Geofile Rural Issues

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SEPTEMBER 2001 408 Neil Punnett

UK rural issues Over the past 10 years, concern has grown over the changes affecting rural Britain. In 1995 the Conservative government published a White Paper on Rural England, with the aim of boosting economic growth. The 1997 general election led to a change in the ruling party. After 18 years of Conservative rule, a Labour government was voted into power. Several rural parliamentary seats that had been Conservative for generations returned Labour MPs. The new government had a mandate for change, but it soon encountered problems with its policy for rural areas, especially with regard to farming policy and the Labour government’s opposition to fox hunting. A pressure group called the Countryside Alliance formed, organising petitions and demonstrations against government interference. In November 2000 a new Rural White Paper was published, mirroring the concerns of five years previously.

Figure 1: Population of England: % in rural areas

Figure 2: Comparison of the age structure of the rural population with other districts of England 1998

This Geofile considers the conflicts of interest and issues now affecting the countryside, and examines the proposals for tackling them.

Pressures for development (a) The background Development pressures have affected and shaped the countryside for centuries. However, the pace of change has never been quicker than in the past century. New agricultural techniques have changed the character of rural Britain, transforming patterns of employment and altering the land itself. Demographic changes and development of the national infrastructure, together with changing standards of living and public expectations, have increased urban Britain’s influence on rural society. (b) Planning constraints During the 1920s and 1930s a sudden upsurge in urban sprawl resulted in the loss of large areas of countryside, as over four million new homes were built across Britain in an unplanned, uncontrolled expansion. 25,000 hectares of Geofile Online © Nelson Thornes 2001

countryside a year were built on during the 1930s. This was largely due to improvements in public and private transport that freed people from having to live close to their place of work. Effective planning constraints were not introduced until 1947, with the Town and Country Planning Act. This required local authorities to prepare plans of development in their areas.

In the same year the Agriculture Act protected farmland from development, in order to safeguard food production. Following the Town and Country Planning Act, ‘green belts’ were established around London and other major cities in order to restrict building and preserve areas of countryside for farming and

September 2001 no.408 UK rural issues Figure 3: Article from The Guardian, 6 January 2001 The trend of rich people buying up all the available housing in the countryside and forcing poorer young families to move to cities is increasing dramatically, according to research. Mark Shucksmith, of Aberdeen University, told the Institute of British Geographers’ conference: “Rural areas are now ruled by market forces, so the rich will live in the countryside and the poor in the urban areas. The social glue that holds rural communities together is falling apart.” The situation has been made worse by the rich incomers taking over local communities by forming the majority on parish councils, being able to lobby against any new housing developments, especially preventing “village homes for village people”, and by doing so “inadvertently threatening the social, cultural and economic sustainability of what they are keen to preserve.” The effect on young people was particularly severe, with those wanting to stay in the countryside having to live with their parents. It was estimated that 80,000 affordable homes were needed in rural England between 1990 and 1995, but only 17,700 were provided between 1990 and 1997. The government’s recent Rural White Paper had set a target of 9,000 affordable homes a year being built in rural areas, but this was not enough to prevent a continuation of the trend.

recreational purposes. By 1980 green belts covered 1.8 million hectares. The amount of countryside being taken for building had fallen to about 5,000 hectares a year, onesixth of the rate during the 1930s. (c) Rural development During the 1980s planning laws were gradually relaxed by the Conservative government, which was opposed to rigid government controls and preferred to allow market forces to operate. There was growing demand for houses, both generally and more particularly in the countryside. Between 1981 and 1991 around 770,000 people moved to rural areas in England, and the percentage of the population living in rural areas increased from 24.1% to 27.6% (Figure 1). Who were these new rural dwellers? Many were commuters – rapidly increasing car ownership, plus the growing network of motorways and dual carriageways (themselves a Geofile Online © Nelson Thornes 2001

pressure on the countryside) allowed people to undertake longer journeys to work and to enjoy the better quality of life that the countryside is often perceived to offer. Other new rural dwellers included owners of second homes, and those retiring to the countryside. The proportion of older people is slightly higher in rural areas than in the rest of the country – in 1998 18% of the rural population was over 65 years old, compared with 15% of the urban population (see Figure 2). (d) The Impact of Counterurbanisation Counter-urbanisation involves the movement of people with urban attitudes into rural society, where those attitudes are not always shared. The conflicting attitudes to fox hunting is one example. The income levels of ‘incomers’ whose jobs are in big cities tend to be much higher than those of people who have been brought up in the countryside – most rural employment tends to be poorly paid. The influx of wealthy newcomers has resulted in prices of rural housing spiralling out of the reach of local people. This, together with the search for work, has forced many young adults to move away from their villages in order to find cheaper accommodation elsewhere, in towns and cities. The sale of rural council houses and a lack of housing association homes mean there is no accommodation for many rural people setting up home for the first time (Figure 3). The influx of newcomers has not by any means been completely negative. It may for instance have helped preserve services in rural areas. Although many of them may work in urban areas, their children will attend local schools and they will use local services such as the general stores, surgery and pub. The Rural Development Commission concluded its Survey of Rural Services in 1997 by saying that the level of service provision had changed little between 1991 and 1997, other than a steady decline in the number of rural post offices. This represents a marked change over the previous three decades, when many rural services declined rapidly.

The crisis in agriculture Farming’s share in the national economy is in long-term decline, and this trend is likely to continue. This has brought social and economic distress to many people, especially in some of the remoter rural areas. In 1975 3% of the UK’s gross domestic product was contributed by agriculture; by 2000 this had fallen to just 1%. This decline has been due to relatively slow growth in demand for foodstuffs, and the lower relative prices for agricultural commodities, which have increased far less quickly than inflation, largely because of the impact of technological changes. In addition, the economics of the food supply chain appear to favour the large retailers, rather than the food producers. Making matters worse, farming has been hit by a series of health scares that have caused public alarm and reduced demand. In the early 1990s fears over salmonella in eggs were quickly dwarfed by the impact of the BSE crisis. British beef exports were banned world-wide and the national beef herd was reduced as farmers sought other sources of income. In 2000, swine vesicular disease hit the British pig herd, and in February 2001 one of the most dreaded livestock diseases of all, foot and mouth, reappeared – the first major outbreak since the 1960s. Across Britain, smoke rose from giant funeral pyres as thousands of slaughtered animals were cremated in a desperate effort to halt the spread of the disease. All livestock exports from the UK were banned. Farmers’ leaders warned that many smaller farmers would be driven out of business by the effects of the epidemic. Farmers already have one of the highest suicide rates of any profession in the UK, a clear indication of high levels of stress. Is this succession of diseases the result of ill fortune, or does it reflect a deeper malaise within the UK’s agricultural sector? Despite the range of problems facing British farming during the 1990s, the continuing decline in agricultural employment (Figure 4), the provision of subsidies through the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy, and a wide range of restructuring activity helped to sustain levels of income per head in the farming community. However, the severity of the crisis of the late

September 2001 no.408 UK rural issues Figure 4: Trends in the UK’s agricultural labour force,1970–2000

• a shift towards larger-scale enterprises, but also an increasing role for smaller, parttime farms. In 2000 over a fifth of UK full-time farms received income from diversified activities. The percentage varies both by size of farm and by region. It is higher for smaller farms (23%) than for larger enterprises (17%) and substantially higher in the west (27%) than in the north (14%).

Employment

Figure 5: Trends in total income from farming, 1973–2000

1990s has meant that average farm incomes fell in 1999 and 2000 to their lowest point for over 30 years (Figure 5). The weakness of the single European currency, the euro, against sterling was affecting UK farm exports even before the foot and mouth epidemic led to a total export ban. For many farmers, restructuring has been essential for survival. Restructuring has included: • diversification, such as farm shops, organic farming, pick your own, nurseries and garden centres, bed & breakfast, farm visitors’ centres, and also offfarm income through part-time jobs • more efficient utilisation of labour • increased adoption of new business arrangements, such as contracting and collaboration Geofile Online © Nelson Thornes 2001

(a) Trends Rural areas in the UK have experienced growth in total employment since 1971, and rural employment has grown faster than urban employment. Major trends since 1981 have included: • a decline in agriculture’s share of employment in rural areas, from 6% to 4% of the total rural employment • a decline in the employment share of other primary industries such as mining and quarrying, from 2% to 1% • a decline in manufacturing’s share of employment, from 24% to 20% • an increase in employment in the service sector, from 60% to 71%. Increased job opportunities in leisure and recreation as general incomes have risen have played an important part in this increase. There is a high proportion of small enterprises in rural areas, with over 90% of all rural firms employing fewer than 10 people. Large firms (employing over 100 people) are less common in rural than in urban areas (1.4% of rural firms, compared with 2.2% of urban firms). The higher rate of small firm formation in rural areas may partly be the result of the perceived higher quality of life in rural areas. Almost two-thirds of new rural firms are set up by people who have moved into the area, compared with only one-third of new urban firms. 75% of those who moved to rural areas stated that the environment was of at least some importance in their decision. (b) Employment growth The successful growth of employment in many rural areas, despite the decline in agricultural

employment, is a result of the following factors: • rising demand for leisure and tourism activities as disposable incomes increase • the movement of people into rural areas, especially those with easy access to centres of employment • developments in telecommunications which allow people to work from home via email, fax, video-conferencing and the Internet • increased demand for rural products such as craft and horticultural items • constraints on expansion in urban areas. (c) Leisure and tourism Tourism is of particular economic significance to rural areas. Rural tourism supports over 400,000 jobs and generates over £12 billion – nearly a quarter of the total value of the tourism industry in the UK. The benefits of tourism are unevenly distributed between rural areas. Some areas experience problems of congestion and environmental degradation, while other areas do not fulfil their potential because visitors are unaware of the full range of attractions in the area. Tourism is well suited to the rural environment, since it is often directly related to the countryside, its scenic attractions and its way of life. Properly managed, tourism offers many opportunities for income generation and can help to sustain local communities and local services. Bad weather in the crucial school summer holiday period can have a great effect on income from tourism – visitors either go abroad, or stay at home or remain in their resorts where they can shelter from the elements. The money spent by tourists and day visitors represents a significant transfer of income from urban to rural areas. Total annual spending by day visitors to rural areas is £7 billion, compared with £38 billion in urban areas. The average amount spent by each day visitor is a little over £5, the single largest item purchased being food and drink. (d) Rural unemployment Unemployment in rural areas is generally lower than in the rest of

September 2001 no.408 UK rural issues the country (3.4% in rural areas in 2000, compared with 4.9% in nonrural areas). However, some remoter rural areas with less potential for leisure-based employment have been less able to adapt to the decline of agriculture, and here unemployment levels can be much higher. Parts of the Scottish Highlands and Islands, the Southern Uplands, Cumbria, Northumberland, mid-Wales, Cornwall, Devon and Kent all suffer to some extent from their relative remoteness. In all rural areas, seasonality of employment is a problem. Poverty and social exclusion do exist in rural areas, but often at a scale where they are masked by generally higher levels of affluence. Poverty can be harder to tackle than in urban areas, because the individuals concerned are geographically dispersed.

The 2000 Rural White Paper In November 2000 the government published its Rural White paper which set out an overall aim “To sustain and enhance the distinctive environment, economy and social fabric of the English countryside for the benefit of all.” Its five national rural objectives were: 1. To facilitate the development of dynamic and sustainable economies in the countryside and to tackle rural poverty. 2. To maintain and stimulate communities and to secure access to services which is equitable in all circumstances, for those who live and work in the countryside. 3. To conserve and enhance rural landscapes and the diversity and abundance of wildlife. 4. To increase opportunities for people to enjoy the countryside. 5. To promote government responsiveness to rural communities through better working together between central departments and local government. Within Objective One the government pledged support for market towns as central places, providing £37 million to fund their regeneration. The White Paper sought to ensure that each market town has as a minimum the following services: Geofile Online © Nelson Thornes 2001

• convenience shopping • a farmers’ market • at least one bank/building society with a 24-hour automatic cash point • at least one surgery, dentist and pharmacy • a secondary school • permanent library services • an arts venue • sports pitches • a weekly cinema • pubs and at least one restaurant • adequate employment sites • a Job Centre • a Citizens’ Advice bureau • out-of-hours childcare • access to district and county officers • a range of overnight accommodation • a minimum of a part-time police office and fire station • a complete range of housing • regular bus services to the surrounding villages and major towns.

Such detailed planning, if achieved, would restore rural services and make an important contribution to boosting farm incomes.

Objective One also provides for an additional £24 million for redundant farm buildings to enable greater diversification, the launching of a joint government/industry task force to investigate farming costs, and a seven-year programme to help farmers with marketing.

Punnett, N. (1996) ‘Changes in Rural Britain’, Geofile No. 289. Rae, A. (1998) ‘Changes in UK Villages’, Geofile No. 325. The following website: www.maff.gov.uk/erdp

Conclusion The countryside of the UK faces several issues and conflicts of interest. A way of life which has changed only very slowly over centuries has been subject to rapid change within a generation. Countryside issues are now an important political issue, and the last two governments have both published White Papers carrying proposals for tackling these issues. Following its victory in the General Election of June 2001, the new Labour government established a Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. This underlined the importance attached to rural issues.

Bibliography

Within Objective Two the government pledged to retain basic local services, providing a £15 million Community Service Fund to safeguard or re-establish basic services. Rural post offices would be maintained, with increased services such as banking. Village schools would be retained with increased funding and Internet provision for all of them. £132 million in Rural Bus Subsidy Grants would support otherwise uneconomic bus services, along with additional funding for rural rail partnerships. The planning system would be changed to secure more affordable homes to the extent that in small villages there should be one affordable home for every newbuild home.

Focus Questions 1. Outline the pressures for development in rural areas in the UK. 2. Discuss the impact of counter-urbanisation on rural areas. 3. Discuss possible solutions to the issues facing rural areas.