages seeking social leadership to guide communities away from confusion and disruptive social ills. Today, the Inupiaq Elders still retain and know much traditional wisdom.

Inupiaq Marriage Marriages are arranged and forced by the community. Men are allowed to marry when they can hunt for themselves and women when they reach puberty. Marriages are not monogamous and are sexually open.

Inupiaq Household The family structure is very flexible. A household may consist of a husband his wife or wives and children, also his parents, his wives parents, siblings and their families.

Shaman Shaman have mystical powers and are able to solve problems cure the sick and can contact spirits who control the weather and the physical forces of nature. The Shaman hold a central place in an Inupiaq family.

Inupiaq Rites of Passage Boys: Prior to Christian missionaries young men had a “Gargi” where the elders taught them how to make implements and the skills of hunting and fishing. Girls: Inupiaq girls were at home learning from woman the skills of sewing, learning the care of children, cooking and how to manage a

Inupiaq Rites of Passage (Continued)

Some Inupiaq villages perform ceremonies throughout the year, but for individuals life is a continuous flow built upon levels of responsibility. Customs may vary between villages, but the increasing expectation of responsibility continues throughout ones life. At puberty a youth may be sent to an elder for a year of training

Etiquette Tribal, village, clan and family affiliations are important to all Inupiaq people. When greeting a casual acquaintance "Where are you from?" is the most common greeting. Many Inupiaq people introduce themselves, naming their parents and village. This becomes the initial opportunity to understand the unique

Inupiat economy is based on hunting and fishing. The food of Inupiat comes from reindeer, seal, elephant seal, whale and other kinds of meat. Also blubber and fish are an important part in their food cycle. There is almost no market economy in an Inupiat tribe. In order to become a seasoned hunter in the cold environment, they have to go hunting together. After they get the booty they share it with every member in the tribe.

The basic product of the Inupiat tribe is the hide of the sea animals and fish. They have little business with the outside world. They sell hide and blubber to the outside world and use the profits for their living needs.

With the settlement of traders, the Inupiat eventually replaced tools of stone and bone with knives, axes, and metallic tools Firearms replaced traditional weapons. Brought trade goods like: Food, utensils, firearms, and booze. The Inupiat traded caribou and sheep meat for winter clothing and manufactured goods.

In order to bring a more stable economy, traders brought over semi-domesticated Reindeer. Severe winters in 1936-37 cause most of the reindeer herds to die from starvation, a good portion of what was left was killed by hungry Inupiat. The Bureau of Internal Affairs brought over 3000 more reindeer in order to secure an end to the starvation, but those too were killed off.

The Inupiat economy faces problems now; the climate is becoming warmer and warmer. With the icecaps in the arctic region slowly diminishing, the Inupiat have less area for hunting and fishing. Some skillful hunters fall through the ice when they go hunting because the ice is too thin. The pollution of the sea is devastating the Inupiat economy. They can not sell fish to the outside world because the fish are polluted. The lack of technological advances in Inupiat fishing created problems for their economy, however, the fishing technique have improved in more recent years. On the other hand, blubber is not as expensive as before, and trade has become more difficult for the Inupiat.

As Norman A. Chance states in his book The Iñupiat and Arctic Alaska: An Ethnography of Development, “In summary, we can see that humankind faces two immense problems, one pertaining to the unequal distribution of productive wealth among the world’s people and the other to the deterioration of the environment. In fact…an inextricable bond exists between these two problems, suggestion that efforts at resolution will eventually require joint attention” (11). It is this unequal distribution of wealth and the deterioration of the environment that the Iñupiat have come to love and hate. The new world that gives them jobs, takes their land and food. The same health care system that was “for their own good” marked the beginning of the end for the nuclear household. It is in these hard times and even harsher climate that a society struggles to maintain its cultural identity.

The people of Alaska native to this land are divided into several groups, including but not limited to geographic locations and linguistic separations. Arriving from the Asian continent and more specifically from Siberia, these people moved freely across the frozen Bering Strait during the winter months between Asia and North America. Linguistically they were divided into Aleut and Eskimo of which the Eskimo divided into Yup’ik and the Iñupiat people (Chance 18). The Iñupiat people inhabit what is now known as the North Slope Barrow and have made this top part of Alaska their home. Prior to western influence, the Iñupiat people were a selfsufficient people, living off the land and wasting nothing. They spent their days learning the land, hunting, fishing and preparing for the long winters. Everyone did their part and was depended on as a vital member of the family. Men were entrusted to the hunting and gathering of the food that would feed their family or group of families and the women, given the responsibility of distributing this food. Out of these hunters the most skilled hunter would arise as the leader of his clan.

Politically autonomous, the Iñupiat had no external governance and no one person over their society. The family unit was self governed unit and made its rules based on what they had witnessed growing up in their village and through the various processes of enculturation. Iñupiat children were given much attention and affection from both parents and through high expectations and verbal coercion by their parents, responsibility was taught at a young age. “Elders, or wise ones, were given the responsibility of teaching adolescence, and in some instances boys were sent away for a year at a time to learn from these elders. These elders would meet with the boys at a (qargi) or ceremonial family meeting place to teach the young boys how to make weapons and the skills it took to become a hunter.

They allowed them from time to time to follow the older hunters on their exploits so they could see what they learned, put into practice. These elders sat at important seats during rituals and ceremonies and were regarded with much respect. In a way they were the governing body of the Iñupiat, establishing the rules that were to be followed. Although the elders made the decisions in their community, they would always hear the word of someone with common sense. This body of elders was comprised of men or women and had a head elder that could be either as well. ( http://nnlm.gov/archive/20061109155450/inupiaq.html)” Usually someone with this importance would obtain this honor by proving to be a skilled hunter and or leader (ataniq) (Chance 24). These ataniq would take the responsibility of leading several clans on hunting expeditions as to maximize the effectiveness of the hunt. This served as a tie or bond between clans that could again be used in times of hardship or famine (Chance). A whale hunt could be a very long and dangerous process and if one hunter proved to be more skilled than the others he would take the responsibility of leadership, making certain rules for the hunt. Traditionally, a crew of men would set out in a large (umiak) or skin boat, find a whale and harpoon it. They would then follow it until it was dead and then with the help of others bring it ashore. After the hunt was over the food was brought home and given to the women.

They would be in charge of distribution among the different households and would divide the food as needed. The villagers would strip the blubber or (maktak) (Chance) from the whale and the meat would be divided. “One part of the meat would go to the successful crew, one part to the assisting crews and the rest to the villagers who had assisted in the end” (Chance 90). “Today food is still shared by all Inupiaq. When a whale is hunted in Barrow AK, whether an Inupiaq is in Anchorage or Seattle, the person will "taste" some of that whale ( http://nnlm.gov/archive/20061109155450/inupiaq.html/#food )”. A man could also expand his prestige by the number of people in his family. The more family you had the more skilled hunters and skin sewers you could have. The more men in the household the more food you could provide for a larger number of people. This conjugal household translated directly to the amount of wealth you were considered to have and thus higher political prestige. “The Iñupiat were typically endogamous and married within their clan and marriage to one’s family often sometimes occurred out of necessity and locality. Until the Christian influences began to take root, even marriage to a first cousin was not considered incest. (incest was strictly forbidden) As the male or female family head over your clan, you were considered as a boss or rich man (umialik)” (Chance 21).

Yet another means of acquiring ties and economic linkages between non family members of the same region was the practice of exogamy where the umialik could take on another wife although not his primary wife (nuliaqpak) (Chance 22) outside of his clan, and extend his economic potential through polygamy. Chance also mentions of men and women who would trade partners and also enter into co-marriages for these same economic reasons. These co-marriages or “spouse exchanges” could be several weeks or one night but the bond was there for a lifetime (25-26). It is important to mention another aspect of the Iñupiat culture although covered in detail in the religion portion of the presentation, religious men, or shaman (angatquq) (Chance 22) touched every aspect of their everyday life. While these men did hold high political power within their perspective clan, they shared this level of power with the umialik. The umialik were the shaman most of the time and were thought by the Iñupiat people to possess the unique ability to speak to the spirits on their behalf. “There was no written language and it was up to these shamans to pass on the history of the Iñupiat to their apprentices in the form of story and song or myth and tale” (Jans 46).

The decline of the political structure of the Iñupiat peoples has no real marked point in time, but can be attributed to the influx of foreign people to their land; the whalers who arrived in search of cheap oil or baleen, the fur traders hoping to make a quick dollar or those who had the best religious intentions at heart. Iñupiat children were forbidden to speak their native tongue in school, and shaman teaching and ways were at best combined with and diluted with the new Christian ways of thinking. Jobs at military sites became a way to obtain cash to buy things brought in from the lower 48s. Oil and other non-renewable resources became a driving force for outside companies to compete for and the land was bought at a price. Trapping took the men away from their homes for weeks and months at a time during the winter months and the family unit was split up. Autonomous, self-governance was replaced with outside forces being able to control the land and destiny of the Iñupiat ways. Little voice was given to the people and what voice they did have was seldom heard. Was this the land of their ancestors?

Was this land that they had come to know and love and live off of? Or was this another commodity to be traded at a whim or to be exploited with no regards to the inhabitance? Yes, they had come to love this land but they had also come to love the things that destroyed it. It gave them a way to live comfortably and the companies that destroyed their land paid them a premium to do so. “Some families make $30,000 to $40,000 a year in addition to yearly dividends from the NANA, the local Native corporation, free medical care from the Public Health Service, subsidized housing, unemployment checks, Alaska Permanent Fund checks, and food stamps as well”(Jans 120). When asked if he preferred the old ways to the new an old Iñupiat replied “that there was too much work to be done all the time and too much dying. Now he has a big family and that is good” (Jans 121). At times it seems almost hopeless for the Iñupiat to preserve the “old ways” in the face of outside governments, western culture, and changing climates. There are some though who still maintain the rituals of the qargi ceremonies and the political structure of the family and try to pass on these values to the younger generations. Indeed family has and always will be all the Iñupiat have in life, and somewhere in the Brooks Range, the place I call home, the ceremonial drum can still be heard in The Land of the Midnight Sun.

The Inupiat of Alaska, like any other Native American, believed first in Animism and Animistic Spirits. This belief is based on the idea that nature is animated by certain spirit beings. 1

1. Bennett, Richard. “Anthropology and Culture: Religion. 2009.

While most Natives believed in the presence of spirits in natural objects, like trees and rocks and other inanimate objects, the Inupiat believed also and possibly even more so in the spirits of animals. “Every observable thing — every feature of the landscape, every animal, every object, every person — is imbued with a soul, or spirit. In addition, there are a number of nonempirical "creatures" having a wide variety of forms, as well as a variety of spirits having no material manifestation whatsoever. All of these spirits are capable of intentional action.” 1

1. Burch Jr., Ernest s. “The Inupiat and the Christianization of Arctic Alaska. www.alaskool.org/native_ed/research_reports/christianization/burch.htm. 2004.

The Inupiat believed that these spirit gods not only resided in everything, but also had control over good and bad things that happened in their everyday lives. Every action had a consequence and was more than likely put in place by one of the spirits. “Traditional Inuit Shaman take Spirit Journeys into the wilderness under the Aurora to retrieve cures for disease and guard their patient's soul against death. The dancing lights fill the winter skies with vibrant colors and are an important part of the

“Inuit believed that animals have souls, which, if mistreated, could become bloodthirsty monsters. They also believed that animals deliberately gave themselves up to be killed by human beings. By treating an animal and its spirit with the proper respect, the good hunter ensured that he could continue hunting that animal, because it would be reborn to be hunted again.” The Inupiat, believed that a soul never died. It was always brought to life again in some form or fashion, and the way in which a life was lived and the way they treated each other, and even animals, was an indication of how the next life would turn out. 1

1. First Peoples of Canada. http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/aborig/fp/fpz3a10e.shtml. 2009.

One of the Inupiat’s most powerful gods, is the goddess Sedna. Her story comes from a myth passed down from each generation. So the story goes: while she and her father are out on a ship, a storm comes up, and he thinks it is because she is in the boat, because of prior circumstances. He throws her overboard, but she is determined not to fall in so she holds to the side. He was also determined, so he cuts her fingers off so that she cannot hold on. Her fingers become the animals the Inupiat hunt: whales, fish, seals, and walrus’. She now lives at the bottom of

The practitioner of the rituals and activities of the Inupiat is the Shaman. The shaman is not trained, but is believed to have acquired his gifts at an early age. One of the task of the Shaman is, when the hunting is not going well, to “travel” down to the bottom of the sea, to meet Sedna. He believes that he has to braid her hair to make her happy again. With the loss of her fingers she cannot do it herself, and she gets upset, which is why the

After the introduction of Christianity in late 1800 to early 1900 the Shaman’s presence began to disappear. The Inupiat were accepting of the Christian missionaries, of their teachings, and the Bible. Almost all of the Inupiat are Christian at this time, although the memories of their gods have yet to completely vanish. Now, when babies are born, they are baptized and given one English and one Inupiat name. They also now celebrate the Christmas,

Baidu Book: http://baike.baidu.com/view/1524075.htm Bennett, Richard. “Anthropology and Culture: Religion. 2009 Chance, A. Norman. The Iñupiat and Arctic Alaska: An Ethnography of Development. Holt, Reinehart, and Winston. Florida: Orlando,1990. Adapted from Norman A. Chance, The Inupiat and Arctic Alaska (1990), Harcourt Brace. http://arcticcircle.uconn.edu/HistoryCulture/Inupiat/growingup.html First Peoples of Canada. http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/aborig/fp/fpz3a10e.shtml. 2009. Jans, Nick. The Last Light Breaking: Living Among Alaska’s Inupiat Eskimos. Ed. Ellen Harkins Wheat. Alaska Northwest Books. Washington: Seattle, 1993. Nnlm.gov, July 16, 2004. archived May 1, 2008. Alaska Native Cultural Profile. < http://nnlm.gov/pnr/ethnomed/inupiaq.html>

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Nnlm.gov, July 16, 2004. archived May 1, 2008. Alaska Native Cultural Profile. < http://nnlm.gov/archive/20061109155444/inupiaq_map.html>

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“Sedna of the North.” 2004. http://www.spiralgoddess.com/Sedna.html. 2009. Sina Report: http://finance.sina.com.cn/review/20070301/03093365466.shtml

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