Gr

Pronunciation Vowels The accent, if written, is placed on the single vowel or the second vowel of the diphthong. If the diaeresis (two dots on top ΪΫϊϋ) is placed on the second, or the accent is on the first, it is not a diphthong. For example, ρολοϊ (clock, from ωρολογιον, whence French horloge) is pronounced roh-LOH-ee. Α αλφα : as in father πατηρ Ε εψιλον : as in hecto- εκατον Η ητα : as in spleen σπλην Ι ιωτα : same as η, sometimes shorter Ο ομικρον : as in Portuguese dose δοσις Υ υψιλον : same as ι Ω ωμεγα : as in somatic σωματικος Consonants Β βητα : as in very Γ γαμμα : voiced version of χ. Before ε or ι, as in yet. Before γ, κ, or χ, as in sink Δ δελτα : as in those Ζ ζητα : as in zone ζωνη Θ θητα : as in thesis θεσις Κ καππα : as in kinetic κινητικος Λ λαμβδα : as in linen λινον Μ μυ : as in mixture μιγμα Ν νυ : as in new νεος Ξ ξι : as in ax αξινη Π πι : as in plasma πλασμα Ρ ρω : as in Spanish reloj ρολοϊ Σ σιγμα ς : as in sack σακκος Τ ταυ : as in type τυπος Φ φι : as in phone φωνη Χ χι : halfway between keel and heel Ψ ψι : as in sepsis σηψις Diphthongs αι : like ε, but longer αυ : ahv, as in sovereign, except before a voiceless consonant, in which case ahf ει : as in Keith, same as η ευ : as in several, left οι : same as η ου : as in food υι : same as η γγ : as in anger γκ : as in anger, sink, or go γχ : as in ankh μπ : as in bumble ντ : as in dander Phrases & Vocabulary Phrases & Vocabulary

Hello. Γεια σας. (YAH sahss) (means literally "your health") Hello. (informal) Γεια σου. (YAH soo) How are you? Τι κανετε; (tee KAH-neh-teh?) Fine, thank you. (And you?) Καλά, ευχαριστώ. (Και εσείς;) (kah-LAH ef-khah-reesTOH (keh eh-SEES?)) What is your name? Πως σε λενε; (pohs seh LEH-neh?) My name is ______ . Με λενε ______ . (Με LE-neh _____ .) Nice to meet you. Χαρηκα. (HA-ree-ka) Please. Παρακαλω. (pah-rah-kah-LOH) Thank you. Ευχαριστω. (ef-khah-rees-TOH) You're welcome. Παρακαλω. (Pah-rah-kah-LOH) Yes. Ναι. (neh) No. Οχι. (OH-khee) Excuse me. (getting attention) Συγνωμη. (See-GHNO-mee) Excuse me. (begging pardon) Συγνωμη. (See-GHNO-mee) I'm sorry. Λυπαμαι. (lee-PAH-meh) See you later. Τα Λεμε. (Ta LE-me) Goodbye. Αντιο. (AHN-dee-oh) I can't speak Greek [well]. Δεν μιλω καλα ελληνικα. (dhen mee-LOH KAH-lah eh-leenee-KAH) Do you speak English? Μιλατε αγγλικα; (mee-LAH-teh ang-glee-KAH?) Is there someone here who speaks English? Μιλαει κανεις εδω αγγλικα; (MeeLAH-ee ka-NEES e-DHO ang-glee-KAH?) Help! Βοήθεια! (Voh-EE-thee-yah!) Good day. Καλημέρα. (kah-lee-MEH-rah) Good evening. Καλησπέρα. (kah-lee-SPEH-rah) Good night. Καληνύχτα. (kah-lee-NEEKΗ-tah) I don't understand. Δεν καταλαβαινω. (dhen kah-tah-lah-VEH-no) Where is the toilet? Που ειναι η τουαλετα? (poo ΕΕ-ne ee too-ah-LEH-tah?) Problems Leave me alone. Αφήστε με ήσυχο (male)/ ήσυχη (female). (a-FIS-te me EE-si-kho / EE-si-khee) Don't touch me! Μην με αγγιζεις! (meen meh ang-GEEH-zees) I'll call the police. Θα καλεσω την αστυνομια. (Tha kah-LEH-soh teen ah-stih-nohMIH-ah) Police! Αστυνομια! (ah-stih-noh-MIH-ah) Stop! Thief! Σταματηστε τον κλεφτη! (Stah-mah-TIH-steh ton KLEH-ftee!) I need your help. Χρειαζωμαι την βοηθεια σας. (hreeh-AH-zoh-meh teen vohEEH-thih-ah sas) It's an emergency. Ειναι επειγον. (EEH-neh eh-PEEH-ghon) I'm lost. Εχω χαθει. (EH-hoh hah-THEEH) I lost my bag. Εχασα την τσαντα μου. (EH-hah-sah teen TSAHN-dah mooh) I lost my wallet. Εχασα το πορτοφολι μου. (EH-hah-sah toh por-toh-FOHleeh mooh) I'm sick. Ειμαι αρρωστος/τη . (EE-me hah-ROHS-tos/tee ) I've been injured. Ειμαι τραυματισμενος/νη. (EEH-meh trav-mah-tees-MEHnos/nee) I need a doctor. Χρειαζομαι γιατρο. (hree-AH-zoh-meh yiah-TROH) Can I use your phone? Μπορω να χρησιμοποιησω το τηλεφωνο σας; (mboh-ROH nah khree-see-moh-pee-EEH-soh toh teeLEH-foh-NOH sahs?) Numbers

The different forms of 1-4 are used with nouns of different genders. 1 ενας/μια/ενα (EH-nahs / MEE-ah / EH-nah) 2 δυο (DHEE-oh) 3 τρεις/τρια (trees / TREE-ah) 4 τεσσαρες/τεσσαρα (TESS-a-ress / TESS-a-rah) 5 πεντε (PEN-deh) 6 εξ (ex) 7 εφτα (ef-TAH) 8 οχτω (okh-TOH) 9 εννεα (en-eh-AH) 10 δεκα (DHEH-kah) 11 ενδεκα (EN-dheh-kah) 12 δωδεκα (DHOH-dheh-kah) 13 δεκατρεις (dheh-kah-TREES) 14 δεκατεσσαρες (dheh-kah-TESS-ah-ress) 15 δεκαπεντε (dheh-kah-PEN-deh) 16 δεκαεξ (dheh-kah-EX) 17 δεκαεφτα (dheh-kah-ef-TAH) 18 δεκαοχτω (dheh-kah-okh-TOH) 19 δεκαεννεα (dheh-kah-en-eh-AH) 20 εικοσι (ee-KOSS-ee) 21 εικοσι ενας (ee-KOSS-ee EN-ahs) 22 εικοσι δυο (ee-KOSS-ee DHEE-oh) 23 εικοσι τρεις (ee-KOSS-ee TREES) 30 τριαντα (tree-AHN-dah) 40 σαραντα (sah-RAHN-dah) 50 πενηντα (peh-NEEN-dah) 60 εξηντα (ex-EEN-dah) 70 εβδομηντα (ev-dhoh-MEEN-dah) 80 ογδοντα (ogh-DHON-dah) 90 ενενηντα (en-en-EEN-dah) 100 εκατον (EH-kah-ton) 200 δικοσια (dhee-KOH-see-ah) 300 τρικοσια (tree-KOH-see-ah) 1000 χιλιος (KHEE-lee-ohs) 2000 δισχιλιοι (dhees-KHEE-lee-ee) 10,000 μυριος (MEE-ree-ohs) 1,000,000 εκατομμυριος (eh-kah-tom-MEE-ree-ohs) half ημισυ (ee-MEES-ee) less ελασσον (EH-lahss-on) more πλειον (PLEE-on) Measurement Greeks prefer all-Greek words to mixed Greek-and-Latin words. "Meter", "liter", and "gram" being Greek, they don't use Latin prefixes like "milli" with them. Instead they use the following: deci centi milli

δεκαστο εκατοστο χιλιαστο

The word λεπτο means both a euro cent and a minute of time. A second is δευτερολεπτο, δευτερο meaning second (the ordinal). Time

now τώρα (TOH-rah) later αργότερα (ar-GHOH-teh-rah) before πριν (preen) morning πρωί (proh-EE) afternoon απόγευμα (a-POH-ghev-ma) evening βράδυ (VRAH-thee) night νύχτα (NEE-htah) Clock noon το μεσημέρι (toh mess-ee-MEHR-ee) midnight τα μεσάνυχτα (tah meh-SAH-neekh-tah) Duration _____ minute(s) _____ λεπτο/λεπτα (LEP-toh/tah) _____ hour(s) _____ ωρα/ωρες (OH-rah/res) _____ day(s) _____ μερα/μερες (MEH-rah/res) _____ week(s) _____ εβδομαδα/δες (ev-dhoh-MAH-dhah/dhes) _____ month(s) _____ μην/μηνες (MEEN / MEE-nes) _____ year(s) _____ ετος/ετη (EH-tohs/tee) Days today σημερο (SEE-meh-roh) yesterday χτες (khtes) tomorrow αυριο (AHV-ree-oh) Sunday Κυριακη (kee-ree-AH-kee) Monday Δευτερα (DHEF-teh-rah) Tuesday Τριτη (TREE-tee) Wednesday Τεταρτη (teh-TAR-tee) Thursday Πεμπτη (PEMP-tee) Friday Παρασκευη (pah-rah-skeh-VEE) Saturday Σαββατο (SAH-vah-toh) Months January Ιανουάριος (ia-noo-AH-ri-aws) February Φεβρουάριος (fe-vroo-AH-reos) March Μάρτιος (MAHR-tee-os) April Απρίλιος (ah-PREE-lee-aws) May Μάϊος (MAH-ee-os) June Ιούνιος (ee-OOH-nee-os) July Ιούλιος (ee-OOH-lee-os) August Αύγουστος (AHV-ghoo-stos) September Σεπτέμβριος (sep-TEHM-vree-os) October Οκτώβριος (ok-TAU-vree-os) November Νοέμβριος (naw-EM-vree-os) December Δεκέμβριος (the-KHEM-vree-os) Colors

black μάυρος/α/ο (MAHV-ros/rah/roh) white άσπρος (AHS-prohs) red (blood) έρυθρος (EH-ree-throhs) red (fire) πυρρός (peer-ROHS) red κοκκινο ("KOH-kih-noh") blue μπλε (bleh) yellow κιτρινο (KIT-ree-noh) orange πορτοκαλη (POR-toh-kah-lee) Transportation Bus & Train How much is a ticket to _____? Πόσο κάνει ένα εισιτήριο για _____? One ticket to _____, please. Eνα εισιτήριο για _____, παρακαλώ. Where does this train/bus go? Που πάει αυτό το τραίνο/λεωφορείο? Where is the train/bus to _____? Που είναι το τραίνο/λεωφορείο _____? Does this train/bus stop in _____? Σταματάει το τραίνο στο _____? When does the train/bus for _____ leave? Πότε φεύγει το τραίνο/λεωφορείο για _____? When will this train/bus arrive in _____? Πότε θα φτάσει το τραίνο/λεωφορείο στο _____? Directions Turn left. Στρεψατε στην αριστερα. (STREP-sah-teh steen ah-riss-teh-RAH) Turn right. Στρεψατε στη δεξια. (STREP-sah-teh stee dheh-xee-AH) left αριστερα (ah-riss-teh-RAH) right δεξια (dheh-xee-AH) north βορρας (vor-RAHS) south νοτος (NOH-toss) east ανατολη (ah-nah-TOH-lee) west δυση (DHEE-see)

Lesson 1 Το Ελληνικό Αλφάβητο - The Greek Alphabet Capital

Small

Name & Greek Word Example

English Sound

Α

α

άλφα = alfa

Άννα

Like a in father

Β

β

βήτα = veta

βάρκα

Like v in Victor

Γ

γ

γάμα = gama

γάτα

Like y in yes

Δ

δ

δέλτα = thelta

δώρο

Like th in this

Ε

ε

έψιλον = epselon

εγώ

Like e in bet

Ζ

ζ

ζήτα = zeta

ζωή

Like z in zebra

Η

η

ήτα = eta

ήλιος

Like ee in beet

Θ

θ

θήτα = theta

θάλασσα

Like th in think

Ι

ι

γιώτα = yota

ιστός

Like ee in beet

Κ

κ

κάπα = kapa

καλός

Like c in car

Λ

λ

λάμδα = lamtha*

λουλούδι

Like l in lemon

Μ

μ

μι = me

μαμά

Like m in mother

Ν

ν

νι = ne

ναι

Like n in no

Ξ

ξ

ξι = xe

ξύλο

Like x in ax

Ο

ο

όμικρον = omekron όλος

Π

π

πι = pe

πάγος

Like p in poor

Ρ

ρ

ρο = ro

ρολόι

Like r in rain

σαπούνι

Like s in see

Σ

σ,ς** σίγμα = segma***

Like o in only

Τ

τ

ταυ = taf

τώρα

Like t in top

Υ

υ

ύψιλον = eepselon

ύπνος

Like ee in beet

Φ

φ

φι = fe

φωτιά

Like f in Frank

Χ

χ

χι = he

χήνα

Like h in hair

Ψ

ψ

ψι = pse

ψάρι

Like ps in lips

Ω

ω

ωμέγα = omega

ώρα

Like o in only

* the th like the "th" in this. ** the "σ" is used at the beginning or in the middle of the words, the "ς" only at the end. *** The g is a soft g

Lesson 2 Double Letters Double Vowels

Double Consonants

αι = like e in bet - αίμα μπ = b like b in boy - μπαμπάς οι = like ee in beet - οικογένεια ντ = d like d in door - ντύνω υι = like ee in beet - υιός γκ = g like g in get - άγκυρα ει = like ee in beet - είμαι γγ = g like g in get Ευάγγελος ου = like ou in Lou - ουρανός τσ = ts like ts in pots τσέπη αυ = like af in "after" - αυτί, or τζ = dg like dg in lodge τζάκι like av in "avocado" - αυγό ευ = like ef in "cleff" - εύκολο, or like ev in "evolution" - Εύα Lesson 4 Vowels and Consonants

Here is an easy one. The 24 letters of the Greek alphabet are divided into two parts. The vowels (φωνηεντα) and the consonants (συμφωνα). There are 7 vowels and 17 consonants. They are: Vowels (Φωνηεντα): α, ε, η, ι, υ, ο, ω.

Consonants (Συμφωνα): β, γ, δ, ζ, θ, κ, λ, μ, ν, ξ, π, ρ, σ, τ, φ, χ, ψ. Lesson 6 Punctuation Marks -Σημεία Στίξης • η τελεία (.) (period) • η άνω τελεία (·) (semicolon) • το κόμμα (,) (comma) • η διπλή τελεία (:) (colon) • το ερωτηματικό (;) (question mark) • το θαυμαστικό ( ! ) (exclamation mark) • τα αποσιωπητικά (...) (ellipsis) • η παρένθεση ( ) (parentheses) • τα εισαγωγικά ( « ») (quotation marks) • η παύλα (-) (dash) _____________________________________________________________ The Greek Alphabet

a b g d e z h q i k l m n c o p r s, S j A B G D E Z H Q I K L M N C O P R

alpha beta gamma delta epsilon zeta eta theta iota kappa lambda mu nu xi omikron pi rho

a as in father b as in bat g as in goat d as in dog e as in Ed z as in zoo e as in Beta th as in the i as in it k as in kite l as in lite m as in mom n as in now x as in Xylophone o as in hop p as in pet r as in race

sigma (note: the j occurs at the end of words) s as in silly

T U F X Y W

t u f x y w

tau upsilon phi chi psi omega

t as in hat u as in soup ph as in phone ch as in loch ps as in psalms o as in phone

Writing the Greek Letters These letters are written on the line: a e i k n o p s t u w. These letters are written partly on and partly below the line: g h m r j x These letters are written partly on and partly above the line: d q l These letters are written on, above and below the line: b z c f y The capital letters will only be used when they begin a proper noun. Sentences begin with small letters.

Vowel Combinations When two or more vowels (a e i o u) occur together they are pronounced as one letter. The following chart will indicate the correct pronunciation of these vowel combinations in Greek (called diphthongs): ai as in aisle ei as in height oi as in oil au as in kraut eu as in feud ou as in group ui pronounced like wee Whenever gg, or kg occur together, they are pronounced "ng" as in "angel" Lesson 2: Breathing Marks When r begins a word, it must have what is called the rough breathing mark, (a & on top of it), and when any word begins with a vowel it also must have either a rough breathing mark, or a smooth breathing mark ( an 0 on top of it). For example: r& = a rough breathing mark (pronounced with an "h" sound) a0 = a smooth breathing mark pronounced simply as "a" Accent Marks The marks found above letters in Greek are called accent marks (apart from the rough and smooth breathing marks we have already discussed). These marks help in pronunciation of words; but we will simply note them and not memorize them. Usage will, in the long run, make these marks self explanatory.

Punctuation Marks In Greek there are 4 punctuation marks; the comma (,) and period (.) correspond to the English comma and period. The colon (:) appears above the line and corresponds to the English colon. The question mark (;) is this sign. Lesson 3: Present Active Indicative In Greek, as in English, there are different parts of speech: verbs, which are words that describe action; nouns, which name objects; and adjectives, which modify nouns. There are other parts of speech which we will discuss later. For now, we will focus on one particular type of verb. When one talks about Greek verbs one must be very clear as to which kind of verb one is talking about. Greek verbs, you see, have "Tense", which describes both kind and time of action. They also have "Voice", which indicates whether the subject of the verb is acting (active voice) or being acted upon (passive voice). Greek verbs also have "Mood", which shows the verb's relation to reality. And finally, Greek verbs also have number (singular or plural). We will see many examples of aong; so do not worry now about whether or not you fully grasp these ideas. You will!!!! The first kind of verb we will discuss is the one which occurs most often in the New Testament: Present, Active, Indicative. That is, the tense is present (describing action taking place now), the voice is active (meaning that the verb's subject is acting and not being acted upon), and the mood is indicative (which demonstrates true reality). Present, Active, Indicative verbs are translated by a present tense English verb. (See the examples below in the vocabulary). Before we go any further, the following words will need to be memorized by the student for vocabulary. These words occur very frequently in the New Testament. ginwskw = I know grafw = I write didaskw = I teach e0geirw = I raise up, lift up lambanw = I receive, take to myself legw = I say, I speak pempw = I send ferw = I bear, I carry, I bring ASSIGNMENT: Memorize these vocabulary words and learn to correctly pronounce them. You will notice that each of these verbs ends with the letter w. And they are all translated by "I...." In Greek, the verb called the present, active, indicative, always ends with the following endings (called conjugations): Singular -w = I ... -eij = you ... -ei = he, she or it, depending on the context

Plural -omen = we... -ete = you -ousi= they -ein = infinitive Thus, to learn to recognize the Present, Active, Indicative, you simply need to recognize the verbal ending. You can take any of the verbs ending, add the endings above, and have the correct conjugation. For instance: legw= I say legeij= = You say legei= He, she or it (depending on the contexts) says legomen= We say legete= You say legousi= They say legein= to say ASSIGNMENT: Take each of the verbs from the vocabulary above and conjugate them, then translate them. Example: didask + w = I teach didask + eij = you teach didask + ei = he, she or it teaches didask + omen = we teach didask + ete = you teach didask + ousi = they teach didask + ein = to teach Now, do the rest of the verbs for yourself (but don't include the + marker, it is simply there to show you how conjugation is done). Lesson 4: Second Declension Nouns Vocabulary: 1. Verbs a0gw- I lead

a0kouw- I hear blepw- I see e0xw- I have luw- I loose, I destroy 2. Second Declension Nouns a0ggeloj- messenger a0delfoj- brother douloj- slave, servant karpoj- fruit logoj- word a0nqrwpoj- man a0postoloj- apostle, messenger a0rtoj- bread gamoj- marriage dwron- gift qanatoj- death i&eron-- temple liqoj- stone nomoj- law o0xloj- crowd ui&oj- son kai- and ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary words above. Note that list 1 are verbs, and list 2 are nouns of the second declension. There are three ways of classifying nouns in Greek. The second declension (class) are the most frequent in the New Testament, so it is with these that we begin our study of nouns. The following endings are attached to the noun root to obtain the endings of the second declension:

Singular -oj -ou -w|

Plural -oi -wn -oij

Case nominative genitive locative, instrumental, dative (note the w| subscript)

-on -e

-ouj accusative - (none) vocative

All that one needs to do to decline a noun in Greek, if it is a second declension noun, is add these endings to the stem. For example, the stem of a0nqrwpoj is a0nqrwp- to which are added the endings of the second declension as follows:

Singular a0nqrwpoj a0nqrwpou a0nqrwpw| a0nqrwpon a0nqtwpe

Plural a0nqtwpoi a0nqrwpwn a0nqrwpoij a0nqrwpouj (none)

To find the stem of any noun, simply drop off the nominative ending (the way it is listed in the dictionary) and add the endings above. (See how simple it is!) ASSIGNMENT: Decline (or add the appropriate endings, as above) all the nouns in the vocabulary at the beginning of lesson 4. Now, we must briefly discuss the meanings of these endings: The Nominative case (or ending) is the case that the subject of the sentence is found in. The Genitive case is the case used to describe ownership of something. For example, oi0kou a0nqrwpou means "a man's house" or "a house of a man". The Locative case indicates where something is located. "oi0kw| " means "in a house" The Instrumental case indicates the means by which something is. "oi0kw| " means "by means of a house". The Dative case indicates the direction of something. "oi0kw| " means "to a house". The astute reader will notice that the Locative, Instrumental and Dative cases are all the same in form. The correct translation can only be gained by means of the context. The Accusative case shows limits. "oi0kon" means "the house" (only). The Vocative (which occurs only in the singular) is the case of address. "a0nqrwpe" means "man!" Accurate translation means that the translator must know these forms and their meanings. ASSIGMENT: Translate the following sentences: a0nqrwpoj ginwskei ton nomon pempete dwra tw| i&erw|

lambanw dwra karpou kai a0rton Lesson 5: 1st Declension Nouns As we begin this lesson the student needs to be reminded that learning Greek is like washing an elephant. We have washed a little, and we have a lot more to go. But don't get discouraged! Stick with it and the rewards will far outweigh the trouble. Vocabulary:

a0gaph- love a0lhqeia- truth a(martia- sin basileia- kingdom glwssa- tongue grafh- writing, Scripture didach- teaching, instruction doca- glory

ei0rhnh- peace e0kklhsia- church e0ntolhcommandment h(mera- day maqhthj- disciple messia- messiah parabolh- parable profhthj- prophet

ASSIGNMENT: write and memorize this vocabulary list. This lesson will help the student recognize and translate 1st declension nouns. The student is urged to review lesson 4 and its description of the various cases. They also apply here, as in 2nd declension nouns. The following table must be memorized:

Singular -a - aj - a| - an

Plural -ai -wn -aij -aj

Case nominative genitive locative, instrumental, dative accusative

These endings are simply added to the stem of the feminine nouns of the 1st declension (masculine nouns of the 1st declension are different): for example:

Singular

Plural basilei + basilei + a ai basilei + basilei + aj wn basilei + basilei + a| aij basilei + basilei + an aj

Case nominative genitive locative, instrumental, dative accusative

Easy, right? Well it gets a little complicated now. For when the stem of a noun ends in j, ll or a double consonant (z, c, s, y) then the following table applies:

Singular Plural Case

-a -hj -h| -hn

-ai -wn -aij -aj

nominative genitive locative, instrumental, dative accusative

As before, these endings are simply added to the stem of the noun. And, as before, these endings must be memorized. Now, when a 1st declension noun is masculine in gender, then it has the following endings:

Singular -aj -ou -a| -an

Plural -ai -wn -aij -aj

Case nominative genitive locative, instrumental, dative accusative

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the table above. Now we can turn to our last item of business in this lesson; an examination of the definite article. Greek has no indefinite article (the english "a" or "an"). The definite article is declined like any other noun, in the following manner (in the masculine, feminine and neuter genders): Singular

Masculine o( Nominative tou Genitive Loc., Ins., Dat. tw| ton Accusative

Feminine h( thj th| thn

Neuter to tou tw| to

Feminine ai( twn taij taj

Neuter ta twn toij ta

Plural

Nominative Genitive Loc., Inst., Dat. Accusative

Masculine oi( twn toij touj

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the table above, and translate the following sentences: 1. o( a0postoloj didaskei parabolhn toij a0nqrwpoij 2. legomen logouj a0lhqeiaj o0xloij a0nqrwpwn kai maqhtwn Lesson 6: Adjectives Vocabulary:

a0gaqoj- good a0gaphtoj- beloved a0llon- another (of the same kind) basilikoj- royal dikaioj- righteous

kainoj- new kakoj- bad kaloj- beautiful mikroj- small monoj- only,

e0sxatoj- last e(teroj- another (of a different kind) prwtoj- first

alone nekroj- dead pistoj- faithful ponhroj- evil

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary list above. Like nouns, adjectives have gender, number, and case. An adjective is a word that modifies a noun- i.e., "a new house". the adjective is "new" and the noun is "house". When an adjective is used in Greek it will agree (match) the noun in gender, case, and number. For example: a0nqrwpoj a0gaqoj = a good man a0nqrwpwn a0gaqwn = good men and so on. Thus, there is nothing new to memorize here, since the student has already memorized the 1st and 2nd declension nouns. What one MUST remember is that an adjective WILL agree with the noun it modifies in gender (masculine or feminine), case (nominative, genitive, etc), and number (singular or plural). Of particular importance in translating Greek is whether or not the definite article is used IMMEDIATELY before the adjective. Note the following sentences very carefully, paying particular attention to the placement of the article and the translation given: o( a0gaqoj logoj = the good word o( logoj o( a0gaqoj = the good word and o( logoj a0gaqoj = the word IS good a0gaqoj o( logoj = the word IS good If you noticed, when the article immediately precedes the adjective then it is translated "the... (whatever the adjective is). When the article does not precede the adjective, the English wore the translation accurate. (Note: all of these rules are subject to fine tuning as we learn more of this tremendous language). ASSIGNMENT: Translate the following sentences as accurately as possible: 1. o( a0gaphtoj maqhthj a0kouei touj a0gaqouj logouj 2. o( basilikoj nomoj didaskei thn doxan a0gaphj 3. o( a0postoloj ginwskei touj dikaiouj kai taj dikaiaj 4. o( dikaioj a0nqrwpoj grafei parabolhn Lesson 7: Prepositions Vocabulary: a0na- up, again a0nti- against, instead of

a0po- from, away from dia- through, by (with genitive); because of (with accusative) e0k- out of (before a word begining with a vowel = ex) e0ij- into, unto e0n- in, on (with locative); by (with instrumental) e0pi- upon, on, at (with genitive); over (with locative); up to (with accusative) kata- down from (with genitive); according to (with accusative) meta- with (with genitive); after (with accusative) para- from (with genitive); beside (with locative); along (with accusative) peri- about, concerning (with genitive); about, around (with accusative) pro- before proj- at (with locative); to (with accusative) sun- with, together with u(per- over (with accusative) u(po- by (agency) (with genitive); under (with accusative) The first thing the student will notice is that some of the prepositions have different meanings when they occur with a particular case. These distincitions must be learned. ASSIGNMENT: The vocabulary above must be memorized. Prepositions are words that help nouns, verbs and adjectives express themselves clearly. Prepositions do not change in form, as do nouns, verbs and adjectives. The forms above are the forms that will always occur, with one small exception. Prepositions ending with a vowel (except pro and peri) drop that vowel when the next word in the sentence begins with a vowel. For example: a0po a0delfou becomes a0p a0delfou dia h(mera becomes di h(mera, etc. Note: Prepositions have shades of meaning that are not indicated above. The translator must be sensitive to the context to translate them correctly, as well as make liberal use of the lexicon. ASSIGNMENT: Translate the following sentences: 1. o( a0postoloj didaskei e0n th| e0kklesia| 2. o( maqhthj legei parabolhn peri thj basileiaj 3. o( messiaj legei parabolhn e0n logoij a0lhqeiaj Lesson 8 - Present, Passive, Indicative Vocabulary:

a0naginwskw- I read baptizw- I baptize khrussw- I preach, proclaim menw- I abide, remain swzw- I save, rescue topoj- place fwnh- voice, sound

qeoj- God kardia- heart kosmoj- world o(doj- road, way inteknon desert zwh- life

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary list above. Notice that the list contains both verbs and nouns. The passive verb, (the topic of this lesson) is used when the subject of the verb is being acted upon, rather than acting. For example: luw- I loose luomai- I am being loosed The following table shows the endings of the present, passive, indicative:

-mai = I am being... -meqa = we are being... - sqe = you (pl) are -h| = you are being.... being... -tai = he is being... - ntai = they are being... - sqai = (infinitive) These endings are added to the stem of the verb, and a connecting vowel is added (o before m or n, e before any other letter). For instance: lu-o-mai = I am being loosed lu-o-meqa = we are being loosed lu-h| = you are being loosed lu-e-sqai = you are being loosed (pl) lu-e-tai = he is being loosed lu-o-ntai

= they are being loosed

lu-e-sqai= to be loosed The student will notice quite clearly the stem of the verb lu, the connecting vowel, and the verbal ending. These must be memorized. ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the endings and connecting vowels of the present, passive, indicative. Then take the vocabulary verbs at the beginning of this lesson and conjugate them all in the present, passive, indicative (as above). ASSIGNMENT: Translate the following sentences: 1. (oi( oi0koi luontai u(po twn ponhrwn a0nqrwpwn 2. o( pistoj a0delfoj swzetai u(po tou maqhtou tou mession

3. zwh a0po tou ui(ou menei e0n toij dikaioij a0nqrwpoij 4. o( a0gaqoj profhthj baptizei ta tekna 5. a0naginwskomen thn grafhn kai ginwskomen thn o(don a0gaphj Lesson 9: Present, Middle, Indicative Vocabulary:

0ai0rw- I lift a0postellw- I send as an emissary bainw- I go katabainw- I go down

docazw- I glorify e0sqiw- I eat krinw- I judge sunagw- I gather together

a0nabainw- I go up ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary words above. The present, middle, indicative is used to show that the subject is acting so as to participate in some way in the results of the action. This means that such verbs should be translated reflexively; i.e., o( a0nqrwpoj e0geiretai = the man is raising himself up. Now, for the good news! The form of the present, middle, indicative is exactly the same as the present, passive, indicative. So, the difference is function rather than form. The context of the passage will indicate whether the verb is middle or passive in function. Since the student has already learned the form, the following table shows the function of the present, middle, indicative:

luomeqa- we loose for ourselves luh|- you loose for yourself luesqe- you loose for yourselve luetai- he looses for luontai- they loose for himself themselves luomai- I loose for myself

ASSIGNMENT: Translate the following sentences as present, middle, indicatives. 1. oi( a0nqrwpoi lambanontai a0rton kai karpon 2. krinetai e0n th| parabolh| tou profhton 3. oi( o0xloi e0sqiousin (note the -n on the end of this verb. This letter is called a moveable -n and it occurs quite frequently on the end of the 3rd person plural verb) a0rton kai o( messiaj docazetai Lesson 10: Personal Pronouns and the verb "to be" Vocabulary:

e0gw- I sou- You

ei0mi- I am de- but

0au0tojou0- not he au0th- she ou0k- not au0ton- it ou0c- not ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary list above. Some notes of importance: The word de never stands at the beginning of a clause. In Greek the negative particle is normally found immediately in front of the word is negates. Now, to the personal pronouns. They are declined as follows: First Person (I)

Singular Nom e0gw- I e0mou- of Gen me e0moi- to L.I.D. me Acc. e0me- me

Plural h(meij- we h(mwn- of us h(min- to us h(maj- us

(The student should note that the abbreviations for the cases are given above, and will be used from this point on. This should cause no difficulty, as you know the case names by now). Second Person (you)

Nom. Gen. L.I.D. Acc.

Singular su- you sou- of you soi- to you se- you

Plural u(meij- you u(mwn- of you u(min- to you u(maj- you

Third Person (he, she, it) Singular

Masc. Nom au0toj- he au0tou- of Gen him au0tw|- to L.I.D. him Acc. au0ton- him

Fem. au0th- she au0thj- of her au0th|- to her au0thn- her

Neuter au0to- it au0tou- of it au0tw|- to it au0to- it

Plural

Masc. Nom au0toi- they au0twn- of Gen them L.I.D. au0toij- to

Fem. au0tai- they au0twn- of them au0taij- to

Neuter au0ta- they au0twn- of them au0toij- to

Acc

them them au0touj- them au0taj- them

them au0ta- them

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the personal pronouns above. A pronoun agrees with the noun it is replacing in case, gender and number (just like an adjective). Whenever the phrase o( au0toj occurs it must be translated "the same". All of these pronouns must be carefully translated according to their context. Only practice in this art can help one correctly render these pronouns. The verb ei0mi (to be) is conjugated below. ei0mi- I am e0smen- we are ei0- you are e0ste- you are e0sti (n)- he, she, it is ei0si(n)- they are The moveable -n occurs frequently in this verb. When it occurs, simply note it. It does not change the translation at all. It was simply used as a syllable closer. ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the verb ei0mi as it is conjugated above. Then, translate the following sentences: 1. didaskw touj ui0ouj mou kai legw au0toij parabolhn 2. e0gw ei0mi douloj, su de ei0 a0postoloj 3. oi( a0delfoi h(mwn blepousin h(maj kai h(meij didaskomen au0touj Lesson 11: Demonstrative Pronouns Vocabulary:

a(martanw- I sin a(martia- sin a(martwloj- sinner gar- for

eu0aggelion- gospel, good news kurioj- lord, sir, Lord laoj- people ou(toj, au(th, touto- this, this one (masc., fem., neut) xristoj- annointed, Christ

didaskaloj- teacher e0keinoj- that, that xara- joy one e0paggelia- promise o(ti- because, that

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary words above. There are two demonstrative pronouns in Greek. The near demonstrative ou(toj points to something near at hand; while the far demonstrative e0keinoj points to something further away. For example: ou(toj a0nqrwpoj = this man blepw e0keinhn thn e0kklhsian = I see that church

The Demonstratives are declined like adjectives. See the table below: Singular

masc e0kein Nom. oj e0kein Gen ou e0kein L.I.D. w| e0kein Acc. on

fem e0kein h e0kein hj e0kein h| e0kein hn

neut e0keino e0keino u e0kein w| e0keino

Plural

masc fem neut e0keino e0keina e0keina Nom i i e0keinw e0keinw e0keinw Gen n n n e0keino e0keina e0keino L.I.D. ij ij ij e0keino e0keina e0keina Acc uj j ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the tables above, then translate the sentences below. 1. ou(toj o( a0nqrwpoj ginwskei e0keinon ton a0nqrwpoj 2. a0kouomen tauthn thn parabolhn peri thj e0kklhsiaj 3. ou(toj didaskei touj a0gaqouj kai au0toj didasketai u(po tou kuriou Lesson 12: Deponent Verbs Vocabulary:

a0lla- but a0pokrinomai- I answer a0rxw- I rule a0rxomai- I begin ginomai- I become poreuomai- I go

e0rxomai- I come dierxomai- I come through ei0serxomai- I enter e0xerxomai- I come out of katerxomai- I come down sunerxomai- I come with

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary words above. Deponent verbs are verbs which appear in the middle or passive form (which have already been learned); but are translated as though in the active form. This makes it essential that the student know which verbs are deponent in form, so that they can be translated correctly. A clue: when

verbs are listed in the dictionary as the vocabulary words are, with a middle/passive ending, they are deponent in form, and should be translated actively. ASSIGNMENT: Translate the sentences below. 1. poreuomai e0k tou oi0kou kai ei0j thn e0kklhsian 2. o( profhthj e0cerxetai e0k tou i9erou 3. o( a0nqrwpoj ginetai a0ggeloj tou kuriou 4. luontai ou(toi douloi u(po tou kuriou Lesson 13: Imperfect, Active, Indicative Vocabulary:

a0poqnhskw- I kill a0pokteinw- I kill, destroy dexomai- I receive e9toimazw- I prepare qerapeuw- I heal pisteuw- I believe

nun- now e0ti- yet, still ou0keti- no longer tote- then skotia- darkness men....de - on the one hand .... on the other hand

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary words above. The following is the conjugation of the imperfect, active, indicative of luw:

e0luon- I was loosing e0luej- you were loosing e0lue- he, she, it was loosing

e0luomen- we were loosing e0luete- you (pl) were loosing e0luon- they were loosing

The e at the beginning of the word is called an augment, and it illustrates that this is a secondary tense that expresses past time. When a word begins with a vowel that vowel is lengthened thus: a becomes h e becomes h o becomes w For example: a0kouw, becomes, in the imperfect, active, indicative, h0kouon and e0geirw becomes h0geiron, etc. ASSIGNMENT: Learn the endings of the imperfect, active, indicative as indicated above. These endings are added to the stem of the verb, and e is added as the augment (unless there is already a vowel beginning the word, in which case it is lengthened as demonstrated above). The imperfect, active, indicative of ei0mi is as follows:

h0mhn - I was

h0men - we were h0te - you (pl) were

h0j - you were h0n - he, she, it was

h0san - they were

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the imperfect of ei0mi above. The imperfect tense is used to indicate continuous action in past time. I.E., "I am loosing" (present tense); "I was loosing" (imperfect tense). ASSIGNMENT: Translate the sentences below: 1. ponhroi h0te, a0gaqoi de e0ste 2. o9 messiaj a0pestellen (note that when a preposition is attached to an imperfect verb, the prefix of the verb itself is changed, and not the preposition) a0ggelouj proj h9maj 3. e0n tw/ kosmw/ h0n kai o9 kosmoj ou0k e0ginwsken au0ton Lesson 14: Imperfect, Middle and Passive, Indicative Vocabulary:

biblion- book daimoniondemon e0rgon- work qalassa- sea ploion- boat

kaqarizw - I cleanse ou0de- not ou0de... ou0deneither...nor ou(pw- not yet

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary above. The imperfect middle and passive indicatives are identical in form. Thus, the translator must be sensitive to the context to determine whether the verb should be translated middle e0luomhn (I was loosing myself) or passive e0luomhn (I was being loosed). The following table shows the form of both the middle and the passive (the translation is, of course the passive. Yet it could also be middle, as stated above, since they are identical in form):

e0luomhn- I am being loosed e0luou- you are being loosed e0lueto- he, she, it is being loosed

e0luomeqa- we are being loosed e0luesqe- you are being loosed e0luonto- they are being loosed

Notice that the imperfect middle and passive have the e prefix just as does the imperfect active (and the same rules apply to it). To this prefix is added the verbal stem, and then the connecting vowel, and then the endings; thuslye0+lu+o+mhn, etc. A Note On kai

Kai can mean "and" as learned above; but it can also mean "also, even". Only the context can help decide between these options. ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the imperfect middle and passive forms above, and translate the following sentences. 1. ou(toi oi( logoi e0n tw| bibliw| e0grayonto 2. tote o0xloj e0ceporeueto proj au0ton, nun de ou0keti e0kporeuetai Lesson 15: Future, Active and Middle, Indicative Vocabulary:

a0cw- I shall lead

genhsomai- I shall become

a0kousw- I shall hear

gnwsomai- I shall know

bleyw- I shall see swsw- I shall save

e0leusomai- I shall come, go lhmyomai- I shall take

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary above. The future active indicative of luw is:

lusomen- we shall loose lusete- you shall loose lusousi- they shall loose

lusw- I shall loose luseij- you shall loose lusei - he, she, it shall loose The future middle indicative of luw is:

lusomai- I shall loose myself lush|- you shall loose yourself lusetai- he shall loose himself

lusomeqa- we shall loose ourselves lusesqe- you shall loose yourself lusontai- they shall loose themselves

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the future active and middle indicative forms above. As the student can see, the future simply adds s to the stem of the verb, and the rest remains the same. There are, unfortunately, exceptions to this simple rule which MUST be learned. They are as follows: When a stem ends inl, m, n, or r, the s is dropped and the w is accented. I.e., mensw becomes menw. k, g, or x before s becomes c; thus a0gw becomes a0cw. p, b, or f become y. I.e, blepw becomes bleyw.

t, d, or q simply drop out. Thus peiqw becomes peisw. There are other peculiarities which can best be learned in practice. ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the rules above. The future, active, indicative of ei0mi is:

e0somai- I shall be e0sh|- you shall be e0stai- he shall be

e0someqa- we shall be e0sesqe- you shall be e0sontai- they shall be

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the future of ei0mi, above, and translate the following sentences: 1. a(martwloi men e0ste genhsesqe de ui(oi tou qeou. 2. tote gnwsontai o(ti au0toj e0stin o( kurioj 3. lhmyesqe kai ta dwra kai touj oikouj 4. ai( h(merai ai( kakai e0leusontai 5. ei0 ponhroj all e0sh| a0gaqoj Lesson 16: First Aorist, Active and Middle, Indicative Vocabulary:

h0kousa- I heard e0bleya- I saw

e0graya- I wrote e0pemya- I sent e0baptisa- I e0didaca- I taught baptized e0qerapeusa- I e0swsa- I saved healed e0khruca- I e0docasa- I preached glorified ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary above. The First Aorist Active Indicative is a vn that is completed in the past. The vocabulary words above are all first aorist, active, indicatives, and the way they are translated are the way that all first aorist verbs are translated. The form of the verb is obtained by doing the following: 1- add the augment e (as in the imperfect verb learned earlier; and all the same rules apply as there) to the stem of the verb 2- add the endings of the first aorist active indicative as shown below:

-sa -saj

-same n -sate

-se (n)

-san

For example, if the stem is luwe0+lu+sa e0+lu+samen e0+lu+saj e0+lu+sate e0+lu+sen e0+lu+san All of which would be translated - I was loosed, etc. ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the First Aorist Active Indicative endings above. The first aorist middle indicative form is given below: (with the stem of luw)

e0lusamhn- I loosed myself e0lusw- you loosed yourself e0lusato- he loosed himself

e0lusameqa- we loosed ourselves e0lusasqe- you loosed yourself e0lusanto- they loosed themselves

The student will note that the augment and the stem remain, as above; but the endings change. These first aorist middle indicative endings must be learned. ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the first aorist middle indicative endings above, and translate the following sentences: 1. e0lusen o( kurioj touj douloj au0tou 2. e0pemyamen ta tekna e0k tou oi0kou 3. oi( maqhtai e0docasan ton qeon kai ton ui(on au0tou Lesson 17: 2nd Aorist Active and Middle Indicative Vocabulary:

e0balon- I threw ei0don- I saw e0labon- I took h0gagon- I led h0negkon- I brought e0scon- I had

e0lipon- I left e0paqon- I suffered pasxw- I suffer e0peson- I fell e0fagon- I ate

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary above. The second aorist, like the first aorist, indicates completed action in the past. 2nd aorist verbs are very irregular, follow no particular pattern, and can only be recognized by the augment (as learned before) the unusual stem, and the endings. The 2nd aorist active indicative endings are shown below:

-n

-

men -j -te -none ( or plain n) -n The 2nd aorist middle endings are shown below:

mhn -ou -to

-meq a -sqe -nto

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the active and middle endings above. As the student can see, the 2nd aorist and the imperfect are identical in form. Only the context and the irregular stem can indicate whether the verb should be translated aorist or imperfect. ASSIGNMENT: Translate the following sentences. 1. e0genonto oi( maqhtai tou kuriou 2. kai ei0domen ton kurion kai h0kousamen twn logwn au0tou 3. tauta ei0pete h(min e0n tw| i(erw| e0keina de e0n tw| oi0kw| Lesson 18: Aorist Passive Indicative and Future Passive Indicative Vocabulary:

e0blhqhn- I was thrown

e0poreuqhn- I went h0kousqhn- I was e0genhqh- I became heard e0gnwsqhn- I was known e0leifqhn- I was left a0pestalhn- I was e0didacqhn- I was taught sent e0khrucqhn- I was e0grafhn- I was preached written e0lhmfqhn- I was taken w0fqhn- I was seen ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary above. The Aorist passive of luw is:

e0luqhn- I was loosed e0luqhj- you were loosed e0luqh- he, she, it was loosed

e0luqhmen- we were loosed e0luqhte- you were loosed e0luqhsan- they were loosed

Note, that the aorist passive indicative is formed by placing the augment on the stem, and adding the aorist passive endings. I.e., e0+lu+qhn, etc. ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the aorist passive indicative forms above. The future, passive indicative of luw is:

luqhsomai- I shall be

luqhsomeqa- we shall be

loosed luqhsh|- you shall be loosed luqhsetai- he shall be loosed

loosed luqhsesqe- you shall be loosed luqhsontai- they shall be loosed

Note, again, that the future passive indicative is formed by taking the stem, adding the passive marker, and then adding the future endings; thusly, lu+qh+somai, etc. ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the future, passive indicative conjugation above, and translate the following sentences. 1. e0didacqhte u(po twn e0n e0keinh| th| h(mera| oi( nekroi e0gerqhsontai e0n tw| logw| tou qeou 2. tauta e0grafh e0n taij grafaij Lesson 19: Third Declension Nouns Vocabulary:

ai0wneternal a0rxwnruler e0lpij- hope nuc- night sarc- flesh xarij- grace

pathr- father mhthr- mother qugathr- daughter a0rxh- beginning a0ggelia- message koinwniafellowship

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary above. Third declension nouns are irregular. They have irregular stems and irregular endings. The endings below are those COMMONLY used; but there are many, many others. What the student must do, therefore, is learn these basic endings and then learn to recognize these nouns when they occur, and that will only happen with practice! These are the normal endings of the third declension: Singular

Nom. Gen. L.I.D. Acc.

masc/fem neuter -aj (or none) -none -oj -oj -i -i -n or -a -none Plural

Nom Gen. L.I.D. Acc.

masc/fem -ej -wn -si -aj

neuter -a -wn -si -a

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the normal 3rd declension noun endings above, and translate the following sentences: 1. e0lpida ou0k e0xomen o(ti ou0 ginwskomen ton kurion 2. o( logoj mou menei ei0j ton aiwna (NOTE: the definite article which comes before the normining case, gender and number) This lesson is not quite over, dear student. Please continue on from here with what follows. Vocabulary:

a0nastasijresurrection

a(lieuj- fisherman

gnwsij- knowledge dunamij- power krisij- judgment pistij- faith polij- city stasij- dissension

a0rxiereuj- high priest basileuj- king grammateuj- scribe i(ereuj- priest i0xquj- fish staxuj- grain

ASSIGNENT: Memorize the vocabulary above and translate the following sentences: 1. e0swqhmen th| xariti dia pistewj 2. stasij e0n th| e0kklhsia| e0sti kakh Vocabulary:

baqoj- depth ai(ma- blood genojqelhma- will generation e0qnoj- nation o0noma- name pneuma- spirit, or Spirit, or e0qoj- custom wind e0leoj- mercy r(hma- word o0roj- mountain stoma- mouth skotoj- darkness swma- body teloj- completion u(dwr- water ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary above and translate the following sentences: 1. ginwskomen kai to qelhma kai thn a0gaphn tou qeou 2. e0gw men baptizw u(maj e0n u(dati, e0keinoj de baptisei u(maj e0n tw| pneumati Lesson 20: Present Participles Vocabulary:

o0feilw- I owe yeudomai- I lie

o0fqalmoj- eye paraklhtoj- comforter, advocate

fainw- I shine a0dikiaunrighteous i(lasmoj- expiation 0Ihsouj- Jesus

skandalon- stumbling block xeir- hand yeusthj- liar fwj- light

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary above. The present, active participle of luw is: Singular

Nom. Gen. L.I.D. Acc.

Masc. luwn luont oj luonti luont a

Fem. Neut luousa luon luoush luont j oj luoush luonti luousa luon n

Plural

Nom. Gen. L.I.D. Acc.

Masc. Fem. Neut luontej luousai luonta luontw luousw luontw n n n luousai luousi luousi j luontaj luousaj luonta

The present middle and passive participle of luw is: Singular

Nom. Gen. L.I.D. Acc.

Masc. luomen oj luomen ou luomen w luomen on

Fem. luomen h luomen hj luomen h luomen hn

Neut. luomen on luomen ou luomen w luomen on

Plural

Masc. Fem. Neut. luomeno luomena luomena Nom. i i luomen luomen luomen Gen. wn wn wn luomeno luomena luomeno L.I.D. ij ij ij

Acc.

luomeno luomena luomena uj j

The Present participle of ei0mi is: Singular

Nom. Gen. L.I.D. Acc.

Masc. w0n o0nt oj o0nti o0nt a

Fem. Neut. ou0sa o0n ou0sh o0nt j oj ou0sh o0nti ou0sa o0n n

Plural

Nom. Gen. L.I.D. Acc.

Masc. Fem. Neut. o0ntej ou0sai o0nta o0ntw ou0sw o0ntw n n n ou0sai ou0si ou0si j o0ntaj ou0saj o0nta

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the paradigms above. The participle is a verbal adjective. The present participle of any regular verb may be formed by adding the above endings to the stem. A participle, as a verb, has tense, voice and mood. And, as an adjective, it has case, gender and number. The function of the participle. The participle is used in sentences to describe the action of the subject. As a verb, it shares the tense of the main verb of the sentence, and as an adjective, it shares the case, gender and number of the subject of the sentence. Note the following sentences and the way that the participles are translated: legwn tauta o( a0nqrwpoj blepei ton kurion "While saying these things, the man sees the Lord". blepw ton legonta tauta "I See the one who is saying these things". ebleya ton legonta tauta "I saw the one who was saying these things" Note: When the article precedes the participle it is translated "the one who...", "he who...". When there is no article it is translated "while" or "as". I.e., e0bleya ton a0postolon legonta tauta "I saw the apostle while he was saying these things". e0bleya ton a0postolon ton legonta tauta "I was the apostle who was saying these things".

Participles in Greek nt must grasp well these principles in order to correctly translate them. ASSIGNMENT: Translate the following sentences. 1. o( dexomenoj se dexetai ton kurion 2. oi( lambanontej thn xarin tou qeou swzontai 3. to fwj tou qeou fainei e0n tw kosmw 4. h0san e0n tw oi0kw tw luomenw 5. ei0domen ton a0postolon o0nta e0n th e0kklhsia Lesson 21: Aorist Active and Middle Participles Vocabulary:

diwkw mh mhde mhde....mh de mhketi

- I persecute - not - not even - neither...nor - no longer

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary above. The First Aorist active participle of luw

is:

Singular masc. fem. neut. Nom. lusaj lusasa lusan lusant lusas lusant Gen. oj hj oj lusas lusanti L.I.D. lusanti h lusant lusasa lusan Acc. a n Plural masc. fem. neut. lusante lusasai lusanta Nom. j lusant lusasw lusantw Gen. wn n n lusasai lusasi L.I.D. lusasi j lusanta lusasaj lusanta Acc. j The first aorist Middle participle of luw is: Singular

masc. lusamen oj lusamen ou lusamen w lusamen on

fem. neut. lusamen lusamen Nom. h on lusamen lusamen Gen. hj ou lusamen lusamen L.I.D. h w lusamen lusamen Acc. hn on Plural masc. fem. neut. lusamenoi Nom. absent absent ain lusamen lusamen lusamenw Gen. wn wn n lusamen lusamen lusamenoij L.I.D. oij aij lusamen lusamen lusamena Acc. ouj aj Note: The TIME of action indicated by the Aorist Participle is PRIOR to the action of the main verb. Otherwise, everything else has been noted in the preceding lesson. ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the paradigms above and translate the following sentences. 1. e0celqwn e0k tou oi0kou tauta ei0pen 2. o( mh i0dwn ton kurion ou0k e0pisteusen ei0j au0ton Lesson 22: Aorist Passive Participles Vocabulary:

e0piqumia- lust, desire sunagwghloipoj- remaining synagogue makariojswthria- salvation blessed a(gioj- holy

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary words above. The aorist passive participle of luw is: Singular

Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom. luqeij luqeisa luqen luqent luqeis luqent Gen. oj hj oj L.I.D. luqenti luqeis luqenti

h luqent luqeisa luqen Acc. a n Plural

Masc. luqente Nom. j luqent Gen. wn

Fem.

Neut.

luqeisai luqenta

luqeisw luqentw n n luqeisai luqeisi L.I.D. luqeisi j luqenta luqeisaj luqenta Acc. j To form the aorist passive participle, simply add the endings to the stem. All the other rules for participles learned earlier also apply here, except that these participive voice and not the active or middle. That is, the subject is passive in the action of the verb. ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the tables above. NOTE: One of the most frequent uses of the participle is what is called the "genitive absolute". A genitive absolute is a participle in the genitive case plus its noun or pronoun. These two words are independent of the main clause and thus are translated as independent clauses. For example, a regular participial phrase is: •

ei0pon tauta oi9 a0postoloi a0phlqon

•

"having said these things, the apostles went away".

A genitive absolute looks like this: •

ei0pontwn tauta twn maqhtwn oi9 a0postoloi a0phlqon

•

"The disciples having said these things; the apostles went away".

The participle, you see, with its noun is "absolute"; that is, loosed or seperated from the main part of the sentence, and hence is in the genitive case. Practice will make this construction quite clear to recognize and translate. ASSIGNMENT: Translate the sentences below: 1. e0pelqontoj tou a(giou pneumatoj e0p au0touj e0labon dunamin 2. makarioj e0stin o( i0dwn thn swthrian tou qeou Lesson 23: Perfect Active and Middle Indicative The Perfect Active Indicative of luw is:

leluka- I have loosed lelukaj- you have loosed leluken- he, she, it has loosed

lelukamen- we have loosed lelukate- you have loosed lelukasi- they have loosed

The perfect middle indicative of luw is:

lelumai- I have loosed myself

lelumeqa- we have loosed ourselves

lelusai- you have loosed yourself

lelusqe- you have loosed yourselves

lelutai- he has loosed himself

leluntai- they have loosed themselves

NOTE: The perfect is formed by adding a "reduplicating augment" to the stem. This reduplicating augment is formed by taking the first letter of the stem (or in certain cases a similar sounding letter) and adding it to e at the front of the stem. Then, after the stem the endings are added, as before. For instance: le+lu+mai ; the reduplication is l added to e, added to the stem lu, and then the ending mai, etc. See, it's very simple! The perfect tense is used to show action completed in the past, but with results that last into the present. For example: leluka = I have loosed (and it remains loosed!). This tense is VERY important theologically, as the student will learn from translating it correctly in the New Testament. ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the conjugations above. The perfect active participle of luw is: Singular

Masc. Nom. lelukwj lelukot Gen. oj L.I.D. lelukoti lelukot Acc. a

Fem. Neut. lelukuia lelukoj lelukuia lelukot j oj lelukuia lelukoti lelukuia lelukoj n

Plural

Nom. Gen. L.I.D. Acc.

Masc. Fem. Neut. lelukotej lelukuiai lelukota lelukotw lelukuiw lelukotw n n n lelukuiai lelukosi lelukosi j lelukotaj lelukuiaj lelukota

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the perfect active participle abov perfect middle participle of luw is: Singular

Nom. Gen. L.I.D. Acc.

Masc. lelumen oj lelumen ou lelumen w lelumen

Fem. lelumen h lelumen hj lelumen h lelumen

Neut. lelumen on lelumen ou lelumen w lelumen

on

hn

on

Plural

Nom. Gen. L.I.D. Acc.

Masc. Fem. Neut. lelumeno lelumena lelumena i i lelumen lelumen lelumen wn wn wn lelumeno lelumena lelumeno ij ij ij lelumeno lelumena lelumena uj j

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the perfect middle participle above, and translate the following sentences. 1. ta gegrammena e0n tw bibliw tou nomou e0stin a0gaqa 2. xariti e0ste seswsmenoi dia pistewj 3. oi9 bebaptismenoi maqhtai ei0sin e0n th e0kklhsia Lesson 24: The Subjunctive Mood Vocabulary:

dikaiosunh righteousness eu0aggelizomai I preach the gospel marturia witness, martyr oi0kia house paidion child e0an (with if subjunctive) ei0 (with indicative) if i9na (with subjunctive) in order that ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary above. The verbs we have studied so far have all been indicative in mood. (Remember, verbs have voice (active or passive), tense (past, present, future, etc), and mood. The subjunctive mood indicates action that is possible or potential. For example: •

Indicative Mood- The child runs (indicating action taking place).

•

Subjunctive Mood- If the child runs, he will escape (possible action).

•

Optative Mood- Oh, that the child would run! (indicating a wish).

•

Imperative Mood- Run, child (indicating a command or order).

We have learned verbs of the indicative mood and we are now learning verbs of the subjunctive mood (the other two moods listed above will be learned later, but are given here for purposes of comparison).

The subjunctive mood is used in the following ways: 1- The Hortatory Subjunctive- exhorting someone to action. 2- The Prohibitive Subjunctive- action is prohibited. 3- The Deliberative Subjunctive- the same as the rhetorical question in English. These possibilities will be clear in the context of the sentence which is being translated. The Subjunctive Mood is also used in conditional sentences. In the Greek New Testament there are 4 kinds of conditional sentences. They are: •

1st Class- The reality of the condition is affirmed. (ei0 with the indicative mood)

•

2nd Class- The contrary to fact condition. (ei0 with the indicative followed by an with the indicative)

•

3rd Class- The Probable Future condition (e0an with the subjunctive)

•

4th Class- The possible future condition (ei0 with the optative followed by an with the optative)

For Example: •

1st class- Since he is studying Greek, he will learn Greek.

•

2nd class- If he had studied, he would have learned Greek

•

3rd class- If he studies, he will learn Greek

•

4th class- If he would study, he would learn Greek.

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the uses of the Subjunctive mood and the 4 classes of conditional sentences above. Now we will learn the forms of the Subjunctive Mood. The Present Subjunctive of ei0mi is:

w0

w0me n

h w0sin 0ab The Present Active Subjunctive of luw is:

luwme n luhj luhte luh luwsin luw

The First Aorist Active Subjunctive of luw is:

lusw luswme

n lush lushte j lush luswsin The present Middle and Passive Subjunctive of luw is:

luwm ai luh luhtai

luwmeq a luhsqe luwntai

The 1st Aorist Passive Subjunctive of luw is:

luqw

luqwme n

luqh luqhte j luqh luqwsin Notice that the paradigms above have no translation with them. This is because subjunctive verbs cannot be correctly translated without a context. The student must know whether a sentence containing a subjunctive verb is 1st, 2nd, 3rd or 4th class to correctly render it. There will be plenty of time to practice translating these verbs -- they are all over the New Testament. ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the paradigms above, and translate the following sentences. 1. ei0 au0th e0stin h9 marturia tou i0dontoj ton kurion pisteuw au0thn 2. ei0 e0khruxaj to eu0aggelion, oi9 a0n a9martwloi e0pisteusan 3. e0an ei0selqhte ei0j thn oi0kian tou maqhtou, didacai u9min touj logouj thj zwhj 4. mh ei0selqhj ei0j touj oi0kouj twn ponerwn Lesson 25: The Imperative Mood Vocabulary:

a9giazw- I sanctify

pinw- I drink

qelw- I will, wish ou0j- ear

speirw- I sow a0xri- until prin- before

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary above. The imperative mood appears in the New Testament in only the present and aorist tenses. There is no 1st person in the imperative mood. The 2nd person is translated as a command, and the third person with "let him..." etc. The present active imperative of luw is:

2nd lue

luete

3rd

luet luetwsa w n

The present middle and passive imperative of luw is:

2nd luou luesqe luesq luesqws 3rd w an The 1st Aorist active imperative of luw is:

2nd luson lusate lusat lusatw 3rd w n The 1st aorist middle imperative of luw is:

2nd lusai lusasqe lusasq lusasqws 3rd w an The 1st aorist passive imperative of luw is:

2nd luqhti luqhte luqht luqhtws 3rd w an The Present Imperative of ei0mi is:

2nd i0sqi e0ste e0st e0stws 3rd w an ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the paradigms above and translate the following sentences. 1. a9giaze to i9eron tou qeou 2. kurie, katabhqi prin a0poqanein to paidion mou Lesson 26: Contract Verbs Vocabulary:

a0gapaw- I love dhlow- I show eu0logew- I bless eu0xaristew- I give thanks zhtew- I seek qewrew- I behold kalew- I call lalew- I speak

parakalew- I exhort, I comfort peripatew- I walk around poiew- I do , I make staurow- I crucify threw- I do, I keep timaw- I honor filew- I love

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary above.

Contract verbs are verb whose stems end in a, o, or e. Because a connecting vowel is added to the stem when a verb is formed, these verbs undergo a change. The following table shows how the connecting vowel, when added to the vowel at the end of the stem, change:

Connecting Vowel e h ei h| o w ou oi e ei h ei h| ou w ou oi Stem Vowel: a a a a| a| w w w w| o ou w oi oi ou w ou oi I.e., when the connecting vowel is e and the stem ends in e, the resulting vowel is ei, etc. ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the contract verb table above, and translate the following sentences. 1. e0zhtoun au0ton oi9 ponhroi, i9na qewrwsi ta poioumena u9p au0tou. 2. o9 maqhthj e0lalhsen tauta toij peripatousin e0n tw i9erw. 3. o9 0Ihsouj legei tw maqhth, Simwn, fileij me; Lesson 27: Pronouns We have already learned the personal pronouns and the demonstrative pronouns. he other kinds of Greek pronouns. All of these will be declined, just like all the other nouns and pronouns we have studied. 1- The relative pronoun, o9j, who, which, that. Singular

Nom. Gen. L.I.D. Acc.

Masc. o9j ou9 w9 o9n

Nom. Gen. L.I.D. Acc.

Masc. oi9 w9n oi9j ou9j

Fem. h9 h9j h9 h9n

Neut. o9 ou9 w9 o9

Plural

Fem. ai9 w9n ai9j a9j

Neut. a9 w9n oi9j a9

(Notice that each of these has a rough breathing mark, which will distinguish them from the definite article already learned.). As we learned in out study of the other nouns and pronouns, a noun or pronoun agrees in gender, case and number with the word it is referring to. Please remember this VERY important rule during this lesson as well. 2- The interrogative pronoun tij, who?, what? Singular

Masc. Fem. Neut. tij ti Nom. tij Gen. tinoj tinoj tinoj

L.I.D. tini tini tini Acc. tina tina ti Plural

Nom. Gen. L.I.D. Acc.

Masc. tinej tinw n tisin tinaj

Fem. tinej tinw n tisin tinaj

Neut. tina tinw n tisin tina

3- The indefinite pronoun, tij, ti, someone, something. (same as above, accept no accent marks are used in the printed Greek text). 4- The indefinite relative pronoun o9stij, who. This pronoun occurs ONLY in the nominative case in the singular and plural. Singular

Masc. Fem. Neut. o9sti h9tij o9ti Nom. j Plural

Masc. Fem. Neut. oi9tin ai9tin a9tin Nom. ej ej a 5- The Reflexive pronouns. First person, myself. Singular

Masc. e0maut Gen. ou e0maut L.I.D. w e0maut Acc. on

Fem. e0maut hj e0maut h e0maut hn

Plural

Masc. e9aut Gen. wn e9auto L.I.D. ij e9auto Acc. uj

Fem. e9autw n e9auta ij e9auta j

Second Person, yourself Singular

Masc.

Fem.

seaut ou seaut L.I.D. w seaut Acc. on Gen.

seaut hj seaut h seaut hn

Plural

Masc. e9aut Gen. wn e9auto L.I.D. ij e9auto Acc. uj

Fem. e9autw n e9auta ij e9auta j

Third Person, himself, herself, itself. Singular

Masc. e9aut Gen. ou e9aut L.I.D. w e9aut Acc. on

Fem. e9aut hj e9aut h e9aut hn

Neut. e9aut ou e9aut w e9aut o

Plural

Masc. e9aut Gen. wn e9auto L.I.D. ij e9auto Acc. uj

Fem. Neut. e9aut e9autw wn n e9auta e9auto ij ij e9auta e9auta j

6- The reciprocal pronoun a0llhlwn, one another. This occurs only in these three forms in the New Testament: a0llhlwn, a0llhloij, and a0llhlouj. In function it shows an interaction between two subjects. I.e., a0gapwmen a0llhlouj, "let us love one another", etc. 7- The possessive pronouns. First person, e0moj, Singular

Masc. Fem. Neut e0mo e0mo e0mh Nom. j n Gen. e0mo e0mh e0mo

u j u e e e0mh L.I.D. 0mw 0mw e0mo e0mh e0mo Acc. n n n Plural

Nom. Gen. L.I.D. Acc.

Masc. Fem. Neut e0moi e0mai e0ma e0mw e0mw e0mw n n n e0moi e0mai e0moi j j j e0mo e0maj e0ma uj

The second person is soj, (masculine) sh, (feminine) and son (neuter) and is declined as the first person. The third person is i0dioj (masculine), i0dia, (feminine) and i0dion (neuter) and is also declined as the first person. The plurals are h9meteroj, -a, -on for the first person, and u9meteroj, -a, -on for the second person. 8- The Negative Pronouns. ou0deij- no one, usually with the indicative mood. mhdeij- usually with the other moods. The negative pronoun occurs only in the singular, and both are easily recognized in every case, gender, and number. ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the paradigms above for the pronouns and translate I John 1:5-10. Lesson 28: Adjectives Vocabulary:

0a0lhq hj megaj paj poluj

true great every much, many

The following are examples of adjectives that do not follow the patterns that we have already learned. 1- The declension of paj, pasa, pan, all. Singular

Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom. paj pasa pan

pant oj L.I.D. panti pant Acc. a Gen.

pash panto j s pash panti pasa pan n

Plural

Nom. Gen. L.I.D. Acc.

Masc. Fem. Neut. pantej pasai panta pantw pasw pantw n n n pasai pasin pasin j pantaj pasaj panta

The rest of the adjectives which occur in the New Testament are regular enough that the student should be able to recognize the gender, case and number of any adjective. ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary above, and translate I John 2:1-6. Lesson 29: Verbs of the -mi conjugation Vocabulary:

didwm I give i i9sth I stand mi tiqhmi I place, I put Assignment: Memorize the vocabulary above. Verbs of the -mi conjugation are fairly frequent in the New Testament. The student will easily recognize them because they will not have a stem that is relatively easy to spot! For instance, the stem of luw is lu, while the stem of didwmi is do, and the stem of i9sthmi is sta, and the stem of tiqhmi is qe. So, when you are translating along and you cannot seem to locate a word in the dictionary, look to see if it is -mi verb. The endings of the -mi verb are in the present indicative are:

men -j -te -ti -asi -mi

These verbs can be easily enough recognized as regular (in their irregularity!). ASSIGNMENT: Translate I John 2:7-11 Lesson 30: The Article Vocabulary:

a0lazoniavainglory a0fihmi- I forgive bioj- life

e0gnwka- I have known neaniskoj- young man nikaw- I conquer

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary above. We have already discussed the general use of the definite article. In this lesson we will look at some specialized uses of the article. 1- With the conjunction kai. When two nouns have one article, they are both referring to the same thing, i.e., o9 a0postoloj kai maqhthj means "the disciple (who is) the apostle". Other specialized uses can be noted by the student in advanced studies. ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the material above, and translate I John 2:12-17. Lesson 31: The Infinitive Vocabulary:

a0ntixristojantichrist a0rneomai- I deny oi0da- I know

o9mologew- I confess fanerow- I make manifest yeudoj- lie

ASSIGNMENT: Memorize the vocabulary above. The infinitive can be used as both a verb and a noun. When it is used as a verb it expresses the purpose of the main verb; i.e., "the child likes to run". In this example, "likes" is the main verb, and "to run", the infinitive, expresses what the child likes to do. When the infinitive is used as a noun it is simply being used as the object of the main verb. Examples of this kind of usage abound in the New Testament. ASSIGNMENT: Translate I John 2:18-29.

Part I: Letters, Sounds, Syllables, Accent The Letters The Alphabet §1. The Greek alphabet has twenty-four letters. Form A B G

Name a b g

alpha bêta gamma

Equivalents Sound as in ă: aha; ā: father alpha a bēta b beg gamma g go

D E Z Ê Th I K L M N X O P R S T U Ph Ch Ps Ô

d

delta

delta ĕpsīlo e ei, e (e psi_lon) n zēta z zêta ēta ê êta thēta th, u thêta iōta i iôta k kappa kappa l lambda lambda m mu mu n nu nu x xei (xi) xi ŏmīcr o ou, o (o mi_kron) on p pei (pi) pi r rhô rho s, s sigma sigma t tau tau üpsīlo u u (u psi_lon) n ph phei (phi) phi ch chei (chi) chi ps psei (psi) psi ōmĕg ô ô (ô mega) a

d

dig

ĕ

met

z ē th i c, k l m n x

daze Fr. fête thin ĕ: meteor; ī: police kin let met net lax

ŏ

obey

p r s t

pet run such tar

(u) y

ŭ: Fr. tu; ū: Fr. sûr

ph ch ps

graphic Germ. machen gypsum

ō

note

a. Sigma (not capital) at the end of a word is written s, elsewhere s. Thus, seismos earthquake. b. The names in parentheses, from which are derived those in current use, were given at a late period, some as late as the Middle Ages. Thus, epsilon means ‘simple e,’ upsilon ‘simple u,’ to distinguish these letters from ai, oi, which were sounded like e and u. [p. 8] c. Labda is a better attested ancient name than lambda. §2. The Greek alphabet as given above originated in Ionia, and was adopted at Athens in 403 B.C. The letters from A to T are derived from Phoenician and have Semitic names. The signs U to Ô were invented by the Greeks. From the Greek alphabet are derived the alphabets of most European countries. The ancients used only the large letters, called majuscules (capitals as E, uncials as [Eunc ]); the small letters (minuscules), which were used as a literary hand in the ninth century, are cursive forms of the uncials. a. Before 403 B.C. in the official Attic alphabet E stood for e, ê, spurious ei (6), O for o, ô, spurious ou (6), H for the rough breathing, CHS for X, PHS for Ps. L was written for g, and [lins ] for l. Thus:

EDOCHSENTEIBO[lins ]EIKAITOIDEMOI edoxen têi boulêi kai tôi dêmôi. CHSULLRAPHESCHSUNELRAPHSAN xungraphês xunegrapsan. EGITEDEIONENAIAGOTOARLURIO epitêdeion einai apo tou arguriou. §3. In the older period there were two other letters: (1) W: Wau, uau, called digamma (i.e. double-gamma) from its shape. It stood after e and was pronounced like ô. W was written in Boeotian as late as 200 B.C. (2) ϟ: koppa, koppa, which stood after p. Another s, called san, is found in the sign [sampi ], called sampi, i.e. san + pi. On these signs as numerals, see 348. §3 D. Vau was in use as a genuine sound at the time the Homeric poems were composed, though it is found in no Mss. of Homer. Many apparent irregularities of epic verse (such as hiatus, 47 D.) can be explained only by supposing that W was actually sounded. Examples of words containing W are: astu town, anax lord, handanô please, eikô give way (cp. weak), eikosi twenty (cp. viginti), hekastos each, hekôn willing, elpomai hope (cp. voluptas), eoika am like, heo, hoi, he him, hex six, epos word, eipon said, ergon, erdô work, hennu_mi clothe, fr. Wes-nu_mi (cp. vestis), ereô will say (cp. verbum), hesperos evening (cp. vesper), ion violet (cp. viola), etos year (cp. vetus), hêdus sweet (cp. suavis), idein (oida) know (cp. videre, wit), i_s strength (cp. vis), i_tea willow (cp. vitis, withy), oikos house (cp. vicus), oinos wine (cp. vinum), hos his (123), ochos carriage (cp. veho, wain). Vau was lost first before o-sounds (horaô see, cp. be-ware). W occurred also in the middle of words: kleWos glory, aiWei always, oWis sheep (cp. ovis), klêWis key (Dor. kla_ïs, cp. clavis), xenWos stranger, DiWi to Zeus, kalWos beautiful. Cp. 20, 31, 37 D., 122, 123.

Vowels and Diphthongs §4. There are seven vowels: a, e, ê, i, o, u, ô. Of these e and o are always short, and take about half the time to pronounce as ê and ô, which are always long; a, i, u are short in some syllables, long in others. In this Grammar, when a, i, u are not marked as long (a_, i_, u_) they are understood to be short. All vowels with the circumflex (149) are long. On length by position, see 144. a. Vowels are said to be open or close according as the mouth is more open [p. 9] or less open in pronouncing them, the tongue and lips assuming different positions in the case of each. §5. A diphthong (diphthongos having two sounds) combines two vowels in one syllable. The second vowel is i or u. The diphthongs are: ai, ei, oi, a_i, êi, ôi; au, eu, ou, êu, and ui. The i of the so-called improper diphthongs, a_i, êi, ôi, is written below the line and is called iota subscript. But with capital letters, i is written on the line (adscript), as TÊI ÔIDÊI têi ôidêi or Ôidêi to the song. All diphthongs are long. a. In ai, êi, ôi the i ceased to be written about 100 B.C. The custom of writing i under the line is as late as about the eleventh century. §5 D. A diphthong ôu occurs in New Ionic (hôutos the same from ho autos 68 D., emôutou of myself = emautou 329 D., thôuma thauma wonder). Ionic has êu for Attic au

in some words (Hom. nêus ship). §6. ei, ou are either genuine or spurious (apparent) diphthongs (25). Genuine ei, ou are a combination of e + i, o + u, as in leipô I leave (cp. leloipa I have left, 35 a), genei to a race (49), akolouthos follower (cp. keleuthos way). Spurious ei, ou arise from contraction (50) or compensatory lengthening (37). Thus, ephilei he loved, from ephilee, theis placing from thent-s; ephiloun they loved from ephileon, plous voyage from ploos, dous giving from dont-s. §7. The figure of a triangle represents the relations of the vowels and spurious diphthongs to one another. [Figure] From a_ to i and from a^ to ou the elevation of the tongue gradually increases. ô, o, ou, u are accompanied by rounding of the lips. §8. Diaeresis.--A double dot, the mark of diaeresis (diairesis separation), may be written over i or u when these do not form a diphthong with the preceding vowel: proïstêmi I set before, nêï to a ship. §8 D. In poetry and in certain dialects vowels are often written apart which later formed diphthongs: pais (or païs) boy or girl, Pêleïdês son of Peleus, eu (or eü) well, Aidês (or Aïdês) Hades, geneï to a race.

Breathings §9. Every initial vowel or diphthong has either the rough (‘) or the smooth (’) breathing. The rough breathing (spiritus asper) is pronounced as h, which is sounded before the vowel; the smooth [p. 10] breathing (spiritus lenis) is not sounded. Thus, horos hóros boundary, oros óros mountain. §9 D. The Ionic of Asia Minor lost the rough breathing at an early date. So also before r (13). Its occurrence in compounds (124 D.) is a relic of the period when it was still sounded in the simple word. Hom. sometimes has the smooth where Attic has the rough breathing in forms that are not Attic: Aïdês (Ha_idês), the god Hades, alto sprang (hallomai), amudis together (cp. hama), êelios sun (hêlios), êôs dawn (heôs), i_rêx hawk (hiera_x), ouros boundary (horos). But also in amaxa wagon (Attic hamaxa). In Laconian medial s became ( (h): eni_ka_he eni_kêse he conquered. §10. Initial u (u^ and u_) always has the rough breathing. §10 D. In Aeolic, u, like all the other vowels (and the diphthongs), always has the smooth breathing. The epic forms ummes you, ummi, umme (325 D.) are Aeolic. §11. Diphthongs take the breathing, as the accent (152), over the second vowel: haireô hairéo I seize, airô aíro I lift. But ai, êi, ôi take both the breathing and the accent on the first vowel, even when i is written in the line (5): aidô Aidô I sing, haidês Ha_idês Hades, but Aineia_s Aeneas. The writing aidêlos (Aidêlos) destroying shows that ai does not here form a diphthong; and hence is sometimes written aï (8).

§12. In compound words (as in prooran to foresee, from pro + horan) the rough breathing is not written, though it must often have been pronounced: cp. exedra_ a hall with seats, Lat. exhedra, exedra, poluistôr very learned, Lat. polyhistor. On Attic inscriptions in the old alphabet (2 a) we find EUÊORKON euhorkon faithful to one's oath. §13. Every initial r has the rough breathing: rhêtôr orator (Lat. rhetor). Medial rr is written rrh in some texts: Purrhos Pyrrhus. §14. The sign for the rough breathing is derived from H, which in the Old Attic alphabet (2 a) was used to denote h. Thus, HO ho the. After H was used to denote ê, one half ([rough ]) was used for h (about 300 B.C.), and, later, the other half ([smooth]) for the smooth breathing. From [rough ] and [smooth] come the forms ‘and’.

CONSONANTS §15. The seventeen consonants are divided into stops (or mutes), spirants, liquids, nasals, and double consonants. They may be arranged according to the degree of tension or slackness of the vocal chords in sounding them, as follows: a. Voiced (sonant, i.e. sounding) consonants are produced when the vocal chords vibrate. The sounds are represented by the letters b, d, g (stops), l, r (liquids), m, n, g-nasal (19 a) (nasals), and z. (All the vowels are voiced.) r with the rough breathing is voiceless. b. Voiceless (surd, i.e. hushed) consonants require no exertion of the vocal chords. These are p, t, k, ph, th, ch (stops), s (spirant or sibilant), and ps and x. c. Arranged according to the increasing degree of noise, nearest to the vowels are the nasals, in sounding which the air escapes without friction through the nose; next come the semivowels [uglide] and [iglide] (20 a), the liquids, and the spirant s, in [p. 11] sounding which the air escapes with friction through the cavity of the mouth; next come the stops, which are produced by a removal of an obstruction; and finally the double consonants. §16. Stops (or mutes). Stopped consonants are so called because in sounding them the breath passage is for a moment completely closed. The stops are divided into three classes (according to the part of the mouth chiefly active in sounding them) and into three orders (according to the degree of force in the expiratory effort). Classes Labial (lip sounds) p b ph Dental (teeth sounds) t d th Palatal (palate sounds) k g ch Orders Smooth p t k Middle b d g Rough ph th ch a. The dentals are sometimes called linguals. The rough stops are also called aspirates (lit. breathed sounds) because they were sounded with a strong emission of breath (26). The smooth stops are thus distinguished from the rough stops by the absence of

breathing. ( (h) is also an aspirate. The middle stops owe their name to their position in the above grouping, which is that of the Greek grammarians. §17. Spirants.--There is one spirant: s (also called a sibilant). a. A spirant is heard when the breath passage of the oral cavity is so narrowed that a rubbing noise is produced by an expiration. §18. Liquids.--There are two liquids: l and r. Initial r always has the rough breathing (13). §19. Nasals.--There are three nasals: m (labial), n (dental), and g-nasal (palatal). a. Gamma before k, g, ch, x is called g-nasal. It had the sound of n in think, and was represented by n in Latin. Thus, anku_ra (Lat. ancora) anchor, angelos (Lat. angelus) messenger, sphinx sphinx. b. The name liquids is often used to include both liquids and nasals. §20. Semivowels.--i, u, the liquids, nasals, and the spirant s are often called semivowels. ([iglide] becoming z, and W are also called spirants.) a. When i and u correspond to y and w (cp. minion, persuade) they are said to be unsyllabic; and, with a following vowel, make one syllable out of two. Semivocalic i and u are written [iglide] and [uglide]. Initial [iglide] passed into ( (h), as in hêpar liver, Lat. jecur; and into z in zugon yoke, Lat. jugum (here it is often called the spirant yod). Initial [uglide] was written W (3). Medial [iglide], [uglide] before vowels were often lost, as in ti_ma-([iglide]) ô I honour, bo([uglide])-os, gen. of bou-s ox, cow (43). b. The form of many words is due to the fact that the liquids, nasals, and s may fulfil the office of a vowel to form syllables (cp. bridle, even, pst). This is expressed by l?o?, m?o?, n?o?, r?o?, s?o?, to be read ‘syllabic l,’ etc., or ‘sonant l’ (see 35 b, c). §21. Double Consonants.--These are z, x, and ps. z is a combination of sd (or ds) or di (26). x is written for ks, gt, cht; ps for ps, bs, phs. [p. 12]

§22. TABLE OF CONSONANT SOUNDS DIVISIONS Nasals Semivowels Liquids Spirants ( ( ( Stops ( ( Double ( consonants (

Physiological Differences Labial Dental Palatal Voiced m n g-nasal (19 a) Voiced [uglide](W) [iglide](y) 1 Voiced lr Voiced s2 Voiceless s, s Voiced b (middle) d (middle) g (middle) Voiceless p (smooth) t (smooth) k (smooth) Voiceless Aspirate ph (rough) th (rough) ch (rough) Voiced z Voiceless ps x

1

* rh is voiceless.

2

† s was voiced only when it had the z sound (26).

ANCIENT GREEK PRONUNCIATION §23. The pronunciation of Ancient Greek varied much according to time and place, and differed in many important respects from that of the modern language. While in general Greek of the classical period was a phonetic language, i.e. its letters represented the sounds, and no heard sound was unexpressed in writing (but see 108), in course of time many words were retained in their old form though their pronunciation had changed. The tendency of the language was thus to become more and more unphonetic. Our current pronunciation of Ancient Greek is only in part even approximately correct for the period from the death of Pericles (429 B.C.) to that of Demosthenes (322); and in the case of several sounds, e.g. z, ph, ch, th, it is certainly erroneous for that period. But ignorance of the exact pronunciation, as well as long-established usage, must render any reform pedantical, if not impossible. In addition to, and in further qualification of, the list of sound equivalents in 1 we may note the following: §24. Vowels.--Short a, i, u differed in sound from the corresponding long voweis only in being less prolonged; e and o probably differed from ê and ô also in being less open, a difference that is impossible to parallel in English as our short vowels are more open than the long vowels. a^: as a in Germ. hat. There is no true ă in accented syllables in English; the a of idea, aha is a neutral vowel. e: as é in bonté; somewhat similar is a in bakery. ê: as ê in fête, or [p. 13] nearly as e in where. i^: nearly as the first e in meteor, eternal. o: as o in Fr. mot, somewhat like unaccented ŏ in obey or phonetic (as often sounded). ô: as o in Fr. encore. Eng. ō is prevailingly diphthongal (o^{u}). u was originally sounded as u in prune, but by the fifth century had become like that of Fr. tu, Germ. thür. It never had in Attic the sound of u in mute. After u had become like Germ. ü, the only means to represent the sound of the old u (oo in moon) was ou (25). Observe, however, that, in diphthongs, final u retained the old u sound. §24 D. In Lesbos, Boeotia, Laconia, possibly in Ionia, and in some other places, u was still sounded oo after it became like Germ. ü in Attic. §25. Diphthongs.--The diphthongs were sounded nearly as follows: êu as ēh’-oo ai as in Cairo au as ou in out ei as in vein eu as e (met) + oo (moon) ôu as ōh’-oo oi as in soil ou as in ourang ui as in Fr. huit In ai, êi, ôi the long open vowels had completely overpowered the i by 100 B.C., so that i ceased to be written (5 a). The i is now generally neglected in pronunciation though it may have still been sounded to some extent in the fourth century B.C.--The genuine diphthongs ei and ou (6) were originally distinct double sounds (ĕh’-i, ŏh’-oo), and as such were written EI, OU in the Old Attic alphabet (2 a): EGEIDE epeidê, TOUTON toutôn. The spurious diphthongs ei and ou (6) are digraphs representing the long sounds of simple e (French é) and original u. By 400 B.C. genuine ei and ou had become simple

single sounds pronounced as ei in vein and ou in ourang; and spurious ei and ou, which had been written E and O (2 a), were now often written EI and OU. After 300 B.C. ei gradually acquired the sound of ei in seize. eu was sounded like eh’-oo, êu and ôu like ēh’-oo, ōh’-oo, pronounced rapidly but smoothly. ui is now commonly sounded as ui in quit. It occurred only before vowels, and the loss of the i in huos son (43) shows that the diphthongal sound was disliked. §26. Consonants.--Most of the consonants were sounded as in English (1). Before i, k, g, t, s never had a sh (or zh) sound heard in Lycia (Lukia_), Asia (Asia_). s was usually like our sharp s; but before voiced consonants (15 a) it probably was soft, like z; thus we find both kozmos and kosmos on inscriptions. --z was probably = zd, whether it arose from an original sd (as in Athênaze, from Athêna(n)s-de Athens-wards), or from dz, developed from dy (as in zugon, from (d)yugon, cp. jugum). The z in zd gradually extinguished the d, until in the Hellenistic period (p. 4) z sank to z (as in zeal), which is the sound in Modern Greek.--The aspirates ph, th, ch were voiceless stops (15 b, 16 a) followed by a strong expiration: p^{h}, t^{h}, k^{h} as in upheaval, hothouse, backhand (though here h is in a different syllable from the stop). Thus, pheugô was peugô, thelô was telô, echô was e-kô. Cp. eph' hôi for ep(i) ôi, etc. Probably only one h was heard when two aspirates came together, as in echthros (ektros). After 300 A.D. (probably) ph, th, and ch became spirants, ph being sounded as f (as in Philippos Philip), th as th in theatre, ch as ch in German ich or loch. The stage between aspirates and spirants is sometimes represented by the writing pph (= pf), tth, kch, [p. 14] which are affricata.--The neglect of the h in Latin representations of ph, th, ch possibly shows that these sounds consisted of a stop + h. Thus, Pilipus = Philippos, tus = thuos, Aciles = Achilleus. Modern Greek has the spirantic sounds, and these, though at variance with classical pronunciation, are now usually adopted. See also 108. §26 D. Aeolic has sd for z in usdos (ozos branch). In late Laconian th passed into s (sêrion thêrion wild beast). In Laconian and some other dialects b became a spirant and was written for W. d became a spirant in Attic after Christ.

VOWEL CHANGE §27. Quantitative Vowel Gradation.--In the formation and inflection of words a short vowel often interchanges with its corresponding long vowel. Thus SHORT LONG ê (a_ after e, i, r, 31) ti_ma-ô I honour ti_mê-sô future

a

e i o u ê i_ ô u_ ea-ô phile-ô hika_nô dêlo-ô phu-sis I permit I love I come I show nature ea_-sô philê-sô hi_ka_non dêlô-sô phu-ma future future imperf. future growth

§28. Difference in quantity between Attic and Epic words is due chiefly either to (1) metrical lengthening, or to (2) different phonetic treatment, as kalWos, tinWô become Epic ka_los fair, ti_nô I pay (37 D. 1), Attic ka^los, ti^nô. §28 D. Metrical lengthening.--Many words, which would otherwise not fit into the verse,

show in the Epic ei for e, ou (rarely oi) for o, and a_, i_, u_ for a, i, u. Thus, einalios in the sea for enalios, eiarinos vernal for earinos, hupeirochos eminent for huperochos, eilêloutha have come for elêloutha, oulomenos destructive, accursed for olomenos, ourea mountains from oros, Oulumpoio of Olympus from Olumpos. o before a vowel appears as oi in pnoiê breath. Similarly, êgatheos very holy for agatheos; but ênemoeis windy (from anemos) has the ê of hupênemos under the wind (29), and tithêmenos placing (for tithemenos) borrows ê from tithêmi. A short syllable under the rhythmic accent (‘ictus’) is lengthened metrically: (1) in words having three or more short syllables: the first of three shorts (oulomenos), the second of four shorts (hupeirochos), the third of five shorts (apereisia boundless); (2) in words in which the short ictus syllable is followed by two longs and a short (Oulumpoio). A short syllable not under the rhythmic accent is lengthened when it is preceded and followed by a long; thus, any vowel preceded by W (pneiô breathe = pneWô), i or u before a vowel (prothu_mi_êisi zeal). §29. The initial short vowel of a word forming the second part of a compound is often lengthened: stratêgos general (stratos army + agein to lead 887 d). §30. Attic ê, a_.--Attic has ê for original a_ of the earlier period, as phêmê report (Lat. fāma). Ionic also has ê for original a_. Doric and Aeolic retain original a_ (pha_ma_). [p. 15] a. This is true also of the a_ which is the result of early compensative lengthening, by which -ans-, -asl-, -asm-, and -asn- changed to -a_s-, -a_l-, -a_m-, and -a_n-. (See 37 b.) But in a few cases like ta_s for tans, and in pasa for pansa (113) where the combination ans arose at a later period, a_ was not changed to ê. huphanai for huphênai to weave follows tetranai to pierce. b. Original a_ became ê after u, as phuê growth. In some words, however, we find a_. §30 D. 1. Doric and Aeolic retain original a_, as in malon apple (cp. Lat. mālum, Att. mêlon), karux herald (Att. kêrux). But Doric and Aeolic have original ê when ê interchanges with e, as in tithêmi I place, tithemen we place, ma_têr ma_tera mother, poimên poimeni shepherd. 2. Ionic has ê after e, i, and r. Thus, geneê, skiê, hêmerê. §31. In Attic alone this ê was changed back to a_: 1. When preceded by a r; as hêmera_ day, chôra_ country. This appears to have taken place even though an o intervened: as akroa_ma a musical piece, athroa_ collected. EXCEPTIONS: (a) But rWê was changed to rê: as korê for korWê maiden. (b) Likewise rê, when the result of contraction of rea, remained: as orê from orea mountains. (c) And rsê was changed to rrê: as korrê for korsê (79) one of the temples. 2. When preceded by e or i: as genea_ generation, skia_ shadow. This change takes place even when the ê is the result of the contraction of ea: as hugia

healthy, endea lacking, for hugiê from hugie(s)a, endeê from endee(s)a; also, if originally a W intervened, as nea_ for neWa_ young (Lat. nova). EXCEPTIONS: Some exceptions are due to analogy: hugiê healthy, euphuê shapely (292 d) follow saphê clear. §32. In the choruses of tragedy Doric a_ is often used for ê. Thus, ma_têr mother, psu_cha_ soul, ga earth, dusta_nos wretched, eba_n went. §33. The dialects frequently show vowel sounds that do not occur in the corresponding Attic words. §33 D. a for e: hiaros sacred, Artamis (for Artemis), trapô turn Dor.; e for a: thersos courage Aeol., ersên male, horeô see, tesseres four ( = tettares) Ion.; a for o: dia_katioi (for dia_kosioi) 200 Dor., upa under Aeol.; o for a: strotos (stratos) army, on (ana) up Aeol., tetores (tettares) four Dor.; e for ê: hessôn inferior (hêttôn) Ion.; e for o: Apellôn Dor. (also Apollôn); e for ei: mezôn greater Ion.; e for i: kerna_n mix ( = kirnanai for kerannunai) Aeol.; i for e: histiê hearth Ion., histia_ Dor. (for hestia_), chru_sios (chru_seos) golden Aeol., thios god Boeot., kosmiô arrange Dor.; u for a: pisures four (tettares) Hom.; u for o: onuma name Dor., Aeol., apu from Aeol.; ô for ou: ôn accordingly Ion., Dor. §34. Transfer of Quantity.--êo, êa often exchange quantities, be coming eô, ea_. Thus, lêos (Epic la_os folk) becomes leôs, as polêos becomes poleôs of a city; tethnêotos tethneôtos dead; basilêa basilea_ king. §34 D. Often in Ionic: Atreïdeô from earlier Atreïda_o son of Atreus, hiketeô from hiketa_o suppliant. This eô generally makes a single syllable in poetry (60). The êo intermediate between a_o and eô is rarely found. [p. 16] §35. Qualitative Vowel Gradation.--In the same root or suffix we find an interchange among different vowels (and diphthongs) similar to the interchange in sing, sang, sung. a. This variation appears in strong grades and in a weak grade (including actual expulsion of a vowel--in diphthongs, of the first vowel). Thus, pher-ô I carry, phor-o-s tribute, phôr thief, phar-e-tra_ quiver, di-ph r-o-s chariot (twocarrier), leip-ô I leave, le-loip-a I have left, lip-ein to leave. The interchange is quantitative in phor-o-s phôr (cp. 27). b. When, by the expulsion of a vowel in the weak grade, an unpronounceable combination of consonants resulted, a vowel sound was developed to render pronunciation possible. Thus, ra or ar was developed from r between consonants, as in pa-tra-si from ṛatr-si (262); and a from n, as in auto-ma-to-n for auto-mṇ-ton automaton (acting of its own will), cp. men-o-s rage, me-mon-a I yearn. So in onomainô name for onomṇ-[iglide]ô; cp. onoma. c. A vowel may also take the place of an original liquid or nasal after a consonant; as elu_sa for elu_sṃ. This r, l, m, n in b and c is called sonant liquid or sonant nasal.

§36. TABLE OF THE CHIEF VOWEL GRADES Strong Grades Weak Grade 1. 2. a. e: o --or a b. ei: oi i c. eu: ou u 1. 2. d. a_: ô a e. ê: ô e or a f. ô o a. ( e-gen-o-mên I became ( trepô I turn b. peith-ô I persuade c. eleu(th)s-o-mai I shall go d. pha_-mi (Dor., 30) I say e. ( ti-thê-mi I place ( rhêg-nu_-mi I break f. --

: ge-gon-a I am born gi-g n-o-mai I become : trop-ê rout e-trap-ên I was put to flight : pe-poith-a I trust (568) pith-anos persuasive : el-êlouth-a I have gone êluth-o-n I went (Epic) : phô-nê speech pha-men we speak : thô-mo-s heap the-to-s placed, adopted : e-rrôg-a I have broken e-rrag-ê it was broken di-dô-mi I give di-do-men we give

N. 1.--Relatively few words show examples of all the above series of grades. Some have five grades, as pa-têr, pa-ter-a, eu-pa-tôr, eu-pa-tor-a, pa-t r-os. N. 2.--e and i vary in petannu_mi pitnêmi spread out.

COMPENSATORY LENGTHENING §37. Compensatory lengthening is the lengthening of a short vowel to make up for the omission of a consonant. [p. 17] The short vowels are lengthened to Thus the forms become

a e i o u a_ ei i_ ou u_ tan-s e-men-sa eklin-sa tons deiknunt-s ta_s emeina ekli_na tous deiknu_s the I remained I leaned the showing

a. Thus are formed kteinô I kill for kten-[iglide]ô, phtheirô I destroy for phther-[iglide]ô, doteira giver for doter-[iglide]a, kli_nô I lean for klin-[iglide]ô, olophu_rô I lament for olophur-[iglide]ô. b. a becomes ê in the s-aorist of verbs whose stems end in l, r, or n, when not preceded by i or r. Thus, ephan-sa becomes e-phêna I showed, but eperan-sa becomes epera_na I finished. So selêWê moon for selas-nê (selas gleam). c. The diphthongs ei and ou due to this lengthening are spurious (6). §37 D. 1. Ionic agrees with Attic except where the omitted consonant was W, which in

Attic disappeared after a consonant without causing lengthening. Thus, xeinos for xenos stranger, heineka on account of (also in Dem.) for heneka, ouros boundary for horos, kouros boy for koros, mounos alone for monos. These forms are also used generally in poetry. 2. Doric generally lengthens e and o to ê and ô: xênos, hôros, kôros, mônos. So môsa muse from monsa for mont[iglide]a, tôs for tons the, êmi am for esmi, chêlioi 1000 for cheslioi, Ionic cheilioi. (In some Doric dialects W drops as in Attic (xenos, horos); and ans, ons may become a^s, os: despota^s lords, tos the.) 3. Aeolic has ais, eis (a genuine diphth.), ois from ans, ens, ons. Thus, paisa all (Cretan pansa, Att. pasa), lu_oisi they loose from lu_onti. Elsewhere Aeol. prefers assimilated forms (emenna, eklinna, xennos, enneka, orros, emmi, chellioi). But single n, r are also found, as in kora_, monos. Aeolic has phtherrô, klinnô, olophurrô; cp. 37 a. §38. a_ arises from ai upon the loss of its i (43) in a_ei always (from aiei), a_etos eagle (aietos), kla_ei weeps (klaiei), ela_a_ olive-tree (elaia_, cp. Lat. oliva). a. This change took place only when ai was followed by W (aiWei, aiWetos from aWietos, klaiWei from klaWiei, 111, 128) or i (Thêba_is the Thebaïd from Thêbaiis); and only when W or i was not followed by o.

SHORTENING, ADDITION, AND OTHER VOWEL CHANGES §39. Shortening.--A long vowel may be shortened before another long vowel: basileôn from basilêôn of kings, neôn from nêôn of ships, tethneôs from tethnêôs dead. §39 D. In the Ionic genitive of  stems (214 D. 8) -eôn is from -êôn out of -a_ôn. So in Ionic basilea from basilêa king. So even before a short vowel in Hom. hêrô^os, hêrô^i hero (cp. 148 D. 3). §40. A long vowel before i, u, a nasal, or a liquid + a following consonant was regularly shortened: na^us from original na_us ship, emigen from e-migê-nt were mixed. The long vowel was often introduced again, as Ion. nêus ship. §41. Addition.--a, e, o are sometimes prefixed before l, m, r, W (prothetic vowels). Thus, a-leiphô anoint with oil, lipos fat; e-ruthros red (cp. Lat. ruber), e-eikosi from e(W)eikosi; o-morgnu_mi wipe; e-chthes and chthes yesterday, i-ktis weasel (ktideê weasel-skin helmet) are doubtful cases. §42. Development.--A medial vowel is sometimes developed from l or n between two consonants; thus al, la; ar, ra; an (35 b). Also (rarely) in forms like Ion. baranchos = Att. branchos hoarseness. [p. 18] §43. Disappearance.--The i and u of diphthongs often disappear before a following vowel. Thus, huos from huios son, bo-os genitive of bou-s ox, cow. i and u here became semivowels ([iglide], [uglide]), which are not written. Cp. 148 D. 3. §43 D. So in Hdt. keetai for keietai lies, bathea for batheia deep.

§44. a. The disappearance of e before a vowel is often called hyphaeresis (huphairesis omission). Thus Ionic nossos chick for neossos, hortê for heortê festival; adeôs fearlessly for adeeôs. Here e was sounded nearly like y and was not written. §44 a. D. Cp. Hom. theoi A 18 (one syllable). i becomes [iglide] in Hom. polios (two syllables) Ph 567. i rarely disappears: dêmon for dêmion belonging to the people M 213. b. The disappearance of a short vowel between consonants is called syncope (sunkopê cutting up). Thus pi_ptô fall for pi-pet-ô, patros father for pateros. Syncopated forms show the weak grade of vowel gradation (35, 36). §45. Assimilation.--A vowel may be assimilated to the vowel standing in the following syllable: biblion book from bublion (bublos papyrus). a. On assimilation in distracted verbs (horoô see, etc.), see 643 ff., 652.

EUPHONY OF VOWELS CONTACT OF VOWELS AND HIATUS §46. Attic more than any other dialect disliked the immediate succession of two vowel sounds in adjoining syllables. To avoid such succession, which often arose in the formation and inflection of words, various means were employed: contraction (48 ff.), when the vowels collided in the middle of a word; or, when the succession occurred between two words (hiatus), by crasis (62 ff.), elision (70 ff.), aphaeresis (76), or by affixing a movable consonant at the end of the former word (134). §47. Hiatus is usually avoided in prose writers by elision (70 ff.); but in cases where elision is not possible, hiatus is allowed to remain by different writers in different degrees, commonly after short words, such as ô, ei, ê, kai, mê, and the forms of the article. §47 D. Hiatus is allowed in certain cases. 1. In epic poetry: a. After i and u: axoni amphis, su essi. b. After a long final syllable having the rhythmic accent: moi ethelousa ([macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]˘). c. When a long final syllable is shortened before an initial vowel (weak , or improper, hiatus): aktêi eph' hupsêlêi ([macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]¯[macrdot]). d. When the concurrent vowels are separated by the caesura; often after the fourth foot: all' ag' emôn ocheôn epibêseo, i ophra idêai; very often between the short syllables of the third foot (the feminine caesura): as, all' akeousa kathêso, i emôi d' epipeitheo mu_thôi; rarely after the first foot: autar ho egnô A 333. e. Where W has been lost.

2. In Attic poetry hiatus is allowable, as in 1 c, and after ti what? eu well, interjections, peri concerning, and in oude (mêde) heis (for oudeis, mêdeis no one).

CONTRACTION §48. Contraction unites in a single long vowel or diphthong two vowels or a vowel and a diphthong standing next each other in successive syllables in the same word. a. Occasion for contraction is made especially by the concurrence of vowel sounds which were once separated by s, [uglide] (W), and [iglide] (17, 20 a). The following are the chief rules governing contraction: §49. (I) Two vowels which can form a diphthong (5) unite to form that diphthong: geneï genei, aidoï aidoi, klêïthron klêithron. §50. (II) Like Vowels.--Like vowels, whether short or long, unite in the common long; ee, oo become ei, ou (6): geraa gera_, phileête philête; ephilee ephilei, dêloomen dêloumen. a. i is rarely contracted with i (ophi + idion ophi_dion small snake) or u with u (hu_s son in inscriptions, from hu(i)us huios, 43). §50 D. i + i i_ occurs chiefly in the Ionic, Doric, and Aeolic dative singular of nouns in -is (268 D.), as in polii poli_; also in the optative, as in phthi-i_-to phthito. §51. (III) Unlike Vowels.--Unlike vowels are assimilated, either the second to the first (progressive assimilation) or the first to the second (regressive assimilation). a. An o sound always prevails over an a or e sound: o or ô before or after a, and before ê, forms ô. oe and eo form ou (a spurious diphthong, 6). Thus, ti_maomen ti_mômen, aidoa aidô, hêrôa hêrô, ti_maô ti_mô, dêloête dêlôte; but phileomen philoumen, dêloeton dêlouton. b. When a and e or ê come together the vowel sound that precedes prevails, and we have a_ or ê: horae hora_, ti_maête ti_mate, orea orê. c. u rarely contracts: u + i u_ in ichthu_dion from ichthuidion small fish; u + e strictly never becomes u_ (273). §52. (IV) Vowels and Diphthongs.--A vowel disappears before a diphthong beginning with the same sound: mnaai mnai, phileei philei, dêlooi dêloi. §53. A vowel before a diphthong not beginning with the same sound generally contracts with the first vowel of the diphthong; the last vowel, if i, is subscript (5): ti_maei ti_mai, ti_maoimen ti_môimen, leipeai leipêi, memnêoimên memnôimên. a. But e + oi becomes oi: phileoi philoi; o + ei, o + êi become oi: dêloei dêloi, dêloêi dêloi. §54. Spurious ei and ou are treated like e and o: ti_maein ti_man, dêloein dêloun,

ti_maousi ti_môsi (but ti_maei ti_mai and dêloei dêloi_, since ei is here genuine; 6). [p. 20] §55. (V) Three Vowels.--When three vowels come together, the last two unite first, and the resulting diphthong may be contracted with the first vowel: thus, ti_mai is from ti_ma-êi out of ti_ma-e(s)ai; but Perikleous from Perikleeos. §55 D. In Hom. deios of fear from dee(s)-os the first two vowels unite. §56. Irregularities.--A short vowel preceding a or any long vowel or diphthong, in contracts of the first and second declensions, is apparently absorbed (235, 290): chru_sea chru_sa (not chru_sê), haploa hapla (not haplô), by analogy to the a which marks the neuter plural, chru_seais chru_sais. (So hêmeas hêmas to show the -as of the accus. pl.) Only in the singular of the first declension does ea_ become ê (or a_ after a vowel or r): chru_sea_s chru_sês, argureai argurai. In the third declension eea becomes ea_ (265); iea or uea becomes ia_ (ua_) or iê (uê). See 292 d. Various special cases will be considered under their appropriate sections. §57. The contraction of a long vowel with a short vowel sometimes does not occur by reason of analogy. Thus, nêï (two syllables) follows nêos, the older form of neôs (275). Sometimes the long vowel was shortened (39) or transfer of quantity took place (34). §58. Vowels that were once separated by s or [iglide] (20) are often not contracted in dissyllabic forms, but contracted in polysyllabic forms. Thus, the(s)os god, but Thouku_didês Thucydides (theos + kudos glory).

§59. TABLE OF VOWEL CONTRACTIONS [After ei or ou, gen. means genuine, sp. means spurious.] [p. 21] a+a a_ + a a + a_ a + ai a + ai a+e a + ei (gen.) a + ei (sp.) a+ê a + êi a+i a_ + i a+o a + oi

= a_ = a_ = a_ = ai = a_i = a_ = a_i = a_ = a_ = a_i = ai = a_i =ô = ôi

geraa laas bebaa_si mnaai mnaai ti_maete ti_maei ti_maein ti_maête ti_maêi keraï rha_i_teros ti_maomen ti_maoimi

= gera_ = las = bebasi = mnai = mnai = timate = ti_mai = ti_man = ti_mate = ti_mai = kerai = rhaiteros = ti_mômen = timôimi

a + ou (sp.) = ô a+ô e+a e + a_ e + ai

e+e e + ei (gen.) e + ei (sp.) e+ê e + êi e+i e+o e + oi e + ou (sp.) e+u e+ô e + ôi ê + ai ê+e ê + ei (gen.) ê + ei (sp.) ê+ê ê + êi ê + oi ê+i i+i o+a

eti_mae(s)o

=ô =ê = a_ =ê = êi

ti_maô teichea ostea haplea_ lu_eai whence lu_ei = ai chru_seais (56) = ei (sp.) phileete = ei (gen.) phileei = ei (sp.) phileein =ê phileête = êi phileêi = ei (gen.) geneï = ou (sp.) phileomen = oi phileoite = ou phileousi = eu eü =ô phileô = ôi chru_seôi = êi lu_ê(s)ai =ê ti_mêentos = êi zêei =ê ti_mêeis =ê phanêête = êi zêêi = ôi memnêoimên = êi = i_ =ô = a_

klêïs Chiios aidoa haploa (56) o+e = ou (sp.) edêloe o + ei (gen.) = oi dêloei o + ei (sp.) = ou dêloein o+ê =ô dêloête o + êi = oi dêloêi = ôi doêis o+i = oi êchoï

(55) = eti_mô = ti_mô = teichê = osta(56) = haplê = lu_êi = chru_sais = phileite = philei = philein = philête = philêi = genei = philoumen = philoite = philousi = eu = philô = chru_sôi = luêi = ti_mêntos = zêi = ti_mês = phanête = zêi = memnôimên = klêis = Chios = aidô = hapla = edêlou = dêloi = dêloun = dêlôte = dêloi = dôis = êchoi

o+o o + oi o + ou (sp.) o+ô o + ôi u+i u+u ô+a ô+i ô+ô

= ou (sp.) = oi = ou (sp.) =ô = ôi = u_ = u_ =ô = ôi =ô

ploos = plous dêlooimen = dêloimen dêloousi = dêlousi dêloô = dêlô ploôi = plôi ichthuidion = ichthu_dion huus (for huios) = hu_s hêrôa = hêrô hêrôi = hêrôi dôô (Hom.) = dô

N.--The forms of rhi_goô shiver contract from the stem rhi_gô- (yielding ô or ôi). §59 D. Attic contracts more, Ionic less, than the other dialects. The laws of contraction often differ in the different dialects. 1. Ionic (Old and New) is distinguished by its absence of contraction. Thus, ploos for plous voyage, teichea for teichê walls, ostea for osta bones, aoidê for ôidê song, aergos for a_rgos idle. The Mss. of Hdt. generally leave ee, eê uncontracted; but this is probably erroneous in most cases. Ionic rarely contracts where Attic does not: ogdôkonta for ogdoêkonta eighty. 2. eo, eô, eou generally remain open in all dialects except Attic. In Ionic eô is usually monosyllabic. Ionic (and less often Doric) may contract eo, eou to eu: seu from seo of thee, phileusi from phileousi they love. 3. ao, a_o, aô, a_ô contract to a_ in Doric and Aeolic. Thus, Atreida_ from Atreida_o, Dor. gelanti they laugh from gelaonti, chôran from chôra_ôn of countries. In Aeolic oa_ a_ in ba_thoenti (Ion. bôthoenti) = Att. boêthounti aiding (dative). 4. Doric contracts ae to ê; aê to ê; aei, aêi to êi. Thus, ni_kê from ni_kae conquer! horêi from horaei and horaêi; but a_e a_ (ha_lios from a_elios, Hom. êelios sun). 5. The Severer (and earlier) Doric contracts ee to ê, and oe, oo to ô. Thus, philêtô from phileetô, dêlôte from dêloete, hippô from hippo-o (230 D.); the Milder (and later) Doric and N. W. Greek contract to ei, and ou. Aeolic agrees with the Severer Doric.

SYNIZESIS §60. In poetry two vowels, or a vowel and a diphthong, belonging to successive syllables may unite to form a single syllable in pronunciation, but not in writing. Thus, belea missiles, poleôs city, Pêlêïadeô son of Peleus, chru_seôi golden. This is called Synizēsis (sunizêsis settling together). §61. Synizesis may occur between two words when the first ends in a long vowel or diphthong. This is especially the case with dê [p. 22] now, ê or, ê (interrog.), mê not, epei since, egô I, ô oh; as ê ou' O 18.

a. The term synizesis is often restricted to cases where the first vowel is long. Where the first vowel is short, e, i were sounded nearly like y; u nearly like ô. Cp. 44 a. The single syllable produced by synizesis is almost always long.

CRASIS §62. Crasis (krasis mingling) is the contraction of a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word with a vowel or diphthong beginning the following word. Over the syllable resulting from contraction is placed a ' called corōnis (korônis hook), as ta_lla from ta alla the other things, the rest. a. The coronis is not written when the rough breathing stands on the first word: ho anthrôpos ha_nthrôpos. b. Crasis does not occur when the first vowel may be elided. (Some editors write talla, etc.) §63. Crasis occurs in general only between words that belong together; and the first of the two words united by crasis is usually the less important; as the article, relative pronoun (ho, ha), pro, kai, dê, ô. Crasis occurs chiefly in poetry. a. It is rare in Hom., common in the dialogue parts of the drama (especially in comedy), and frequent in the orators. §64. p, t, k become ph, th, ch when the next word begins with the rough breathing (124): têi hêmerai thêmerai the day, kai hoi and the = choi' (68 c). §65. Iota subscript (5) appears in the syllable resulting from crasis only when the first syllable of the second word contains an i: egô oida egôida I know (but tôi organôi tôrganôi the instrument, 68 a). §66. The rules for crasis are in general the same as those for contraction (48 ff.). Thus, to onoma tounoma the name, ho en houn, ô aner ôner oh man, pro echôn prouchôn excelling, to hi_mation thoimation the cloak (64), ha egô ha_gô. But the following exceptions are to be noted (67-69): §67. A diphthong may lose its final vowel: hoi emoi houmoi, soi esti sousti, mou esti mousti. Cp. 43, 68. §68. The final vowel or diphthong of the article, and of toi, is dropped, and an initial a of the next word is lengthened unless it is the first vowel of a diphthong. The same rule applies in part to kai. a. Article.--ho anêr ha_nêr, hoi andres ha_ndres, hai agathai ha_gathai, hê agêtheia ha_lêtheia, tou andros ta_ndros, tôi andri ta_ndri, ho autos hautos the same, tou autou tautou of the same. b. toi.--toi ara ta_ra, mentoi an menta_n.

c. kai.--(1) ai is dropped: kai autos kautos, kai ou kou', kai hê chê', kai hoi choi', kai hiketeuete chi_keteuete and ye beseech (64). (2) ai is contracted chiefly before e and ei: kai en ka_n, kai egô ka_gô, kai es ka_s, kai eita kaita (note however kai ei kei', kai eis keis); also before o in kai hote chôte. kai hopôs chôpôs (64). [p. 23] N.--The exceptions in 68 a-c to the laws of contraction are due to the desire to let the vowel of the more important word prevail: ha_nêr, not hônêr, because of anêr. §68 D. Hom. has ôristos ho aristos, ôutos ho autos. Hdt. has houteros ho heteros, hônêr ho anêr, hôutoi hoi autoi, tôuto to auto, tôutou tou autou, heôutou heo autou, hôndres hoi andres. Doric has kêpi kai epi. §69. Most crasis forms of heteros other are derived from hateros, the earlier form: thus, ho heteros ha_teros, hoi heteroi ha_teroi; but tou heterou thouterou (64).

ELISION §70. Elision is the expulsion of a short vowel at the end of a word before a word beginning with a vowel. An apostrophe (') marks the place where the vowel is elided. all' (a) age, edôk' (a) ennea, eph' (= epi) heautou (64), echoim' (i) an, genoit' (o) an. a. Elision is often not expressed to the eye except in poetry. Both inscriptions and the Mss. of prose writers are very inconsistent, but even where the elision is not expressed, it seems to have occurred in speaking; i.e. hode eipe and hod' eipe were spoken alike. The Mss. are of little value in such cases. §71. Elision affects only unimportant words or syllables, such as particles, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions of two syllables (except peri, achri, mechri, hoti 72 b, c), and the final syllables of nouns, pronouns, and verbs. a. The final vowel of an emphatic personal pronoun is rarely elided. §72. Elision does not occur in a. Monosyllables, except such as end in e (te, de, ge). b. The conjunction hoti that? (hot' is hote when). c. The prepositions pro before, achri, mechri until, and peri concerning (except before i). d. The dative singular ending i of the third declension, and in si, the ending of the dative plural. e. Words with final u. §72 D. Absence of elision in Homer often proves the loss of W (3), as in kata astu X 1. Epic admits elision in sa thy, rha, in the dat. sing. of the third decl., in -si and -ai in the personal endings, and in -nai, -sthai of the infinitive, and (rarely) in moi, soi, toi. ana oh king, and ana anastêthi rise up, elide only once, ide and never. Hdt. elides less often than

Attic prose; but the Mss. are not a sure guide. peri sometimes appears as per in Doric and Aeolic before words beginning with other vowels than i. oxei odunai L 272. Cp. 148 D. 1. §73. Except esti is, forms admitting movable n (134 a) do not suffer elision in prose. (But some cases of e in the perfect occur in Demosthenes.) §73 D. In poetry a vowel capable of taking movable n is often cut off. §74. ai in the personal endings and the infinitive is elided in Aristophanes; scarcely ever, if at all, in tragedy; its elision in prose is doubtful. oi is elided in tragedy in oimoi alas. [p. 24] §75. Interior elision takes place in forming compound words. Here the apostrophe is not used. Thus, oudeis no one from oude heis, kathoraô look down upon from kata horaô, methi_êmi let go from meta hi_êmi (124). a. hodi_, touti_ this are derived from the demonstrative pronouns hode, touto + the deictic ending i_ (333 g). b. Interior elision does not always occur in the formation of compounds. Thus, skêptouchos sceptre-bearing from skêpto + ochos (i.e. sochos). Cp. 878. c. On the accent in elision, see 174. §75 D. Apocope (apokopê cutting off) occurs when a final short vowel is cut off before an initial consonant. In literature apocope is confined to poetry, but in the prose inscriptions of the dialects it is frequent. Thus, in Hom., as separate words and in compounds, an, kat, par (ap, hup rarely) for ana, kata, para (apo, hupo). Final t is assimilated to a following consonant (but katthanein to die, not kaththanein, cp. 83 a); so final n by 91-95. Thus, allexai to pick up, am ponon into the strife; kabbale threw down, kallipe left behind, kakkeiontes lit. lying down, kauaxais break in pieces, for kaWWaxais kat-Waxais, kad de, kaddusai entering into, kap pedion through the plain, kag gonu on the knee (kag not kang), kar rhoon in the stream; hubballein interrupt, appempsei will send away. When three consonants collide, the final consonant of the apocopate word is usually lost, as kaktane slew, from kakktane out of kat(e)ktane. Apocope occurs rarely in Attic poetry. pot for poti (= pros in meaning) is frequent in Doric and Boeotian. N.--The shorter forms may have originated from elision.

APHAERESIS (INVERSE ELISION) §76. Aphaeresis (aphaiiresis taking away) is the elision of e at the beginning of a word after a word ending in a long vowel or diphthong. This occurs only in poetry, and chiefly after mê not, ê or. Thus, mê ntautha, ê me, parexô mauton, autê xêlthen. In some texts editors prefer to adopt crasis (62) or synizesis (60). a is rarely elided thus.

EUPHONY OF CONSONANTS §77. Assimilation.--A consonant is sometimes assimilated to another consonant in the

same word. This assimilation may be either partial, as in e-pemph-thên I was sent for epemp-thên (82), or complete, as in emmenô I abide by for en-menô (94). a. A preceding consonant is generally assimilated to a following consonant. Assimilation to a preceding consonant, as in ollu_mi I destroy for ol-nu_-mi, is rare.

DOUBLING OF CONSONANTS §78. Attic has tt for ss of Ionic and most other dialects: pra_ttô do for pra_ssô, thalatta sea for thalassa, kreittôn stronger for kreissôn. a. Tragedy and Thucydides adopt ss as an Ionism. On chariessa see 114 a. b. tt is used for that ss which is regularly formed by k or ch and i (112), sometimes by t, th, and i (114). On tt in Attikos see 83 a. [p. 25] §79. Later Attic has rr for rs of older Attic: tharros courage = tharsos, arrên male = arsên. a. But rs does not become rr in the dative plural (rhêtor-si orators) and in words containing the suffix -sis for -tis (ar-sis raising). b. Ionic and most other dialects have rs. rs in Attic tragedy and Thucydides is probably an Ionism. Xenophon has rs and rr. §80. An initial r is doubled when a simple vowel is placed before it in inflection or composition. Thus, after the syllabic augment (429), e-rrei was flowing from rheô; and in kali-rroos fair flowing. After a diphthong r is not doubled: eu-roos fair flowing. a. This rr, due to assimilation of sr (e-rrei, kali-rroos), or Wr (errêthê was spoken), is strictly retained in the interior of a word; but simplified to single r when standing at the beginning, i.e. rheô is for rreô. In composition (eu-roos) single r is due to the influence of the simplified initial sound. b. A different rr arises from assimilation of rs (79), re (sounded like py, 44, 117), and nr (95). §80 D. In Hom. and even in prose r may remain single after a vowel: e-rexe did from rhezô, kalli-roos. So iso-rropos and iso-ropos (by analogy to rhopos) equally balanced. ek cheirôn belea_ rheon M 159 represents belea rreon. Cp. 146 D. §81. b, g, d are not doubled in Attic (cp. 75 D.). In ng the first g is nasal (19 a). ph, ch, th are not doubled in Attic; instead, we have pph, kch, tth as in Sapphô Sappho, Bakchos Bacchus, Atthis (Atthis) Attic. Cp. 83 a. §81 D. 1. Hom. has many cases of doubled liquids and nasals: ellabe took, allêktos unceasing, ammoros without lot in, philommeidês fond of smiles, aganniphos very snowy, argennos white, ennepe relate. These forms are due to the assimilation of s and l, m, or n. Thus, aga-nniphos is from aga-sniphos, cp. sn in snow. 2. Doubled stops: hotti that (sWod-ti), hoppote as (sWod-pote), eddeise feared (edWeise).

3. ss in messos middle (for methios medius, 114), opissô backward, in the datives of sstems, as epessi (250 D. 2), and in verbs with stems in s (tresse). 4. One of these doubled consonants may be dropped without lengthening the preceding vowel: Oduseus from Odusseus, mesos, opisô. So in Achileus from Achilleus. On dd, bb, see 75 D. Aeolic has many doubled consonants due to assimilation (37 D. 3).

STOPS BEFORE STOPS §82. A labial or a palatal stop (16) before a dental stop (t, d, th) must be of the same order (16). a. bt, pht become pt: (tetri_b-tai) tetri_ptai has been rubbed from tri_b-ô rub; (gegraphtai) gegraptai has been written from graph-ô write. gt, cht become kt: (leleg-tai) lelektai) has been said from leg-ô say; (bebrech-tai) bebrektai has been moistened from brech-ô moisten. [p. 26] b. pd, phd become bd: (klep-dên) klebdên by stealth from klep-t-ô steal; (graphdên) grabdên scraping from graph-ô write (originally scratch, scrape). kd becomes gd: (plekdên) plegdên entwined from plek-ô plait. c. pth, bth become phth: (epemp-thên) epemphthên I was sent from pemp-ô send; (etri_bthê) etri_phthê it was rubbed (tri_b-ô rub). kth, gth become chth: (eplek-thê) eplechthê it was plaited (plek-ô plait); (eleg-thê) elechthê it was said (leg-ô say). N. 1.--Cp. hepta seven, hebdomos seventh, hephthêmeros lasting seven days. N. 2.--But ek out of remains unchanged: ekdidômi surrender, ektheô run out (104). §83. A dental stop before another dental stop becomes s. anustos practicable for anut-tos from anutô complete, iste you know for id-te, oistha thou knowest for oid-tha, pepeistai has been persuaded for pepeith-tai, epeisthên I was persuaded for epeith-thên. a. tt, tth remain unchanged in Attikos, Atthis Attic, and in katthanein die (75 D., 81). So tt for ss (78). §84. Any stop standing before a stop other than t, d, th, or in other combination than pph, kch, tth (81) is dropped, as in kekomi(d)-ka I have brought. g before k, g, or ch is gamma-nasal (19 a), not a stop.

STOPS BEFORE M §85. Before m, the labial stops (p, b, ph) become m; the palatal stops k, ch become g; g before m remains unchanged. omma eye for op-ma (cp. opôpa), leleimmai I have been left for leleip-mai from leip-ô leave, tetri_mmai for tetri_b-mai from tri_b-ô rub, gegrammai for gegraphmai from graph-ô write, peplegmai for peplek-mai from plek-ô plait, teteugmai for teteuch-mai

from teuch-ô build. a. k and ch may remain unchanged before m in a noun-suffix: ak-mê edge, drach-mê drachma. km remains when brought together by phonetic change (128 a), as in ke-kmêka am wearied (kam-nô). §85 a D. So in Hom. ikmenos favoring (hika_nô), akachmenos sharpened. b. ngm and mmm become gm and mm. Thus, elêlegmai for elêleng-mai from elêlenchmai (elench-ô convict), pepemmai for pepemm-mai from pepemp-mai (pemp-ô send). §86. A dental stop (t, d, th) before m often appears to become s. Thus, ênusmai for ênutmai (anut-ô complete), pephrasmai for pephrad-mai (phrazô declare), pepeismai for pepeith-mai (peith-ô persuade). §87. On the other hand, since these stops are actually retained in many words, such as eretmon oar, potmos fate, arithmos number, s must be explained as due to analogy. Thus, ênusmai, pephrasmai, pepeismai have taken on the ending -smai by analogy to -stai where s is in place (pephrastai for pephrad-tai). So ismen we know (Hom. idmen) follows iste you know (for id-te). osmê odor stands for od-smê.

CONSONANTS BEFORE N §88. b regularly and ph usually become m before n. Thus, semnos revered for seb-nos (seb-omai), stumnos firm for stuph-nos (stu_phô contract). §89. gignomai become, gignôskô know become gi_nomai, gi_nôskô in Attic after 300 B.C., in New Ionic, late Doric, etc. §90. ln becomes ll in ollu_mi destroy for ol-nu_mi. ln is kept in pilnamai approach. On sigma before n see 105. §90 D. Aeolic bolla council, attic boulê and Doric bôla_ (with compensatory lengthening), probably for bolna_.

N BEFORE CONSONANTS §91. n before p, b, ph, ps becomes m: empi_ptô fall into for en-pi_ptô, emballô throw in for en-ballô, emphainô exhibit for en-phainô, empsu_chos alive for en-psu_chos. §92. n before k, g, ch, x becomes g-nasal (19 a): enkaleô bring a charge for en-kaleô, engraphô inscribe for en-graphô, suncheô pour together for sun-cheô, sunxu_ô grind up for sun-xi_ô. §93. n before t, d, th remains unchanged. Here n may represent m: bron-tê thunder (bremô roar). §94. n before m becomes m: emmetros moderate for en-metros, emmenô abide by for enmenô.

a. Verbs in -nô may form the perfect middle in -smai (489 h); as in pephasmai (from phainô show) for pephan-mai (cp. pephag-ka, pephan-tai). b. Here n does not become s; but the ending -smai is borrowed from verbs with stems in a dental (as pephrasmai, on which see 87). §95. n before l, r is assimilated (ll, rr): sullogos concourse for sun-logos, surreô flow together for sun-reô. §96. n before s is dropped and the preceding vowel is lengthened (e to ei, o to ou, 37): mela_s black for melan-s, heis one for hen-s, titheis placing for tithen(t)-s, tous for ton-s. a. But in the dative plural n before -si appears to be dropped without compensatory lengthening: melasi for melan-si, daimosi for daimon-si divinities, phresi for phren-si mind. But see 250 N.

CONSONANTS BEFORE S §97. With s a labial stop forms ps, a palatal stop forms x. leipsô shall leave for leip-sô kêrux herald for kêruk-s tri_psô shall rub “ tri_b-sô axô shall lead “ ag-sô grapsô shall write “ graph-sô bêx cough “ bêch-s [p. 28] a. The only stop that can stand before s is p or k, hence b, ph become p, and g, ch become k. Thus, graph-sô, ag-sô become grap-sô, ak-sô. §98. A dental stop before s is assimilated (ss) and one s is dropped. sômasi bodies for sômassi out of sômat-si, posi feet for possi out of pod-si, orni_si birds for orni_ssi out of orni_th-si. So paschô suffer for passchô out of path-skô (cp. path-ein and 126). a. d and th become t before s: pod-si, orni_th-si become pot-si, orni_t-si. §98 D. Hom. often retains ss: possi, dassasthai for dat-sasthai (dateomai divide). §99. k is dropped before sk in dida(k)-skô teach (didak-tos taught). p is dropped before sph in bla(p)s-phêmia_ evil-speaking. §100. nt, nd, nth before s form nss (98), then ns, finally n is dropped and the preceding vowel is lengthened (37). pasi all for pans-si out of pant-si, titheisi placing for tithens-si out of tithent-si. So giga_s giant for gigant-s, lu_ousi loosing for lu_ont-si, speisô shall make libation for spend-sô, peisomai shall suffer for penth-somai (penthos grief). §101. a. en in, sun with in composition are treated as follows:

en before r, s, or z keeps its n: en-ruthmos in rhythm, en-skeuazô prepare, enzeugnu_mi yoke in. sun before s and a vowel becomes sus-: sus-sôizô help to save. before s and a consonant or z, becomes su-: su-skeuazô pack up, su-zugos yoked together. b. pan, palin before s either keep n or assimilate n to s: pan-sophos all-wise, pan-selênos or passelênos the full moon, palin-skios thick-shaded, palis-sutos rushing back. §102. On rs see 79 a. ls is retained in alsos precinct. rs, ls may become r, l with lengthening of the preceding vowel: êgeira I collected, êngeila I announced for êger-sa, êngel-sa. §102 D. Hom. has ôrse incited, kerse cut, eelsai to coop up, kelsai to put to shore.

S BEFORE CONSONANTS §103. Sigma between consonants is dropped: êngel(s)the you have announced, gegraph(s)thai to have written, hek(s)mênos of six months (hex six, mên month). a. But in compounds s is retained when the second part begins with s: en-spondos included in a truce. compounds in dus- ill omit s before a word beginning with s: duschistos hard to cleave for dus-schistos (schizô). §104. ex out of (= eks) drops s in composition before another consonant, but usually retains its k unaltered: ekteinô stretch out, ekdidômi surrender, [p. 29] ekpherô carry out, ekthu_ô sacrifice, eksôizô preserve from danger (not exôizô), ekmanthanô learn thoroughly. Cp. 82 N. 2, 136. §105. s before m or n usually disappears with compensatory lengthening (37) as in eimi for es-mi. But sm stays if m belongs to a suffix and in compounds of dus- ill: dus-menês hostile. a. Assimilation takes place in Peloponnêsos for Pelopos nêsos island of Pelops, hennu_mi clothe for hes-nu_mi (Ionic heinu_mi), errei was flowing for e-srei, 80 a. §105 D. s is assimilated in Aeol. and Hom. emmenai to be for es-menai (einai), argennos white for arges-nos, erebennos dark (erebes-nos, cp. Erebos), amme we, ummes you (asme, usmes). Cp. 81 D. §106. sd becomes z in some adverbs denoting motion towards. Thus, Athênaze for Athênas-de Athens-wards (26, 342 a). §106 D. Aeolic has sd for medial z in usdos branch (ozos), melisdô make melody (melizô). §107. Two sigmas brought together by inflection become s: belesi for beles-si missiles, epesi for epes-si words (98), telesai for teles-sai (from teleô accomplish, stem teles-). a. ss when = tt (78) never becomes s.

§107 D. Homer often retains ss: belessi, epessi, telessai. §108. Many of the rules for the euphony of consonants were not established in the classical period. Inscriptions show a much freer practice, either marking the etymology, as sunmachos for summachos ally (94), enkalein for enkalein to bring a charge (92), or showing the actual pronunciation (phonetic spelling), as tog (= ton) kakon (92), têm (= tên) boulên (91), tol (= ton) logon, egdosis for ekdosis surrendering (104), echpherô, echthu_ô for ekpherô, ekthu_ô (104).

CONSONANTS WITH VOWELS CONSONANTS BEFORE I AND E §109. Numerous changes occur before the semivowel [iglide] (= y, 20) before a vowel. This y is often indicated by the sign [iglide]. In 110-117 (except in 115) [iglide] is = y. §110. l[iglide] becomes ll: allos for alios Lat. alius, hallomai for hal[iglide]omai Lat. salio, phullon for phul[iglide]on Lat. folium. §111. After an, on, ar, or, [iglide] is shifted to the preceding syllable, forming ain, oin, air, oir. This is called Epenthesis (epenthesis insertion). phainô show for phan-[iglide]ô, melaina black for melan-[iglide]a, spairô gasp for spar[iglide]ô, moira fate for mor-[iglide]a. (So klaiô weep for klaW-[iglide]ô 38 a.) On i after en, er, in, ir, un, ur, see 37 a. §112. k[iglide], ch[iglide] become tt (= ss 78): phulattô guard for phulak-[iglide]ô (cp. phulakê guard), tarattô disturb for tarach-[iglide]ô (cp. tarachê disorder). [p. 30] §113. (I) t[iglide], th[iglide] after long vowels, diphthongs, and consonants become s; after short vowels t[iglide], th[iglide] become ss (not = tt 78), which is simplified to s. aisa fate from ait-[iglide]a, pasa all from pant-[iglide]a, mesos middle (Hom. messos) from meth-[iglide]os (cp. Lat. med-ius), tosos so great (Hom. tossos) from tot-[iglide]os (cp. Lat. toti-dem). a. In the above cases t[iglide] passed into ts. Thus pant-[iglide]a, pantsa, panssa, pansa (Cretan, Thessalian), pasa (37 D. 3). §114. (II) t[iglide], th[iglide] become tt (= ss 78): melitta bee from melit-ia (cp. meli, -itos honey), koruttô equip from koruth-[iglide]ô (cp. korus, -uthos helmet). a. chariessa graceful and other feminine adjectives in -essa are poetical, and therefore do not assume the native Attic prose form in tt. But see 299 c. b. tt from t[iglide], th[iglide] is due to analogy, chiefly of tt from k[iglide]. §115. t before final i often becomes s. Thus, tithêsi places for tithêti; also in plousios rich for plout-ios (cp. ploutos wealth).

a. nt before final i becomes ns, which drops n: echousi they have for echonti (37). §115 D. Ioric often retains t (tithêti, echonti). se is not from (Dor.) te (cp. Lat. te), no is soi from toi. §116. d[iglide] between vowels and g[iglide] after a vowel form z: thus, elpizô hope for elpid-[iglide]ô, pezos on foot for ped-[iglide]os (cp. ped-io-n ground), harpazô seize for harpag-[iglide]ô (cp. harpax rapacious). After a consonant g[iglide] forms d: erdô work from erg-[iglide]ô. §117. p[iglide] becomes pt, as in chaleptô oppress from chalep-[iglide]ô. r[eglide] becomes rr in Borras from Borea_s Boreas. Here e was sounded nearly like y (44, 61 a).

DISAPPEARANCE OF S AND W §118. The spirant s with a vowel before or after it is often lost. Its former presence is known by earlier Greek forms or from the cognate languages. §119. Initial s before a vowel becomes the rough breathing. hepta seven, Lat. septem; hêmisus half, Lat. semi-; histêmi put for si-stê-mi, Lat. si-st-o; heipomên I followed from e-sep-o-mên, Lat. sequor. a. When retained, this s is due to phonetic change (as sun for xun, si_gê silence for s[uglide]i_gê Grm. schweigen), or to analogy. On the loss of ( see 125 e. §120. Between vowels s is dropped. genous of a race from gene(s)-os, Lat. gener-is, lu_ei thou loosest from lu_êi for lu_e(s)ai, elu_ou from elu_e-(s)o thou didst loose for thyself, titheio for titheiso, eiên from esiê-n Old Lat. siem, alêthe-ia truth from alêthes-ia. [p. 31] a. Yet s appears in some -mi forms (tithesai, histaso), and in thrasus tharsus 128. s between vowels is due to phonetic change (as s for ss 107, plousios for ploutios 115) or to analogy (as elu_sa for elu_a, modelled on edeik-s-a), cp. 35 c. §121. s usually disappears in the aorist of liquid verbs (active and middle) with lengthening of the preceding vowel (37): esteila I sent for estel-sa, ephêna I showed for ephan-sa, ephênato for ephan-sato. Cp. 102. §122. Digamma (3) has disappeared in Attic. The following special cases are to be noted: a. In nouns of the third declension with a stem in au, eu, or on (43). Thus, naus ship, gen. neôs from nêW-os, basileus king, gen. basileôs from basilêW-os (34). b. In the augment and reduplication of verbs beginning with W: eirgazomên I worked from e-Wergazomên, eoika am like from WeWoika. Cp. 431, 443. c. In verbs in eô for eWô: rheô I flow, fut. rheu-somai.

§123. Some words have lost initial sW: hêdus sweet (Lat. sua(d)vis), hou, hoi, he him, hos his (Lat. suus), ethos custom, êthos character (Lat. con-suetus). §123 D. Hom. euade pleased stands for eWWade from esWade.

ASPIRATION §124. A smooth stop (p, t, k), brought before the rough breathing by elision, crasis, or in forming compounds, is made rough, becoming an aspirate (ph, th, ch). Cp. 16 a. aph' hou for ap(o) hou, nuchth' holên for nukt(a) holên (82); tha_teron the other (69), thoimation for to hi_mation the cloak (66); methi_êmi let go for met(a) hi_êmi, autha_dês selfwilled from autos self and hadein please. a. A medial rough breathing, passing over r, roughens a preceding smooth stop: phrouros watchman from pro-horos, phroudos gone from pro and hodos, tethrippon four-horse chariot (tetr + hippos). §124 D. New Ionic generally leaves p, t, k before the rough breathing: ap' hou, metiêmi, touteron. But in compounds (9 D.) ph, th, ch may appear: methodos method (meta after + hodos way). §125. Two rough stops beginning successive syllables of the same word are avoided in Greek. A rough stop is changed into a smooth stop when the following syllable contains a rough stop. a. In reduplication (441) initial ph, th, ch are changed to p, t, k. Thus, pepheuga for phepheu-ga perfect of pheugô flee, ti-thê-mi place for thi-thê-mi, ke-chê-na for che-chê-na perf. of chaskô gape. b. In the first aorist passive imperative -thi becomes -ti after -thê-, as in lu-thê-ti for luthê-thi; elsewhere -thi is retained (gnôthi). c. In the aorist passive, the- and thu- are changed to te- and tu- in e-te-thên was placed (tithêmi) and e-tu-thên was sacrificed (thu_ô). d. From the same objection to a succession of rough stops are due ampechô ampischô clothe for amph-, eke-cheiria_ truce for eche-cheiria_ (from echô and cheir). [p. 32] e. The rough breathing, as an aspirate (16 a), often disappeared when either of the two following syllables contains ph, th, or ch. echô have stands for echô sechô (119, cp. eschon), the rough changing to the smooth breathing before a rough stop. The rough breathing reappears in the future hexô. Cp. ischô restrain for hischô from si-sch-ô, edethlon foundation, but hedos seat, Lat. sedes. f. In thrix hair, gen. sing. trich-os for thrichos, dat. pl. thrixi; tachus swift, comparative tachi_ôn (rare) or tha_ttôn (tha_ssôn) from thachi_ôn (112). g. In taph- (taphos tomb), pres. thap-t-ô bury, fut. thapsô, perf. tetham-mai (85); trephô nourish, fut. threpsô, perf. te-thram-mai; trechô run, fut. threxomai; truph- (truphê

delicacy), pres. thruptô enfeeble, fut. thrupsô; tu_phô smoke, perf. te-thu_m-mai. N.--The two rough stops remain unchanged in the aorist passive ethrephthên was nourished, ethruphthên was enfeebled, ephanthên was shown forth, ôrthôthên was set upright, ethelchthên was charmed, ekatharthên was purified; in the perfect inf. pephanthai, kekatharthai, tethaphthai; in the imperatives graphêthi be written, straphêthi turn about, phathi say. §126. Transfer of Aspiration.--Aspiration may be transferred to a following syllable: paschô for path-skô (cp. 98). §126 D. Hdt. has enthauta there (entautha), entheuten thence (enteuthen), kithôn tunic (chitôn). §127. Some roots show variation between a final smooth and a rough stop; dechomai receive, dôrodokos bribe-taker; aleiphô anoint, lipos fat; plekô weave, plochuos braid of hair; and in the perfect, as êcha from agô lead. §127 D. Hom. and Hdt. have autis again (authis), ouki not (ouchi). All the dialects except Attic have dekomai.

VARIOUS CONSONANT CHANGES §128. Metathesis (transposition).--A vowel and a consonant often exchange places: Pnux the Pnyx, gen. Puknos, tiktô bear for ti-tk-ô (cp. tek-ein). a. Transposition proper does not occur where we have to do with ar, ra ṛ (20, 35 b) as in tharsos and thrasos courage; or with syncope (44 b) due to early shifting of accent, as in pet-omai fly, pte-ron wing; or where a long vowel follows the syncopated root, as in temnô te-tmê-ka I have cut. In beblêka I have thrown (ballô throw), blê is formed from bele found in bele-mnon missile. §128 D. Hom. kradiê, kardiê heart, kartistos best (kratistos), bardistos slowest (bradus), dratos and -dartos from derô flay, e-drakon saw from derkomai see. §129. Dissimilation.--a. l sometimes becomes r when l appears in the same word: argaleos painful for algaleos (algos pain). b. A consonant (usually r) sometimes disappears when it occurs also in the adjoining syllable: druphaktos railing for dru-phraktos (lit. fenced by wood). c. Syllabic dissimilation or syncope occurs when the same or two similar syllables containing the same consonant succeed each other: amphoreus a jar for amphi-phoreus, tharsunos bold for tharso-sunos. This is often called haplology. d. See also under 99, 125 a, b. [p. 33] §130. Development.--d is developed between n and r, as in andros of a man for anros

from anêr (cp. cinder with Lat. cineris); b is developed between m and r (or l), as in mesêmbria_ midday, south from mes-êmria_ for mes-êmeria_ from mesos middle and hêmera_ day (cp. chamber with Lat. camera). §130 D. So in Hom. me-mblô-ka have gone from mlô from mol- in e-mol-o-n (128 a). At the beginning of words this m is dropped; thus, blôskô go, brotos mortal for mbro-tos (root mro-, mor-, as in mor-tuus). In composition m remains, as in a-mbrotos immortal; but a-brotos immortal is formed from brotos. §131. Labials and dentals often correspond: poinê and tisis retribution; phonos murder, theinô strike. p and k: aipolos goat-herd, boukolos ox-herd. pt for t is found in ptolemos war, ptolis city for polemos, polis. Cp. Neoptolemus and Ptolemy. So chth and ch in chthôn ground, chamai on the ground. §132. The dialects often show consonants different from Attic in the same or kindred words. §132 D. t for s: Doric tu, toi, te, dia_katioi (dia_kosioi), Wi_kati (eikosi), Poteida_n (Poseidôn). s “ t: Doric sa_meron to-day (têmeron Attic, sêmeron Ionic). k “ p: Ionic (not Hom.) kote when, koteros which of two? hokôs, kosos, kê. k “ t: Doric poka (pote), hoka (hote). g “ b: Doric glepharon eyelid, gla_chôn (Ion. glêchôn) pennyroyal. d “ b: Doric odelos (obolos) a spit. p “ t: Hom. pisures, Aeol. pessures four (tettares); Aeol. pêlui far off (cp. têlose), pempe five (pente). th “ t: see 126 D. ph “ th: Hom. phêr centaur (thêr beast). r “ s: (rhotacism): late Laconian, Elean tir who, Thessal. Theordotos god-given. s “ th: late Laconian sios for theos god (26 D.). n “ l: Doric enthein come. GREEK GRAM.--3

FINAL CONSONANTS §133. No consonant except n, r, or s (including x and ps) can stand at the end of a Greek word. All other consonants are dropped. a. Exceptions are the proclitics (179) ek out of, derived from ex (cp. 104, 136), and ouk

not, of which ou is another form (137). b. Examples of dropped final consonants: sôma body for sômat (gen. sômatos); pai oh boy for paid (gen. paid-os); gala milk for galakt (gen. galakt-os); pheron bearing for pheront (gen. pheront-os); kêr heart for kêrd, cp. kard-ia_; allo for al[iglide]od (110), cp. Lat. aliud; ephere- (t) was carrying, ephero-n (t) were carrying (464 c, e). c. An original final m preceded by a vowel becomes n, cp. hippon with Lat. equum. So hen one from hem (349 a), Lat. sem-el, hama once.

MOVABLE CONSONANTS §134. Movable N may be added at the end of a word when the next word begins with a vowel. Movable n may be annexed to words ending in -si; to the third person singular in -e; and to esti is. Thus, pasin elegen ekeina he said that to everybody (but pasi legousi tauta), legousin emoi they speak to me (but legousi moi), estin allos there is another (187 b), Athênêsin êsan they were at Athens. a. Except esti, words that add n do not elide their final vowel (73). b. Verbs in -eô never (in Attic) add -n to the 3 sing. of the contracted form: eu epoiei auton he treated him well. But êei went and pluperfects (as êidei knew) may add n. N.--Movable n is called n ephelkustikon (dragging after). §134 D. Hom. has egô (n) I, ammi (n) to us, ummi (n) to you, sphi (n) to them. The suffixes -phi and -the vary with -phin and -then: theophi(n), prosthe(n). Also ke(n) = Attic an, nu (n) now. The Mss. of Hdt. avoid movable n, but it occurs in Ionic inscriptions. Hdt. often has -the for -then (prosthe before, opisthe behind). §135. Movable n is usually written at the end of clauses, and at the end of a verse in poetry. To make a syllable long by position (144) the poets add n before words beginning with a consonant. Prose inscriptions frequently use n before a consonant. §136. Movable S appears in houtôs thus, ex out of, before vowels, houtô, ek before consonants. Thus, houtôs epoiei he acted thus but houtô poiei he acts thus; ex agoras but ek tês agoras out of the market-place. a. euthus means straightway, euthu straight towards. §136 D. Several adverbs often omit s without much regard to the following word: amphi about, amphis (poet.), mechri, achri until (rarely mechris, achris), atremas and atrema quietly, pollakis often (pollaki Hom., Hdt.). §137. ouk not is used before the smooth breathing, ouch (cp. 124) before the rough breathing: ouk oligoi, ouch hêdus. Before all consonants ou is written: ou polloi, ou rhaidios. Standing alone or at the end of its clause ou is written ou (rarely ouk), as pôs gar ou; for how not? Cp. 180 a.

a. A longer form is ouchi (Ion. ouki) used before vowels and consonants. b. mêketi no longer derives its k from the analogy of ouketi no longer.

SYLLABLES AND THEIR QUANTITY §138. There are as many syllables in a Greek word as there are separate vowels or diphthongs: thus, a-lê-thei-a truth. §139. The last syllable is called the ultima; the next to the last syllable is called the penult (paen-ultima almost last); the one before the penult is called the antepenult (antepaen-ultima). [p. 35] §140. In pronouncing Greek words and in writing (at the end of the line) the rules commonly observed are these: a. A single consonant standing between two vowels in one word belongs with the second vowel: a-gô, so-phi-zô. b. Any group of consonants that can begin a word, and a group formed by a stop with m or n, and by mn, belongs with the second vowel: tu-ptô, o-gdoos, a-stron, e-chthos; pragma, e-thnos, li-mnê. c. A group of consonants that cannot begin a word is divided between two syllables: anthos, el-pis, er-gma. Doubled consonants are divided: thalat-ta. d. Compounds divide at the point of union: eis-pherô, pros-pherô; an-agô, eisagô, sunechô. (But the ancients often wrote a-nagô, ei-sagô, pro-selthein, e-xagô, du-sarestos.) e. s, when followed by one or more consonants, is either attached to the preceding vowel (a-ris-tos), or, with the consonant, begins the following syllable (a-ri-stos). (The ancients were not consistent, and there is evidence for the pronunciation a-ris-stos.) f. The ancients divided ek toutou as e-k tou-tou. This practice is now abandoned. §141. A syllable ending in a vowel is said to be open; one ending in a consonant is closed. Thus, in mê-têr mother the first syllable is open, the second closed. §138. There are as many syllables in a Greek word as there are separate vowels or diphthongs: thus, a-lê-thei-a truth. §139. The last syllable is called the ultima; the next to the last syllable is called the penult (paen-ultima almost last); the one before the penult is called the antepenult (antepaen-ultima). [p. 35] §140. In pronouncing Greek words and in writing (at the end of the line) the rules commonly observed are these: a. A single consonant standing between two vowels in one word belongs with the second vowel: a-gô, so-phi-zô.

b. Any group of consonants that can begin a word, and a group formed by a stop with m or n, and by mn, belongs with the second vowel: tu-ptô, o-gdoos, a-stron, e-chthos; pragma, e-thnos, li-mnê. c. A group of consonants that cannot begin a word is divided between two syllables: anthos, el-pis, er-gma. Doubled consonants are divided: thalat-ta. d. Compounds divide at the point of union: eis-pherô, pros-pherô; an-agô, eisagô, sunechô. (But the ancients often wrote a-nagô, ei-sagô, pro-selthein, e-xagô, du-sarestos.) e. s, when followed by one or more consonants, is either attached to the preceding vowel (a-ris-tos), or, with the consonant, begins the following syllable (a-ri-stos). (The ancients were not consistent, and there is evidence for the pronunciation a-ris-stos.) f. The ancients divided ek toutou as e-k tou-tou. This practice is now abandoned. §141. A syllable ending in a vowel is said to be open; one ending in a consonant is closed. Thus, in mê-têr mother the first syllable is open, the second closed.

QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES §142. A syllable is short when it contains a short vowel followed by a vowel or a single consonant: the-os god, e-no-mi-sa I thought. §143. A syllable is long by nature when it contains a long vowel or a diphthong: chô-ra_ country, dou-los slave. §144. A syllable is long by position when its vowel precedes two consonants or a double consonant: hippos horse, ex out of. a. One or both of the two consonants lengthening a final syllable by position may belong to the next word: allo_s poli_tês, allo_ ktêma. b. Length by position does not affect the natural quantity of a vowel. Thus, both le-xô I shall say and lê-xô I shall cease have the first syllable long by position; but the first vowel is short in lexô, long in lêxô. §144 D. W may be one of the two consonants: pros (W) oikon (¯ ¯ ˘). §145. A stop with a liquid after a short vowel need not make the preceding syllable long by position. A syllable containing a short vowel before a stop and a liquid is common (either short or long). When short, such syllables are said to have weak position. Thus, in dakru, patros, hoplon, teknon, ti drai the first syllable is either long or short as the verse requires. In Homer the syllable before a stop with a liquid is usually long; in Attic it is usually short. [p. 36] a. The stop and the liquid making weak position must stand in the same word or in the same part of a compound. Thus, in ek-lu_ô I release the first syllable is always long, but in e-klue he heard it is common.

b. b, g, d before m, or n, and usually before l, make the preceding syllable long by position. Thus, hagnos (¯˘) pure, biblion (ע˘) book. N.--‘Common’ quantity has been explained as due to a difference in syllabic division. Thus, in te_knon, the first syllable is closed (tek-non); while in te^knon the first syllable is open (te-knon). Cp. 141. §146. The quantity of most syllables is usually apparent. Thus, syllables a. with ê, ô, or a diphthong, are long. b. with e, o, before a vowel or a single consonant, are short. c. with e, o, before two consonants, or a double consonant, are long. d. with a, i, u, before two consonants, or a double consonant, are long. N.--But syllables with e, o, or a, i, u before a stop and a liquid may be short (145). Cp. also 147 c. §146 D. In Hom. an initial liquid, nasal, and digamma (3) was probably doubled in pronunciation when it followed a short syllable carrying the rhythmic accent. Here a final short vowel appears in a long syllable: eni megaroisi (˘[macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]˘), cp. 28 D. The lengthening is sometimes due to the former presence of s or W before the liquid or nasal: hote lêxeieW (˘[macrdot]¯[macrdot]˘) (cp. allêktos unceasing for aslêktos), te rhêxein ([macrdot]¯[macrdot]) (cp. arrêktos unbroken for a-Wrêktos). (Cp. 80 a, 80 D., 81 D.) §147. The quantity of syllables containing a, i, u before a vowel or a single consonant must be learned by observation, especially in poetry. Note, however, that a, i, u are always long a. when they have the circumflex accent: pas, hu_min. b. when they arise from contraction (59) or crasis (62): gera_ from geraa, a_rgos idle from a-ergos (but a^rgos bright), ka_gô from kai egô. c. i and u are generally short before x (except as initial sounds in augmented forms, 435) and a, i, u before z. Thus, kêru^x, ekêru^xa, pni^xô, harpa^zô, elpi^zô. d. as, is, and us are long when n or nt has dropped out before s (96, 100). e. The accent often shows the quantity (163, 164, 170). §147 D. a, i, u in Hom. sometimes show a different quantity than in Attic. Thus, Att. ka^los, ti^nô, phtha^nô, lu_ô, hi_êmi, Hom. ka_los, ti_nô, phtha_nô (28), and lu^ô and hi^êmi usually. §148. A vowel standing before another vowel in a Greek word is not necessarily short (as it usually is in classical Latin).

§148 D. 1. In Hom., and sometimes in the lyric parts of the drama, a syllable ending in a long vowel or diphthong is shortened before an initial vowel: axô helôn ([macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]), euchetai einai ([macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]¯), kluthi meu argurotox' ([macrdot]:˘˘[macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]). Here i and u have become semivowels (20, 43); thus, eucheta | yeinai, cp. 67. -ai, -êi, -ôi were shortened like a_, ê, ô. Thus, aspetôi ombrôi ([macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]¯). 2. This shortening does not occur when the rhythmic accent falls upon the final syllable: antithiôi Odusêi ([macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]˘), hôi eni ([macrdot]˘˘). 3. The shortening rarely occurs in the interior of a word. Thus, Hom. hêrôos (¯˘˘), huion (˘˘), in the Attic drama hautêï (¯˘¯), toioutos (˘:¯˘), poiô (˘¯), often written poô in inscriptions (cp. 43).

QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES §142. A syllable is short when it contains a short vowel followed by a vowel or a single consonant: the-os god, e-no-mi-sa I thought. §143. A syllable is long by nature when it contains a long vowel or a diphthong: chô-ra_ country, dou-los slave. §144. A syllable is long by position when its vowel precedes two consonants or a double consonant: hippos horse, ex out of. a. One or both of the two consonants lengthening a final syllable by position may belong to the next word: allo_s poli_tês, allo_ ktêma. b. Length by position does not affect the natural quantity of a vowel. Thus, both le-xô I shall say and lê-xô I shall cease have the first syllable long by position; but the first vowel is short in lexô, long in lêxô. §144 D. W may be one of the two consonants: pros (W) oikon (¯ ¯ ˘). §145. A stop with a liquid after a short vowel need not make the preceding syllable long by position. A syllable containing a short vowel before a stop and a liquid is common (either short or long). When short, such syllables are said to have weak position. Thus, in dakru, patros, hoplon, teknon, ti drai the first syllable is either long or short as the verse requires. In Homer the syllable before a stop with a liquid is usually long; in Attic it is usually short. [p. 36] a. The stop and the liquid making weak position must stand in the same word or in the same part of a compound. Thus, in ek-lu_ô I release the first syllable is always long, but in e-klue he heard it is common. b. b, g, d before m, or n, and usually before l, make the preceding syllable long by position. Thus, hagnos (¯˘) pure, biblion (ע˘) book. N.--‘Common’ quantity has been explained as due to a difference in syllabic division.

Thus, in te_knon, the first syllable is closed (tek-non); while in te^knon the first syllable is open (te-knon). Cp. 141. §146. The quantity of most syllables is usually apparent. Thus, syllables a. with ê, ô, or a diphthong, are long. b. with e, o, before a vowel or a single consonant, are short. c. with e, o, before two consonants, or a double consonant, are long. d. with a, i, u, before two consonants, or a double consonant, are long. N.--But syllables with e, o, or a, i, u before a stop and a liquid may be short (145). Cp. also 147 c. §146 D. In Hom. an initial liquid, nasal, and digamma (3) was probably doubled in pronunciation when it followed a short syllable carrying the rhythmic accent. Here a final short vowel appears in a long syllable: eni megaroisi (˘[macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]˘), cp. 28 D. The lengthening is sometimes due to the former presence of s or W before the liquid or nasal: hote lêxeieW (˘[macrdot]¯[macrdot]˘) (cp. allêktos unceasing for a-slêktos), te rhêxein ([macrdot]¯[macrdot]) (cp. arrêktos unbroken for a-Wrêktos). (Cp. 80 a, 80 D., 81 D.) §147. The quantity of syllables containing a, i, u before a vowel or a single consonant must be learned by observation, especially in poetry. Note, however, that a, i, u are always long a. when they have the circumflex accent: pas, hu_min. b. when they arise from contraction (59) or crasis (62): gera_ from geraa, a_rgos idle from a-ergos (but a^rgos bright), ka_gô from kai egô. c. i and u are generally short before x (except as initial sounds in augmented forms, 435) and a, i, u before z. Thus, kêru^x, ekêru^xa, pni^xô, harpa^zô, elpi^zô. d. as, is, and us are long when n or nt has dropped out before s (96, 100). e. The accent often shows the quantity (163, 164, 170). §147 D. a, i, u in Hom. sometimes show a different quantity than in Attic. Thus, Att. ka^los, ti^nô, phtha^nô, lu_ô, hi_êmi, Hom. ka_los, ti_nô, phtha_nô (28), and lu^ô and hi^êmi usually. §148. A vowel standing before another vowel in a Greek word is not necessarily short (as it usually is in classical Latin). §148 D. 1. In Hom., and sometimes in the lyric parts of the drama, a syllable ending in a long vowel or diphthong is shortened before an initial vowel: axô helôn ([macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]), euchetai einai ([macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]¯), kluthi meu argurotox' ([macrdot]:˘˘[macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]). Here i and u have

become semivowels (20, 43); thus, eucheta | yeinai, cp. 67. -ai, -êi, -ôi were shortened like a_, ê, ô. Thus, aspetôi ombrôi ([macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]¯). 2. This shortening does not occur when the rhythmic accent falls upon the final syllable: antithiôi Odusêi ([macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]˘), hôi eni ([macrdot]˘˘). 3. The shortening rarely occurs in the interior of a word. Thus, Hom. hêrôos (¯˘˘), huion (˘˘), in the Attic drama hautêï (¯˘¯), toioutos (˘:¯˘), poiô (˘¯), often written poô in inscriptions (cp. 43). [p. 37]

ACCENT: GENERAL PRINCIPLES §149. There are three accents in Greek. No Greek accent can stand farther back than the antepenult. 1. Acute (/): over short or long vowels and diphthongs. It may stand on ultima, penult, or antepenult: kalos, daimôn, anthrôpos. 2. Circumflex (=): over vowels long by nature and diphthongs. It may stand on ultima or penult: gê, theou, dôron, touto. 3. Grave (\): over short or long vowels and diphthongs. It stands on the ultima only: ton andra, tên tuchên, hoi theoi tês Ellados. §150. The acute marks syllables pronounced in a raised tone. The grave is a low-pitched tone as contrasted with the acute. The circumflex combines acute and grave. §151. Accented syllables in Ancient Greek had a higher pitch (tonos) than unaccented syllables, and it was the rising and falling of the pitch that made Ancient Greek a musical language. The Greek word for accent is prosôidia_ (Lat. accentus: from ad-cano), i.e. ‘song accompanying words.’ Musical accent (elevation and depression of tone) is to be distinguished from quantity (duration of tone), and from rhythmic accent (stress of voice at fixed intervals when there is a regular sequence of long and short syllables). N.--The accent heard in Modern Greek and English is a stress-accent. Stress is produced by strong and weak expiration, and takes account of accented syllables to the neglect of the quantity of unaccented syllables. Thus, shortly after Christ, anthrôpos was often pronounced like a dactyl, philos like a trochee; and prosôpon, ennea, were even written prosopon, ennêa. §152. The marks of accent are placed over the vowel of the accented syllable. A diphthong has the accent over its second vowel (touto), except in the case of capital ai, êi, ôi (as Aidês, 5), where the accent stands before the first vowel. §153. A breathing is written before the acute and grave (hoi, ê), but under the circumflex (ô, houtos). Accents and breathings are placed before capitals: Omêros, Ôrai. The accent stands over a mark of diaeresis (8): klêïdi.

§154. The grave is written in place of a final acute on a word that is followed immediately by another word in the sentence. Thus, meta tên machên after the battle (for meta tên machên). It is also sometimes placed on tis, ti (334), to distinguish these indefinite pronouns from the interrogatives tis, ti. a. An oxytone (157) changes its acute to the grave when followed by another word, except: (1) when the oxytone is followed by an enclitic (183 a); (2) in tis, ti interrogative, as tis houtos; who's this? (3) when an elided syllable follows [p. 38] the accented syllable: nuchth' holên (124), not nuchth' holên (174 a); (4) when a colon or period follows. (Usage varies before a comma.) §155. The ancients regarded the grave originally as belonging to every syllable not accented with the acute or circumflex; and some Mss. show this in practice, e.g. pankratês. Later it was restricted to its use as a substitute for a final acute. §156. The circumflex is formed from the union of the acute and the grave ( = ^), never from . Thus, pais pais, eu eu. Similarly, since every long vowel may be resolved into two short units (morae), tôn may be regarded as = toon. The circumflex was thus spoken with a rising tone followed by one of lower pitch. mousa, dêmos are thus = mousa, deemos; mousês, dêmou are = mousês, deemou. In didousa (i.e. didousa) compared with didous the accent has receded (159) one mora. a. The whole vowel receives the acute when the second short unit of a vowel long by nature is accented: Di_ Dii. §157. Words are named according to their accent as follows: Oxytone (acute on the ultima): thêr, kalos, lelukôs. Paroxytone (acute on the penult): lu_ô, leipô, lelukotos. Proparoxytone (acute on the antepenult): anthrôpos, paideuomen. Perispomenon (circumflex on the ultima): gê, theou. Properispomenon (circumflex on the penult): praxis, mousa. Barytone (when the ultima is unaccented, 158): mousa, mêtêr, polemos. §158. A word is called barytone (baru-tonos deep-toned, low-toned) when it has no accent on the ultima. All paroxytones, proparoxytones, and properispomena are also barytones. §159. An accent is called recessive when it moves back as far from the end of the word as the quantity of the ultima permits (166). The quantity of the penult is here disregarded (trepômen). Cp. 178. §160. Oxytone (oxus, sharp + tonos) means ‘sharp-toned,’ perispomenon (perispômenos) ‘turned-around’ (circumflectus, 156). Paroxytone and proparoxytone are derived from oxutonos with the prepositions para and pro respectively. Acute corresponds to Lat.

acutus (oxeia, scil. prosôidia_). §161. The invention of the marks of accent is attributed to Aristophanes of Byzantium, librarian at Alexandria about 200 B.C. The use of signs served to fix the correct accentuation, which was becoming uncertain in the third century B.C.; marked the variation of dialect usage; and rendered the acquisition of Greek easier for foreigners. The signs for the accents (and the breathings) were not regularly employed in Mss. till after 600 A.D. §162. The position of the accent has to be learned by observation. But the kind of accent is determined by the following rules. §162 D. 1. Aeolic has recessive (159) accent in all words except prepositions and conjunctions. Thus, sophos, Zeus, i.e. Zeus, autos, lipein (= lipein), lipontos (= lipontos), ammes (= hêmeis). 2. Doric regarded final -oi (169) as long (anthrôpoi), and probably -ai in nouns (chôrai); made paroxytones the 3 pl. act. of the past tenses (epheron, elu_san) and such words as paides, gunaikes, ptôkas; made perispomena the gen. masc. pl. of pronouns (toutôn, allôn) and the gen. fem. pl. of adj. in -os (amphoteran). The substitution, in the accus. pl., of -a^s and -os for -a_s and -ous, caused no change in the accent (pa_sa^s, ampelos). [p. 39] §163. The antepenult, if accented, can have the acute only (anthrôpos, basileia queen, oikophulakos of a house-guard). If the ultima is long, either by nature or by position (144), the antepenult cannot take an accent: hence anthrôpou (176 a), basileia_ kingdom, oikophulax. a. Some nouns in -eôs and -eôn admit the acute on the antepenult. Thus, the genitive of nouns in -is and -us (poleôs, poleôn, asteôs), the forms of the Attic declension, as hi_leôs (289). So the Ionic genitive in -eô (poli_teô); also some compound adjectives in -ôs, as duserôs unhappy in love, hupsikerôs lofty antlered. On hôntinôn see 186. §164. The penult, if accented and long, takes the circumflex when the ultima is short by nature (nêsos, tauta). In all other cases it has the acute (phobos, lelukotos, toutou). a. Apparent exceptions are hôste, outis, hêde (properly hêde). See 186. b. A final syllable containing a vowel short by nature followed by x or ps does not permit the acute to stand on the antepenult (oikophulax); but the circumflex may stand on the penult (kêrux). §165. The ultima, if accented and short, has the acute (potamos); if accented and long, has either the acute (lelukôs), or the circumflex (Periklês). §166. When the ultima is long, the acute cannot stand on the antepenult, nor the circumflex on the penult. Thus, anthrôpou and dôrou are impossible. §167. When the ultima is short, a word, if accented

a. on the ultima, has the acute: sophos. b. on a short penult, has the acute: nomos. c. on a long penult, has the circumflex: dôron. d. on the antepenult, has the acute: anthrôpos. §168. When the ultima is long, a word, if accented a. on the ultima, has the acute or the circumflex: egô, sophôs. b. on the penult, has the acute: leôn, daimôn. §169. Final -ai and -oi are regarded as short: mousai, boulomai, propalai, anthrôpoi. But in the optative -ai and -oi are long (lu_sai, bouleuoi), as in contracted syllables. So also in the locative oikoi at home (but oikoi houses). a. The difference in the quantitative treatment of -ai and -oi depends on an original difference of accentuation that may have vanished in Greek. -ai and [p. 40] -oi, when short, were pronounced with a clipped, or simple, tone; when long, with a drawled, or compound, tone. §170. The quantity of a, i, u (147) may often be learned from the accent. Thus, in thalatta, hêmisus, pêchus, dunamis, mênis, the vowel of the last syllable must be short; in philos the i must be short (otherwise philos). Cp. 163.

ACCENT AS AFFECTED BY CONTRACTION, CRASIS, AND ELISION §171. Contraction.--If either of the syllables to be contracted had an accent, the contracted syllable has an accent. Thus: a. A contracted antepenult has the acute: phileomenos philoumenos. b. A contracted penult has the circumflex when the ultima is short; the acute, when the ultima is long: phileousi philousi, phileontôn philountôn. c. A contracted ultima has the acute when the uncontracted form was oxytone: hestaôs hestôs; otherwise, the circumflex: phileô philô. N. 1.--A contracted syllable has the circumflex only when, in the uncontracted form, an acute was followed by the (unwritten) grave (155, 156). Thus, Perikleês Periklês, ti_maô ti_mô. In all other cases we have the acute: phileontôn philountôn, bebaôs bebôs. N. 2.--Exceptions to 171 are often due to the analogy of other forms (236 a, 264 e, 279 a, 290 c, 309 a). §172. If neither of the syllables to be contracted had an accent, the contracted syllable has no accent: philee philei, geneï genei, periploos periplous. For exceptions, see 236 b.

§173. Crasis.--In crasis, the first word (as less important) loses its accent: ta_gatha for ta agatha, ta_n for ta en, ka_gô for kai egô. a. If the second word is a dissyllabic paroxytone with short ultima, it is uncertain whether, in crasis, the paroxytone remains or changes to properispomenon. In this book tourgon, ta_lla are written for to ergon, ta alla; but many scholars write tourgon, talla. §174. Elision.--In elision, oxytone prepositions and conjunctions lose their accent: par' (for para) emou, all' (for alla) egô. In other oxytones the accent is thrown back to the penult: poll' (for polla) epathon. a. Observe that in poll' epathon the acute is not changed to the grave (154 a, 3). A circumflex does not result from the recession of the accent. Thus, phêm' (not phêm') egô for phêmi egô. tina and pote, after a word which cannot receive their accent (183 d), drop their accent: houtô pot' ên.

ANASTROPHE §175. Anastrophe (anastrophê turning-back) occurs in the case of oxytone prepositions of two syllables, which throw the accent back on the first syllable. [p. 41] a. When the preposition follows its case: toutôn peri (for peri toutôn) about these things. No other preposition than peri follows its case in prose. N. 1.--In poetry anastrophe occurs with the other dissyllabic prepositions (except anti, amphi, dia). In Homer a preposition following its verb and separated from it by tmesis (1650) also admits anastrophe (lousêi apo for apolousêi). N. 2.--When the final vowel of the preposition is elided, the accent is dropped if no mark of punctuation intervenes: chersin huph' hêmeterêisin B 374. b. When a preposition stands for a compound formed of the preposition and esti. Thus, para for paresti it is permitted, eni for enesti it is possible (eni is a poetic form of en). N.--In poetry, para may stand for pareisi or pareimi; and ana arise! up! is used for anastêthi. Hom. has eni eneisi.

CHANGE OF ACCENT IN DECLENSION, INFLECTION, AND COMPOSITION §176. When a short ultima of the nominative is lengthened in an oblique case a. a proparoxytone becomes paroxytone: thalatta thalattês, anthrôpos anthrôpou. b. a properispomenon becomes paroxytone: mousa mousês, dôron dôron. c. an oxytone becomes perispomenon in the genitive and dative of the second declension: theos theou theôi theôn theois. §177. When, for a long ultima, a short ultima is substituted in inflection

a. a dissyllabic paroxytone (with penult long by nature) becomes properispomenon: lu_ô lue. b. a polysyllabic paroxytone (with penult either long or short) becomes proparoxytone: paideuô paideue, plekô plekomen. §178. In composition the accent is usually recessive (159) in the case of substantives and adjectives, regularly in the case of verbs: basis anabasis, theos atheos, lue apolu_e. a. Proper names having the form of a substantive, adjective, or participle, usually change the accent: Elpis (elpis), Glaukos (glaukos), Gelôn (gelôn). b. Special cases will be considered under Declension and Inflection.

PROCLITICS §179. Ten monosyllabic words have no accent and are closely connected with the following word. They are called proclitics (from prokli_nô lean forward). They are: The forms of the article beginning with a vowel (ho, hê, hoi, hai); the prepositions en, eis (es), ex (ek); the conjunction ei if; hôs as, that (also a preposition to); the negative adverb ou (ouk, ouch, 137). [p. 42] §180. A proclitic sometimes takes an accent, thus: a. ou at the end of a sentence: phêis, ê ou; do you say so or not? pôs gar ou; for why not? Also ou no standing alone. b. ex, en, and eis receive an acute in poetry when they follow the word to which they belong and stand at the end of the verse: kakôn ex out of evils X 472 . c. hôs as becomes hôs in poetry when it follows its noun: theos hôs as a god. hôs standing for houtôs is written hôs even in prose (oud' hôs not even thus). d. When the proclitic precedes an enclitic (183 e): en tisi. N.--ho used as a relative (for hos, 1105) is written ho. On ho demonstrative see 1114. §179. Ten monosyllabic words have no accent and are closely connected with the following word. They are called proclitics (from prokli_nô lean forward). They are: The forms of the article beginning with a vowel (ho, hê, hoi, hai); the prepositions en, eis (es), ex (ek); the conjunction ei if; hôs as, that (also a preposition to); the negative adverb ou (ouk, ouch, 137). [p. 42] §180. A proclitic sometimes takes an accent, thus: a. ou at the end of a sentence: phêis, ê ou; do you say so or not? pôs gar ou; for why not? Also ou no standing alone. b. ex, en, and eis receive an acute in poetry when they follow the word to which they

belong and stand at the end of the verse: kakôn ex out of evils X 472 . c. hôs as becomes hôs in poetry when it follows its noun: theos hôs as a god. hôs standing for houtôs is written hôs even in prose (oud' hôs not even thus). d. When the proclitic precedes an enclitic (183 e): en tisi. N.--ho used as a relative (for hos, 1105) is written ho. On ho demonstrative see 1114.

ENCLITICS §181. Enclitics (from enkli_nô lean on, upon) are words attaching themselves closely to the preceding word, after which they are pronounced rapidly. Enclitics usually lose their accent. They are: a. The personal pronouns mou, moi, me; sou, soi, se; hou, hoi, he, and (in poetry) sphisi. b. The indefinite pronoun tis, ti in all cases (including tou, tôi for tinos, tini, but excluding atta tina); the indefinite adverbs pou (or pothi), pêi, poi, pothen, pote, pô, pôs. When used as interrogatives these words are not enclitic (tis, ti, pou (or pothi), pêi, poi, pothen, pote, pô, pôs). c. All dissyllabic forms of the present indicative of eimi am and phêmi say (i.e. all except ei and phêis). d. The particles ge, te, toi, per; the inseparable -de in hode, tososde, etc. N.--Enclitics, when they retain their accent, are called orthotone. See 187. §181 D. Also enclitic are the dialectic and poetical forms meu, seo, seu, toi, te, and tu (accus. = se), heo, heu, hethen, min, nin, sphi, sphin, sphe, sphôe, sphôi_n, spheôn, spheas, spha^s and sphas, sphea; also the particles nu or nun (not nun), Epic ke (ken), thên, rha; and Epic essi, Ion. eis, thou art. §182. The accent of an enclitic, when it is thrown back upon the preceding word, always appears as an acute: thêr te (not thêr te) from thêr + te. §183. The word preceding an enclitic is treated as follows: a. An oxytone keeps its accent, and does not change an acute to a grave (154 a): dos moi, kalon esti. b. A perispomenon keeps its accent: philô se, ti_môn tinôn. c. A proparoxytone or properispomenon receives, as an additional accent, the acute on the ultima: anthrôpos tis, anthrôpoi tines, êkousa tinôn; sôson me, paides tines. d. A paroxytone receives no additional accent: a monosyllabic enclitic loses its accent (chôra_ tis, philos mou), a dissyllabic enclitic retains its accent (chôra_s tinos, philoi tines) except when its final vowel is elided (174 a). [p. 43]

N.--Like paroxytones are treated properispomena ending in x or ps when followed by a dissyllabic enclitic: kêrux esti; and so probably kêrux tis. e. A proclitic (179) takes an acute: en tini, ei tines. §184. Since an enclitic, on losing its accent, forms a part of the preceding word, the writing anthrôpos tis would violate the rule (149) that no word can be accented on a syllable before the antepenult. A paroxytone receives no additional accent in order that two successive syllables may not have the acute (not philos estin). §185. When several enclitics occur in succession, each receives an accent from the following, only the last having no accent: ei pou tis tina idoi echthron if ever any one saw an enemy anywhere T. 4.47 . §186. Sometimes an enclitic unites with a preceding word to form a compound (cp. Lat. -que, -ve), which is accented as if the enclitic were still a separate word. Thus, oute (not oute), hôste, eite, kaitoi, houtinos, hôitini, hôntinôn; usually per (hesper); and the inseparable -de in hode, tousde, oikade; and -the and -chi in eithe (poetic aithe), naichi. oute, hôitini, etc., are not real exceptions to the rules of accent (163, 164). a. hoios te able is sometimes written hoioste. ouk oun is usually written oukoun not therefore , and not therefore? in distinction from oukoun therefore. egô ge and emoi ge may become egôge, emoige. §187. An enclitic retains its accent (is orthotone, cp. 181 N.): a. When it is emphatic, as in contrasts: ê soi ê tôi patri sou either to you or to your father (emou, emoi, eme are emphatic: eipe kai emoi tell me too), and at the beginning of a sentence or clause: phêmi gar I say in fact. b. esti is written esti at the beginning of a sentence; when it expresses existence or possibility; when it follows ouk, mê, ei, hôs, kai, alla (or all'), touto (or tout'); and in estin hoi some, estin hote sometimes. Thus, ei estin houtôs if it is so, touto d esti that which exists. c. In the phrases pote men . . . pote de, tines men . . . tines de. d. After a word suffering elision: polloi d' eisin (for de eisin), taut' esti. e. When a dissyllabic enclitic follows a paroxytone (183 d). N. 1.--When they are used as indirect reflexives in Attic prose (1228), the pronouns of the third person hou and sphisi are orthotone, hoi is generally enclitic, while he is generally orthotone. N. 2.--After oxytone prepositions and heneka enclitic pronouns (except tis) usually keep their accent (epi soi, not epi soi; heneka sou, not heneka sou; heneka tou, not heneka tou). emou, emoi, eme are used after prepositions (except pros me; and in the drama amphi moi).

ENCLITICS §181. Enclitics (from enkli_nô lean on, upon) are words attaching themselves closely to the preceding word, after which they are pronounced rapidly. Enclitics usually lose their accent. They are: a. The personal pronouns mou, moi, me; sou, soi, se; hou, hoi, he, and (in poetry) sphisi. b. The indefinite pronoun tis, ti in all cases (including tou, tôi for tinos, tini, but excluding atta tina); the indefinite adverbs pou (or pothi), pêi, poi, pothen, pote, pô, pôs. When used as interrogatives these words are not enclitic (tis, ti, pou (or pothi), pêi, poi, pothen, pote, pô, pôs). c. All dissyllabic forms of the present indicative of eimi am and phêmi say (i.e. all except ei and phêis). d. The particles ge, te, toi, per; the inseparable -de in hode, tososde, etc. N.--Enclitics, when they retain their accent, are called orthotone. See 187. §181 D. Also enclitic are the dialectic and poetical forms meu, seo, seu, toi, te, and tu (accus. = se), heo, heu, hethen, min, nin, sphi, sphin, sphe, sphôe, sphôi_n, spheôn, spheas, spha^s and sphas, sphea; also the particles nu or nun (not nun), Epic ke (ken), thên, rha; and Epic essi, Ion. eis, thou art. §182. The accent of an enclitic, when it is thrown back upon the preceding word, always appears as an acute: thêr te (not thêr te) from thêr + te. §183. The word preceding an enclitic is treated as follows: a. An oxytone keeps its accent, and does not change an acute to a grave (154 a): dos moi, kalon esti. b. A perispomenon keeps its accent: philô se, ti_môn tinôn. c. A proparoxytone or properispomenon receives, as an additional accent, the acute on the ultima: anthrôpos tis, anthrôpoi tines, êkousa tinôn; sôson me, paides tines. d. A paroxytone receives no additional accent: a monosyllabic enclitic loses its accent (chôra_ tis, philos mou), a dissyllabic enclitic retains its accent (chôra_s tinos, philoi tines) except when its final vowel is elided (174 a). [p. 43] N.--Like paroxytones are treated properispomena ending in x or ps when followed by a dissyllabic enclitic: kêrux esti; and so probably kêrux tis. e. A proclitic (179) takes an acute: en tini, ei tines. §184. Since an enclitic, on losing its accent, forms a part of the preceding word, the writing anthrôpos tis would violate the rule (149) that no word can be accented on a syllable before the antepenult. A paroxytone receives no additional accent in order that two successive syllables may not have the acute (not philos estin).

§185. When several enclitics occur in succession, each receives an accent from the following, only the last having no accent: ei pou tis tina idoi echthron if ever any one saw an enemy anywhere T. 4.47 . §186. Sometimes an enclitic unites with a preceding word to form a compound (cp. Lat. -que, -ve), which is accented as if the enclitic were still a separate word. Thus, oute (not oute), hôste, eite, kaitoi, houtinos, hôitini, hôntinôn; usually per (hesper); and the inseparable -de in hode, tousde, oikade; and -the and -chi in eithe (poetic aithe), naichi. oute, hôitini, etc., are not real exceptions to the rules of accent (163, 164). a. hoios te able is sometimes written hoioste. ouk oun is usually written oukoun not therefore , and not therefore? in distinction from oukoun therefore. egô ge and emoi ge may become egôge, emoige. §187. An enclitic retains its accent (is orthotone, cp. 181 N.): a. When it is emphatic, as in contrasts: ê soi ê tôi patri sou either to you or to your father (emou, emoi, eme are emphatic: eipe kai emoi tell me too), and at the beginning of a sentence or clause: phêmi gar I say in fact. b. esti is written esti at the beginning of a sentence; when it expresses existence or possibility; when it follows ouk, mê, ei, hôs, kai, alla (or all'), touto (or tout'); and in estin hoi some, estin hote sometimes. Thus, ei estin houtôs if it is so, touto d esti that which exists. c. In the phrases pote men . . . pote de, tines men . . . tines de. d. After a word suffering elision: polloi d' eisin (for de eisin), taut' esti. e. When a dissyllabic enclitic follows a paroxytone (183 d). N. 1.--When they are used as indirect reflexives in Attic prose (1228), the pronouns of the third person hou and sphisi are orthotone, hoi is generally enclitic, while he is generally orthotone. N. 2.--After oxytone prepositions and heneka enclitic pronouns (except tis) usually keep their accent (epi soi, not epi soi; heneka sou, not heneka sou; heneka tou, not heneka tou). emou, emoi, eme are used after prepositions (except pros me; and in the drama amphi moi).

MARKS OF PUNCTUATION §188. Greek has four marks of punctuation. The comma and period have the same forms as in English. For the colon and semicolon Greek has only one sign, a point above the line (.): hoi de hêdeôs epeithonto: episteuon gar autôi and they gladly obeyed; for they trusted him X. A. 1.2.2 . The mark of interrogation (;) is the same as our semicolon: pôs gar ou; for why not?