Geography

Geography of Bhutan

Geography of Bhutan From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Topographic map of Bhutan The Kingdom of Bhutan is a Himalayan nation, located towards the eastern extreme of the aforementioned mountain range. It is fairly evenly sandwiched between the sovereign territory of two nations: first, the People's Republic of China on the north and northwest. There are approximately 470 kilometers of border with that nation's Tibet Autonomous Region. The second nation is the Republic of India on the south, southwest, and east; there are approximately 605 kilometers with the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal, and Sikkim, in clockwise order from the kingdom. Bhutan's total borders amount to 1,075 kilometers. The Kingdom of Nepal to the west, the People's Republic of Bangladesh to the south, and the Union of Myanmar to the southeast are other close neighbours; the former two are separated by only very small stretches of Indian territory. Bhutan is a very compact nation, but with just a small bit more length than width. The nation's territory totals an approximate 46,500 square kilometres. Because of its inland, landlocked status, it controls no territorial waters. It is known as the "Switzerland of Asia" since its shape, area, and mountainous location are comparable to that of Switzerland.[1] Bhutan's territory used to extend south into present-day Assam, including the protectorate of Cooch Behar, but, starting from 1772, the British East India Company began to push back the borders through a number of wars and treaties, severely reducing Bhutan's size until the Treaty of Sinchulu of 1865, when some border land was ceded back.

Contents [hide] • • • • • •

1 Political geography 2 Natural geography 3 Strategic location 4 Climate 5 River systems 6 Glaciers

•

7 References

[edit] Political geography Bhutan's towns and villages Bhutan is divided into 20 dzongkhag, and further into 201 gewog.

[edit] Natural geography

Gangkhar Puensum from Ura La, Bhutan The Himalayas dominate the north of the country, where mountain peaks can easily reach seven thousand meters; the highest point is claimed to be the Kula Kangri, at 7 553 m, but detailed topographic studies claim Kula Kangri is wholly in Tibet and modern Chinese measurements claim that Gangkhar Puensum, which has the distinction of being the highest unclimbed mountain in the world, is higher at 7 570 m (vs 7 538 m for Kula Kangri). Weather is extreme in the mountains: the high peaks have perpetual snow, and the lesser mountains and hewn gorges have high winds all year round, making them barren brown wind tunnels in summer, and frozen wastelands in winter. The blizzards generated in the north each winter often drift southward into the central highlands. The highlands are the most populous part of the nation; the capital of Thimphu lies in the western region. The region is characterized by its many rivers (flowing into India's Brahmaputra), its isolated valleys that house most of the population, and the expansive forests that cover seventy percent of the nation. Winters are cold, summer are hot; the rainy season is accompanied with frequented landslides. The valleys of Bhutan are linked by a series of passes ("La" in Dzongkha). Between the Haa valley and Paro Valley is the Chele La (3780m). The Chele La is the highest pass crossed by a Bhutanese highway. The Lateral Road from Thimphu to Punakha crosses the

Dochu La (3116m), which features 108 chortens built to commemorate the expulsion of Assamese guerrillas. East of Wangdue Phodrang is the Pele La (3390m). Continuing to the east along the main highway, other major passes include the Yotang La, Shertang La, Wangthang La, Thrumsing La and Kori La (2298m). The extreme southern strip of the nation consists mostly of tropical plains, more typical of India. It is largely agricultural land, producing mostly rice. Only two percent of Bhutan is arable land, with most of it focused here. Centuries of isolationism, a small population, and topographical extremes have led to Bhutan maintaining one of the most intact ecosystems in the world. The country ranks amongst the top ten countries in the world in terms of species density (species richness per unit area). Over fifty-five hundred varieties of plantlife exist, including around threehundred medicinal ones. More than 770 species of avifauna and more than 165 species of mammals are known to exist, including many rare and endangered species like the red panda, snow leopard, and golden langur.

[edit] Strategic location Bhutan, situated between India and Chinese-occupied Tibet, is a potential Sino-Indian battleground; India currently has more political influence in the nation. This stems from two things: the fact that after the British granted sovereignty to their South Asian possessions, Bhutan, a protectorate, was briefly put under the administration of India, along with Sikkim. Independence occurred quickly, but India maintained a special treaty relationship with the now-sovereign monarchy. The Indian Army patrols Bhutan's frontiers and has played a major role in the development of the country's road infrastructure. Additionally, the Government of India continues to provide approximately 60% of Bhutan's government finances. The second reason comes from the aggression against Tibet by China from 1949 to 1959; the Tibetans have strong cultural, historical, and religious connections to Bhutan. Bhutan controls several strategic mountain passes through the Himalayas, allowing travel between Tibet and Assam. These passes are also the only way into the kingdom, and, coupled with its centuries-old policies of isolationism, it has been called the "Mountain Fortress of the Gods." The heartland of Bhutan has never been successfully invaded; the British, while establishing a protectorate over the nation, did so with threats to the lowlying territories below the highlands.

[edit] Climate Bhutan's climate is as varied as its altitudes and, like most of Asia, is affected by monsoons. Western Bhutan is particularly affected by monsoons that bring between 60 and 90 percent of the region's rainfall. The climate is humid and subtropical in the southern plains and foothills, temperate in the inner Himalayan valleys of the southern

and central regions, and cold in the north, with year-round snow on the main Himalayan summits. Temperatures vary according to elevation. Temperatures in Thimphu, located at 2,200 meters above sea level in west-central Bhutan, range from approximately 15°C to 26°C during the monsoon season of June through September but drop to between about -4°C and 16°C in January. Most of the central portion of the country experiences a cool, temperate climate year-round. In the south, a hot, humid climate helps maintain a fairly even temperature range of between 15°C and 30°C year-round, although temperatures sometimes reach 40°C in the valleys during the summer. Annual precipitation ranges widely in various parts of the country. In the severe climate of the north, there is only about forty millimeters of annual precipitation--primarily snow. In the temperate central regions, a yearly average of around 1,000 millimeters is more common, and 7,800 millimeters per year has been registered at some locations in the humid, subtropical south, ensuring the thick tropical forest, or savanna. Thimphu experiences dry winter months (December through February) and almost no precipitation until March, when rainfall averages 20 millimeters a month and increases steadily thereafter to a high of 220 millimeters in August for a total annual rainfall of nearly 650 millimeters. Bhutan's generally dry spring starts in early March and lasts until mid-April. Summer weather commences in mid-April with occasional showers and continues through the premonsoon rains of late June. The summer monsoon lasts from late June through late September with heavy rains from the southwest. The monsoon weather, blocked from its northward progress by the Himalayas, brings heavy rains, high humidity, flash floods and landslides, and numerous misty, overcast days. Autumn, from late September or early October to late November, follows the rainy season. It is characterized by bright, sunny days and some early snowfalls at higher elevations. From late November until March, winter sets in, with frost throughout much of the country and snowfall common above elevations of 3,000 meters. The winter northeast monsoon brings gale-force winds down through high mountain passes, giving Bhutan its name-- Drukyul, which in the Dzongkha language mean Land of the Thunder Dragon.

[edit] River systems

This image shows the termini of the glaciers in the Bhutan-Himalaya. Glacial lakes have been rapidly forming on the surface of the debris-covered glaciers in this region during the last few decades. Glacial lakes have been rapidly forming on the surface of the debris-covered glaciers in this region during the last few decades. Bhutan has four major river systems: the Drangme Chhu; the Puna Tsang Chhu, also called the Sankosh; the Wang Chhu; and the Amo Chhu. Each flows swiftly out of the Himalayas, southerly through the Dooars to join the Brahmaputra River in India, and thence through Bangladesh where the Brahmaputra (or Jamuna in Bangladesh) joins the mighty Ganges (or Padma in Bangladesh) to flow into the Bay of Bengal. The largest river system, the Drangme Chhu, flows southwesterly from India's state of Arunachal Pradesh and has three major branches: the Drangme Chhu, Mangde Chhu, and Bumthang Chhu. These branches form the Drangme Chhu basin, which spreads over most of eastern Bhutan and drains the Tongsa and Bumthang valleys. In the Duars, where eight tributaries join it, the Drangme Chhu is called the Manas Chhu. The 320-kilometer-long Puna Tsang Chhu rises in northwestern Bhutan as the Mo Chhu and Pho Chhu, which are fed by the snows from the Great Himalayan Range. They flow southerly to Punakha, where they join to form the Puna Tsang Chhu, which flows southerly into India's state of West Bengal. The tributaries of the 370-kilometer-long Wang Chhu rise in Tibet. The Wang Chhu itself flows southeasterly through west-central Bhutan, drains the Ha, Paro, and Thimphu valleys, and continues into the Duars, where it enters West Bengal as the Raigye Chhu. The smallest river system, the Torsa Chhu, known as the Amo Chhu in its northern reaches, also flows out of Tibet into the Chumbi Valley and swiftly through western Bhutan before broadening near Phuntsholing and then flowing into India.

[edit] Glaciers Glaciers in northern Bhutan, which cover about 10 percent of the total surface area, are an important renewable source of water for Bhutan's rivers. Fed by fresh snow each winter and slow melting in the summer, the glaciers bring millions of liters of fresh water to Bhutan and downriver areas each year. Glacial melt added to monsoon-swollen rivers, however, also contributes to flooding. Where glacial movement temporary blocks riverflows, downstream areas may be threatened by jokulhlaups(GLOF

Bhutan From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Kingdom of Bhutan

Brug rGyal-Khab (Wylie) Dru Gäkhap Flag

Emblem

Anthem: Druk Tsendhen

Capital Official languages Demonym Government

Thimphu Dzongkha,English Bhutanese Constitutional democratic monarchy

- King

Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck

- Prime Minister

Jigme Y. Thinley

Formation

Early 17th century

- Wangchuk Dynasty 17 December 1907 -

Constitutional Monarchy

2008 Area

- Total

47,000 km2 (131st) 18,147 sq mi

- Water (%)

<1 (estimate) Population

- estimate

672,425 (2005)1

- Density

14/km2 (154th) 37/sq mi

GDP (PPP)

2008 estimate

- Total

$3.442 billion[1]

- Per capita GDP (nominal)

$5,238[1] 2008 estimate

- Total

$1.368 billion[1]

- Per capita

$2,082[1]

HDI (2007)

▲ 0.579 (medium) (131st)

Currency

Ngultrum2 (BTN)

Time zone

BTT (UTC+6:00)

- Summer (DST)

not observed (UTC+6:00)

Drives on the

left

Internet TLD

.bt

Calling code

975

The population of Bhutan had been estimated based on the reported figure of about 1 million in the 1970s when the country had joined the United Nations and precise statistics were lacking.[2] Thus using the annual increase rate of 2-3%, the most population estimates 1 were around 2 million in the year 2000. A national census was carried out in 2005 and it turned out that the population was 672,425. Consequently, United Nations Population Division had down-estimated the country's population in the 2006 revision [3]for the whole period from 1950 to 2050. 2

Indian rupee is also legal tender

The Kingdom of Bhutan (pronounced /buːˈtɑːn/) is a landlocked nation in South Asia, located at the eastern end of the Himalaya Mountains and is bordered to the south, east and west by the Republic of India and to the north by People's Republic of China. Bhutan is separated from Nepal by the Indian state of Sikkim. The Bhutanese call their country Druk Yul (Dzongkha: འབུག་ཡུལ་) which means "Land of the Thunder Dragon".[3] Bhutan used to be one of the most isolated nations in the world, but developments including direct international flights, the Internet, mobile phone networks, and cable television have increasingly opened the doors. Yet, Bhutan has balanced modernization with its ancient culture and traditions under the guiding philosophy of Gross National Happiness (GNH). Rampant destruction of the environment has been avoided. The government takes great measures to preserve the nation's traditional culture, identity and the environment. In 2006, Business Week magazine rated Bhutan the happiest country in Asia and the eighth-happiest in the world, citing a global survey conducted by the University of Leicester in 2006 called the "World Map of Happiness".[4]

Bhutan's landscape ranges from subtropical plains in the south to the Himalayan heights in the north, with some peaks exceeding 7,000 metres (23,000 ft). The state religion is Vajrayana Buddhism, and the population is predominantly Buddhist, with Hinduism being the second-largest religion. The capital and largest city is Thimphu. After centuries of direct monarchic rule, Bhutan held its first democratic elections in March 2008. Among other international associations, Bhutan is a member of the United Nations and the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).

Contents [hide]

• • • • • • • • • • •

1 Name 2 History o 2.1 Problems in Southern Bhutan o 2.2 Democratic reform and modernization o 2.3 Religion 3 Government and politics 4 Military and foreign affairs 5 Geography 6 Economy 7 Districts 8 Cities and towns 9 Demographics 10 Culture 11 See also 12 References 13 Further reading

•

14 External links

• •

[edit] Name "Bhutan" may be derived from the Sanskrit word Bhu-Utthan (highlands). In another theory of Sanskritisation, Bhoṭa-anta means "At the end of Tibet", as Bhutan is immediately to Tibet's south. Historically Bhutan was known by many names, such as Lho Mon (southern land of darkness), Lho Tsendenjong (southern land of the Tsenden cypress), Lhomen Khazhi (southern land of four approaches) and Lho Men Jong (southern land of medicinal herbs).[3]

[edit] History

Main article: History of Bhutan Stone tools, weapons, elephants, and remnants of large stone structures provide evidence that Bhutan was inhabited as early as 2000 BC, although there are no existing records from that time. Historians have theorized that the state of Lhomon (literally, "southern darkness", a reference to the indigenous Mon religion), or Monyul ("Dark Land", a reference to the Monpa, the aboriginal peoples of Bhutan) may have existed between 500 BC and AD 600. The names Lhomon Tsendenjong (Sandalwood Country), and Lhomon Khashi, or Southern Mon (country of four approaches), have been found in ancient Bhutanese and Tibetan chronicles.[5]

View of Tashichoedzong, Thimphu, seat of the Bhutanese government since 1952 The earliest transcribed event in Bhutan was the passage of the Buddhist saint Padma Sambhava (also known as Guru Rinpoche) in 747.[6] Bhutan's early history is unclear, because most of the records were destroyed after fire ravaged the ancient capital, Punakha, in 1827.[7] By the 10th century, Bhutan's political development was heavily influenced by its religious history. However, there is no sufficient information stating that all historical records were available before the fire. Various sub-sects of Buddhism emerged which were patronised by the various Mongol warlords. After the decline of the Mongols in the 14th century, these sub-sects vied with each other for supremacy in the political and religious landscape, eventually leading to the ascendancy of the Drukpa subsect by the 16th century. Until the early 17th century, Bhutan existed as a patchwork of minor warring fiefdoms, when the area was unified by the Tibetan lama and military leader Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal who fled religious persecution in Tibet. To defend the country against intermittent Tibetan forays, Namgyal built a network of impregnable dzong (fortresses), and promulgated a code of law that helped to bring local lords under centralised control. Many such dzong still exist and are active centers of religion and district administration. After Namgyal's death in 1651, Bhutan fell into civil war. Taking advantage of the chaos, the Tibetans attacked Bhutan in 1710, and again in 1730 with the help of the Mongols. Both assaults were successfully thwarted, and an armistice was signed in 1759.

Map of Bhutan

A thrikheb (throne cover) from the 19th century. Throne covers were placed atop the temple cushions used by high lamas In the 18th century, the Bhutanese invaded and occupied the kingdom of Cooch Behar to the south. In 1772, Cooch Behar appealed to the British East India Company which assisted them in ousting the Bhutanese, and later in attacking Bhutan itself in 1774. A peace treaty was signed in which Bhutan agreed to retreat to its pre-1730 borders. However, the peace was tenuous, and border skirmishes with the British were to continue for the next 100 years. The skirmishes eventually led to the Duar War (1864–1865), a confrontation for control of the Bengal Duars. After Bhutan lost the war, the Treaty of Sinchula was signed between British India and Bhutan. As part of the war reparations, the Duars were ceded to the United Kingdom in exchange for a rent of Rs. 50,000. The treaty ended all hostilities between British India and Bhutan. During the 1870s, power struggles between the rival valleys of Paro and Tongsa led to civil war in Bhutan, eventually leading to the ascendancy of Ugyen Wangchuck, the ponlop (governor) of Tongsa. From his power base in central Bhutan, Ugyen Wangchuck defeated his political enemies and united the country following several civil wars and rebellions in the period 1882–1885. In 1907, an epochal year for the country, Ugyen Wangchuck was unanimously chosen as the hereditary king of the country by an assembly of leading Buddhist monks, government officials, and heads of important families. The British government promptly recognised the new monarchy, and in 1910 Bhutan signed a treaty which "let" Great Britain "guide" Bhutan's foreign affairs. In reality, this did not mean much given Bhutan's historical reticence. It also did not seem to apply to Bhutan's traditional relations with Tibet. The greatest impact of this treaty seems to be the perception that it meant Bhutan was not totally sovereign. After India gained independence from the United Kingdom on 15 August 1947, Bhutan became one of the first countries to recognise India's independence. A treaty similar to the one of 1910 was signed 8 August 1949 with the newly independent India.

The Trongsa Dzong. In 1953, King Jigme Dorji Wangchuck established the country's legislature – a 130member National Assembly – to promote a more democratic form of governance. In 1965, he set up a Royal Advisory Council, and in 1968 he formed a Cabinet. In 1971, Bhutan was admitted to the United Nations, having held observer status for three years. In July 1972, Jigme Singye Wangchuck ascended to the throne at the age of 16 after the death of his father, Dorji Wangchuck. In late 2003, the Bhutanese army successfully launched a large-scale operation to flush out anti-India insurgents who were operating training camps in southern Bhutan.

[edit] Problems in Southern Bhutan Main article: Bhutanese refugee In the 1980s, in order to strengthen Bhutan’s identity as a nation, the "one nation, one people" campaign was started to integrate the peripheral ethnic and cultural groups into mainstream Bhutanese society. The age-old code of conduct, known as Driglam namzha, and usage of the official national language, Dzongkha, was promoted. At around the same time, a nationwide census revealed a large population of illegal immigrants of Nepali origin in Southern Bhutan. When the government attempted to remove the illegal settlers, there was a violent backlash. Many government officials, buildings, offices, schools and hospitals were attacked. In order to re-establish order in the south, the government was forced to recruit many young men and able-bodied civil servants into a militia force, to quell the violent activities and racial riots instigated by the illegal immigrants. A number of Southern Bhutanese, including political dissidents, and convicted criminals fled to Nepal along with the illegal settlers, where they were admitted into camps run by the United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR). The UNHCR at the time did not have a procedure of verifying whether the refugees were genuinely from Bhutan or whether they were at all Bhutanese. This made it difficult for third parties to establish whether Bhutan's actions amounted to “ethnic cleansing” or a mere massive external deportation of illegal immigrants.[citation needed]

While continuous attempts have been made between the governments of Bhutan and Nepal to resolve this issue, the number of people claiming to be Bhutanese refugees swelled to over 100,000. In 2007, as a final attempt to resolve the issue, the US government announced that around 60,000 Bhutanese refugees would be settled in the US in a third country settlement programme. Other countries also involved include Canada, which has agreed to accept up to 5000 of these people, Norway which has already settled 200. In more recent times, armed groups based in these camps and believed to be supported by the fractions within the Maoist movement in Nepal have restarted terrorist activities against Bhutan and her citizens.

[edit] Democratic reform and modernization In 1998, King Jigme Singye Wangchuck introduced significant political reforms, transferring most of his administrative powers to the Council of Cabinet Ministers and allowing for impeachment of the King by a two-thirds majority of the National Assembly.[8] In 1999, the government lifted a ban on television and the Internet, making Bhutan one of the last countries to introduce television. In his speech, the King said that television was a critical step to the modernisation of Bhutan as well as a major contributor to the country's Gross National Happiness (Bhutan is the only country to measure happiness[9]), but warned that the "misuse" of television could erode traditional Bhutanese values.[10] A new constitution was presented in early 2005. In December 2005, Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced that he would abdicate the throne in his son's favour in 2008. On 14 December 2006, he announced that he would be abdicating immediately. Bhutan has now entered a new era of democracy, starting with its first national parliamentary elections in December 2007 and March 2008. On November 6, 2008, 28-year old Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, eldest son of King Jigme Singye Wangchuck, was crowned King of the Himalayan Kingdom.

[edit] Religion Main article: Religion in Bhutan

The Taktshang Monastery, also known as the "Tiger's Nest". Bhutan is a predominantly Buddhist country. In the third century BCE, the Mauryan emperor Ashoka sent the royal monk Massim Sthavira to Bhutan to spread Buddhism. Buddhism was re-introduced to Bhutan in the 7th century AD. According to legend, Guru Rimpoche ordered the Tibetan king Trisong Detsen to have 108 temples built all over the Himalayas. Doing so would aid in subduing a demoness and allow for the construction of Samye Temple in Tibet. Two of the 108 temples are in Bhutan, one in Paro and the other in Bumthang and were built around 637 CE.[citation needed]

[edit] Government and politics Main article: Politics of Bhutan Over the past decade, Bhutan's political system has developed from an absolute monarchy into a constitutional monarchy. In 1999, the fourth king of Bhutan created a body called the Lhengye Zhungtshog (Council of Ministers). The 'Druk Gyalpo' (King of Druk Yul) is head of state. Executive power is exercised by the Lhengye Zhungtshog, the council of ministers. Legislative power was vested in both the government and the former Grand National Assembly. On the 17th of December 2005, the 4th King, Jigme Singye Wangchuck, announced to a stunned nation that the first general elections would be held in 2008, and that he would abdicate the throne in favor of his eldest son, the crown prince.[11] King Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck took the throne on December 14, 2006 upon his father's abdication. Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck was adorned with Bhutan's Raven Crown at an ornate coronation ceremony in Thimphu on Thursday, November 6, 2008, becoming the world's youngest reigning monarch and head of the newest democracy.[12] The new democratic system comprises an upper and lower house, the latter based on political party affiliations. Elections for the upper house (National Council) were held on December 31, 2007, while elections for the lower house, the 47-seat National Assembly, were held on March 24, 2008. Two political parties, the People's Democratic Party (PDP) headed by Sangay Ngedup, and the Druk Phuensum Tshogpa (DPT) headed by Jigmi

Thinley, competed in the National Assembly election. The Druk Phuensum Tshogpa won the elections taking 45 out of 47 seats in the parliament.[13] Judicial power is vested in the courts of Bhutan. The Chief Justice is the administrative head of the Judiciary. see also Laws of Bhutan

[edit] Military and foreign affairs Main articles: Military of Bhutan and Foreign relations of Bhutan The Royal Bhutan Army is Bhutan's military service. It includes the Royal Bodyguard and the Royal Bhutan Police. Membership is voluntary, and the minimum age for recruitment is 18. The standing army numbers about 6,000 and is trained by the Indian Army.[14] It has an annual budget of about US$13.7 million — 1.8 percent of the GDP. Being a landlocked country, Bhutan has no navy. Though the 1949 treaty with India is still sometimes misinterpreted to mean that India controls Bhutan's foreign affairs, the government of Bhutan handles all of its own foreign affairs, including the sensitive (to India) border demarcation issue with China. The 1949 treaty has been superseded by the 2007 treaty with India, which clarified that Bhutan was master of its own foreign relations. Bhutan has diplomatic relations with 21 countries, and with the European Union, with missions in India, Bangladesh, Thailand, and Kuwait. It has two UN missions, one in New York and one in Geneva. Only India and Bangladesh have residential embassies in Bhutan, while Thailand has a consulate office in Bhutan. By a long standing treaty, Indian and Bhutanese citizens may travel to each other's countries without a passport or visa using their national identity cards instead. Bhutanese citizens may also work in India without legal restriction. Bhutan does not have formal diplomatic ties with its northern neighbour, the People's Republic of China, although exchanges of visits at various levels between the two have significantly increased in recent times. The first bilateral agreement between China (PRC) and Bhutan was signed in 1998, and Bhutan has also set up consulates in Macau and Hong Kong. Bhutan’s border with China is largely not demarcated and thus disputed in some places. Approximately 269 square kilometers remain under discussion between China and Bhutan.[15] On 13 November 2005, Chinese soldiers crossed into Bhutan under the pretext that environmental conditions had forced their retreat south from the Himalayas. The Bhutanese government allowed this incursion (after the fact) on humanitarian grounds.[citation needed] Soon after, the Chinese began building roads and bridges within Bhutanese territory.[16][not in citation given] Bhutanese Foreign Minister Khandu Wangchuk took up the matter with Chinese authorities after the issue was raised in Bhutanese parliament. In response, Foreign Ministry spokesman Qin Gang of the People's Republic of China has said that the border remains in dispute and that the two sides continue to work for a peaceful and cordial resolution of the dispute.[17] An Indian intelligence officer has said that a Chinese delegation in Bhutan told the Bhutanese that they were "overreacting." The

Bhutanese newspaper Kuensel has said that China might use the roads to further Chinese claims along the border.[18] On 8 February 2007, the Indo-Bhutan Friendship TreatyPDF (30.6 KB) was substantially revised. Whereas in the Treaty of 1949 Article 2 read as "The Government of India undertakes to exercise no interference in the internal administration of Bhutan. On its part the Government of Bhutan agrees to be guided by the advice of the Government of India in regard to its external relations." In the revised treaty it now reads as "In keeping with the abiding ties of close friendship and cooperation between Bhutan and India, the Government of the Kingdom of Bhutan and the Government of the Republic of India shall cooperate closely with each other on issues relating to their national interests. Neither government shall allow the use of its territory for activities harmful to the national security and interest of the other." The revised treaty also includes in it the preamble "Reaffirming their respect for each other's independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity", an element that was absent in the earlier version. The Indo-Bhutan Friendship Treaty of 2007 strengthens Bhutan's status as an independent and sovereign nation. Bhutan has no formal relations with the United States,[19] Russia, China, the United Kingdom or France. Informal contact with the United States is made through the U.S. embassy in New Delhi.[19]

[edit] Geography Main article: Geography of Bhutan

Topographic map of Bhutan

Gangkhar Puensum from Ura La, Bhutan The northern region consists of an arc of glaciated mountain peaks with an extremely cold climate at the highest elevations. Most peaks in the north are over 23,000 feet (7,000 m) above sea level; the highest point is claimed to be the Kula Kangri, at 24,780 feet (7,553 m), but detailed topographic studies claim Kula Kangri is wholly in Tibet[citation needed] and modern Chinese measurements claim that Gangkhar Puensum, which has the distinction of being the highest unclimbed mountain in the world, is higher at 24,835 feet (7,570 m).The lowest point is at sea level, in the valleys. Watered by snowfed rivers, alpine valleys in this region provide pasture for livestock, tended by a sparse population of migratory shepherds. The Black Mountains in central Bhutan form a watershed between two major river systems: the Mo Chhu and the Drangme Chhu. Peaks in the Black Mountains range between 4,900 feet (1,500 m) and 8,900 feet (1,500 m and 2,700 m) above sea level, and fast-flowing rivers have carved out deep gorges in the lower mountain areas. Woodlands of the central region provide most of Bhutan's forest production. The Torsa, Raidak, Sankosh, and Manas are the main rivers of Bhutan, flowing through this region. Most of the population lives in the central highlands.

Jacaranda trees in Bhutan In the south, the Shiwalik Hills are covered with dense, deciduous forests, alluvial lowland river valleys, and mountains up to around 4,900 feet (1,500 m) above sea level. The foothills descend into the subtropical Duars Plain. Most of the Duars is located in

India, although a 6–9 mile (10–15 km) wide strip extends into Bhutan. The Bhutan Duars is divided into two parts: the northern and the southern Duars. The northern Duars, which abuts the Himalayan foothills, has rugged, sloping terrain and dry, porous soil with dense vegetation and abundant wildlife. The southern Duars has moderately fertile soil, heavy savannah grass, dense, mixed jungle, and freshwater springs. Mountain rivers, fed by either the melting snow or the monsoon rains, empty into the Brahmaputra River in India. Data released by the Ministry of Agriculture showed that the country had a forest cover of 64% as of October 2005.

Terraced farming in the Punakha valley. The climate in Bhutan varies with altitude, from subtropical in the south to temperate in the highlands and polar-type climate, with year-round snow, in the north. Bhutan experiences five distinct seasons: summer, monsoon, autumn, winter and spring. Western Bhutan has the heavier monsoon rains; southern Bhutan has hot humid summers and cool winters; central and eastern Bhutan is temperate and drier than the west with warm summers and cool winters.

[edit] Economy

The Ngultrum is the currency of Bhutan. The Ngultrum is the currency of Bhutan and its value is pegged to the Indian rupee. The rupee is also accepted as legal tender in the country. Though Bhutan's economy is one of the world's smallest, it has grown rapidly in recent years, by eight percent in 2005 and 14 percent in 2006. In 2007, Bhutan had the second fastest growing economy in the world, with an annual economic growth rate of 22.4

percent. This was mainly due to the commissioning of the gigantic Tala Hydroelectricity project. As of March 2006, Bhutan's per capita income was US$1,321. Bhutan's economy is based on agriculture, forestry, tourism and the sale of hydroelectric power to India. Agriculture provides the main livelihood for more than 80 percent of the population. Agrarian practices consist largely of subsistence farming and animal husbandry. Handicrafts, particularly weaving and the manufacture of religious art for home altars, are a small cottage industry. A landscape that varies from hilly to ruggedly mountainous has made the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expensive. This, and a lack of access to the sea, has meant that Bhutan has not been able to benefit from significant trading of its produce. Bhutan does not have any railways, though Indian Railways plans to link southern Bhutan to its vast network under an agreement signed in January 2005.[20] Bhutan and India signed a 'free trade' accord in 2008, which additionally allowed Bhutanese imports and exports from third markets to transit India without tariffs.[21] The historic trade routes over the high Himalayas, which connected India to Tibet, have been closed since the 1950 military takeover of Tibet (although smuggling activity still brings Chinese goods into Bhutan). The industrial sector is in a nascent stage, and though most production comes from cottage industry, larger industries are being encouraged and some industries such as cement, steel, and ferro alloy have been set up. Most development projects, such as road construction, rely on Indian contract labour. Agricultural produce includes rice, chilies, dairy (some yak, mostly cow) products, buckwheat, barley, root crops, apples, and citrus and maize at lower elevations. Industries include cement, wood products, processed fruits, alcoholic beverages and calcium carbide. Incomes of over Nu 100,000 per annum are taxed, but very few wage and salary earners qualify. Bhutan's inflation rate was estimated at about three percent in 2003. Bhutan has a Gross Domestic Product of around USD 2.913 billion (adjusted to Purchasing Power Parity), making it the 162nd largest economy in the world.

Haa Valley in Bhutan.

Per capita income is around $1,400,[22] ranked 124th. Government revenues total $272 million, though expenditures amount to $350 million. 60 percent of the budget expenditure, however, is financed by India's Ministry of External Affairs.[23] Bhutan's exports, principally electricity, cardamom, gypsum, timber, handicrafts, cement, fruit, precious stones and spices, total €128 million (2000 est.). Imports, however, amount to €164 million, leading to a trade deficit. Main items imported include fuel and lubricants, grain, machinery, vehicles, fabrics and rice. Bhutan's main export partner is India, accounting for 58.6 percent of its export goods. Hong Kong (30.1 percent) and the Bangladesh (7.3 percent) are the other two top export partners.[22] As its border with Tibet is closed, trade between Bhutan and China is now almost non-existent. Bhutan's import partners include India (74.5 percent), Japan (7.4 percent) and Sweden (3.2 percent). In a response to accusations in 1987 by a journalist from UK's Financial Times that the pace of development in Bhutan was slow, the King said that "Gross National Happiness is more important than Gross National Product."[24] This statement appears to have presaged recent findings by western economic psychologists, including 2002 Nobel Laureate Daniel Kahneman, that question the link between levels of income and happiness. The statement signaled his commitment to building an economy that is appropriate for Bhutan's culture, based on Buddhist spiritual values, and has served as a unifying vision for the economy. In a survey in 2005, 45 percent of Bhutanese reported being very happy, 52 percent reported being happy and only three percent reported not being happy. Based on this data, the Happy Planet Index estimates that the average level of life satisfaction in Bhutan is within the top 10 percent of nations worldwide, and certainly higher than other nations with similar levels of GDP per capita.

[edit] Districts Main articles: Districts of Bhutan and Blocks of Bhutan Bhutan is divided into four dzongdey (administrative zones). Each dzongdey is further divided into dzongkhag (districts). There are twenty dzongkhag in Bhutan. Large dzongkhags are further divided into subdistricts known as dungkhag. At the basic level, groups of villages form a constituency called gewog (blocks) and are administered by a gup, who is elected by the people.

Dzongkhags (districts) of Bhutan. 1. Bumthang 2. Chukha (old spelling: Chhukha) 3. Dagana 4. Gasa 5. Haa 6. Lhuntse 7. Mongar 8. Paro

11. Samdrup Jongkhar 12. Samtse (Samchi) 13. Sarpang 14. Thimphu 15. Trashigang (Tashigang) 16. Trashiyangtse 17. Trongsa (Tongsa) 18. Tsirang (Chirang)

9. Pemagatshel (Pemagatsel)

19. Wangdue Phodrang (Wangdi Phodrang)

10. Punakha

20. Zhemgang (Shemgang)

[edit] Cities and towns see Category:Cities, towns and villages in Bhutan • • • • • • • • •

Jakar, the administrative headquarters of Bumthang District and the place where Buddhism entered Bhutan. Mongar, the eastern commercial hub of the country. Paro, site of the international airport. Phuentsholing, Bhutan's commercial hub. Punakha, the old capital. Samdrup Jongkhar Thimphu, the largest city and capital of Bhutan. Trashigang, the most populous district in the country. Trongsa, in central Bhutan which has the largest and the most magnificent of all the dzongs in Bhutan.

[edit] Demographics Main article: Demographics of Bhutan

Elderly Bhutanese man Among the Bhutanese people, several principal ethnic groups may be distinguished. The largest group are the Bhutia or Bhotiya people, who can be subdivided into Ngalops and Scharchops respectively. The second dominant group is the Ngalops, a Buddhist group based in the western part of the country. Their culture is closely related to that of Tibet. Much the same could be said of the Sharchops ("Easterners"), the dominant group, who are associated with the eastern part of Bhutan (but who traditionally follow the Nyingmapa rather than the official Drukpa Kagyu form of Tibetan Buddhism). They are called the Western Bhutanese and Eastern Bhutanese respectively. In modern times, with

improved transportation infrastructure, there has been much intermarriage between these groups. In the early 1970s, intermarriage between the Lhotshampas and mainstream Bhutanese society was encouraged by the government. The national language is Dzongkha, one of 53 languages in the Tibetan language family. The script, here called Chhokey ("Dharma Language"), is identical to classical Tibetan. In the schools English is the medium of instruction and Dzongkha is taught as the national language. Ethnologue lists 24 languages currently spoken in Bhutan, all of them in the Tibeto-Burman family, except Nepali, an Indo-Aryan language. Until the 1980s, the government sponsored the teaching of Nepali in schools in Southern Bhutan. However, after the armed uprising in the south, Nepali was dropped from the curriculum. The languages of Bhutan are still not well-characterized, and several have yet to be recorded in an in-depth academic grammar. Religions of Bhutan religion

percent

Buddhism

 

75%

Hinduism

 

24%

Others

 

1%

The literacy rate is 59.5 percent.[25] The country has a median age of 22.3 years.[26] Bhutan has a life expectancy of 62.2 years (61 for males and 64.5 for females) according to the latest data from the World Bank. There are 1,070 males to every 1,000 females in the country. It is estimated that between two thirds and three quarters of the Bhutanese population follow Vajrayana Buddhism, which is also the state religion. About one quarter to one third are followers of Hinduism. Muslim and non-religious communities account for less than 1% of the population.[27] The current legal framework, in principle guarantees freedom of religion; proselytism, however, is forbidden by a royal government decision.[27]

[edit] Culture Main article: Culture of Bhutan

Bhutanese thanka of Mt. Meru and the Buddhist Universe, 19th century, Tongsa Dzong, Tongsa, Bhutan Bhutan has a rich and unique cultural heritage that has largely remained intact due to its isolation from the rest of the world until the early 1960s. One of the main attractions for tourists is the country's culture and traditions. Bhutanese tradition is deeply steeped in its Buddhist heritage.[28] Hinduism is the second dominant religion in Bhutan, being most prevalent in the southern regions. Both religions co-exist peacefully and receive support from the government,[29] and enjoy royal patronage. The government is increasingly making efforts to preserve and sustain the current culture and traditions of the country. Due to its largely unspoilt natural environment and cultural heritage, Bhutan has been referred to as The Last Shangri-la. While Bhutanese citizens are free to travel abroad, Bhutan is viewed as inaccessible by many foreigners. There is a widespread misconception that Bhutan has set limits on tourist visas.[citation needed] Another reason why Bhutan is not a popular place to visit by travelers on a shoe string budget is it's too expensive. Entry is free for citizens of India and Bangladesh, but all other foreigners are required to sign up with a Bhutanese tour operator and pay around $200 per day that they stay in the country. Single tourists are not allowed in the country. Even Indians and Bangladeshis are discouraged to travel alone, unless you know someone personally or have relatives in Bhutan. The National Dress for Bhutanese men is the gho, a knee-length robe tied at the waist by a cloth belt known as the kera. Women wear an ankle-length dress, the kira, which is clipped at one shoulder and tied at the waist. An accompaniment to the kira is a longsleeved blouse, the toego, which is worn underneath the outer layer. Social status and class determine the texture, colours, and decorations that embellish the garments. Differently coloured scarves and shawls are important indicators of social standing, as Bhutan has traditionally been a feudal society. Jewellery is mostly worn by women, especially during religious festivals and public gatherings. To strengthen Bhutan's identity

as an independent country, Bhutanese law requires all Bhutanese citizens to wear the national dress in public areas and as formal wear. Rice, buckwheat, and increasingly maize, are the staple foods of the country. The local diet also includes pork, beef, yak meat, chicken, and mutton. Soups and stews of meat and dried vegetables spiced with chillies and cheese are prepared. Ema datshi, made very spicy with cheese and chilies, might be called the national dish for its ubiquity and the pride that Bhutanese have for it. Dairy foods, particularly butter and cheese from yaks and cows, are also popular, and indeed almost all milk is turned to butter and cheese. Popular beverages include butter tea, tea, locally brewed rice wine and beer. Bhutan is the only country in the world to have banned the sale of tobacco.

Changlimithang Stadium, during a parade. Bhutan's national sport is archery, and competitions are held regularly in most villages. It differs from Olympic standards not only in technical details such as the placement of the targets and atmosphere. There are two targets placed over 100 meters apart and teams shoot from one end of the field to the other. Each member of the team shoots two arrows per round. Traditional Bhutanese archery is a social event and competitions are organized between villages, towns, and amateur teams. There are usually plenty of food and drink complete with singing and dancing. Attempts to distract an opponent include standing around the target and making fun of the shooter's ability. Darts (khuru) is an equally popular outdoor team sport, in which heavy wooden darts pointed with a 10 cm nail are thrown at a paperback-sized target ten to 20 meters away. Another traditional sport is the digor, which resembles the shot put and horseshoe throwing. Cricket has gained popularity in Bhutan, particularly since the introduction of television channels from India. The Bhutanese national cricket team is one of the more successful associate nations in the region. Football is also an increasingly popular sport. In 2002, Bhutan's national football team played Montserrat, in what was billed as The Other Final; the match took place on the same day Brazil played Germany in the World Cup final, but at the time Bhutan and Montserrat were the world's two lowest ranked teams. The match was held in Thimphu's Changlimithang National Stadium, and Bhutan won 4-0. A documentary of the match was made by the Dutch filmmaker Johan Kramer.

Rigsar is an emerging style of popular music in Bhutan, played on a mix of traditional instruments and electronic keyboards, and dates back to the early 1990s; it shows the influence of Indian popular music, a hybrid form of traditional and Western popular influences. Traditional genres include the zhungdra and boedra.

Chaam, sacred masked dances, are annually performed during religious festivals. Characteristic of the region is a type of castle fortress known as the dzong. Since ancient times, the dzongs have served as the religious and secular administration centres for their respective districts. Bhutan has numerous public holidays, most of which centre around traditional seasonal, secular and religious festivals. They include the winter solstice (around January 1, depending on the lunar calendar), the lunar New Year (February or March), the King's birthday and the anniversary of his coronation, the official start of monsoon season (September 22), National Day (December 17), and various Buddhist and Hindu celebrations. Masked dances and dance dramas are common traditional features at festivals, usually accompanied by traditional music. Energetic dancers, wearing colourful wooden or composition face masks and stylized costumes, depict heroes, demons, dæmons, death heads, animals, gods, and caricatures of common people. The dancers enjoy royal patronage, and preserve ancient folk and religious customs and perpetuate the ancient lore and art of mask-making. Inheritance in Bhutan generally goes in the female rather than the male line. Daughters will inherit their parents' house. A man is expected to make his own way in the world and often moves to his wife's home. Love marriages are common in urban areas, but the tradition of arranged marriages is still common in the villages. Although uncommon, polygamy is accepted, often being a device to keep property in a contained family unit rather than dispersing it.[citation needed] The previous King Jigme Singye Wangchuck, who abdicated in 2006, has 4 Queens, all of whom are sisters.

The University of Texas at El Paso in the United States has adopted Bhutanese architecture for its buildings on campus, as have the nearby Hilton Garden Inn and other buildings in the city of El Paso.[30]

Geography of Bangladesh Filed In: 1.

Geography

More Bangladesh Information | CIA Factbook | World Atlas Home | Geography Home Page

Bangladesh

Introduction Background:

Geography Location:

Bangladesh Bangladesh came into existence in 1971 when Bengali East Pakistan seceded from its union with West Pakistan. About a third of this extremely poor country floods annually during the monsoon rainy season, hampering economic development. Bangladesh Southern Asia, bordering the Bay of Bengal, between Burma and India

Geographic coordinates:

24 00 N, 90 00 E

Map references:

Asia

Area:

Area comparative: Land boundaries: Coastline:

total: 144,000 sq km land: 133,910 sq km water: 10,090 sq km slightly smaller than Iowa total: 4,246 km border countries: Burma 193 km, India 4,053 km 580 km

Maritime claims:

territorial sea: 12 nm contiguous zone: 18 nm exclusive economic zone: 200 nm continental shelf: up to the outer limits of the continental margin

Climate:

tropical; mild winter (October to March); hot, humid summer (March to June); humid, warm rainy monsoon (June to October)

Terrain:

mostly flat alluvial plain; hilly in southeast

Elevation extremes:

lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m highest point: Keokradong 1,230 m

Natural resources:

natural gas, arable land, timber, coal

Land use:

arable land: 62.11% permanent crops: 3.07% other: 34.82% (2001)

Irrigated land:

38,440 sq km (1998 est.)

Natural hazards:

droughts, cyclones; much of the country routinely inundated during the summer monsoon season

Environment current issues:

many people are landless and forced to live on and cultivate floodprone land; water-borne diseases prevalent in surface water; water pollution, especially of fishing areas, results from the use of commercial pesticides; ground water contaminated by naturally occurring arsenic; intermittent water shortages because of falling water tables in the northern and central parts of the country; soil degradation and erosion; deforestation; severe overpopulation

Environment international agreements:

party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements

Geography note:

most of the country is situated on deltas of large rivers flowing from the Himalayas: the Ganges unites with the Jamuna (main channel of the Brahmaputra) and later joins the Meghna to eventually empty into the Bay of Bengal

People Population: Age structure:

Bangladesh 144,319,628 (July 2005 est.) 0-14 years: 33.1% (male 24,590,207/female 23,162,420) 15-64 years: 63.5% (male 46,764,824/female 44,868,733) 65 years and over: 3.4% (male 2,650,683/female 2,282,761) (2005 est.)

Median age:

total: 21.87 years male: 21.88 years female: 21.85 years (2005 est.)

Population growth rate:

2.09% (2005 est.)

Birth rate:

30.01 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

Death rate:

8.4 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

Net migration rate:

-0.69 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

Sex ratio:

at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 1.16 male(s)/female total population: 1.05 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

Infant mortality rate:

total: 62.6 deaths/1,000 live births male: 63.65 deaths/1,000 live births female: 61.48 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

Life expectancy at birth:

total population: 62.08 years male: 62.13 years female: 62.02 years (2005 est.)

Total fertility rate: HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate: HIV/AIDS people living with HIV/AIDS: HIV/AIDS deaths: Major infectious diseases:

3.13 children born/woman (2005 est.) less than 0.1% (2001 est.)

13,000 (2001 est.)

650 (2001 est.) degree of risk: high food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A and E, and typhoid fever vectorborne diseases: dengue fever and malaria are high risks in some locations water contact disease: leptospirosis animal contact disease: rabies (2004)

Nationality: Ethnic groups:

noun: Bangladeshi(s) adjective: Bangladeshi Bengali 98%, tribal groups, non-Bengali Muslims (1998)

Religions: Languages: Literacy:

Government Country name:

Government type: Capital:

Muslim 83%, Hindu 16%, other 1% (1998) Bangla (official, also known as Bengali), English definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 43.1% male: 53.9% female: 31.8% (2003 est.) Bangladesh conventional long form: People's Republic of Bangladesh conventional short form: Bangladesh former: East Pakistan parliamentary democracy Dhaka

Administrative divisions:

6 divisions; Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka, Khulna, Rajshahi, and Sylhet

Independence:

16 December 1971 (from West Pakistan); note - 26 March 1971 is the date of independence from West Pakistan, 16 December 1971 is known as Victory Day and commemorates the official creation of the state of Bangladesh

National holiday:

Independence Day, 26 March (1971); note - 26 March 1971 is the date of independence from West Pakistan, 16 December 1971 is Victory Day and commemorates the official creation of the state of Bangladesh

Constitution:

4 November 1972, effective 16 December 1972; suspended following coup of 24 March 1982, restored 10 November 1986; amended many times

Legal system:

based on English common law

Suffrage:

18 years of age; universal

Executive branch:

chief of state: President Iajuddin AHMED (since 6 September 2002); note - the president's duties are normally ceremonial, but with the 13th amendment to the constitution ("Caretaker Government Amendment"), the president's role becomes significant at times when Parliament is dissolved and a caretaker government is installed - at presidential direction - to supervise the elections head of government: Prime Minister Khaleda ZIA (since 10 October 2001) cabinet: Cabinet selected by the prime minister and appointed by the president elections: president elected by National Parliament for a five-year term; election scheduled for 16 September 2002 was not held since Iajuddin AHMED was the only presidential candidate; he was sworn in on 6 September 2002 (next election to be held by NA 2007);

following legislative elections, the leader of the party that wins the most seats is usually appointed prime minister by the president election results: Iajuddin AHMED declared by the Election Commission elected unopposed as president; percent of National Parliament vote - NA Legislative branch:

unicameral National Parliament or Jatiya Sangsad; 300 seats elected by popular vote from single territorial constituencies (the constitutional amendment reserving 30 seats for women over and above the 300 regular parliament seats expired in May 2001); members serve five-year terms elections: last held 1 October 2001 (next to be held before October 2006) election results: percent of vote by party - BNP and alliance partners 47%, AL 40%; seats by party - BNP 195, AL 58, JI 17, JP (Ershad faction) 14, IOJ 3, JP (Naziur) 4, other 9; note - the election of October 2001 brought a majority BNP government aligned with three other smaller parties - Jamaat-e-Islami, Islami Oikya Jote, and Jatiya Party (Manzur)

Judicial branch:

Supreme Court (the chief justices and other judges are appointed by the president)

Political parties and leaders:

Awami League or AL [Sheikh HASINA]; Bangladesh Communist Party or BCP [Saifuddin Ahmed MANIK]; Bangladesh Nationalist Party or BNP [Khaleda ZIA, chairperson]; Islami Oikya Jote or IOJ [Mufti Fazlul Haq AMINI]; Jamaat-e-Islami or JI [Motiur Rahman NIZAMI]; Jatiya Party or JP (Ershad faction) [Hussain Mohammad ERSHAD]; Jatiya Party (Manzur faction) [Naziur Rahman MANZUR]

Political pressure groups and leaders: International organization participation:

NA

AsDB, C, CP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt (signatory), ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MIGA, MINURSO, MONUC, NAM, OIC, ONUB, OPCW, SAARC, SACEP, UN, UNAMSIL, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMEE, UNMIK, UNMIL, UNMISET, UNOCI, UNOMIG, UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTO

Diplomatic representation in the US:

chief of mission: Ambassador Shamsher Mobin CHOWDHURY chancery: 3510 International Drive NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 244-0183 FAX: [1] (202) 244-5366 consulate(s) general: Los Angeles and New York

Diplomatic representation from the US:

chief of mission: Ambassador Harry K. THOMAS, Jr. embassy: Madani Avenue, Baridhara, Dhaka 1212 mailing address: G. P. O. Box 323, Dhaka 1000 telephone: [880] (2) 885-5500 FAX: [880] (2) 882-3744

Flag description:

green with a large red disk slightly to the hoist side of center; the red sun of freedom represents the blood shed to achieve independence; the green field symbolizes the lush countryside, and secondarily, the traditional color of Islam

Economy Economy overview:

GDP (purchasing power parity): GDP - real growth rate: GDP - per capita: GDP composition by sector: Labor force:

Bangladesh Despite sustained domestic and international efforts to improve economic and demographic prospects, Bangladesh remains a poor, overpopulated, and ill-governed nation. Although half of GDP is generated through the service sector, nearly two-thirds of Bangladeshis are employed in the agriculture sector, with rice as the single-most-important product. Major impediments to growth include frequent cyclones and floods, inefficient state-owned enterprises, inadequate port facilities, a rapidly growing labor force that cannot be absorbed by agriculture, delays in exploiting energy resources (natural gas), insufficient power supplies, and slow implementation of economic reforms. Economic reform is stalled in many instances by political infighting and corruption at all levels of government. Progress also has been blocked by opposition from the bureaucracy, public sector unions, and other vested interest groups. The BNP government, led by Prime Minister Khaleda ZIA, has the parliamentary strength to push through needed reforms, but the party's political will to do so has been lacking in key areas. One encouraging note: growth has been a steady 5% for the past several years. $275.7 billion (2004 est.)

4.9% (2004 est.) purchasing power parity - $2,000 (2004 est.) agriculture: 21.2% industry: 27.1% services: 51.7% (2004 est.) 65.49 million note: extensive export of labor to Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, UAE, Oman, Qatar, and Malaysia; workers' remittances estimated at $1.71 billion in 1998-99 (2004 est.)

Labor force by occupation:

agriculture 63%, industry 11%, services 26% (FY95/96)

Unemployment rate:

40% (includes underemployment) (2004 est.)

Population below poverty line:

45% (2004 est.)

Household income or consumption by percentage share:

lowest 10%: 3.9% highest 10%: 28.6% (1995-96 est.)

Distribution of family income Gini index:

33.6 (FY95/96)

Inflation rate (consumer prices):

6% (2004 est.)

Investment (gross fixed):

23.5% of GDP (2004 est.)

Budget:

revenues: $5.921 billion expenditures: $8.262 billion, including capital expenditures of NA (2004 est.)

Public debt:

43% of GDP (2004 est.)

Agriculture products:

rice, jute, tea, wheat, sugarcane, potatoes, tobacco, pulses, oilseeds, spices, fruit; beef, milk, poultry

Industries:

cotton textiles, jute, garments, tea processing, paper newsprint, cement, chemical fertilizer, light engineering, sugar

Industrial production growth rate:

6.5% (2004 est.)

Electricity production:

16.45 billion kWh (2002)

Electricity production by source:

fossil fuel: 93.7% hydro: 6.3% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (2001)

Electricity consumption:

15.3 billion kWh (2002)

Electricity exports:

0 kWh (2002)

Electricity imports:

0 kWh (2002)

Oil production:

3,581 bbl/day (2001 est.)

Oil consumption:

71,000 bbl/day (2001 est.)

Oil - exports:

NA

Oil - imports:

NA

Oil - proved reserves:

28.45 million bbl (1 January 2002)

Natural gas production:

9.9 billion cu m (2001 est.)

Natural gas consumption:

9.9 billion cu m (2001 est.)

Natural gas exports:

0 cu m (2001 est.)

Natural gas imports:

0 cu m (2001 est.)

Natural gas proved reserves:

150.3 billion cu m (1 January 2002)

Current account balance:

$216.6 million (2004 est.)

Exports:

$7.478 billion (2004 est.)

Exports commodities:

garments, jute and jute goods, leather, frozen fish and seafood (2001)

Exports partners:

US 22.4%, Germany 14.5%, UK 11.2%, France 6.9%, Italy 4% (2004)

Imports:

$10.03 billion (2004 est.)

Imports commodities: Imports partners:

machinery and equipment, chemicals, iron and steel, textiles, foodstuffs, petroleum products, cement (2000) India 15.1%, China 12.5%, Singapore 7.5%, Kuwait 5.5%, Japan 5.3%, Hong Kong 4.5% (2004)

Reserves of foreign exchange and gold:

$3 billion (2004 est.)

Debt external:

$19.97 billion (2004 est.)

Economic aid recipient:

$1.575 billion (2000 est.)

Currency (code):

taka (BDT)

Currency code: Exchange rates:

BDT taka per US dollar - 59.513 (2004), 58.15 (2003), 57.888 (2002), 55.807 (2001), 52.142 (2000)

Fiscal year: Communications Telephones main lines in use: Telephones mobile cellular: Telephone system:

1 July - 30 June Bangladesh 740,000 (2003)

1.365 million (2003) general assessment: totally inadequate for a modern country domestic: modernizing; introducing digital systems; trunk systems include VHF and UHF microwave radio relay links, and some fiberoptic cable in cities

international: country code - 880; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Indian Ocean); international radiotelephone communications and landline service to neighboring countries (2000) Radio broadcast stations:

AM 12, FM 12, shortwave 2 (1999)

Radios:

6.15 million (1997)

Television broadcast stations:

15 (1999)

Televisions:

770,000 (1997)

Internet country code:

.bd

Internet hosts:

1 (2003)

Internet Service Providers (ISPs):

10 (2000)

Internet users: Transportation

243,000 (2003) Bangladesh

Railways:

total: 2,706 km broad gauge: 884 km 1.676-m gauge narrow gauge: 1,822 km 1.000-m gauge (2004)

Highways:

total: 207,486 km paved: 19,773 km unpaved: 187,713 km (1999)

Waterways:

8,372 km note: includes 2,575 km main cargo routes (2004)

Pipelines:

gas 2,012 km (2004)

Ports and harbors:

Chittagong, Mongla Port

Merchant marine:

total: 41 ships (1,000 GRT or over) 319,897 GRT/440,575 DWT by type: bulk carrier 2, cargo 28, container 6, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 4 foreign-owned: 10 (China 1, Singapore 9) registered in other countries: 14 (2005)

Airports:

16 (2004 est.)

Airports - with paved runways:

total: 15 over 3,047 m: 1 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 6 (2004 est.)

Airports - with unpaved runways: Military

total: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2004 est.) Bangladesh

Military branches: Military service age and obligation:

Army, Navy, Air Force 18 years of age for voluntary military service; no conscription (2005)

Manpower available for military service:

males age 18-49: 35,170,019 (2005 est.)

Manpower fit for military service:

males age 18-49: 26,841,255 (2005 est.)

Military expenditures dollar figure:

$995.3 million (2004)

Military expenditures percent of GDP:

1.8% (2004)

Transnational Issues

Bangladesh

Disputes international:

discussions with India remain stalled to delimit a small section of river boundary, exchange 162 miniscule enclaves in both countries, allocate divided villages, and stop illegal cross-border trade, migration, violence, and transit of terrorists through the porous border; Bangladesh protests India's attempts to fence off hightraffic sections of the porous boundary; a joint Bangladesh-India boundary inspection in 2005 revealed 92 pillars are missing; dispute with India over New Moore/South Talpatty/Purbasha Island in the Bay of Bengal deters maritime boundary delimitation; Burmese Muslim refugees strain Bangladesh's meager resources

Refugees and internally displaced persons:

IDPs: 61,000 (land conflicts, religious persecution) (2004)

Illicit drugs:

transit country for illegal drugs produced in neighboring countries

Geography of Bangladesh From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Map of Bangladesh Bangladesh is a low-lying, riverine country located in South Asia with a largely marshy jungle coastline of 710 kilometers (440 mi) on the northern littoral of the Bay of Bengal. Formed by a delta plain at the confluence of the Ganges (Padma), Brahmaputra (Jamuna), and Meghna Rivers and their tributaries, Bangladesh's alluvial soil is highly fertile, but vulnerable to flood and drought. Hills rise above the plain only in the Chittagong Hill Tracts in the far southeast and the Sylhet division in the northeast. Straddling the Tropic of Cancer, Bangladesh has a tropical monsoon climate characterized by heavy seasonal rainfall, high temperatures, and high humidity. Natural disasters, such as floods, tornadoes, and tidal bores affect the country yearly. Bangladesh also is affected by major cyclones — on average 16 times a decade. One cyclone struck the southeastern coast in May 1991, killing 136,000 people. The cyclone Sidr struck the southwestern coast on November 15, 2007 affecting not only the coastal districts of the administrative division Khulna but also about half of the tropical forest Sundarbans. Coordinates:

24°00′N 90°00′E24°N 90°E

Contents [hide] • • •

1 Physiography 2 Human geography 3 Climate

• • • • • •

4 River systems 5 Area and boundaries 6 Resources and land use 7 Environmental concerns 8 Notes 9 References

•

10 See also

[edit] Physiography

Satellite photographs (from Terra-MODIS) and computer-generated models help visualize Bangladesh's place in the world. Located in South Asia, it is virtually surrounded by India and the Bay of Bengal to the south. But in many ways, the country's fate is dominated by the world's highest mountain range looming to the north-the Himalayas.[1]

NASA satellite Image of Bangladesh's physical features (click to enlarge and view national borders) The physiography of Bangladesh is varied and has an area characterized by two distinctive features: a broad deltaic plain subject to frequent flooding, and a small hilly region crossed by swiftly flowing rivers.The country has an area of 144,000 square kilometers and extends 820 kilometers north to south and 600 kilometers east to west. Bangladesh is bordered on the west, north, and east by a 2,400-kilometer land frontier with India and, in the southeast, by a short land and water frontier (193 km) with Burma (Myanmar). On the south is a highly irregular deltaic coastline of about 580 kilometers,

fissured by many rivers and streams flowing into the Bay of Bengal. The territorial waters of Bangladesh extend 12 nautical miles (22 km), and the exclusive economic zone of the country is 200 nautical miles (370 km). Roughly 80 % of the landmass is made up of fertile alluvial lowland called the Bangladesh Plain. The plain is part of the larger Plain of Bengal, which is sometimes called the Lower Gangetic Plain. Although altitudes up to 105 meters above sea level occur in the northern part of the plain, most elevations are less than 10 meters above sea level; elevations decrease in the coastal south, where the terrain is generally at sea level. With such low elevations and numerous rivers, water--and concomitant flooding--is a predominant physical feature. About 10,000 square kilometers of the total area of Bangladesh is covered with water, and larger areas are routinely flooded during the monsoon season. The only exceptions to Bangladesh's low elevations are the Chittagong Hills in the southeast, the Low Hills of Sylhet in the northeast, and highlands in the north and northwest. The Chittagong Hills constitute the only significant hill system in the country and, in effect, are the western fringe of the north-south mountain ranges of Burma and eastern India. The Chittagong Hills rise steeply to narrow ridge lines, generally no wider than 36 meters, with altitudes from 600 to 900 meters above sea level. At 1,052 meters altitude, the highest elevation in Bangladesh is found at Mowdok, in the southeastern part of the hills. Fertile valleys lie between the hill lines, which generally run north-south. West of the Chittagong Hills is a broad plain, cut by rivers draining into the Bay of Bengal, that rises to a final chain of low coastal hills, mostly below 200 meters, that attain a maximum elevation of 350 meters. West of these hills is a narrow, wet coastal plain located between the cities of Chittagong in the north and Cox's Bazar in the south. About 67% of Bangladesh's nonurban land is arable. Permanent crops cover only 2%, meadows and pastures cover 4%, and forests and woodland cover about 16%. The country produces large quantities of quality timber, bamboo, and sugarcane. Bamboo grows in almost all areas, but high-quality timber grows mostly in the highland valleys. Rubber planting in the hilly regions of the country was undertaken in the 1980s, and rubber extraction had started by the end of the decade. A variety of wild animals are found in the forest areas, such as in the Sundarbans on the southwest coast, which is the home of the world-famous Royal Bengal Tiger. The alluvial soils in the Bangladesh Plain are generally fertile and are enriched with heavy silt deposits carried downstream during the rainy season.

[edit] Human geography Urbanization is proceeding rapidly, and it is estimated that only 30% of the population entering the labor force in the future will be absorbed into agriculture, although many will likely find other kinds of work in rural areas. The areas around Dhaka and Comilla are the most densely settled. The Sundarbans, an area of coastal tropical jungle in the southwest and last wild home of the Bengal Tiger, and the Chittagong Hill Tracts on the southeastern border with Burma and India, are the least densely populated.

[edit] Climate Bangladesh has a tropical monsoon climate characterized by wide seasonal variations in rainfall, high temperatures, and high humidity. Regional climatic differences in this flat country are minor. Three seasons are generally recognized: a hot, muggy summer from March to June; a hot, humid and rainy monsoon season from June to November; and a warm-hot, dry winter from December to February. In general, maximum summer temperatures range between 38 and 41 °C. April is the hottest month in most parts of the country. January is the coolest (but still hot) month, when the average temperature for most of the country is 16-20 °C during the day and around 10 °C at night. . Winds are mostly from the north and northwest in the winter, blowing gently at one to three kilometers per hour in northern and central areas and three to six kilometers per hour near the coast. From March to May, violent thunderstorms, called northwesters by local English speakers, produce winds of up to 60 kilometers per hour. During the intense storms of the early summer and late monsoon season, southerly winds of more than 160 kilometers per hour cause waves to crest as high as 6 meters in the Bay of Bengal, which brings disastrous flooding to coastal areas. Heavy rainfall is characteristic of Bangladesh causing it to flood every year. With the exception of the relatively dry western region of Rajshahi, where the annual rainfall is about 1600 mm, most parts of the country receive at least 2300 mm of rainfall per year. Because of its location just south of the foothills of the Himalayas, where monsoon winds turn west and northwest, the region of Sylhet in northeastern Bangladesh receives the greatest average precipitation. From 1977 to 1986, annual rainfall in that region ranged between 3280 and 4780 mm per year. Average daily humidity ranged from March lows of between 55 and 81 % to July highs of between 94 and 100 %, based on readings taken at selected stations nationwide in 1986. About 80 % of Bangladesh's rain falls during the monsoon season. The monsoons result from the contrasts between low and high air pressure areas that result from differential heating of land and water. During the hot months of April and May hot air rises over the Indian subcontinent, creating low-pressure areas into which rush cooler, moisture-bearing winds from the Indian Ocean. This is the southwest monsoon, commencing in June and usually lasting through September. Dividing against the Indian landmass, the monsoon flows in two branches, one of which strikes western India. The other travels up the Bay of Bengal and over eastern India and Bangladesh, crossing the plain to the north and northeast before being turned to the west and northwest by the foothills of the Himalayas. Natural calamities, such as floods, tropical cyclones, tornadoes, and tidal bores-destructive waves or floods caused by flood tides rushing up estuaries--ravage the country, particularly the coastal belt, almost every year. Between 1947 and 1988, 13 severe cyclones hit Bangladesh, causing enormous loss of life and property. In May 1985, for example, a severe cyclonic storm packing 154 kilometer-per-hour winds and waves 4 meters high swept into southeastern and southern Bangladesh, killing more than 11,000

persons, damaging more than 94,000 houses, killing some 135,000 head of livestock, and damaging nearly 400 kilometers of critically needed embankments. Annual monsoon flooding results in the loss of human life, damage to property and communication systems, and a shortage of drinking water, which leads to the spread of disease. For example, in 1988 two-thirds of Bangladesh's 64 districts experienced extensive flood damage in the wake of unusually heavy rains that flooded the river systems. Millions were left homeless and without potable water. Half of Dhaka, including the runways at the Zia International Airport--an important transit point for disaster relief supplies--was flooded. About 2 million tons of crops were reported destroyed, and relief work was rendered even more challenging than usual because the flood made transportation of any kind exceedingly difficult. A tornado in April 1989 killed more than 600 people (possibly many more; it may have been the deadliest tornado in world history). There are no precautions against cyclones and tidal bores except giving advance warning and providing safe public buildings where people may take shelter. Adequate infrastructure and air transport facilities that would ease the sufferings of the affected people had not been established by the late 1980s. Efforts by the government under the Third Five-Year Plan (1985-90) were directed toward accurate and timely forecast capability through agrometeorology, marine meteorology, oceanography, hydrometeorology, and seismology. Necessary expert services, equipment, and training facilities were expected to be developed under the United Nations Development Programme.bangladesh is hot...

[edit] River systems

Ganges River Delta, Bangladesh and India

The rivers of Bangladesh mark both the physiography of the nation and the life of the people. About 700 in number, these rivers generally flow south. The larger rivers serve as the main source of water for cultivation and as the principal arteries of commercial transportation. Rivers also provide fish, an important source of protein. Flooding of the rivers during the monsoon season causes enormous hardship and hinders development, but fresh deposits of rich silt replenish the fertile but overworked soil. The rivers also drain excess monsoon rainfall into the Bay of Bengal. Thus, the great river system is at the same time the country's principal resource and its greatest hazard. The profusion of rivers can be divided into five major networks. The JamunaBrahmaputra is 292 kilometers long and extends from northern Bangladesh to its confluence with the Padma. Originating as the Yarlung Zangbo Jiang in China's Xizang Autonomous Region (Tibet) and flowing through India's state of Arunachal Pradesh, where it becomes known as the Brahmaputra ("Son of Brahma"), it receives waters from five major tributaries that total some 740 kilometers in length. At the point where the Brahmaputra meets the Tista River in Bangladesh, it becomes known as the Jamuna. The Jamuna is notorious for its shifting subchannels and for the formation of fertile silt islands (chars). No permanent settlements can exist along its banks. The second system is the Padma-Ganges, which is divided into two sections: a 258kilometer segment, the Ganges, which extends from the western border with India to its confluence with the Jamuna some 72 kilometers west of Dhaka, and a 126-kilometer segment, the Padma, which runs from the Ganges-Jamuna confluence to where it joins the Meghna River at Chandpur. The Padma-Ganges is the central part of a deltaic river system with hundreds of rivers and streams--some 2,100 kilometers in length--flowing generally east or west into the Padma. The third network is the Surma-Meghna River System, which courses from the northeastern border with India to Chandpur, where it joins the Padma. The SurmaMeghna, at 669 kilometers by itself the longest river in Bangladesh, is formed by the union of six lesser rivers. Below the city of Kalipur it is known as the Meghna. When the Padma and Meghna join together, they form the fourth river system--the PadmaMeghna--which flows 145 kilometers to the Bay of Bengal. This mighty network of four river systems flowing through the Bangladesh Plain drains an area of some 1.5 million square kilometers. The numerous channels of the PadmaMeghna, its distributaries, and smaller parallel rivers that flow into the Bay of Bengal are referred to as the Mouths of the Ganges. Like the Jamuna, the Padma-Meghna and other estuaries on the Bay of Bengal are also known for their many chars. A fifth river system, unconnected to the other four, is the Karnaphuli. Flowing through the region of Chittagong and the Chittagong Hills, it cuts across the hills and runs rapidly downhill to the west and southwest and then to the sea. The Feni, Karnaphuli, Sangu, and Matamuhari--an aggregate of some 420 kilometers--are the main rivers in the region. The port of Chittagong is situated on the banks of the Karnaphuli. The Karnaphuli Reservoir

and Karnaphuli Dam are located in this area. The dam impounds the Karnaphuli River's waters in the reservoir for the generation of hydroelectric power. During the annual monsoon period, the rivers of Bangladesh flow at about 140,000 cubic meters per second, but during the dry period they diminish to 7,000 cubic meters per second. Because water is so vital to agriculture, more than 60 % of the net arable land, some 91,000 km², is cultivated in the rainy season despite the possibility of severe flooding, and nearly 40 % of the land is cultivated during the dry winter months. Water resources development has responded to this "dual water regime" by providing flood protection, drainage to prevent overflooding and waterlogging, and irrigation facilities for the expansion of winter cultivation. Major water control projects have been developed by the national government to provide irrigation, flood control, drainage facilities, aids to river navigation and road construction, and hydroelectric power. In addition, thousands of tube wells and electric pumps are used for local irrigation. Despite severe resource constraints, the government of Bangladesh has made it a policy to try to bring additional areas under irrigation without salinity intrusion. Water resources management, including gravity flow irrigation, flood control, and drainage, were largely the responsibility of the Bangladesh Water Development Board. Other public sector institutions, such as the Bangladesh Krishi Bank, the Bangladesh Rural Development Board, the Bangladesh Bank, and the Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation were also responsible for promotion and development of minor irrigation works in the private sector through government credit mechanisms.

[edit] Area and boundaries Area: total: 144,000 km² land: 133,910 km² water: 10,090 km² Area comparative: • • • •

Australia comparative: 1.5 times larger than Tasmania Canada comparative: twice the size of New Brunswick United Kingdom comparative: larger than England United States comparative: slightly smaller than Iowa

Land boundaries: total: 4,246 km border countries: Myanmar 193 km, India 4,053 km Coastline: 580 km Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 18 nautical miles (33 km)

continental shelf: up to the outer limits of the continental margin exclusive economic zone: 200 nautical miles (370 km) territorial sea: 12 nautical miles (22 km) Elevation extremes: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m highest point: In the Mowdok range at 1052m (at N 21°47'12" E 92°36'36"), NOT Keokradong (883 m not 1,230m) or Tajingdong, 985m not 1,280m as sometimes reported)

[edit] Resources and land use Natural resources: natural gas, arable land, timber Land use: Arable land: 73% Permanent crops: 2% Permanent pastures: 5% Forests and woodland: 15% other: 5% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 31,000 km² (1993 est.)

[edit] Environmental concerns Natural hazards: Cyclones; much of the country routinely swamped with water during the summer monsoon season Environment - current issues: many people are landless and forced to live on and cultivate flood-prone land; limited access to potable water; water-borne diseases prevalent; water pollution especially of fishing areas results from the use of commercial pesticides; intermittent water shortages because of falling water tables in the northern and central parts of the country; soil degradation; deforestation; severe overpopulation Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Plastic bag ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Law of the Ocean

Physical Overview Most of the areas of Bangladesh lies within the broad delta formed by the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers. Lands are exceedingly flat, low-lying, and subject to annual flooding. Much fertile, alluvial soil is deposited by the floodwaters. The only significant area of hilly terrain, constituting less than one-tenth of the nation's territory, is the Chittagong Hill Tracts in the narrow southeastern panhandle of the country. There, on the border with Burma, is Mowdok Mual (1003 m/3292 ft), the country's highest peak. Small, scattered hills lie along or near the eastern and northern borders with India. The eroded remnants of two old alluvial terraces-the Madhupur Tract, in the north central part of the country, and The Barind, straddling the northwestern boundary with India- attain elevations of about 30 m (about 100 ft). The soil here is much less fertile than the annually replenished alluvium of the surrounding floodplain. Land Total area: 144,000 square kilometers; Land area: 133,910 square kilometers Land boundaries: 4,246 km total; 193 km with Myanmar, 4,053 km with India, Coastline: 580 km. Land distribution: • • • • •

arable land 67% forest and woodland 16% permanent crops 2% meadows and pastures 4% others 11%

Rivers and Lakes Bangladesh is a land of rivers that crisscrossed throughout the mostly flat territories of the country. They include hundreds of brooks and a good number of big ones. The Ganges (Ganga) is known as the Padma below the point where it is joined by the Jamuna River, the name given to the lowermost portion of the main channel of the Brahmaputra. The combined stream is then called the Meghna below its confluence with a much smaller tributary of the same name. In the dry

Bangladesh Overview National Anthem National Flag Constitution Government Capital National Icons National Media Independence War History Geography Economy Currency People Education Art & Culture Language Religion Festivals Transportation Cities Districts Places of Interest Websites

Copyright © Bangla2000. All Rights Reserved.

Geography of Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search "Ceylon" redirects here. For other uses, see Ceylon (disambiguation). This article is currently subject to editing restrictions, following a dispute resolution consensus. Do not insert unreferenced text. Before changing anything that might be controversial, please report the issue at Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Sri Lanka Reconciliation. Please do not remove this message until the restrictions have been removed.

This article contains Indic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.

Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ‍

‍

–

இலங ைை ஜனநாய ை சம தத வ கடய ரச Flag

Coat of arms

Anthem: "Sri Lanka Matha" Music (help·info) , Singing (help·info)

Capital

Sri JayawardenapuraKotte[1][2]

6°54′N 79°54′E6.9°N 79.9°E

Largest city

Colombo

Official languages

Sinhala, Tamil

Language for inter-ethnic English communication ≈73.8% Sinhalese,[3] ≈13.9% Tamil,[4] ≈7.2% Moors,[5] ≈4.6% Indian Tamil,[6] ≈0.5% Others.[7]

Ethnic groups (2001)

Demonym

Sri Lankan Democratic Socialist Republic

Government - President

Mahinda Rajapaksa

- Prime Minister

Ratnasiri Wickremanayake Establishment

-

Independence from the United Kingdom

- Republic

February 4, 1948 May 22, 1972

Area - Total

65,610 km2 (122nd) 25,332 sq mi

- Water (%)

4.4 Population

- 2009 estimate

20,242,000[8] (52nd)

- July 2008 census

21,128,773

- Density

319/km2 (35th) 818/sq mi

GDP (PPP)

2008 estimate

- Total

$92.018 billion[9]

- Per capita

$4,581[9]

GDP (nominal)

2008 estimate

- Total

$39.604 billion[9]

- Per capita

$1,972[9]

Gini (1999–00)

33.2 (medium)

HDI (2007)

▼0.743 (medium) (99th)

Currency

Sri Lankan rupee (LKR)

Time zone

Sri Lanka Standard Time Zone (UTC+5:30)

Drives on the

left

Internet TLD

.lk

Calling code

94

Sri Lanka (from the Sanskrit “Venerable Island”), officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (pronounced /ˌʃriːˈlɑːŋkə/, Sinhalese: ශ්ර ‍ ී ලංකාව, Tamil: இலஙைை; known as Ceylon (/sɪˈlɒn/) before 1972 and as Taprobane (/tə ˈprɒbəniː/) in ancient times), is an island country in South Asia, located about 31 kilometres (19.3 mi) off the southern coast of India. It is home to around twenty million people. Because of its location in the path of major sea routes, Sri Lanka is a strategic naval link between West Asia and South East Asia, and has been a center of Buddhist religion and culture from ancient times. Today, the country is a multi-religious and multi-ethnic nation: more than a quarter of the population follows faiths other than Buddhism, notably Hinduism, Christianity and Islam. The Sinhalese community forms the majority of the population; Tamils, who are concentrated in the north and east of the island, form the largest ethnic minority. Other communities include Moors, Burghers, Kaffirs and the Malays. Famous for the production and export of tea, coffee, coconuts and rubber, Sri Lanka boasts a progressive and modern industrial economy and the highest per capita income in South Asia. The natural beauty of Sri Lanka's tropical forests, beaches and landscape, as well as its rich cultural heritage, make it a world famous tourist destination. After over two thousand years of rule by local kingdoms, parts of Sri Lanka were colonized by Portugal and the Netherlands beginning in the 16th century, before control

of the entire country was ceded to the British Empire in 1815. During World War II, Sri Lanka served as an important base for Allied forces in the fight against the Japanese Empire.[10] A nationalist political movement arose in the country in the early 20th century with the aim of obtaining political independence, which was eventually granted by the British after peaceful negotiations in 1948.

Contents [hide] • • • •

• •

• •

•

• • • •

• • • •

1 Name 2 Geography and climate 3 Flora and fauna 4 History o 4.1 Early periods o 4.2 Ancient Sri Lanka o 4.3 Colonial era o 4.4 20th Century and the World Wars o 4.5 Independence o 4.6 Civil War 5 Government and politics 6 Foreign relations and military o 6.1 Foreign relations o 6.2 Military o 6.3 Peace keeping 7 Economy 8 Administrative divisions o 8.1 Provinces o 8.2 Districts o 8.3 Cities 9 Demographics o 9.1 Language o 9.2 Religions 10 Education 11 Transport 12 Human rights 13 Culture and arts o 13.1 Traditional food o 13.2 Festivals o 13.3 Cinema o 13.4 Music 14 Media 15 Sports 16 See also 17 References

•

18 Further reading

•

19 External links

Name Main article: Names of Sri Lanka See also: List of country name etymologies In ancient times, Sri Lanka was known by a variety of names: ancient Greek geographers called it Taprobane[11] and Arabs referred to it as Serendib (the origin of the word "serendipity").[12] Ceilão was the name given to Sri Lanka by the Portuguese when they arrived in 1505,[13] which was transliterated into English as Ceylon.[14] In 1972, the official name of the country was changed to "Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka" (in Sinhala: śrī laṃkā, IPA: [ˌʃɾiːˈlaŋkaː]; whereas the island itself is referred to as ලංකාව laṃkāva, IPA: [laŋˈkaːʋə], in Tamil இலஙைை ilaṅkai, iˈlaŋɡai). In 1978 it was changed to "Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka".[15] The current name is derived from the Sanskrit word lanka, meaning "island",[16] which was also the name of the island as described in the ancient Indian epics Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The word "Sri" is a Sanskrit title meaning sacred.

Geography and climate Main article: Geography of Sri Lanka

Topographical map of Sri Lanka.

The island of Sri Lanka lies in the Indian Ocean, to the southwest of the Bay of Bengal and to the southeast of the Arabian Sea. It is separated from the Indian subcontinent by the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait. According to Hindu mythology, a land bridge to the Indian mainland, known as Rama's Bridge, was constructed during the time of Rama by the vanara architect Nala. Often referred to as Adam's Bridge, it now amounts to only a chain of limestone shoals remaining above sea level.[17] According to colonial British reports, this is a natural causeway which was formerly complete, but was breached by a violent storm in 1480.[18] The width of the Palk Strait is small enough for the coast of Sri Lanka to be visible from the furthest point near the Indian town of Rameswaram.[citation needed] The island consists mostly of flat-to-rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. Amongst these is the highest point Mount Pedro, reaching 2,524 metres (8,280 ft) above sea level. The climate of Sri Lanka can be described as tropical and warm. Its position between 5 and 10 north latitude endows the country with a warm climate moderated by ocean winds and considerable moisture. The mean temperature ranges from about 16 °C (61 °F) in the Central Highlands, where frost may occur for several days in the winter, to a maximum of approximately 33 °C (91 °F) in other low-altitude areas. The average yearly temperature ranges from 28 °C (82 °F) to nearly 31 °C (88 °F). Day and night temperatures may vary by 4 °C (39 °F) to 7 °C (45 °F). During the coldest days of January, many people wear coats and sweaters in the highlands and elsewhere. May, the hottest period, precedes the summer monsoon rains. The rainfall pattern is influenced by monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal: as the winds encounter the mountain slopes of the Central Highlands, they unload heavy rains on the slopes and the southwestern areas of the island. Some of the windward slopes receive up to 2,500 millimetres (98 in) of rain each month, but the leeward slopes in the east and northeast receive little rain. Periodic squalls occur and sometimes tropical cyclones bring overcast skies and rains to the southwest, northeast, and eastern parts of the island. Between December to March, monsoon winds come from the northeast, bringing moisture from the Bay of Bengal. Humidity is typically higher in the southwest and mountainous areas and depends on the seasonal patterns of rainfall, and places like Colombo experience daytime humidity above 70% all year round, rising to almost 90% during the monsoon season in June. Anuradhapura experiences a daytime low of 60% during the monsoon month of March, but a high of 79% during the November and December rains. In the highlands, Kandy's daytime humidity usually ranges between 70% and 79%.

Flora and fauna Main article: Ecology of Sri Lanka

Mountain forests in Sri Lanka. The mountains and the southwestern part of the country, known as the "wet zone", receive ample rainfall at an average of 2,500 mm (98 in). Most of the east, southeast, and northern parts of the country comprise the "dry zone", which receives between 1,200 mm (47 in) and 1,900 mm (75 in) of rain annually. Much of the rain in these areas falls from October to January; during the rest of the year there is very little precipitation. The arid northwest and southeast coasts receive the least amount of rain at 600 mm (24 in) to 1,200 mm (47 in) per year. Varieties of flowering acacias are well adapted to the arid conditions and flourish on the Jaffna Peninsula. Among the trees of the dry-land forests, are some valuable species such as satinwood, ebony, ironwood, mahogany and teak. In the wet zone, the dominant vegetation of the lowlands is a tropical evergreen forest, with tall trees, broad foliage, and a dense undergrowth of vines and creepers. Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those of temperate climates flourish in the higher altitudes. Forests at one time covered nearly the entire island, but by the late 20th century lands classified as forests and forest reserves covered around ⅓ of the land.[19] The Yala National Park in the southeast protects herds of elephant, deer, and peacocks, and the Wilpattu National Park in the northwest preserves the habitats of many water birds, such as storks, pelicans, ibis, and spoonbills. During the Mahaweli Ganga Program of the 1970s and 1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the government set aside four areas of land totaling 1,900 km2 (730 sq mi) as national parks. The island has four biosphere reserves, Bundala, the Hurulu, the Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya, and Sinharaja.[20] The national flower of Sri Lanka is the Nymphaea stellata (Sinhalese Nil Mahanel),[21] the national tree is the Ironwood (Sinhalese Na),[22] and the national bird is the Sri Lanka Junglefowl, which is endemic to the country.[23]

History Main article: History of Sri Lanka

Early periods

Sigiriya Rock Fortress. Paleolithic human settlements have been discovered at excavations in several cave sites in the Western Plains region and the South-western face of the Central Hills region. Anthropologists believe that some discovered burial rites and certain decorative artifacts exhibit similarities between the first inhabitants of the island and the early inhabitants of Southern India. Recent bioanthropological studies have however dismissed these links, and have placed the origin of the people to the northern parts of India. One of the first written references to the island is found in the Indian epic Ramayana, which described the emperor Ravana as monarch of the powerful kingdom of Lanka, which was created by the divine sculptor Vishwakarma for Kubera, the treasurer of the Gods.[24] English historian James Emerson Tennent also theorized Galle, a southern city in Sri Lanka, was the ancient seaport of Tarshish from which King Solomon is said to have drawn ivory, peacocks and other valuables. The main written accounts of the country's history are the Buddhist chronicles of Mahavansa and Dipavamsa.

Sri Lankan coin, 1st century CE. The earliest-known inhabitants of the island now known as Sri Lanka were probably the ancestors of the Wanniyala-Aetto people, also known as Veddahs and numbering roughly 3,000. Linguistic analysis has found a correlation of the Sinhalese language with the languages of the Sindh and Gujarat, although most historians believe that the Sinhala community emerged well after the assimilation of various ethnic groups. From the ancient period date some remarkable archaeological sites including the ruins of Sigiriya, the so-called "Fortress in the Sky", and huge public works. Among the latter are large "tanks" or reservoirs, important for conserving water in a climate that alternates rainy

seasons with dry times, and elaborate aqueducts, some with a slope as finely calibrated as one inch to the mile. Ancient Sri Lanka was also the first in the world to have established a dedicated hospital in Mihintale in the 4th century BCE. Ancient Sri Lanka was also the world's leading exporter of cinnamon, which was exported to Egypt as early as 1400 BCE. Sri Lanka was also the first Asian nation to have a female ruler in Queen Anula (47–42 BC).

Ancient Sri Lanka

Sanghamitta arriving in Sri Lanka with the Holy Bodhi Tree. Since ancient times Sri Lanka was ruled by monarchs, most notably of the Sinha royal dynasty that lasted over 2000 years. The island was also infrequently invaded by South Indian kingdoms and parts of the island were ruled intermittently by the Chola dynasty, the Pandya dynasty, the Chera dynasty and the Pallava dynasty. The island was also invaded by the kingdoms of Kalinga (modern Orissa) and those from the Malay Peninsula. Buddhism arrived from India in the 3rd century BCE, brought by Bhikkhu Mahinda, who is believed to have been the son of Mauryan emperor Ashoka. Mahinda's mission won over the Sinhalese monarch Devanampiyatissa of Mihintale, who embraced the faith and propagated it throughout the Sinhalese population. The Buddhist kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain a large number of Buddhist schools and monasteries, and support the propagation of Buddhism into Southeast Asia.

Colonial era Sri Lanka had always been an important port and trading post in the ancient world, and was increasingly frequented by merchant ships from the Middle East, Persia, Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and other parts of Southeast Asia. The islands were known to the first European explorers of South Asia and settled by many groups of Arab and Malay merchants. A Portuguese colonial mission arrived on the island in 1505 headed by Lourenço de Almeida the son of Francisco de Almeida. At that point the island consisted of three kingdoms, namely Kandy in the central hills, Kotte at the Western coast, and

Yarlpanam (Anglicised Jaffna) in the north. The Dutch arrived in the 17th century. Although much of the island came under the domain of European powers, the interior, hilly region of the island remained independent, with its capital in Kandy. The British East India Company established control of the island in 1796, declaring it a crown colony in 1802, although the island would not be officially connected with British India. The fall of the kingdom of Kandy in 1815 unified the island under British rule.

20th Century and the World Wars European colonists established a series of tea, cinnamon, rubber, sugar, coffee and indigo plantations. The British also brought a large number of indentured workers from Tamil Nadu to work in the plantation economy. The city of Colombo was established as the administrative centre, and the British established modern schools, colleges, roads and churches that brought Western-style education and culture to the native people. Increasing grievances over the denial of civil rights, mistreatment and abuse of natives by colonial authorities gave rise to a struggle for independence in the 1930s, when the Youth Leagues opposed the "Ministers' Memorandum," which asked the colonial authority to increase the powers of the board of ministers without granting popular representation or civil freedoms. Buddhist scholars and the Teetotalist Movement also played a vital role in this time. During World War II, the island served as an important Allied military base. A large segment of the British and American fleet were deployed on the island, as were tens of thousands of soldiers committed to the war against Japan in Southeast Asia.

Independence

The formal ceremony marking the start of self rule, with the opening of the first parliament at Independence Square. Following the war, popular pressure for independence intensified. The office of Prime Minister of Ceylon was created in advance of independence on 14 October 1947, Don Stephen Senanayake being the first prime minister. On February 4, 1948 the country won its independence as the Commonwealth of Ceylon. On July 21, 1960 Sirimavo Bandaranaike took office as prime minister, and became the world's first female prime minister and the first female head of government in post-colonial Asia. In 1972, during Sirimavo Bandaranaike's second term as prime minister, the country became a republic within the Commonwealth, and the name was changed to Sri Lanka. The island enjoyed

good relations with the United Kingdom and had the British Royal Navy stationed at Trincomalee.

Civil War Main articles: Sri Lankan Civil War and Sinhala Only Act One of the aspect of the independence movement was that it was very much of Sinhalese movement. As a result, majority Sinhalese try to remodel Sri Lanka as a Shinhalese nation state. The lion in the national flag is derived from the banner of the last Shinhalese Kingdom, which, to the majority Shinhalese, is a symbol of their fight against British colonialism. One single strip of orange in the flat represent Tamil and it is seen by many Tamil as a symbol of their marginalisation.[1] In 1956, the Official Language Act (commonly known as The Sinhala Only Act) was enacted. The law mandated Sinhala, the language of Sri Lanka's majority Sinhalese community, which is spoken by over 70% of Sri Lanka's population, as the sole official language of Sri Lanka. Supporters of the law saw it as an attempt by a community that had just gained independence to distance themselves from their colonial masters. Immediate (and intended) consequence of this act was to force large number of Tamil in civil service who cannot meet this language requirement to resign. Attempt to make Buddhism as the national religion, in exclusion of Hindu and Islam was also made. Affirmative action in favour of Shinhalese, in a similar line to Malaysia, was also instituted, ostensibly to reverse colonial discrimination against Shinhalese in favour of Tamil. Many Tamil, in response to these deliberate marginalisation, came to believe that they deserve a separate nation state for themselves. From 1983 to 2009, there was an on-and-off civil war, predominantly between the government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), a separatist militant organization who fought to create an independent state named Tamil Eelam in the North and East of the island. This has in turn resulted in ethnic cleansing of Muslim and Shinhalese from the area which Tigers claim to be Tamil Eelam. Both the Sri Lankan government and LTTE has been accused for various human right violations. However, number of notorious atrocities committed by LTTE, including suicide bombing, forced conscription of child soldier and ethnic cleansing of non Tamil cause many countries to classify LTTE as a terrorist organisation. On May 19, 2009 the President of Sri Lanka officially claimed end of the Civil War and the defeat of the LTTE following the death of its leader and much of its senior leadership.[25]

Government and politics

The Supreme Court of Sri Lanka, Colombo. Main articles: Government of Sri Lanka, Constitution of Sri Lanka, and Politics of Sri Lanka See also: Foreign relations of Sri Lanka The Constitution of Sri Lanka establishes a democratic, socialist republic in Sri Lanka, which is also a unitary state. The government is a mixture of the presidential system and the parliamentary system. The President of Sri Lanka is the head of state, the commander in chief of the armed forces, as well as head of government, and is popularly elected for a six-year term. In the exercise of duties, the President is responsible to the Parliament of Sri Lanka, which is a unicameral 225-member legislature. The President appoints and heads a cabinet of ministers composed of elected members of parliament. The President's deputy is the Prime Minister, who leads the ruling party in parliament and shares many executive responsibilities, mainly in domestic affairs.[26] Members of parliament are elected by universal (adult) suffrage based on a modified proportional representation system by district to a six-year term. The primary modification is that, the party that receives the largest number of valid votes in each constituency gains a unique "bonus seat." The president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session and dissolve Parliament any time after it has served for one year. The parliament reserves the power to make all laws. On July 1, 1960 the people of Sri Lanka elected the first-ever female head of government in Prime Minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike. Her daughter Chandrika Kumaratunga served multiple terms as prime minister and as president from 1999 to 2005. The current president and prime minister, both of whom took office on November 21, 2005, are Mahinda Rajapaksa and Ratnasiri Wickremanayake respectively. Sri Lanka has enjoyed democracy with universal suffrage since 1931. Politics in Sri Lanka are controlled by rival coalitions led by the left-wing Sri Lanka Freedom Party, headed by President Rajapaksa, the comparatively right-wing United National Party led by former prime minister Ranil Wickremesinghe and JVP. There are also many smaller Buddhist, socialist and Tamil nationalist political parties that oppose the separatism of the LTTE but demand regional autonomy and increased civil rights. Since 1948, Sri Lanka has been a member of the Commonwealth of Nations and the United Nations. It is also a member of the Non-Aligned Movement, the Colombo Plan, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation. Through the Cold War-era, Sri Lanka followed a foreign policy of non-alignment but has remained closer to the United States and Western Europe. The military of Sri Lanka comprises the

Sri Lankan Army, the Sri Lankan Navy and the Sri Lankan Air Force. These are administered by the Ministry of Defence. Since the 1980s, the army has led the government response against the Marxist militants of the JVP and now the LTTE militant forces. Sri Lanka receives considerable military assistance from Pakistan and China.[27] Sri Lanka was considered one of the "world's most politically unstable countries" by the World Bank and Asian Development Bank in 2004.[28] The Economist labels Sri Lanka a "flawed democracy" in its 2006 rankings (ranking 57 and positioned among 54 other flawed ranked ones)[29] and Foreign Policy ranks Sri Lanka 25th (Alert Category) in its Failed States Index for 2007.[30] However, Sri Lanka, according to the US State Department in 2005, was classified a "stable democracy" amidst a ceasefire period of the long running civil war.[31][dead link]

Foreign relations and military

Sri Lanka Armoured Corps on parade.

Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of Sri Lanka See also: South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and Non-Aligned Movement Sri Lanka traditionally follows a nonaligned foreign policy but has been seeking closer relations with the United States since December 1977. It participates in multilateral diplomacy, particularly at the United Nations, where it seeks to promote sovereignty, independence, and development in the developing world. Sri Lanka was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). It also is a member of the Commonwealth, the SAARC, the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Asian Development Bank, and the Colombo Plan. Sri Lanka continues its active participation in the NAM, while also stressing the importance it places on regionalism by playing a strong role in SAARC.

Military Main article: Sri Lanka Armed Forces

The Sri Lanka Armed Forces, comprising the Sri Lanka Army, the Sri Lanka Navy and the Sri Lanka Air Force, comes under the purview of the Ministry of Defence (MoD). The total strength of the three services is around 230,000 active personnel who have voluntary joined, since military draft have never been imposed in Sri Lanka. The Sri Lanka Armed Forces are currently in a fully mobilized (including reserves) state due to the ongoing Sri Lankan Civil War against the LTTE which is proscribed as a terrorist organization by 32 countries. In support of the armed forces there are two paramilitary units functioning under purview of the Ministry of Defence, which are the Special Task Force and the Civil Defence Force. Sri Lanka does not have a Coast Guard; its Navy carries out such duties. However, discussions are underway with respect to establishing a coast guard service. Since independence from Britain in 1948, the primary focus of the armed forces has been on internal security, due to three major insurgencies, most notably engaged in the 30-year long war with the LTTE and finally claimed victory at 19 May 2009 after the death of LTTE leader Velupillai Prabhakaran which took place at 18 May 2009 by a Sri Lanka army attack.

Peace keeping Even though its armed forces are engaged in an internal conflict, Sri Lanka contributes with forces in international missions organised by the United Nations, notably the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti.

Economy Main article: Economy of Sri Lanka See also: Tea industry of Sri Lanka and Tourism in Sri Lanka

The Colombo World Trade Center in Colombo. In the 19th and 20th Centuries, Sri Lanka became a plantation economy, famous for its production and export of cinnamon, rubber and Ceylon tea, which remains a trademark national export. The development of modern ports under British rule raised the strategic importance of the island as a centre of trade. During World War II, the island hosted important military installations and Allied forces. However, the plantation economy aggravated poverty and economic inequality. From 1948 to 1977 socialism strongly influenced the government's economic policies. Colonial plantations were dismantled, industries were nationalised and a welfare state established. While the standard of living and literacy improved significantly, the nation's economy suffered from inefficiency, slow

growth and lack of foreign investment. From 1977 the UNP government began incorporating privatisation, deregulation and promotion of private enterprise. While the production and export of tea, rubber, coffee, sugar and other agricultural commodities remains important, the nation has moved steadily towards an industrialised economy with the development of food processing, textiles, telecommunications and finance. By 1996 plantation crops made up only 20% of export, and further declined to 16.8% in 2005 (compared with 93% in 1970), while textiles and garments have reached 63%. The GDP grew at an average annual rate of 5.5% during the early 1990s, until a drought and a deteriorating security situation lowered growth to 3.8% in 1996. The economy rebounded in 1997-2000, with average growth of 5.3%. The year of 2001 saw the first recession in the country's history, as a result of power shortages, budgetary problems, the global slowdown, and continuing civil strife. Signs of recovery appeared after the 2002 ceasefire. The Colombo Stock Exchange reported the highest growth in the world for 2003, and today Sri Lanka has the highest per capita income in South Asia.

The well known export of Sri Lanka, the Ceylon tea. In April 2004, there was a sharp reversal in economic policy after the government headed by Ranil Wickremesinghe of the United National Party was defeated by a coalition made up of Sri Lanka Freedom Party and the leftist-nationalist Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna called the United People's Freedom Alliance. The new government stopped the privatization of state enterprises and reforms of state utilities such as power and petroleum, and embarked on a subsidy program called the Rata Perata economic program. Its main theme to support the rural and suburban SMEs and protect the domestic economy from external influences, such as oil prices, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Sri Lanka, with an income per head of US$1,400, still lags behind some of its neighbors including Maldives and Mauritius but is ahead of its giant neighbor India. Its economy grew by an average of 5% during the 1990s during the 'War for Peace' era. According to the Sri Lankan central bank statistics, the economy was estimated to have grown by 7% last year, while inflation reached 20%. Parts of Sri Lanka, particularly the South and East coast, were devastated by the 2004 Asian Tsunami. The economy was briefly buoyed by an influx of foreign aid and tourists, but this was disrupted with the reemergence of the civil war resulting in increased lawlessness in the country[32] and a sharp decline in tourism.[33][34]

Administrative divisions

Bay of Bengal Palk Strait Northern Province Gulf of Mannar North Central Province North Western Province Eastern Province Central Province Uva Province Western Province Sabaragamuwa Province Southern Province Indian Ocean

Main articles: Provinces of Sri Lanka, Districts of Sri Lanka, Divisional Secretariats of Sri Lanka, and List of cities in Sri Lanka

Provinces The Provinces of Sri Lanka (Sinhala: පළාත) have existed since the 19th century but they didn't have any legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment to the 1978 Constitution of Sri Lanka established provincial councils following several decades of increasing demand for a decentralization of the Government of Sri Lanka.[35] Between 1988 and 2006 the Northern and Eastern provinces were temporarily merged to form the North-East Province. Prior to 1987, all administration was handled by a district-based civil service which had been in place since colonial times. Sri Lanka is divided into 9 provinces[36] and 25 districts.[37] Each province is administered by a directly-elected provincial council: province Central Eastern North Central Northern

Capital Kandy Trincomalee Anuradhapura Jaffna

Area Population (km²) 5,674 2,423,966 9,996 1,460,939 10,714 1,104,664 8,884 1,311,776

North Western Sabaragamuwa Southern Uva Western

Kurunegala Ratnapura Galle Badulla Colombo

7,812 4,902 5,559 8,488 3,709

2,169,892 1,801,331 2,278,271 1,177,358 5,361,200

Districts The provinces of Sri Lanka are divided into 25 districts (Sinhala: දිස්ත්‍රි‍කක ්‍ sing. දිස්ත්‍රික්කය). Each district is administered under a District Secretariat. The districts are further subdivided into divisional secretariats, and these in turn to Grama Sevaka divisions. The Districts are known in Sinhala as Disa. Originally a Disa (usually rendered into English as Dissavony) was a duchy, notably Matale and Uva. The Government Agent, who administers a district. These were originally based on the feudal counties, the korales and ratas. They were formerly known as 'D.R.O. Divisions' after the 'Divisional Revenue Officer'. Later the D.R.O.s became 'Assistant Government Agents' and the Divisions were known as 'A.G.A. Divisions'. Currently, the Divisions are administered by a 'Divisional Secretary', and are known as a 'D.S. Divisions'. Rural D.S. Divisions are also administered by a 'Pradeshiya Sabha' (Sinhala for 'Regional Council'), which is elected.

Cities Cities by population

R ank

City

Provin Populati R ce on ank

City

Provin Populati ce on

1

Colombo Wester 682 046 n

11 Galle

Southe rn

2

Dehiwala Wester 232 220 -Mount n Lavinia

12 Batticaloa

Eastern 95 489

3

Moratuw Wester 202 021 a n

13 Katunayake Wester n

90 231

4

Negambo Wester 142 451 n

14 Battaramull Wester a n

84 200

5

Trincoma Eastern 131 954 lee

15 Dambulla

Central 75 290

6

Kotte

Wester 125 914 n

16 Dalugama

Wester n

74 129

7

Kandy

Central 119 186

17 Maharagam Wester a n

74 117

8

Kalmuna Eastern 103 879 i

18 Kotikawatta Wester n

71 879

9

Vavuniya Northe 101 143 rn

19 Chavakachc Northe heri rn

70 273

10 Jaffna

Northe rn

98 193

20 Anuradhap ura

view • talk • edit

97 209

Colombo, Western Province

Kandy, Central Province

North 66 951 Central

2009 estimation[38]

Demographics Main article: Demographics of Sri Lanka See also: Sri Lankan people, Ethnic groups of Sri Lanka, and Ethnic groups of South Asia Population growth in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka is the 53rd most populated nation in the world, with an annual population growth rate of 0.79%. Sri Lanka has a birth rate of 15.63 births per 1,000 people and a death rate of 6.49 deaths per 1,000 people. Population density is the greatest in western Sri Lanka, especially in and around Colombo. There is a small population on the island of the Vedda people. These are believed to be the oldest and indigenous ethnic group to inhabit the island. The Sinhalese people form the largest ethnic group in the nation, composing approximately 81.9% of the total population. Tamils are concentrated in the North, East, Central and Western provinces of the country. Tamils who were brought as indentured labourers from India by British colonists to work on estate plantations, nearly 50% of whom were repatriated following independence in 1948,[39][page needed] are called

"Indian Origin" Tamils. They are distinguished from the native Tamil population that has resided in Sri Lanka since ancient times. According to 2001 census data Indian Tamils makeup 5.1% of the Sri Lankan population and, Sri Lankan Tamils 4.3% but this figure only accounted for Sri Lankan Tamils in government-controlled areas, not accounting for those in rebel-held territories. The World Factbook states that Sri Lankan Tamils make up 14% of the population. There is a significant population (8.0%) of Moors, who trace their lineage to Arab traders and immigrants from the Middle East. Their presence is concentrated in the cities and the central and eastern provinces. There are also small ethnic groups such as the Burghers (of mixed European descent) and Malays from Southeast Asia.

Language Main article: Languages of Sri Lanka Sinhalese and Tamil are the two official languages of Sri Lanka. English is spoken by approximately 10% of the population, and is widely used for education, scientific and commercial purposes. Members of the Burgher community speak variant forms of Portuguese Creole and Dutch with varying proficiency, while members of the Malay community speak a form of creole Malay that is unique to the island.

Religions

Buddhism is followed by about 70% of the population

The Nallur Kandaswamy Kovil, Jaffna is an important place for Hindus in Sri Lanka Main article: Religion in Sri Lanka Sri Lanka has a multi ethnic and multi religious population. Buddhism constitutes the religious faith of about 70% of the population of the island,[40][41] most of whom follow the Theravada school of Buddhism.[42] According to traditional Sri Lankan chronicles, Buddhism was introduced into Sri Lanka in the 2nd century BCE by Venerable Mahinda, the son of the Emperor Ashoka, during the reign of Sri Lanka's King

Devanampiyatissa.[42] During this time, a sapling of the Bodhi Tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment was brought to Sri Lanka and the first monasteries were established under the sponsorship of the Sri Lankan king. The Pali Canon (Thripitakaya), having previously been preserved as an oral tradition, was first committed to writing in Sri Lanka around 30 BC.[43] Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any predominately Buddhist nation,[42] with the Sangha having existed in a largely unbroken lineage since its introduction in the 2nd century BCE. During periods of decline, the Sri Lankan monastic lineage was revived through contact with Thailand and Burma.[43] Periods of Mahayana influence, as well as official neglect under colonial rule, created great challenges for Theravada Buddhist institutions in Sri Lanka, but repeated revivals and resurgences — most recently in the 19th century — have kept the Theravada tradition alive for over 2000 years.

The Jami Ul Alfar mosque in Colombo. Islam was brought to Sri Lanka by Arab Merchants Sri Lanka religiosity religion

percent

Buddhism

 

70%

Hinduism

 

15%

Christianity

 

8%

Islam

 

7%

The second largest religion is Hinduism. Hinduism was primarily established in Sri Lanka by migrants and often invaders from southern India,[44] and Hindus now constitute seven to fifteen percent of the population,[41][45] mostly of the Shaivite school.[citation needed] Followers of Islam comprise approximately eight percent of the population,[41] having been brought to the island by Arab traders over the course of many centuries[46] European colonists introduced Christianity to the country in the 16th century,[47] and the religion has been adopted by around six percent of the population.[41] There also was a small population of Zoroastrian immigrants from India (Parsis) who settled in Ceylon during the period of British rule. As a result of emigration, few remain, yet they have played a significant role in the growth of the country. The former finance minister of Sri Lanka, Nariman Choksy, was a Parsi. Other famous Parsi families in Sri Lanka include the Captain family and the Pestongee family. Religion plays an important part in the life and culture of Sri Lankans. The Buddhist majority observe Poya Days, once per month according to the Lunar calendar. The Hindus and Muslims also observe their own holidays. There are many Buddhist temples in Sri Lanka and many mosques, Hindu temples and churches across the island, especially in areas where respective communities are concentrated. Buddhists are distributed across most parts of the island except in the north. Hindus are concentrated in north, east, and central high lands. Christians, particularly Roman Catholics are mainly concentrated along the western coastal belt. Muslims are concentrated in several pockets along the coast and in interior. All religious communities are represented in western province and in other urban centers in sizable numbers.

Education Main article: Education in Sri Lanka

University of Colombo

University of Peradeniya

With a literacy rate of 92%, and 83% of the total population having had Secondary Education,[48] Sri Lanka has one of the most literate populations amongst developing nations.[49] An education system which dictates 9 years of Compulsory Schooling for every child is in place, with 99% of the children entering the first grade.[48] A free education system initiated in 1945[50] by Dr. C. W. W. Kannangara, a former minister of education, has greatly contributed to this. Mr. Kannangara led the establishment of the Madhya Maha Vidyalayas (Central Schools) in different parts of the country in order to provide education to Sri Lanka's rural population. In 1942 a special education committee proposed extensive reforms to establish an efficient and quality education system for the people. However in the 1980s changers to this system saw the separation the of administration of schools between the central government and the provincial government. Thus the elite National Schools are controlled directly by the Ministry of Education and the provincial schools by the provincial government. Most schools in Sri Lanka provide education from grades 1 to 13 in the same institution. Students sit for the GCE Ordinary Level Examination (O/Levels) in grade 11 and the GCE Advanced Level Examination (A/levels) in grade 13, conducted by the Department of Examinations. These schools are modeled on British colleges. A majority of them are public, but a number of private schools do exist. While most reputed National and Private Schools centered around large cities are usually single-sex institutions, rural provincial schools tend to be coeducational. In recent decades, a large number of international schools have been established across the nation. In these schools General Certificate of Secondary Education, International Baccalaureate and Cambridge International Examinations are popular education programs. See also: List of schools in Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka Institute of Information Technology Sri Lanka has around 16 public universities. They include the University of Colombo, the University of Peradeniya, the University of Kelaniya, the University of Sri Jayewardenepura, the University of Moratuwa, the University of Peradeniya, the University of Jaffna, the University of Ruhuna, the Eastern University of Sri Lanka, the Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka and the Wayamba University of Sri Lanka. However the lack of space in these institutions and the unwillingness to establish private universities has led to a large number of students been denied entry into formal universities as well as high undergraduate unemployment. As a result, a number of public and private institutions have emerged, which provide specialised education in a variety of

fields, such as computer science, business administration and law. These include the government owned Sri Lanka Institute of Information Technology and the Institute of Technological Studies. See also: Universities in Sri Lanka

Transport Main article: Transport in Sri Lanka

Colombo-Galle Face Green Most Sri Lankan cities and towns are connected by the Sri Lanka Railways, the state-run national railway operator. The first railway line was inaugurated on April 26, 1867, linking Colombo with Kandy. The total length of Sri Lankan roads exceeds 11,000 kilometres (6,840 mi), with a vast majority of them being paved. The government has launched several highway projects to bolster the economy and national transport system, including the Colombo-Katunayake Expressway, the Colombo-Kandy (Kadugannawa) Expressway, the Colombo-Padeniya Expressway and the Outer Circular Highway to ease Colombo's traffic congestion. There are also plans to build a major bridge connecting Jaffna to the Indian city of Chennai. The Ceylon Transport Board is the state-run agency responsible for operating public bus services across the island. Sri Lanka also maintains 430 kilometres (270 mi) of inland waterways. It has three deep-water ports at Colombo, Trincomalee and Galle. There is also a smaller, shallower harbour at Kankesanturai, north of Jaffna. There are twelve paved airports and two unpaved airstrips in the country. SriLankan Airlines is the official national carrier, partly owned and operated by Emirates Airline. It was voted the best airline in South Asia by Skytrax. SriLankan Air Taxi is the smaller, domestic arm of the national carrier, while Expo Aviation and Lankair are private airline companies. The Bandaranaike International Airport is the country's only international airport, located in Katunayaka, 22 kilometres (14 mi) north of Colombo.

Human rights Main article: Human rights in Sri Lanka

The human Rights situation in Sri Lanka has come under criticism by human rights groups such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch,[51] as well as the United States Department of State[52] and the European Union,[53] have expressed concern about the state of human rights in Sri Lanka. Both the the separatist Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) and the government of Sri Lanka are accused of violating human rights. In its 2007 report, however, Amnesty International stated that "escalating political killings, child recruitment, abductions and armed clashes created a climate of fear in the east, spreading to the north by the end of the year", whilst also outlining concerns with violence against women, the death penalty and "numerous reports of torture in police custody". However, the report also stated that the ceasefire between government and LTTE remained in place despite numerous violations.[54] However, the Sri Lankan minister for HR said "We regret one or two statements made here, that fly in the face of all concrete evidence, that the situation in Sri Lanka is deteriorating, when we have dealt more firmly with terrorism, with far-less damage to civilians, than in any comparative situation."[55] Foreign Minister Rohitha Bogollagama said, the report presents a distorted view of the actual situation in Sri Lanka during the year 2007 and is a litany of unsubstantiated allegations, innuendo and vituperative exaggerations.[56] Sri Lanka's government is labeled as one of the "world's worst perpetrators of enforced disappearances", according to a study by US-based pressure group 'Human Rights Watch' (HRW). An HRW report accuses security forces and pro-government militias of abducting and "disappearing" hundreds of people - mostly Tamils - since 2006. Sri Lanka's government says HRW has exaggerated the scale of the problem. The report said, "The number of disappearances carried out by the Tamil Tigers in government-controlled areas was relatively low. But, the Tigers were responsible for targeted killings, forced child recruitment, bomb attacks on civilians and the repression of basic rights in areas they controlled."[57]

Culture and arts

kavadi by Hindu Devotess at Vavuniya See also: Religion in Sri Lanka, Sri Lankan Buddhism, Hinduism in Sri Lanka, and Islam in Sri Lanka Main article: Culture of Sri Lanka

The Buddha statue at Mihintale. The island is the home of two main traditional cultures: the Sinhalese (centered in the ancient cities of Kandy and Anuradhapura) and the Tamil (centered in the city of Jaffna). In more recent times a British colonial culture was added, and lately Sri Lanka, particularly in the urban areas, has experienced a dramatic makeover in the western mold. Until recently, for example, most Sri Lankans, certainly those in the villages, have eaten traditional food, engaged in traditional crafts and expressed themselves through traditional arts. But economic growth and intense economic competition in developed countries has spilled over to most of Sri Lanka, producing changes that might variously be identified as progress, westernisation or a loss of identity and assimilation.

Traditional food

Rice and Prawns. Sri Lankans have added western influences to the customary diet such as rice and curry, pittu (mixture of fresh rice meal, very lightly roasted and mixed with fresh grated coconut, then steamed in a bamboo mould). Kiribath (cooked in thick coconut cream for this unsweetened rice-pudding which is accompanied by a sharp chili relish called "lunumiris"), wattalapam (rich pudding of Malay origin made of coconut milk, jaggery, cashew nuts, eggs, and various spices including cinnamon cloves and nutmeg), kottu, and hoppers ("appa"), batter cooked rapidly in a hot curved pan, accompanied by eggs, milk or savouries. Middle Eastern influences and practices are found in traditional Moor dishes. While Dutch and Portuguese influences are found with the island's Burgher community preserving their culture through traditional favourites such as Lamprais (rice cooked in stock and baked in a banana leaf), Breudher (Dutch Christmas cake) and Bolo Fiado (Portuguese-style layer cake).

Festivals

Main article: Sri Lankan festivals

Elephants at the Esala Perahera. Every year on or about April 13 Sinhala and Tamil people celebrate Sinhala and Tamil New Year Festival, and Muslims celebrate Ramadan. Esala Perahera (A-suh-luh pehruh-ha-ruh) is the grand festival of Esala held in Sri Lanka. It is very grand with elegant costumes. Happening in July or August in Kandy, it has become a unique symbol of Sri Lanka. It is a Buddhist festival consisting of dances and richly-decorated elephants. There are fire-dances, whip-dances, Kandian dances and various other cultural dances. The elephants are usually adorned with lavish garments. The festival ends with the traditional 'diya-kepeema'. The elephant is paraded around the city bearing the tooth of Buddha. However the new year for tamils have been established as being on January 14 from this year.

Cinema

Kadawunu Poronduwa 1947 Sri Lankan cinema in past years has featured subjects such as family relationships, love stories and the years of conflict between the military and Tamil Tiger rebels. Many films

are in the Sinhalese language and the Sri Lankan cinematic style is similar to Indian cinema. The first film to be produced and shown in Sri Lanka was Kadawunu Poronduwa (The Broken Promise) which was released in 1947. The first colour film of Sri Lanka was Ranmuthu Duwa. Afterwards there were many Sinhalese movies produced in Sri Lanka and some of them, such as Nidhanaya, received several international film awards. The most influential filmmaker in the history of Sri Lankan cinema is Lester James Peiris who has directed many movies of excellent quality which led to global acclaim. His latest film, Wekande Walauwa ("Mansion by the Lake") became the first movie to be submitted from Sri Lanka for the Best Foreign Language film award at the Academy Awards. In 2005 the director Vimukthi Jayasundara became the first Sri Lankan to win the prestigious Camera d’Or award for Best First Film, or any award for that matter, at the Cannes Film Festival for his Sinhalese language film Sulanga Enu Pinisa (The Forsaken Land). Controversial filmmaker Asoka Handagama's films are considered by many in the Sri Lankan film world to be the best films of honest response to the ethnic conflict currently raging in the country. Prasanna Vithanage is one of Sri Lanka's most notable filmmakers. His films have won many awards, both local and international. Recent releases like 'Sooriya Arana', 'Samanala thatu', and 'Hiripoda wessa' have attracted Sri Lankans to cinemas. Sri Lankan films are usually in the Sinhalese language. Tamil language movies are also filmed in Sri Lanka but they are not part of Kollywood which is Indian Tamil cinema. However some Kollywood films are based in Sri Lanka as well.

Music Main article: Music of Sri Lanka The earliest music came from the theater at a time when the traditional open-air drama (referred to in Sinhala as Kolam, Sokari and Nadagam). In 1903 the first music album, Nurthi, was released through Radio Ceylon. Also Vernon Corea introduced Sri Lankan music in the English Service of Radio Ceylon. In the early 1960s, Indian music in films greatly influenced Sri Lankan music and later Sri Lankan stars like Sunil Shantha found greater popularity among Indian people. By 1963, Radio Ceylon had more Indian listeners than Sri Lankan ones. The notable songwriters Mahagama Sekara and Ananda Samarakoon made a Sri Lankan music revolution. At the peak of this revolution, musicians such as W. D. Amaradeva, H.R. Jothipala, Milton Mallawarachchi, M.S. Fernando, Annesley Malewana and Clarence Wijewardene did great work. A very popular type of music is the so-called Baila, a kind of dance music that originated from Portuguese music introduced to the island in colonial times.

See also: Ceylon tea (black), Cuisine of Sri Lanka, Dances of Sri Lanka, Fashion Industry of Sri Lanka, Cinema of Sri Lanka, and Music of Sri Lanka

Media Main article: Media in Sri Lanka See also: List of newspapers in Sri Lanka and List of television networks in Sri Lanka The national radio station, Radio Ceylon is the oldest-running radio station in Asia.[58][59] It was established in 1923 by Edward Harper just three years after broadcasting was launched in Europe.[60] It remains one of the most popular stations in Asia, with its programming reaching neighboring Asian nations. The station is managed by the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation and broadcasts services in Sinhalese, Tamil, English and Hindi. Since the 1980s, a large number of private radio stations have also being introduced, and they have gained commercial popularity and success. Broadcast television was introduced to the country in 1979 when the Independent Television Network was launched. Initially all Television stations were state controlled, but private television networks began broadcasts in 1992.[61] Global television networks from India, Southeast Asia, Europe and the United States are also widely popular, and cable and satellite television is gaining in popularity with Sri Lanka's middle-class. Popular publications include the English language Daily Mirror and The Sunday Observer and The Sunday Times, Divayina, Lankadeepa and Lakbima in Sinhalese and the Tamil publications Dinakaran and Uthayan.

Sports Main article: Sport in Sri Lanka See also: Cricket in Sri Lanka

A Test match between Sri Lanka and England at the SCC Ground, Colombo, March 2001. While the national sport in Sri Lanka is volleyball,[62] by far the most popular sport in the country is cricket.[62] Rugby union also enjoys extensive popularity, as do aquatic sports, athletics, Football (soccer) and tennis. Sri Lanka's schools and colleges regularly organize sports and athletics teams, competing on provincial and national levels. The Sri Lankan cricket team achieved considerable success beginning in the 1990s, rising from underdog status to winning the 1996 World Cup,[63] as well as the Asia Cup in 1996 and 2004. Sri Lanka remains one of the leading cricketing nations in the world, with the national team reaching the finals of Cricket World Cup 2007, where they lost to Australia.[64]

Sri Lanka has a large number of sports stadiums, including the Sinhalese Sports Club Ground, the R. Premadasa Stadium and the Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium in Dambulla as well as the Galle International Stadium. The country co-hosted the 1996 Cricket World Cup with India and Pakistan, and has hosted the Asia Cup tournament on numerous occasions. It will also co-host the 2011 Cricket World Cup. Aquatic sports such as boating, surfing, swimming and scuba diving on the coast, the beaches and backwaters attract a large number of Sri Lankans and foreign tourists. Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka" Categories: Sri Lanka | South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation member states | Members of the Commonwealth of Nations | Island countries | States and territories established in 1948

Geography of Sri Lanka From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search This article may need to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information, and remove this template when finished. Please see the talk page for more information.

Sri Lanka Native name: Tamil language: இலஙைை Sobriquet: India's Teardrop Pearl of the Indian Ocean Map Sri Lanka Geography

Sri Lanka (off the coast of India)

Location Coordinates Area Coastline

Indian Ocean 7°N 81°E7°N 81°E 65,610 km2 (25,330 sq mi) (25th) 1,340 km (830 mi)

Highest point Pidurutalagala (2,524.13 m (8,281.3 ft))

Country Sri Lanka Largest city Colombo (647,100)

Demographics Population

21,128,773 (as of 2008)

Density

319 /km² (830 /sq mi)

Ethnic groups Sinhalese - 73.8%, Sri Lanka Tamils - 18%

Map of Asia showing the location of Sri Lanka Sri Lanka is an island in the Indian Ocean, located in Southern Asia, southeast of India, in a strategic location near major Indian Ocean sea lanes. It has a total area of 65,610 km², with 64,740 km² of land and 870 km² of water. Its coastline is 1,340 km long. Sri Lanka's climate includes tropical monsoons: the northeast monsoon (December to March), and the southwest monsoon (June to October). Its terrain is mostly low, flat to rolling plain, with mountains in the south-central interior. The highest point is

Pidurutalagala at 2,524.13 m. Natural resources include limestone, graphite, mineral sands, gems, phosphates, clay, hydropower. Rama's Bridge, a land connection to the Indian mainland that according to Hindu mythology was constructed during the rule of Rama, is now mostly submerged with only a chain of limestone shoals remaining above sea level. According to temple records this natural causeway was formerly complete, but was breached by a violent storm (probably a cyclone) in 1480.

Contents [hide] • • • • • • • •

1 Geology 2 Topography 3 Climate 4 Ecological zones 5 Land use and settlement patterns 6 Maritime claims 7 Environmental concerns 8 See also

•

9 References

[edit] Geology More than 85% of Sri Lanka's surface lies on Precambrian strata, some of it dating back 2 billion years. The granulite facies rocks of the Highland Series (gneisses, sillimanitegraphite gneisses, quartzite, marbles, and some charnokites) make up most of the island and the amphibolite facies gneisses, granites, and granitic gneisses of the Vinjayan Series occur in the eastern and southeastern lowlands. Jurassic sediments are present in very small areas near the western coast and Miocene limestones underlie the northwestern part of the country and extend south in a relatively narrow belt along the west coast.The metamorphic rock surface was created by the transformation of ancient sediments under intense heat and pressure during mountain-building processes. The theory of plate tectonics suggests that these rocks and related rocks forming most of south India were part of a single southern landmass called Gondwanaland. Beginning about 200 million years ago, forces within the earth's mantle began to separate the lands of the Southern Hemisphere, and a crustal plate supporting both India and Sri Lanka moved toward the northeast. About 45 million years ago, the Indian plate collided with the Asian landmass, raising the Himalayas in northern India, and continuing to advance slowly to the present time. Sri Lanka experiences few earthquakes or major volcanic events because it rides on the center of the plate.

The island contains relatively limited strata of sedimentation surrounding its ancient hills. Aside from recent deposits along river valleys, only two small fragments of Jurassic (140 to 190 million years ago) sediment occur in Puttalam District, while a more extensive belt of Miocene (5 to 100 million years ago) limestone is found along the northwest coast, overlain in many areas by Pleistocene (1 million years ago) deposits. The northwest coast is part of the deep Cauvery (Kaveri) River Basin of southeast India, which has been collecting sediments from the highlands of India and Sri Lanka since the breakup of Gondwanaland.

[edit] Topography

Topography of Sri Lanka Extensive faulting and erosion over time have produced a wide range of topographic features, making Sri Lanka one of the most scenic places in the world. Three zones are distinguishable by elevation: the Central Highlands, the plains, and the coastal belt. The south-central part of Sri Lanka--the rugged Central Highlands--is the heart of the country. The core of this area is a high plateau, running north-south for approximately 65 kilometers. This area includes some of Sri Lanka's highest mountains. (Pidurutalagala is the highest at 2,524 m) At the plateau's southern end, mountain ranges stretch 50 kilometers to the west toward Adams Peak (2,243 meters) and 50 kilometers to the east

toward Namunakula (2,036 m). Flanking the high central ridges are two lower plateaus. On the west is the Hatton Plateau, a deeply dissected series of ridges sloping downward toward the north. On the east, the Uva Basin consists of rolling hills covered with grasses, traversed by some deep valleys and gorges. To the north, separated from the main body of mountains and plateaus by broad valleys, lies the Knuckles Massif: steep escarpments, deep gorges, and peaks rising to more than 1,800 meters. South of Adam's Peak lie the parallel ridges of the Rakwana Hills, with several peaks over 1,400 meters. The land descends from the Central Highlands to a series of escarpments and ledges at 400 to 500 meters above sea level before sloping down toward the coastal plains. Most of the island's surface consists of plains between 30 and 200 meters above sea level. In the southwest, ridges and valleys rise gradually to merge with the Central Highlands, giving a dissected appearance to the plain. Extensive erosion in this area has worn down the ridges and deposited rich soil for agriculture downstream. In the southeast, a red, lateritic soil covers relatively level ground that is studded with bare, monolithic hills. The transition from the plain to the Central Highlands is abrupt in the southeast, and the mountains appear to rise up like a wall. In the east and the north, the plain is flat, dissected by long, narrow ridges of granite running from the Central Highlands.

Rama's Bridge, a shoal "connecting" (northwestern) Sri Lanka (Talaimannar on Mannar island in that district) and (southern) India (Dhanushkodi (extinct)/RameswaramRamanathapuram District) between the Gulf of Mannar (southwest) from the Palk Strait (northeast). A coastal belt about thirty meters above sea level surrounds the island. Much of the coast consists of scenic sandy beaches.

[edit] Climate Sri Lanka's climate can be described as tropical, and quite hot. Its position between 5 and 10 north latitude endows the country with a warm climate, moderated by ocean winds and considerable moisture. The mean temperature ranges from a low of 16°C in Nuwara Eliya in the Central Highlands (where frost may occur for several days in the winter) to a high of 32°C in Trincomalee on the northeast coast (where temperatures may reach 38 °C). The average yearly temperature for the country as a whole ranges from 28 to 30 °C. Day and night temperatures may vary by 4 to 7. January is the coolest month, causing people, especially those in the highlands, to wear coats and sweaters. May, the hottest period, precedes the summer monsoon rains. The rainfall pattern is influenced by the monsoon winds of the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal and is marked by four seasons. The first is from mid-May to October, when winds originate in the southwest, bringing moisture from the Indian Ocean. When these winds encounter the slopes of the Central Highlands, they unload heavy rains on the mountain slopes and the southwestern sector of the island. Some of the windward slopes receive up

to 2500 mm of rain per month, but the leeward slopes in the east and northeast receive little rain. The second season occurs in October and November, the intermonsoonal months. During this season, periodic squalls occur and sometimes tropical cyclones bring overcast skies and rains to the southwest, northeast, and eastern parts of the island. During the third season, December to March, monsoon winds come from the northeast, bringing moisture from the Bay of Bengal. The northeastern slopes of the mountains may be inundated with up to 1250 mm of rain during these months. Another intermonsoonal period occurs from March until mid-May, with light, variable winds and evening thundershowers. Humidity is typically higher in the southwest and mountainous areas and depends on the seasonal patterns of rainfall. At Colombo, for example, daytime humidity stays above 70 % all year, rising to almost 90 percent during the monsoon season in June. Anuradhapura experiences a daytime low of 60 % during the intermonsoonal month of March, but a high of 79 % during the November and December rains. In the highlands, Kandy's daytime humidity usually ranges between 70 and 79 %.

[edit] Ecological zones Precipitation and irrigation map of Sri Lanka The pattern of life in Sri Lanka depends directly on the availability of rainwater. The mountains and the southwestern part of the country, known as the "wet zone," receive ample rainfall (an annual average of 250 centimeters). Most of the southeast, east, and northern parts of the country comprise the "dry zone, which receives between 1200 and 1900 mm of rain annually. Much of the rain in these areas falls from October to January; during the rest of the year there is very little precipitation, and all living creatures must conserve precious moisture. The arid northwest and southeast coasts receive the least amount of rain--600 to 1200 mm per year-- concentrated within the short period of the winter monsoon. The natural vegetation of the dry zone is adapted to the annual change from flood to drought. The typical ground cover is scrub forest, interspersed with tough bushes and cactuses in the driest areas. Plants grow very fast from November to February when rainfall is heavy, but stop growing during the hot season from March to August. Various adaptations to the dry conditions have developed. To conserve water, trees have thick bark; most have tiny leaves, and some drop their leaves during this season. Also, the topmost branches of the tallest trees often interlace, forming a canopy against the hot sun and a barrier to the dry wind. When water is absent, the plains of the dry zone are dominated by browns and grays. When water becomes available, either during the wet season or through proximity to rivers and lakes, the vegetation explodes into shades of green with a wide variety of beautiful flowers. Varieties of flowering acacias are well adapted to the arid conditions and flourish on the Jaffna Peninsula. Among the trees of

the dry-land forests are some valuable species, such as Satinwood, Ebony, Ironwood, and Mahogany. In the wet zone, the dominant vegetation of the lowlands is a tropical evergreen forest, with tall trees, broad foliage, and a dense undergrowth of vines and creepers. Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those of temperate climates flourish in the higher altitudes. Mountain vegetation at the highest altitudes tends to be stunted and windswept. Forests at one time covered nearly the entire island, but by the late 20th century lands classified as forests and forest reserves covered only one-fifth of the land. The southwestern interior contains the only large remnants of the original forests of the wet zone. The government has attempted to preserve sanctuaries for natural vegetation and animal life, however. Ruhunu National Park in the southeast protects herds of elephant, deer, and peacocks, and Wilpattu National Park in the northwest preserves the habitats of many water birds, such as storks, pelicans, ibis, and spoonbills. During the Mahaweli Ganga Program of the 1970s and 1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the government set aside four areas of land totalling 1,900 km² as national parks.

[edit] Land use and settlement patterns The dominant pattern of human settlement during the last 3,000 years has consisted of village farming communities. Even in the 1970s, the majority of people lived in small villages and worked at agricultural pursuits. Traditional farming techniques and lifestyles revolve around two types of farming--"wet" and "dry"--depending upon the availability of water. The typical settlement pattern in the rice-growing areas is a compact group of houses or neighborhood surrounding one or several religious centers that serve as the focus for communal activities. Sometimes the houses may be situated along a major road and include a few shops, or the village may include several outlying hamlets. The lifesustaining rice fields begin where the houses end and stretch into the distance. Some irrigated fields may include other cash crops, such as sugarcane, or groves of coconut trees. Palmyra trees grow on the borders of fields or along roads and paths. Individual houses also may have vegetable gardens in their compounds. During the rainy seasons and thereafter, when the fields are covered by growing crops, the village environment is intensely verdant. The nature of agricultural pursuits in Sri Lanka has changed over the centuries and has usually depended upon the availability of arable land and water resources. In earlier times, when villagers had access to plentiful forests that separated settlements from each other, slash-and-burn agriculture was a standard technique. As expanding population and commercial pressures reduced the amount of available forestland, however, slash-andburn cultivation steadily declined in favor of permanent cultivation by private owners. Until the 13th century, the village farming communities were mainly on the northern plains around Anuradhapura and then Polonnaruwa, but they later shifted to the southwest. In the 1970s, wide expanses of the northern and eastern plains were sparsely

populated, with scattered villages each huddled around an artificial lake. The Jaffna Peninsula, although a dry area, is densely populated and intensively cultivated. The southwest contains most of the people, and villages are densely clustered with little unused land. In the Central Highlands around Kandy, villagers faced with limited flat land have developed intricately terraced hillsides where they grow rice. In the 1960s and 1970s, the wet cultivation area was expanding rapidly, as the government implemented large-scale irrigation projects to restore the dry zone to agricultural productivity. In the 1970s, the area drained by the Mahaweli Ganga changed from a sparsely inhabited region to a wet rice area similar to the southwest. Through such projects, the government of Sri Lanka has planned to recreate in the dry zone the lush, irrigated landscape associated with the ancient Sinhalese civilization. Beginning in the 16th century and culminating during the British rule of the 19th and twentieth centuries, the plantation economy came to dominate large sections of the highlands. Plantation farming resulted in a drastic reduction in the natural forest cover and the substitution of domesticated crops, such as rubber, tea, or cinnamon. It also brought about a changed life-style, as the last hunting-and-gathering societies retreated into smaller areas and laborers moved into the highlands to work on plantations. Through the late twentieth century, workers on large plantations lived in villages of small houses or in "line rooms" containing ten to twelve units. The numerous plantations of small landholders frequently included attached hamlets of workers in addition to the independent houses of the plantation owners. The coastal belt surrounding the island contains a different settlement pattern that has evolved from older fishing villages. Separate fishing settlements expanded laterally along the coast, linked by a coastal highway and a railway. The mobility of the coastal population during colonial times and after independence led to an increase in the size and number of villages, as well as to the development of growing urban centers with outside contacts. In the 1980s, it was possible to drive for many kilometers along the southwest coast without finding a break in the string of villages and bazaar centers merging into each other and into towns. Land use: arable land: 14% permanent crops: 15% permanent pastures: 7% forests and woodland: 32% other: 32% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 5,500 km² (1993 est.)

[edit] Maritime claims contiguous zone: 24 nautical miles (44 km) continental shelf: 200 nautical miles (370 km) or to the edge of the continental margin

exclusive economic zone: 200 nautical miles (370 km) territorial sea: 12 nautical miles (22 km) More Sri Lanka Information | CIA Factbook | World Atlas Home | Geography Home Page

Sri Lanka

Introduction Background:

Geography Location: Geographic coordinates:

Sri Lanka The Sinhalese arrived in Sri Lanka late in the 6th century B.C., probably from northern India. Buddhism was introduced beginning in about the mid-third century B.C., and a great civilization developed at the cities of Anuradhapura (kingdom from circa 200 B.C. to circa A.D. 1000) and Polonnaruwa (from about 1070 to 1200). In the 14th century, a south Indian dynasty seized power in the north and established a Tamil kingdom. Occupied by the Portuguese in the 16th century and by the Dutch in the 17th century, the island was ceded to the British in 1796, became a crown colony in 1802, and was united under British rule by 1815. As Ceylon, it became independent in 1948; its name was changed to Sri Lanka in 1972. Tensions between the Sinhalese majority and Tamil separatists erupted into war in 1983. Tens of thousands have died in an ethnic conflict that continues to fester. After two decades of fighting, the government and Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam formalized a cease-fire in February 2002, with Norway brokering peace negotiations. Sri Lanka Southern Asia, island in the Indian Ocean, south of India 7 00 N, 81 00 E

Map references:

Asia

Area:

total: 65,610 sq km land: 64,740 sq km water: 870 sq km

Area comparative:

slightly larger than West Virginia

Land boundaries:

0 km

Coastline:

1,340 km

Maritime claims:

territorial sea: 12 nm contiguous zone: 24 nm exclusive economic zone: 200 nm continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin

Climate:

tropical monsoon; northeast monsoon (December to March); southwest monsoon (June to October)

Terrain:

mostly low, flat to rolling plain; mountains in south-central interior

Elevation extremes:

lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m highest point: Pidurutalagala 2,524 m

Natural resources:

limestone, graphite, mineral sands, gems, phosphates, clay, hydropower

Land use:

arable land: 13.86% permanent crops: 15.7% other: 70.44% (2001)

Irrigated land:

6,510 sq km (1998 est.)

Natural hazards:

occasional cyclones and tornadoes

Environment current issues:

deforestation; soil erosion; wildlife populations threatened by poaching and urbanization; coastal degradation from mining activities and increased pollution; freshwater resources being polluted by industrial wastes and sewage runoff; waste disposal; air pollution in Colombo

Environment international agreements:

party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Marine Life Conservation

Geography note: People Population:

strategic location near major Indian Ocean sea lanes Sri Lanka 20,064,776 note: since the outbreak of hostilities between the government and armed Tamil separatists in the mid-1980s, several hundred thousand Tamil civilians have fled the island and more than

200,000 Tamils have sought refuge in the West (July 2005 est.) Age structure:

0-14 years: 24.5% (male 2,508,384/female 2,397,986) 15-64 years: 68.4% (male 6,658,765/female 7,059,468) 65 years and over: 7.2% (male 670,813/female 769,360) (2005 est.)

Median age:

total: 29.44 years male: 28.38 years female: 30.51 years (2005 est.)

Population growth rate:

0.79% (2005 est.)

Birth rate:

15.63 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

Death rate:

6.49 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

Net migration rate:

-1.27 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

Sex ratio:

at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.94 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.87 male(s)/female total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

Infant mortality rate:

total: 14.35 deaths/1,000 live births male: 15.57 deaths/1,000 live births female: 13.07 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

Life expectancy at birth:

total population: 73.17 years male: 70.6 years female: 75.86 years (2005 est.)

Total fertility rate: HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate: HIV/AIDS people living with HIV/AIDS:

1.85 children born/woman (2005 est.) less than 0.1% (2001 est.)

3,500 (2001 est.)

HIV/AIDS deaths:

less than 200 (2003 est.)

Nationality:

noun: Sri Lankan(s) adjective: Sri Lankan

Ethnic groups:

Sinhalese 73.8%, Sri Lankan Moors 7.2%, Indian Tamil 4.6%, Sri Lankan Tamil 3.9%, other 0.5%, unspecified 10% (2001 census provisional data)

Religions:

Buddhist 69.1%, Muslim 7.6%, Hindu 7.1%, Christian 6.2%, unspecified 10% (2001 census provisional data)

Languages:

Sinhala (official and national language) 74%, Tamil (national

language) 18%, other 8% note: English is commonly used in government and is spoken competently by about 10% of the population Literacy:

definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 92.3% male: 94.8% female: 90% (2003 est.)

Government

Sri Lanka

Country name:

conventional long form: Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka conventional short form: Sri Lanka former: Serendib, Ceylon

Government type:

republic

Capital:

Colombo; note - Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte is the legislative capital

Administrative divisions:

8 provinces; Central, North Central, North Eastern, North Western, Sabaragamuwa, Southern, Uva, Western; note - North Eastern province may have been divided in two - Northern and Eastern

Independence:

4 February 1948 (from UK)

National holiday:

Independence Day, 4 February (1948)

Constitution:

adopted 16 August 1978, certified 31 August 1978; new constitution proposed in 2002

Legal system:

a highly complex mixture of English common law, Roman-Dutch, Muslim, Sinhalese, and customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction

Suffrage:

18 years of age; universal

Executive branch:

chief of state: President Chandrika Bandaranaike KUMARATUNGA (since 12 November 1994); note - Mahinda RAJAPAKSE (since 6 April 2004) is the prime minister; the president is considered both the chief of state and head of government head of government: President Chandrika Bandaranaike KUMARATUNGA (since 12 November 1994); note - Mahinda RAJAPAKSE is the prime minister (since 6 April 2004); the president is considered both the chief of state and head of government cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president in consultation with the prime minister elections: president elected by popular vote for a six-year term; election last held 21 December 1999 (next to be held NA December 2005) election results: Chandrika Bandaranaike KUMARATUNGA reelected president; percent of vote - Chandrika Bandaranaike KUMARATUNGA 51%, Ranil WICKREMASINGHE 42%, other 7%

Legislative branch:

unicameral Parliament (225 seats; members elected by popular vote on the basis of a modified proportional representation system by district to serve six-year terms) elections: last held 2 April 2004 (next to be held by 2010)

election results: percent of vote by party or electoral alliance SLFP and JVP 45.6%, UNP 37.83%, TNA 6.84%, JHU 5.97%, SLMC 2.02%, UPF 0.54%, EPDP 0.27%, others 0.93%; seats by party or electoral alliance - SLFP and JVP 105, UNP 82, TNA 22, JHU 9, SLMC 5, UPF 1, EPDP 1 Judicial branch: Political parties and leaders:

Political pressure groups and leaders: International organization participation:

Supreme Court; Court of Appeals; judges for both courts are appointed by the president All Ceylon Tamil Congress or ACTC [KUMARGURUPARAM]; Ceylon Workers Congress or CWC [Arumugam THONDAMAN]; Communist Party or CP [D. GUNASEKERA]; Democratic United National (Lalith) Front or DUNLF [Shrimani ATULATHMUDALI]; Eelam People's Democratic Party or EPDP [Douglas DEVANANDA]; Eelam People's Revolutionary Liberation Front or EPRLF [Suresh PREMACHANDRAN]; Janatha Vimukthi Perumuna or JVP [Tilvan SILVA]; National Heritage Party or JHU [Tilak KARUNARATNE]; National Unity Alliance or NUA [Ferial ASHRAFF]; People's Liberation Organization of Tamil Eelam or PLOTE [leader NA]; Sihala Urumaya or SU [leader NA]; Sri Lanka Freedom Party or SLFP [Chandrika Bandaranaike KUMARATUNGA]; Sri Lanka Muslim Congress or SLMC [Rauff HAKEEM]; Sri Lanka Progressive Front or SLPF [P. Nelson PERERA]; Tamil Eelam Liberation Organization or TELO [SABARATNAM]; Tamil National Alliance or TNA [R. SAMPANTHAN]; Tamil United Liberation Front or TULF [V. ANANDASANGAREE]; United National Party or UNP [Ranil WICKREMASINGHE]; Up-country People's Front or UPF [P. CHANDRASEKARAN]; several ethnic Tamil and Muslim parties, represented in either Parliament or provincial councils Buddhist clergy; labor unions; Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam or LTTE [Velupillai PRABHAKARAN](insurgent group fighting for a separate state); radical chauvinist Sinhalese groups such as the National Movement Against Terrorism; Sinhalese Buddhist lay groups AsDB, C, CP, FAO, G-15, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MIGA, MINURSO, MINUSTAH, MONUC, NAM, OAS (observer), ONUB, OPCW, PCA, SAARC, SACEP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTO

Diplomatic representation in the US:

chief of mission: Ambassador Bernard GOONETILLEKE chancery: 2148 Wyoming Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 483-4025 (through 4028) FAX: [1] (202) 232-7181 consulate(s) general: Los Angeles consulate(s): New York

Diplomatic representation from the US:

chief of mission: Ambassador Jeffrey J. LUNSTEAD embassy: 210 Galle Road, Colombo 3 mailing address: P. O. Box 106, Colombo telephone: [94] (11) 244-8007 FAX: [94] (11) 243-7345

Flag description:

yellow with two panels; the smaller hoist-side panel has two equal vertical bands of green (hoist side) and orange; the other panel is a large dark red rectangle with a yellow lion holding a sword, and

there is a yellow bo leaf in each corner; the yellow field appears as a border around the entire flag and extends between the two panels Economy Economy overview:

GDP (purchasing power parity): GDP - real growth rate: GDP - per capita: GDP composition by sector: Labor force:

Sri Lanka In 1977, Colombo abandoned statist economic policies and its import substitution trade policy for market-oriented policies and export-oriented trade. Sri Lanka's most dynamic sectors now are food processing, textiles and apparel, food and beverages, telecommunications, and insurance and banking. In 2003, plantation crops made up only 15% of exports (compared with 93% in 1970), while textiles and garments accounted for 63%. GDP grew at an average annual rate of 5.5% in the early 1990s until a drought and a deteriorating security situation lowered growth to 3.8% in 1996. The economy rebounded in 1997-2000 with average growth of 5.3%, but 2001 saw the first contraction in the country's history, -1.4%, due to a combination of power shortages, severe budgetary problems, the global slowdown, and continuing civil strife. Growth recovered to 4.0% in 2002 and to 5.2% in both 2003 and 2004. About 800,000 Sri Lankans work abroad, 90% in the Middle East. They send home about $1 billion a year. The struggle by the Tamil Tigers of the north and east for a largely independent homeland continues to cast a shadow over the economy. In late December 2004, a major tsunami took about 31,000 lives, left more than 6,300 missing and 443,000 displaced, and destroyed an estimated $1.5 billion worth of property. $80.58 billion (2004 est.)

5.2% (2004 est.) purchasing power parity - $4,000 (2004 est.) agriculture: 19.1% industry: 26.2% services: 54.7% (2004 est.) 7.26 million (2004 est.)

Labor force by occupation:

agriculture 38%, industry 17%, services 45% (1998 est.)

Unemployment rate:

7.8% (2004 est.)

Population below poverty line:

22% (1997 est.)

Household income or consumption by percentage share:

lowest 10%: 3.5% highest 10%: 28% (1995)

Distribution of family income Gini index:

34.4 (1995)

Inflation rate (consumer prices):

5.8% (2004 est.)

Investment (gross fixed):

22.4% of GDP (2004 est.)

Budget:

revenues: $3.34 billion expenditures: $4.686 billion, including capital expenditures of NA (2004 est.)

Public debt:

104.3% of GDP (2004 est.)

Agriculture products:

rice, sugarcane, grains, pulses, oilseed, spices, tea, rubber, coconuts; milk, eggs, hides, beef

Industries:

rubber processing, tea, coconuts, and other agricultural commodities; telecommunications, insurance, and banking; clothing, cement, petroleum refining, textiles, tobacco

Industrial production growth rate:

7.1% (2004 est.)

Electricity production:

6.697 billion kWh (2002)

Electricity production by source:

fossil fuel: 51.7% hydro: 48.3% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (2001)

Electricity consumption:

6.228 billion kWh (2002)

Electricity exports:

0 kWh (2002)

Electricity imports:

0 kWh (2002)

Oil production:

0 bbl/day (2001 est.)

Oil consumption:

75,000 bbl/day (2001 est.)

Oil - exports:

NA

Oil - imports:

NA

Current account balance:

$-587.3 million (2004 est.)

Exports:

$5.306 billion f.o.b. (2004 est.)

Exports commodities:

textiles and apparel; tea and spices; diamonds, emeralds, rubies; coconut products; rubber manufactures, fish

Exports partners:

US 32.4%, UK 13.5%, India 6.8%, Germany 4.8% (2004)

Imports:

$7.265 billion f.o.b. (2004 est.)

Imports commodities: Imports partners:

textile fabrics, mineral products, petroleum, foodstuffs, machinery and transportation equipment India 18%, Singapore 8.7%, Hong Kong 7.7%, China 5.7%, Iran 5.2%, Japan 5.1%, Malaysia 4.1% (2004)

Reserves of foreign exchange and gold:

$2.475 billion (2004 est.)

Debt external:

$10.85 billion (2004 est.)

Economic aid recipient:

$577 million (1998)

Currency (code):

Sri Lankan rupee (LKR)

Currency code: Exchange rates:

LKR Sri Lankan rupees per US dollar - 101.194 (2004), 96.521 (2003), 95.662 (2002), 89.383 (2001), 77.005 (2000)

Fiscal year: Communications

calendar year Sri Lanka

Telephones main lines in use:

881,400 (2002)

Telephones mobile cellular:

931,600 (2002)

Telephone system:

general assessment: very inadequate domestic service, particularly in rural areas; likely improvement with privatization of national telephone company and encouragement to private investment; good international service (1999) domestic: national trunk network consists mostly of digital microwave radio relay; fiber-optic links now in use in Colombo area and two fixed wireless local loops have been installed; competition is strong in mobile cellular systems; telephone density remains low at 2.6 main lines per 100 persons (1999) international: country code - 94; submarine cables to Indonesia and Djibouti; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) (1999)

Radio broadcast stations:

AM 26, FM 45, shortwave 1 (1998)

Radios:

3.85 million (1997)

Television broadcast stations:

21 (1997)

Televisions:

1.53 million (1997)

Internet country code:

.lk

Internet hosts:

1,882 (2003)

Internet Service Providers (ISPs):

5 (2000)

Internet users: Transportation

200,000 (2002) Sri Lanka

Railways:

total: 1,449 km broad gauge: 1,449 km 1.676-m gauge (2004)

Highways:

total: 11,650 km paved: 11,068 km unpaved: 582 km (2002)

Waterways:

160 km (primarily on rivers in southwest) (2004)

Ports and harbors:

Colombo, Galle

Merchant marine:

total: 23 ships (1,000 GRT or over) 120,924 GRT/173,604 DWT by type: cargo 18, container 2, passenger 1, petroleum tanker 2 foreign-owned: 10 (Germany 10) registered in other countries: 1 (2005)

Airports:

14 (2004 est.)

Airports - with paved runways:

total: 13 over 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 6 914 to 1,523 m: 6 (2004 est.)

Airports - with unpaved runways:

total: 1 under 914 m: 1 (2004 est.)

Military Military branches: Military service age and obligation: Manpower available for

Sri Lanka Army, Navy, Air Force, Police Force 18 years of age for voluntary military service (2001)

males age 18-49: 4,933,217 (2005 est.)

military service: Manpower fit for military service:

males age 18-49: 3,789,627 (2005 est.)

Manpower reaching military service age annually:

males: 174,049 (2005 est.)

Military expenditures dollar figure:

$514.8 million (2004)

Military expenditures percent of GDP:

2.6% (2004)

Transnational Issues

Sri Lanka

Disputes international:

none

Refugees and internally displaced persons:

IDPs: 362,000 (both Tamils and non-Tamils displaced due to Tamil conflict); 555,000 (resulting from 26 December 2004 tsunami) (2004)