Gestational Diabetes.ppt12
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Gestational diabetes
Outlines
Objectives. Introduction. Diabetes mellitus. Definition Description Types of diabetes mellitus Prognosis prevention
Outlines
Gestational diabetes. Definition of Gestational diabetes. Etiology. Symptoms. Pathophysiology. Diagnosis. Risk factors. Effectes on the mother and the fetus.
Outlines
Treatment for gestational diabetes. Nursing care plan for woman with gestational diabetes. Summary.
Objectives
General objectives: At the end of this session each participant should be able to upgrade a comprehensive knowledge and develop skills about Gestational Diabetes.
Specific objectives
At the end of this session each participant should be able to: Define Diabetes Mellitus. Identify types of Diabetes Mellitus. Define Gestational Diabetes. Identify Etiology of Gestational Diabetes. Describe symptoms of Gestational Diabetes. Mention risk factors of Gestational Diabetes.
Specific Objectives
Identify the effects on the mother and the fetus. Determine the treatment of Gestational Diabetes. Apply nursing management.
Introduction
Abnormal maternal glucose regulation occurs in 3-10% of pregnancies. Studies suggest that the prevalence of diabetes mellitus (DM) among women of childbearing age is increasing . This increase is believed to be attributable to more sedentary lifestyles, changes in diet, continued immigration from high-risk populations, and the virtual epidemic of childhood and adolescent obesity that is presently evolving in Egypt.
Introduction
Gestational diabetes mellitus accounts for 90% of cases of diabetes mellitus in pregnancy. Type II diabetes mellitus accounts for 8% of cases of diabetes mellitus in pregnancy, and given its increasing incidence, preexisting diabetes mellitus now affects 1% of pregnancies.
DIABETES MELLITUS
Definition: Diabetes mellitus is a condition in which the body's cells are no longer able to utilize blood sugar. Blood sugar is the fuel that cells use to make energy. Symptoms of diabetes mellitus include excessive thirst and hunger, frequent urination, and tiredness.
DESCRIPTION
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic health disorder. Chronic means that the condition lasts for many years. Diabetes can cause serious health problems. These problems include kidney failure, heart disease, stroke (see stroke entry), and blindness.
Types of Diabetes Mellitus
Type 1 (insulin dependent)
Type2 (non insulin dependent)
PROGNOSIS
In most patients, diabetes can be controlled by diet, exercise, and insulin injections. If the condition is not treated, however, some serious complications may result. For example, uncontrolled diabetes is the leading cause of blindness, kidney disease, and amputations of arms and legs. It also doubles a person's risk for heart disease and increases the risk of stroke. Eye problems also occur more commonly among diabetics than in the general population.
Some other long-term effects of diabetes mellitus include the following: Loss of sensitivity in certain nerves,
especially in the legs and feet Foot ulcers Delayed healing of wounds Heart and kidney disease
PREVENTION
There is currently no way to prevent Type I diabetes. The risk for Type II diabetes can be reduced, however, by maintaining an ideal weight and exercising regularly.
Definition
Gestational diabetes is a type of diabetes that occurs only during pregnancy. Like other forms of diabetes, gestational diabetes affects the way the body uses sugar (glucose). Gestational diabetes is short-lived. Blood sugar levels typically return to normal soon after delivery.
Gestational diabetes - when a mother who does not have diabetes develops a resistance to insulin because of the hormones of pregnancy. Women with gestational diabetes may be non-insulin dependent or insulin dependent. Pre-existing diabetes - women who already have diabetes and become pregnant.
Etiology:
Although the cause of gestational diabetes is not known, there are some theories as to why the condition occurs. The placenta supplies a growing fetus with nutrients and water, as well as produces a variety of hormones to maintain the pregnancy. Some of these hormones (estrogen, cortisol, and human placental lactogen) can have a blocking effect on insulin, which usually begins about 20 to 24 weeks into the pregnancy.
As the placenta grows, more of these hormones are produced, and insulin resistance becomes greater. Normally, the pancreas is able to make additional insulin to overcome insulin resistance, but when the production of insulin is not enough to overcome the effect of the placental hormones, gestational diabetes results.
Symptoms
Rarely, gestational diabetes may cause excessive thirst or increased urination. For most women, however, gestational diabetes doesn't cause noticeable signs or symptoms.
Diagnoses:
High risk women should be screened for gestational diabetes as early as possible during their pregnancies. All other women will be screened between the 24th and 28th week of pregnancy.
To screen for gestational diabetes, you will take a test called the oral glucose tolerance test. This test involves quickly drinking a sweetened liquid, which contains 50g of glucose. The body absorbs this glucose rapidly, causing blood glucose levels to rise within 30-60 minutes. A blood sample will be taken from a vein in your arm 1 hour after drinking the solution. The blood test measures how the glucose solution was metabolized (processed by the body).
A blood glucose greater than or equal to 140mg/dl is recognized as abnormal. A formal test will then be done after fasting for several hours. In women at high risk of developing gestational diabetes, a normal screening test result is followed up with another screening test at 24-48 weeks for confirmation of the diagnosis.
Risk factors
Age. Women older than age 25 are more likely to develop gestational diabetes. Family or personal history. Weight. You're more likely to develop gestational diabetes if you're overweight before pregnancy. Race. For reasons that aren't clear, women who are black, Hispanic, American Indian or Asian are more likely to develop gestational diabetes than are other women.
Are not physically active Have high blood pressure Have high cholesterol Have polycystic ovary syndrome Have a history of cardiovascular disease
Effectes
on the mother and the fetus:
Effectes on the mother
Polyhydramnios due to fetal diureses caused by hyperglycemia. Gestatonal hypertension of unknown etiology. Ketoacidosis due to uncontrolled hyperglycemia. Preterm labour secodary to premature membrane rupture. Stillbirth in pregnancies complicated by ketoacidosis and poor glucose controle.
Hypoglycemia as glucose is diverted to the fetus (occuring in the first trimester). Urinary tract infections resulting from excess glucose in the urine (glucosuria).which promotes bacterial growth. Chronic monilial vaginitis due to glucosuria,which promotes growth of yeast. Difficult labour, cesarean birth, postpartum hemorrhage secondary to an overdistended uterus to accromodate a macrosomic infant. Abortion Increased incidence of pre-eclampsia (30%).
Effectes on the Cord prolapse secondary to polyhydramnios and Fetus/Neonate: abnormal fetal presentation.
Congenital anomaly due to hyperglycemia in the first trimester(cardiac problems,neural tube defects ,skeletal deformities, and genitourinary problems). Macrosomia resulting from hyperinsulinemia stimulated by fetal hyperglycemia. Birth trauma due to increased size of fetus ,which complicates the birthing process (shoulder dystocia). Preterm birth secondary to hydramnios and an aging placenta.
Fetal asphyxia secondary to fetal fetal hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia. Intrauterine growth restriction(IUGR) secondary to maternal vascular impairment and decreased placental perfusion ,which restrictes growth. Perinatal death due to poor placental perfusion and hypoxia. Respiratory distress syndrome(RDS) resulting from poor surfactant production secondary to hyperinsulinemia inhibting the production of phospholibids ,which make up surfactant.
Hyperbilirubinemia due to excessive RBC breakedown from hypoxia and an immature liver unable to breakedown bilirubin. Neonatal hypoglycemia. Subsequant childhood obesity and carbohydrate intolerance. Rarely, untreated gestational diabetes results in a baby's death either before or shortly after birth.
Treatment for gestational diabetes: Specific treatment gestational diabetes will be determined by the physician based on: The age, overall health, and medical history extent of the disease The mother tolerance for specific medications, procedures, or therapies expectations for the course of the disease
Treatment for gestational diabetes focuses on keeping blood glucose levels in the normal range. Treatment may include: special diet exercise daily blood glucose monitoring insulin injections
Nursing care plan for woman with gestational diabetes:
Nursing assessment:
Nursing assessment begins at the first prenatal visit.A through history and physical examination in conjunction with specific laboratory and diagnostic testing aids in developing an individualized plan of care for the woman with diabetes.
Health history and physical examination:
For the woman with pregestational diabetes ,obtain a through hitory of the preexisting diabetic condition . Ask about her duration of disease ,management of glucose levels(insuline injections, insulin pump, or oral hypoglycemic agents), dietary adjustments, presence of vascular complications and current vascular status ,current isulin regimen, and technique used for glucose testing .
Review any information that she may have received as part of her preconception counseling and measures that were implemented during this time. Be knowledgable about the woman nutritional requirements and assess the adequacy and pattern of her dietary intake.
Laboratory and diagnostic testing:
The results of laboratory and diagnostic tests provide valuable information about maternal and fetal well-being . Woman with pregestational diabetes and those discovered to have gestational diabetes requre ongoing maternal and fetal surveillance to promote the best outcome.
Screening
ACOG andADA currently recommended a risk analysis of all pregnant women at their first prenatal visit and additional screening of all high risk pregnant women again at 24 to28 weekes or earlier if risk factors are present.
Surveillance
Maternal surveilance may include the following:
Urine check for protein.
Urine check for ketones Kidny function evaluation every trimester. Eye examination in the first trimester to evaluate the retina for vascular changes.
Fetal surveilance may include ultrasound to provide information about fetal growth ,activity ,and amniotic fluid volume and to validate gestational age .
Nursing management
The ideal outcome of every pregnancy is a healthy newborn and mother .Nurses can be pivotal in realizing this positive outcome for women with pregestational or gestational diabetes by implementing measures to minimize riskes and complications .
Since the woman with diabetes is considered to be at high risk ,antepartal visites occure more frequantly (every 2weekes up to 28 weekes and then twice a week untel birth), providing a nurse with numerous opportunities for ongoing assessment ,education, and counseling.
Promoting Optimal Glucose Control At each visit ,review the mother blood glucose
levels, including any laboratory testes and selfmonitoring results. Reinforce with the woman the need to perform blood glucose monitoring (usually for times a day, before meales and at bed time) and to keep a recored of the results. Also assess the woman techniques for monitoring blood glucose levels and for administering insuline if ordered ,and offer support and guidance if the woman is receiving insulin.
Providing client teaching:
Assess cliente knowledge of diabetes and pregnancy to establish a baseline from which to develope an individualized teaching plan. Review the underlying problems associated with diabetes and how pregnancy affects glucose controle to provide client with a firm knowledge base for decision making. Review signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia and prevention and management measures to ensure client can deal with them.
Provide written material describing diabetes and care needed for controlto provide opportunity for client reviw and promote retention of learning. Observe client administering isulin and self-glucose testing for techniqueand offer suggestions for improvement if needed to ensure adequate self-care ability. Teach home treatment for symptomatic hypoglycemia to minimize risk to client and fetus. Outline acute and chronic diabetes complications for reinforce the importance of glucose control. Discuss use of contraceptives until blood glucose levels can be optimized before conception occures to promote best poosible health status before conception.
Evidence-Based Practice Selecting Methods of InsulinAdministration For Pregnant Women with diabetes
Study
A woman who has diabetes and becomes pregnant at risk for various problems. Both for herself and her fetus. The goal during pregnancy is to maintain optimal glucose control. For these women, insulin is the mainstay of treatment .Unfortunately blood glucose levels are not static requirements chnge throughout pregnancy.
Insulin typicallyis administered subcutaneously, commonly in multiple doses throughout the day. However,it also may be administered via a continuous subcutaneous infusion. The question arises as to which method of insulin administration affardes the best control of blood glucose levels. The belief is that the continuous infusions would provide better blood glucose control and thus reduce the risks of problems for the mother and fetus.
A study was conducted comparing the effects of contiuous subcutaneous insulin infusions with multiple daily doses of insulin therapy. The study involved a search of randomized controlled trials comparing these two methods of administration and their effect on neonatal birthweight.prenatal mortality ,fetal anomalies ,and maternal hypo-and hyperglycemia .Two studies consisting of 60 women were reviewed and meta-analysis was performed.
Findings
Women receiving continuous insulin infusion experienced an increase in birthweight of thier infantes compared to mothers receiving multiple daily doses of insulin. However the researchers did not identify this difference as clinically significant. The researchers found no significant differences in perinatal mortality ,fetal anomalies ,or maternal hypo-and hyperglycemia between the two groups.
The researchers attributed this to the small number of trials reviewed and the limited sample size of participants in the study . They concluded that there was insufficint evidence to support one method being better than the other. The researchers recommended additional research using a more vigorous approach and larger sample of women.
Nursing implications
This study ,although inconclusive, does underscore the need for glucose control in women with pregestational diabetes ,Nurses need to be aware of these findinges so that they can integrate knowledge of adequate blood glucose control when teaching pregnant women with diabetes about its potential effects,regardlessof the method for insulin administration.
Nurses also need to be cognizant of the various methods for insulin administration so that they can incorporate the information from this study to provide individualized care to the pregnant woman with diabetes, thereby promoting the best possible outcomes for the mother and her fetus.
Outlines
Objectives. Introduction. Diabetes mellitus. Definition Description Types of diabetes mellitus Prognosis prevention
Outlines
Gestational diabetes. Definition of Gestational diabetes. Etiology. Symptoms. Pathophysiology. Diagnosis. Risk factors. Effectes on the mother and the fetus.
Outlines
Treatment for gestational diabetes. Nursing care plan for woman with gestational diabetes. Summary.
Objectives
General objectives: At the end of this session each participant should be able to upgrade a comprehensive knowledge and develop skills about Gestational Diabetes.
Specific objectives
At the end of this session each participant should be able to: Define Diabetes Mellitus. Identify types of Diabetes Mellitus. Define Gestational Diabetes. Identify Etiology of Gestational Diabetes. Describe symptoms of Gestational Diabetes. Mention risk factors of Gestational Diabetes.
Specific Objectives
Identify the effects on the mother and the fetus. Determine the treatment of Gestational Diabetes. Apply nursing management.
Introduction
Abnormal maternal glucose regulation occurs in 3-10% of pregnancies. Studies suggest that the prevalence of diabetes mellitus (DM) among women of childbearing age is increasing . This increase is believed to be attributable to more sedentary lifestyles, changes in diet, continued immigration from high-risk populations, and the virtual epidemic of childhood and adolescent obesity that is presently evolving in Egypt.
Introduction
Gestational diabetes mellitus accounts for 90% of cases of diabetes mellitus in pregnancy. Type II diabetes mellitus accounts for 8% of cases of diabetes mellitus in pregnancy, and given its increasing incidence, preexisting diabetes mellitus now affects 1% of pregnancies.
DIABETES MELLITUS
Definition: Diabetes mellitus is a condition in which the body's cells are no longer able to utilize blood sugar. Blood sugar is the fuel that cells use to make energy. Symptoms of diabetes mellitus include excessive thirst and hunger, frequent urination, and tiredness.
DESCRIPTION
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic health disorder. Chronic means that the condition lasts for many years. Diabetes can cause serious health problems. These problems include kidney failure, heart disease, stroke (see stroke entry), and blindness.
Types of Diabetes Mellitus
Type 1 (insulin dependent)
Type2 (non insulin dependent)
PROGNOSIS
In most patients, diabetes can be controlled by diet, exercise, and insulin injections. If the condition is not treated, however, some serious complications may result. For example, uncontrolled diabetes is the leading cause of blindness, kidney disease, and amputations of arms and legs. It also doubles a person's risk for heart disease and increases the risk of stroke. Eye problems also occur more commonly among diabetics than in the general population.
Some other long-term effects of diabetes mellitus include the following: Loss of sensitivity in certain nerves,
especially in the legs and feet Foot ulcers Delayed healing of wounds Heart and kidney disease
PREVENTION
There is currently no way to prevent Type I diabetes. The risk for Type II diabetes can be reduced, however, by maintaining an ideal weight and exercising regularly.
Definition
Gestational diabetes is a type of diabetes that occurs only during pregnancy. Like other forms of diabetes, gestational diabetes affects the way the body uses sugar (glucose). Gestational diabetes is short-lived. Blood sugar levels typically return to normal soon after delivery.
Gestational diabetes - when a mother who does not have diabetes develops a resistance to insulin because of the hormones of pregnancy. Women with gestational diabetes may be non-insulin dependent or insulin dependent. Pre-existing diabetes - women who already have diabetes and become pregnant.
Etiology:
Although the cause of gestational diabetes is not known, there are some theories as to why the condition occurs. The placenta supplies a growing fetus with nutrients and water, as well as produces a variety of hormones to maintain the pregnancy. Some of these hormones (estrogen, cortisol, and human placental lactogen) can have a blocking effect on insulin, which usually begins about 20 to 24 weeks into the pregnancy.
As the placenta grows, more of these hormones are produced, and insulin resistance becomes greater. Normally, the pancreas is able to make additional insulin to overcome insulin resistance, but when the production of insulin is not enough to overcome the effect of the placental hormones, gestational diabetes results.
Symptoms
Rarely, gestational diabetes may cause excessive thirst or increased urination. For most women, however, gestational diabetes doesn't cause noticeable signs or symptoms.
Diagnoses:
High risk women should be screened for gestational diabetes as early as possible during their pregnancies. All other women will be screened between the 24th and 28th week of pregnancy.
To screen for gestational diabetes, you will take a test called the oral glucose tolerance test. This test involves quickly drinking a sweetened liquid, which contains 50g of glucose. The body absorbs this glucose rapidly, causing blood glucose levels to rise within 30-60 minutes. A blood sample will be taken from a vein in your arm 1 hour after drinking the solution. The blood test measures how the glucose solution was metabolized (processed by the body).
A blood glucose greater than or equal to 140mg/dl is recognized as abnormal. A formal test will then be done after fasting for several hours. In women at high risk of developing gestational diabetes, a normal screening test result is followed up with another screening test at 24-48 weeks for confirmation of the diagnosis.
Risk factors
Age. Women older than age 25 are more likely to develop gestational diabetes. Family or personal history. Weight. You're more likely to develop gestational diabetes if you're overweight before pregnancy. Race. For reasons that aren't clear, women who are black, Hispanic, American Indian or Asian are more likely to develop gestational diabetes than are other women.
Are not physically active Have high blood pressure Have high cholesterol Have polycystic ovary syndrome Have a history of cardiovascular disease
Effectes
on the mother and the fetus:
Effectes on the mother
Polyhydramnios due to fetal diureses caused by hyperglycemia. Gestatonal hypertension of unknown etiology. Ketoacidosis due to uncontrolled hyperglycemia. Preterm labour secodary to premature membrane rupture. Stillbirth in pregnancies complicated by ketoacidosis and poor glucose controle.
Hypoglycemia as glucose is diverted to the fetus (occuring in the first trimester). Urinary tract infections resulting from excess glucose in the urine (glucosuria).which promotes bacterial growth. Chronic monilial vaginitis due to glucosuria,which promotes growth of yeast. Difficult labour, cesarean birth, postpartum hemorrhage secondary to an overdistended uterus to accromodate a macrosomic infant. Abortion Increased incidence of pre-eclampsia (30%).
Effectes on the Cord prolapse secondary to polyhydramnios and Fetus/Neonate: abnormal fetal presentation.
Congenital anomaly due to hyperglycemia in the first trimester(cardiac problems,neural tube defects ,skeletal deformities, and genitourinary problems). Macrosomia resulting from hyperinsulinemia stimulated by fetal hyperglycemia. Birth trauma due to increased size of fetus ,which complicates the birthing process (shoulder dystocia). Preterm birth secondary to hydramnios and an aging placenta.
Fetal asphyxia secondary to fetal fetal hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia. Intrauterine growth restriction(IUGR) secondary to maternal vascular impairment and decreased placental perfusion ,which restrictes growth. Perinatal death due to poor placental perfusion and hypoxia. Respiratory distress syndrome(RDS) resulting from poor surfactant production secondary to hyperinsulinemia inhibting the production of phospholibids ,which make up surfactant.
Hyperbilirubinemia due to excessive RBC breakedown from hypoxia and an immature liver unable to breakedown bilirubin. Neonatal hypoglycemia. Subsequant childhood obesity and carbohydrate intolerance. Rarely, untreated gestational diabetes results in a baby's death either before or shortly after birth.
Treatment for gestational diabetes: Specific treatment gestational diabetes will be determined by the physician based on: The age, overall health, and medical history extent of the disease The mother tolerance for specific medications, procedures, or therapies expectations for the course of the disease
Treatment for gestational diabetes focuses on keeping blood glucose levels in the normal range. Treatment may include: special diet exercise daily blood glucose monitoring insulin injections
Nursing care plan for woman with gestational diabetes:
Nursing assessment:
Nursing assessment begins at the first prenatal visit.A through history and physical examination in conjunction with specific laboratory and diagnostic testing aids in developing an individualized plan of care for the woman with diabetes.
Health history and physical examination:
For the woman with pregestational diabetes ,obtain a through hitory of the preexisting diabetic condition . Ask about her duration of disease ,management of glucose levels(insuline injections, insulin pump, or oral hypoglycemic agents), dietary adjustments, presence of vascular complications and current vascular status ,current isulin regimen, and technique used for glucose testing .
Review any information that she may have received as part of her preconception counseling and measures that were implemented during this time. Be knowledgable about the woman nutritional requirements and assess the adequacy and pattern of her dietary intake.
Laboratory and diagnostic testing:
The results of laboratory and diagnostic tests provide valuable information about maternal and fetal well-being . Woman with pregestational diabetes and those discovered to have gestational diabetes requre ongoing maternal and fetal surveillance to promote the best outcome.
Screening
ACOG andADA currently recommended a risk analysis of all pregnant women at their first prenatal visit and additional screening of all high risk pregnant women again at 24 to28 weekes or earlier if risk factors are present.
Surveillance
Maternal surveilance may include the following:
Urine check for protein.
Urine check for ketones Kidny function evaluation every trimester. Eye examination in the first trimester to evaluate the retina for vascular changes.
Fetal surveilance may include ultrasound to provide information about fetal growth ,activity ,and amniotic fluid volume and to validate gestational age .
Nursing management
The ideal outcome of every pregnancy is a healthy newborn and mother .Nurses can be pivotal in realizing this positive outcome for women with pregestational or gestational diabetes by implementing measures to minimize riskes and complications .
Since the woman with diabetes is considered to be at high risk ,antepartal visites occure more frequantly (every 2weekes up to 28 weekes and then twice a week untel birth), providing a nurse with numerous opportunities for ongoing assessment ,education, and counseling.
Promoting Optimal Glucose Control At each visit ,review the mother blood glucose
levels, including any laboratory testes and selfmonitoring results. Reinforce with the woman the need to perform blood glucose monitoring (usually for times a day, before meales and at bed time) and to keep a recored of the results. Also assess the woman techniques for monitoring blood glucose levels and for administering insuline if ordered ,and offer support and guidance if the woman is receiving insulin.
Providing client teaching:
Assess cliente knowledge of diabetes and pregnancy to establish a baseline from which to develope an individualized teaching plan. Review the underlying problems associated with diabetes and how pregnancy affects glucose controle to provide client with a firm knowledge base for decision making. Review signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia and prevention and management measures to ensure client can deal with them.
Provide written material describing diabetes and care needed for controlto provide opportunity for client reviw and promote retention of learning. Observe client administering isulin and self-glucose testing for techniqueand offer suggestions for improvement if needed to ensure adequate self-care ability. Teach home treatment for symptomatic hypoglycemia to minimize risk to client and fetus. Outline acute and chronic diabetes complications for reinforce the importance of glucose control. Discuss use of contraceptives until blood glucose levels can be optimized before conception occures to promote best poosible health status before conception.
Evidence-Based Practice Selecting Methods of InsulinAdministration For Pregnant Women with diabetes
Study
A woman who has diabetes and becomes pregnant at risk for various problems. Both for herself and her fetus. The goal during pregnancy is to maintain optimal glucose control. For these women, insulin is the mainstay of treatment .Unfortunately blood glucose levels are not static requirements chnge throughout pregnancy.
Insulin typicallyis administered subcutaneously, commonly in multiple doses throughout the day. However,it also may be administered via a continuous subcutaneous infusion. The question arises as to which method of insulin administration affardes the best control of blood glucose levels. The belief is that the continuous infusions would provide better blood glucose control and thus reduce the risks of problems for the mother and fetus.
A study was conducted comparing the effects of contiuous subcutaneous insulin infusions with multiple daily doses of insulin therapy. The study involved a search of randomized controlled trials comparing these two methods of administration and their effect on neonatal birthweight.prenatal mortality ,fetal anomalies ,and maternal hypo-and hyperglycemia .Two studies consisting of 60 women were reviewed and meta-analysis was performed.
Findings
Women receiving continuous insulin infusion experienced an increase in birthweight of thier infantes compared to mothers receiving multiple daily doses of insulin. However the researchers did not identify this difference as clinically significant. The researchers found no significant differences in perinatal mortality ,fetal anomalies ,or maternal hypo-and hyperglycemia between the two groups.
The researchers attributed this to the small number of trials reviewed and the limited sample size of participants in the study . They concluded that there was insufficint evidence to support one method being better than the other. The researchers recommended additional research using a more vigorous approach and larger sample of women.
Nursing implications
This study ,although inconclusive, does underscore the need for glucose control in women with pregestational diabetes ,Nurses need to be aware of these findinges so that they can integrate knowledge of adequate blood glucose control when teaching pregnant women with diabetes about its potential effects,regardlessof the method for insulin administration.
Nurses also need to be cognizant of the various methods for insulin administration so that they can incorporate the information from this study to provide individualized care to the pregnant woman with diabetes, thereby promoting the best possible outcomes for the mother and her fetus.
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