General Agri Notes

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

GENERAL AGRICULTURE STUDY MATERIAL WEATHER AND CROPS •

The areas of heavy rainfall exist in the windward side of Western Ghats and Khasi Hills and the Himalayas. • Rajasthan receiving < 500mm rainfall annually. • The average rainfall of 1,050 mm is highest in any part of the world. • 85-90% of the rainfall over the country occurs mostly during southwest monsoon. • North – East monsoon is the main contributor to the amount of rainfall over the Southeast portion of peninsular. • The conditions in the State, where the tracks of depression terminate ex: - In Gujarat & Rajasthan tend to be erratic very violent & destructive storms – Kalbaishaki of Bengal & Dust storms/Andhis occur over Northwest India. Hailstorms occur one/two occasions in the year, and pose a potential Hazard to Rabi crops. • Cyclonic Storms: On an average 2-3 storms may be expected in a year. Western disturbances: • These disturbances result in light rains which benefit the Rabi crops. • The cold waves are sometimes injurious to vegetables and fruit crops. Variability of rainfall • The areas with low/scanty rainfall are generally the areas of the high variability in rainfall. •

S.d C .V. = -------- X100 X

• C V is 60-80 % in Western Rajasthan. Drought • Drought is taken to have occurred over an area where annual rainfall is less than 75 % of the normal. • When the annual rainfall is 50% of the normal it is called severe drought. • The palmer drought index which takes in to account rainfall evapo-transpiration and soil moisture is considered as a comprehensive approach in the problem. Floods: Rainfall exceeding 40-50 cm within 24 hours results in Floods. Evapo-transpiration and water balance. • The areas of high annual potential evapo-transpiration are extreme in Rajasthan (Jaisalmer) and the exterior South of T N (Tuticorn). • Frosts: The forest hazard is greatest in Punjab. • Sunshine: High Humidity and warm temperature are conducive to most plant diseases. 1

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

Weather modification & crop production • The technique of cloud seeding aims at correcting the deficiencies of nuclei in the cloud. Silver iodide - cold clouds Sodium chloride - warm clouds • In India the cloud seeding experiments were conducted in Jaipur, Agra & Delhi in the monsoon season during the period ranging from 4 –9 years.

2

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

SOILS Igneous rocks: - mainly contains feldspars, marphic minerals & quartz. • The rocks containing high proportion of quartz Acidic (60-75 % quartz) Ex: granite • The rocks containing less proportion of quartz  Basic (<50%) Ex: Basalts (Deccan trap). • Common igneous rocks – Basalts (Basic) & Granite (Acidic) Sedimentary rocks: • Derived form igneous rocks & is formed by the consolidation of fragmentary rock materials. Ex: -conglomerate, sandstone. Shale & limestone. Metamorphic rocks: • They are formed from the igneous/sedimentary rocks the action of high pressure & intense heat, both resulting in considerable change in texture & mineral composition. Ex: - Gneiss from - granite Quartzite from - quartz/ sandstone Marble from - limestone Slate from - shale • Pedology: study of soil formation & soil development • Edephology: study of soil in relation to crop husbandry • A2 horizon - is called as Elluvial Zone • Particle Sizes: International System (mm) USDA (mm) Gravel 2 & above 2 & above Very coarse sand 2 – 1 -Coarse sand 1 – 0.5 2 – 0.2 Medium sand 0.5 – 0.25 -Fine sand 0.25 – 0.1 -Very Fine sand 0.1 – 0.05 -Silt 0.05 – 0.002 0.02 – 0.002 Clay < 0.002 < 0.002 Textural classes: • The clayey soils hold more moisture but they have high wilting % Density: T – A % Pore space (P) =--------- x 100 T T - true density A - apparent density Soil air: 1/3 r d of the pore space in the soil by air & two thirds of it by water constitute most favourable condition for plant growth. Soil water: 1. Hygroscopic water:

- 31 atm. & more - Not available to plant 3

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

- Discontinuous film 2. Capillary water: - continuous film - Held by surface tension 0.3 - 31 atm. 3. Gravitational water: - held at below 0.3 bars - Influenced by gravity. • F.C.: - held at 0.3 bars to 15 bars It is generally recognized that the capillary water held at tension greater than 15 atm is not available to crops. At this the plants shows the wilting symptoms hence 15 atm is called as wilting point. Soil Structure: Granular structure (spheroidal) is considered very favourable to plant growth. Clay fractions: 1. Kaolinite: - 1: 1 layer silicate -Held together by mutually held oxygen 2.Montmorillonite: - 2:1 (silica to aluminia) - Held together through weak oxygen linkages 3. Illite: - 15 % of silica in silica sheet is replaced by aluminium and potassium atoms. Principle minerals of earthcrust: Minerals

approximate (%)

Feldspars

48

Quartz

36

Micas

10

Clay

CEC (me / 100g)

Kaolinite

3-10

Illite

10-30

Montomorillonite

80-150

•

Soil having >15% ESP

•

C: N ratio of

•

Average value of C: N ratio of Indian Soils

•

Micro flora

- Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Fungi & Algae

•

Micro fauna

- protozoa & nematodes

- Alkali soil

O.M.  10:1

NH3

NO2 NO3 4

- 14:1

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

Nitrosomonas

Nitrobacter

 Nitrosofication- 1----------------------------------nitrification ----------------------1 •

Protozoa are unicellular organisms.

Land capability classification Arable land Class - I

- productive & suitable for intensive cropping.

II

- used for raising many cultivated crops.

III

- need careful management IV

- the cultivation of crop is restricted to once in 3-4

years. V

- restrict their use to pasture/adoptable tree species.

VI - restricted to pasture & silviculture. VII - restrict their use for grazing. VIII - use is restricted to recreation / wild life. Alluvial soils: •

This is the largest & most important soil group of India contributing the largest share to its agricultural wealth.

Two types 1. Khadar 2.

- newer alluvium of sandy.

Bhangar

- older alluvium of more clayey.

Black soils; • Maharastra has maximum black soil area in India. Red soils: •

Tamil Nadu has maximum red soil area in India. cultivated area)

(2/3 r d of

•

Clay fraction is rich in Kaolinite.

•

Colour is due to Hydration of the ferric oxide in them. 5

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

Lateritic soils: All Lateritic soils are very poor in lime and magnesia and are deficient in Nitrogen. Desert soil Most predominant component of the desert sand is quartz

6

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

Acid tolerant crops: Cereals

Legumes

Maize

miscellaneous

Groundnut

Rice

Soybean

Wheat

Berseem

Barley

Lentil

Sugarcane Potato Tea

Oats Saline & alkali soils: •

7 m ha area has gone out of cultivation.

•

Saline soils are also called as- white alkali soils

•

Sodic soils are also called as

- black alkali soils

Reclamation •

Acid soils

- lime

•

Basic soils

- gypsum

•

Saline soils - sulphuric pyrite and also gypsum

WATER RESOURCES • Average annual rainfall is about 120 cm (India) and that of global is 99 cm. • Water source of the country - 178 M Ha M • Ground water runoff is roughly assessed at about

- 45 mham

• The utilizable flow has been estimated to be 66.6 mham • Ground water recharge in the country as a whole works out at10% of the total rainfall. • Total volume of surface water presently utilized for irrigation is about - 23.5 mham. • The total volume of ground water presently used for irrigation is estimated about 10.5 mham. • The present total utilization of surface water for irrigation may then be taken as - 23.31 (23.50) mham. 7

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

• As regards the net area sown - 142mha

8

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

LAND UTILIZATION •

Total geographical area - 328 mha, the land use statistics is available only for 306 mha constituting 98% of the total.

•

Technical committee in co-ordination of agricultural statistics set up in 1948 by Ministry of food & agriculture.

•

Arable land allow land

•

Potential land available = available land+ cultivable waste + permanent postures & grazing land

= net area sown + current of allows + other of

Net area sown •

% Potential land exploited =

--------------------- x

100

Potential land Net area sown % Arable land =

------------------- x100

Arable land •

65.9 mha (21.6 %)

•

Net area sown

•

Gross cropped area

- 141.16 mha (46.1%) -167.4 mha

Reporting area: • •

MH has highest net sown area in the country. The gross cropped area is highest in UP followed by MP & MH.

UP has largest gross irrigated area in the country which is about 21.6 % of the country as a whole, followed by Punjab 11.0 and AP - 10.95 •

In case of food grains - UP has highest irrigated area - 22.3 % followed by AP (11.7%) and Punjab (9.7 %)

•

Non food grains 16.1 %

- irrigated area UP – 19.2% and Punjab

•

State producing highest agricultural produce - UP (21.6%)

•

Total geographical area (highest)

•

Area under forest (highest) - Madhya Pradesh 9

- Rajasthan

-

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

•

Land put to non cultural uses (highest) - Andra Pradesh

•

Barren & uncultivated land (highest) - Rajasthan

•

Net area sown (highest)

- Madhya Pradesh

SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION Extent of soil erosion It is estimated that out of 305.9 mha of reporting area 145 mha is in need of conservation measures. Gullies are the most spectacular evidence of the destruction of soil. Wind erosion •

Saltation: the major portion of the soil carried by wind is moved in a series of short bounces called Saltation. The soil carried in a Saltation consists of fine particles ranging from 0.1 – 0.5 mm in diameter.

Mechanical measures of erosion control: 1. Basin listing : Basin listing consists in making of small interrupted basins along the contour with a special implement called a basin -lister. 2. Subsoiling : This method consists in breaking with a subsoiler the hard and impermeable subsoil to conserve more rainwater by improving the physical conditions of a soil. 3. Contour – Bunding: This consists in making a comparatively narrow based embankment at intervals across the slope of the land on a level that is along the contour. It is an important measure that conserves soil and water in arid & semiarid areas. Slope - 3-6 % 4. Bench terracing : It consists of a series of platforms having suitable vertical drops along contours or on suitable graded lines across the general slope of the land. The vertical drop may vary from 60 – 180 cm depending upon slope and soil condition. Slope - 16 – 33% Water sources: •

The southwesterly monsoon contributes over 80 % to the total precipitation.

•

Shallow well derive their water supply from the surrounding area through seepage, percolation, high water table etc.

•

Deep wells depend for their water on aquifers. 10

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

Salt tolerance crop: 1. Tolerant sps (>5000 ppm): Barley, sugarcane, date- palm, grape, kale, cotton, rhodes, grass, sesbania 2. Semi tolerant sps (< 2500 ppm – 5000): Rice, sorghum, maize, Barley, sunflower, Lucerne, berseem/guar, safflower, onion, wheat, bajra. 3. Sensitive sps (< 2500 ppm): potato, tomato

peas, cabbage, grapes, orange,

11

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

Boron toxicity tolerant: 1. Tolerant sps: (2-4 ppm): - datepalm, sugar beet, Lucerne, onion, turnip, cabbage, and lettuce 2. Semi-tolerant (1-2 ppm): - wheat, maize, barley, cotton, sunflower, potato, tomato, peas & sweet potato 3.Sensitive crops (0.3-1 ppm): cherry, walnut •

Water requirement application

- Apple, apricot, grape, orange,

=

consumptive

use

of

water

+

Losses+ special needs 1 cubic foot of water - 62.4 lb 1 cubic foot /sec = one cusec = 448.83 gallons = 0.99 acre. inch/hr = 100 tons 1 Acre inch of water = 101 tons gallons

= 12.8 cubic meter = 22,660

Sprinkler method : can be adopted in the case of almost all crops and is specially suited to shallow sandy soils of uneven topography, where leveling is not practicable. Drip irrigation: - first initiated in Israel. Critical stages of rice: - tillering and flowering Water need for rice:

Conditions

1000 –1500 mm kharif

heavy soils, high water table,

1500 – 2000 mm

medium soils, kharif

2000 – 2500 mm

light soils, long duration varieties.

WHEAT: Optimum moisture range - 100 – 60 % of availability. Critical stage sowing

- crown root initiation -

Flowering

-

Grain development

Maize: 12

(CRI)

- 3 weeks after (21-25 days)

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

Critical stages: - Early vegetative period - Tasselling

- 30-40 weeks after Sowing

- 45-50 weeks after sowing

Maize is highly sensitive to excess water Sorghum: Critical stages: - pre-flowering and grain development Kharif legumes pea.

- kidney bean -Green gram (Mung), pigeon -Black gram (mash)

Rabi legumes: - gram, lentil, pea and Indian bean. Critical stages of pulses: pod development.

- early vegetative growth, flowering,

Sunflower and mustard are relatively hardy crops withstand more unfavourable conditions that other.

and

can

Cotton: - extremely sensitive to excess moisture and lack of aeration. Optimum soil moisture is necessary during the stages of flowering and ball formation. •

Sugarcane: - only vegetative importance. (Formative stage)

•

Tobacco: - water with a high chloride content, affects the leaf, burning quality and hence is unsuitable for irrigation.

•

Potato: - stolonization and tuber formation stages during 20-60 days growth are critical.

•

Onion And Garlic: stage.

•

Tomato, watermelon & Muskmelon: - excessive irrigation during ripening results in fruit cracking and hence it should be avoided.

growth

is the

economic

- bulbing is most important critical

SOIL FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER USE Cations

form of uptake by plants

K

K+

Ca

Ca++

Mg

Mg++

Fe

Fe+++ 13

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

Zn

Zn++

Anions N

NO 3 - , NH 4 +

P

H 2 Po 4 -

S

SO 4 -

Cl

Cl -

14

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

3 mechanisms of absorption of nutrients : 1. Mass flow / convection 2. Diffusion 3. Contact exchange and root interception. • Mass flow /convection is considered to be important of nutrient uptake. • Nutrient ions such as nitrate, chloride & sulphate are not absorbed by the soil colloids and remain mainly in solution. Such nutrient ions area absorbed by the roots along with soil. Diffusion: This mechanism is predominant in supplying most of the phosphorous and potassium to plant roots. Plant Nutrients & Their Functions. Source Carbon

- CO2

Oxygen

- air & water

Hydrogen

- water

Nitrogen

- air, soil & both

Others

- soil

Primary nutrients Secondary nutrients

- N, P, K - Ca, Mg, S

Trace elements / micronutrients

- Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B Mo, Cl

Primary and secondary elements are known as major elements. Nitrogen: Excess _ lodging in cereals -Delays maturation of plant. Deficiency - reddening of leaves in cotton. Phosphorus: Function; - formation of grains. Offsets harmful effects of excess nitrogen in plants. Deficiency: - purplish / reddish discoloration of the stem 15

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

- Abnormal increase in the sugar content and the Formation of anthocynin Potassium: Function: 1. Enhance ability of a plant to resist pest, diseases and other abnormal condition 2.

Formation of starch and in the production and translocation of sugars and is thus of special value of water rich crops.

Plants can take-up and store potassium in much larger quantities than what is needed for optimum growth. This is called luxury consumption. Deficiency: - firing along the edges in maize leaves Calcium: Function: - Constituent of cell wall (calcium pectate - Involved in cell division Excess - favours scab in potato Deficiency - commonly associated with acidity. Magnesium Function: - constituent of chlorophyll - Necessary for formation of oil. Deficiency: - in maize intraveinal chlorosis. Sulphur: Function: - Important constituent of straw and plant stalk. -

Constituent of AAS - methionine and cysteine.

Fe: Deficiency: - gray speck Marsh spot

- maize - sugarcane (sugar beet)

Yellow diseases - spinach and beans White streak

- field peas

Dry spot

- field peas

Leaf spot

- field peas 16

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

Cu: Deficiency

- dieback in citrus

Zn: - is taken up by the plant in the ionic form/ complex with chelating agent. Ex: EDTA. Deficiency: - white bud Khaira

- maize - rice

In calcareous soils and soils with high P deficiency is commonly observed.

content the Zn

Boron: Deficiency: - Yellow and resetting Snakehead

- Lucerne

- walnut

Pitting of fruits

- tomatoes

Die back & corking of fruits

- apples

Hollow stem and bronzing of curd in cauliflower Brown heart

- table beets and turnip

Molybdenum: Deficiency: species.

- whip tail in cauliflower, broccoli and other Brassica

Chlorine: - In micronutrient.

1954

chlorine

was

proved

as

essential

Deficiency: - bronze discoloration in tomatoes. Na: - not an essential element but the presence is considered to be beneficial. • N

Most commonly used organic manure in India - FYM

•

Sewage, sludge and activated dry contains

N  4-7 %

P 2 O 5  2.1 – 4.2 % K 2 O  0.5 – 0.7% •

Tree leaves of pongamia, (Karanj/Honge) N 

3.69 %

P 2 O 5  2.41% K 2 O  2.42 % 17

- 0.5 %

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

Crop

Synonyms

Cowpea

 chavli, lobia

Cluster bean

 guar

Horsegram

 Kulthi

Mothbean

 Mutki, moth

Greengram

 mung, mug

Blackgram

 urd, urid (mush)

Redgram

 arhar

• Calcium sulphate /gypsum and supper phosphate have proved most promising in preventing the escape of ammonia. • Folding 7,000 sheep for on night is said to add equivalent of 149.3 quintals of cattle dung. • Calcium nitrate - also known as Chilean nitrate. • Ammonium sulphate widely used fertilizer in the country. • Nitrochalk: - is the trade name of a product formed by mixing ammonium nitrate with 40% lime stone /Dolomite. • Non- proteinaceous organic nitrogen  Urea. CROPPING PATTERNS Among post monsoon crops (rabi) wheat, sorghum & gram • Largest area under Kharif maize is in UP • The area under Maharashtra.

the

Kharif

Jowar

in

India

is

highest

in

• Ragi is mainly concentrated in Karnataka. • Bajra is drought resistant crop. The Rajasthan has maximum area (4.6 mha) of Bajra (2/3 of total area of India). • G/N

- Gujarat is producing maximum G/N (24.4 %)

• Cotton - Maharashtra shares 36% of the total cotton area followed by Gujarat. • Hot water treatment for seed borne diseases - 54 o c for 1 min. • Bordeaux mixture - CuSO4 + CaCO 3  Millardet 18

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

• Burgundy mixture - CuSO4+ Na 2 CO 3  Mason Systemic fungicides Oxanthin derivatives - plantavax Vitavax

- oxycarboxin -for rusts - carboxin - for smuts

Agrimycin 100 is the mixture of streptomycin + tetracycline

19

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

Diseases and Causal organisms Rice Brown spot

- cochliobolus miyabeanus

Stem root

- Leptosphaeria salvini

Sheath blight

- Rhizoctonia solani

Foot rot/ bakanae

- Gibberella fujikuroi

Bunt

- Neovossia horrida

False smut

- Ustilaginoidea virens

Leaf smut

- Entyloma Oryzae

Ultra disease

- Ditylenchus angustus

Bacteria blight - Xanthomonas Oryzae Yellow dwarf

- Mycoplasm

Leaf yellowing -Virus Pan sukh (dry leaf disease) -Physiological Khaira

-Zn def

Wheat: Black mould

-Cladosporium herbarum

Pythium root rot

-Pythium graminicolum

Foot rot

-Helmisthosporium sativum

Hill bund

-Tilletia foetida & T caries

Karnal bund Flagsmut

-Neouossia indica -Urocystis tritici

Loosesmut Stemrugt

-Ustilago tritici -Puccinea graminis tritici

Stripe rust (yellow rust)

-Puccinia glumarum

Leaf / Brown rust

-

Puccinia recondita

Powdery mildews

-

Erysiphe graminis

Earcocle

-Anguina Tritici 20

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

Molya/cereal cyst nematode -Heterodera avenae Insecticidal property of DDT in 1939 by  Paul Muller Two breeding seasons of Lucusts 

1) winter spring

2) Summer Monsoon Ectoparasitic nematodes Spiral nematodes

-

Helicotylenchus, Rotylenchus

Lance nematodes

-

Hoplolaimus

Ring nematodes Hemicriconemoides

-

Cericonemoides,

Stunt nematodes

-

Tylenchonemoides

Sheath nematodes

-

Hemicycliophora

Semiendoparatic nematodes: Citrus nematode

-

Tylenchus semipenctrans

Reniform nematode

-

Rotylenchus reniformis

Endoparasites: Roof knot Nematode (RKN)-Meloidogyne sp Cyst nematode Roof lesion nematode

-

Heterodera, Globadera

Pratylenchus

Seed parasites nematode -

Anguina tritici

Foliar nematode

-

Aphelenchoides sp

Stem & Bulb nematode

-

Ditylenchus sp

SL-120 – RKN resistant tomato variety released from IARI •

Bladed harrows are also called as Bakharas/guntakas. •

Agricultural produce Grading and Marketing Act (APGMA)

•

Central Agmark lab – Nagpur & there are about 16 regional labs.

1878 - Sea customs Act. 1955 - Essential Commodity Act. NAFED - National Agricultural Co-operative Marketing Federation. 21

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

Differed liabilities Debt equity ratio

= -----------------------Net worth

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION EDUCATION • Community development programme – 1952 • The word extension was first used in USA • Extension education is

- Informal education

• National Extension Service (NES)

- 1953

• Community development and extension Service in India • Stage I - pre-independence Era: • Sevagram • Shantiniketan • Marthandam • Gurugaon

(1886-1974)

- Mahatma Gandhi - Rabindranath Tagore - Spencer Hatch - F.L. Brayne

• Department of Agriculture – 1871 June • 1905 – IARI  PUSA Bihar • Royal Commission on Agriculture – 1928 • Stage II : post independent Era ( 1947 – 53 ) • Etawah Pilot project - (1948-52) - Albert Mayer • Community development project (1952 Oct 2) • Stage III : community development and National Extension Service Era (1953 – 60 ) • National extension service was inaugurated on 2 n d Oct 1953 • In 1958 panchayat raj was introduced as recommended by the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee. • IADP - Intensive Agriculture Development Programme • First Agriculture University (Rudrapur) • SFDA FYP

- GBPUAT

- 1960 pantnagar

- Small Farmer’s Development Agency  started under 4 t h 22

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

• Bhoodan & Gramdhan Acts: started in early 1950’s  Acharya Vinobha Bhave initiated this movement. • The first attempt to prevent further fragmentation was made in Maharashtra – (1947) • Minimum Wages Act - 1948 • Insecticide Act - 1968 & Insecticide Rules - 1971 • Karnataka Cotton control Act - 1974 • Seeds Act

-1966

seed rules - 1968

• Karnataka land improvement Act - 1966 • Karnataka Agriculture pests & Disease Act - 1974 • Fertilizers order - May 1973 • Destructive insect pest act - 1914 • Agricultural produce act - 1937 • Taccavi loans

- started in 1973

• National co-operative development corporation act – 1962 Wheat •

Common bread wheat - T. aestivum

•

Macaroni wheat - T. durum

•

Indogangetic plains form the most important wheat area

•

Soil - well-drained clayey loam.

•

Spacing - 22.5 cm between rows.

•

Varieties - medium long duration duration - sonalika

•

Most critical stage - CRI stage

•

Weedicide  2-4 D

•

Phalaris minor - graminaceous problematic weed.

•

Storage -

- kalyan sona

< 10% moisture content

RICE • Oryza sativa

- cosmopolitan (Asian rice) 23

Short

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

• Ooryza glabarima • Fruit

- confined to Africa

- caryopsis

• Rice is considered as short day plant • West Bengal has highest rice area • PH - 5- 8.5 • Spacing 20-25 cm • Nursery area 10% of main field (1/10 t h of total area) • Seed rate - 40-50 kg/ha • In calcareous soils - Fe is deficit, so FeSO 4 is added. • ‘Dapog’ nursery - used especially in place where there is assured water supply & when early transplanting is needed & 30-40 m2 area is required to raise enough seedlings to transplant 1 ha area. • Water requirement duration.

is

high

than

any

other

crop

of

similar

• About 37-75 acre-inches of water is needed. Maize •

Native to America

•

Highest production- UP

•

With the average yield maze ranks first among cereals

•

Nutritionally Rattan Protina

•

These opaque – 2 composites are rich in essential AAS life – lysine & Tryptophan

superior

opaque

–

2

composites

•

Pulses are deficit in methionine & Tryptophan

•

Cereals are deficit in Lysine & Tryptophan

•

Used in the manufacture of Beer & Whisky

Oats Grown in Rabi - mostly for fodder Black gram - Urd, mash Bengalgram 24

-

Shakti

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

Germinated seeds are recommended to cure scurvy. Malic and oxalic acids collected from green leaves are prescribed for intestinal disorders. Greengram Highest production MP Horsegram Highest production AP Lentil Highest production MP Moth bean Highest production Rajasthan Peas Highest production UP Pigeon pea (Red gram/ arhar) Highest production MH Potato Native – South America Occupies largest area under any single vegetable in the world Kufiri Jyothi. Best method of starting potato is cold stores at 2.2 ºC at 75-80 % RH

Tea Popularly known as – health herb Soils - acidic

pH 4-6

Spacing - 120x75 cm - 10000 plants / ha 1 – 1 ½ year old nursery seedlings are used for planting in the field. Shade trees (dadapa)

- oak ( Gravelea robusta ) Erythrina lithosperma Acacia Albizzia

State: UPASI:

Assam United Planters Association of Southern India Chinchona

P O., Coimbatore dist., T.N.

Coffee 25

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

State - Karnataka Cocoa : gods’

Theobroma cocoa, Theobrama means –‘The food of

Coconut Tree of heaven - coconut India ranks 2 n d w.r.t. Coconut production. Groundnut Native - Brazil Oil content - 44-50% Oil is extensively used as cooking medium and vanaspati ghee.

- both as refined oil

Groundnut is predominantly self-pollinated crop. Peg which later swells to become the pod. Groundnut is raised mostly as rainfed Kharif crop. The application of 500 kg gypsum / ha at the pegging stage will enhance pod formation. Safe moisture content is not more than

- 5 %

Damp nuts of stored will ferment and allow the development of poisonous moulds Ex:- Aspergillus falvus - produce Aflatoxin in Kernels Indian mustard raya/ laha

- Brassica Juncea

- commonly called as rai /

Origin of B.juncea - China Taramira – is native to - North Africa & Europe Oil content of rape seed & mustard - 30 – 48 % India occupies first position w.r.t. Area & production. Sesamum Primary center of origin. ranks first Linseed MP ranks first Castor India ranks first AP ranks first Saf flower MH ranks first 26

-

Africa India ranks first.UP

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

Sunflower Native – USA Country _ Russia Niger State – MP Country _ India Sugarcane UP have largest acres under sugarcane (57%) Yield/ha - TN Ek sali

Adsali

- Dec – Feb

-MH

Oct - Nov

- AP

- July - Aug

- 18-month crop

Water requirement

- 200 – 300 cm

Cotton AICRP on cotton – 1967, Short staple - 9.5 mm – 25.4 mm Medium staple - 13mm – 40mm Long staple

- 25.4mm – 63mm

The group now recognized in India is Superior long staple

- 27mm & above

Long staple

- 24.5 – 26

Superior medium staple

- 22 – 24

Medium staple

- 20- 21.5

Short staple

- <19

First co-operative cotton sales society was opened at Gadag in Mysore in 1917. 1 bale = 170 kg Staple length classification upto

1961 – 62

Long above

after 1961 – 62 24 & above

Medium

18 –21

Short

17 & below

24 & 20 – 24 19 & below

Tobacco India ranks 3 r d after USA & China AP ranks first 27

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

Central Tobacco Committee

- 1945

Topping & Suckering Removal of flower head alone/ along with some of the top leaves of the plant is known as topping. After topping, the axillary buds grow and their removal is known as Suckering. Banana: State - TN Desuckering

- removal of daughter suckers.

Mango: Veneer grafting has been found to be best method of mango propagation. The graft joint should be at least 15cm above the ground. The application of Ethrel (200 ppm) from September onwards has been found to induce flowering in Mango in Karnataka by the Indian Institute of Horticultural Research. Harvesting - June to Aug in Northern India. Guava UP has largest area L – 49 (Allahabad safeda) variety

- seedless

Pomegranate _ MH Avocado - rich in protein & Fat Apple Rootstock Use M. IX dwarfing rootstock for propagating dwarf apple trees. - Malling – Merton - rootstocks are recommended where Vegetables Daily minimum requirement of veg - 284 g/ day / head Veg gardens are classified into 6 types. Spices King of spices - pepper Queen of spices - cardamom Fruits of cardamom - small trilocular capsules. Hoshomin the queen of China first introduced sericulture in China Outbreak of pebrine disease - 1857 to 1895

28

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

The cocoons of erisilkworm cannot be ruled as they produce cocoon with small opening. Entomology (General Agriculture) •

Per hectare consumption of pesticides in India – 440 gm/ha

• Pesticides consumption is maximum in – Andhra Pradesh (19%) •

Per hectare consumption is maximum in – Tamil Nadu

•

Consumption of pesticides in India 1994-95 (metric tons)

Imported

6266

Indigenous Total

55191 61357

Maximum consumption of pesticides Imported – Carbaryl followed by Chlorpyriphos Indigenous – B H C followed by Monocropophos & Endosulfon Export of Agro Chemicals: • Maximum (in terms of Rupees) – Cypermethrin followed by Endosulfon, Aluminium Phosphide & Lindane. •

The top Agro-business company – Novartis (Ciba + Sandoz)

•

Production of Agro-Chemicals – 1995-96 (‘000 tons) B H C

-

25

Monocrotophos

-

9

Endosulfon

-

6.8

Total Production of pesticides in India – 88,890 tons (1994-95) 82,000 tons (1995-96) No. of pesticides registered in India – 143 (as on 31.3.95) No. of Technical grade pesticides manufactured in India – 66 Pigeon Pea: - 2nd most important pulses after Chickpea. Origin – India Maximum area and Production – M H Groundnut: - Critical stage  Pegging Origin – Brazil 29

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

Rice: - Area

-43.2 million hectare

Production – 82 mt Origin – Hindustan India ranks first in area and 2 n d in production Maximum area and production – West Bengal Rice grain in known as – caryopsis Rice is short day plant Dapog method – Introduced from Philiphines 30-40 m² area is needed Nitrification inhibitors – N-serve, ST, DCA Slow release N fertilizers – S coated/neem coated/Lac coated – useful Critical stage – Tillering to flowering Water requirement – 100-120 cm Herbicides – Propanil @ 1-1.5 kg/ha

Butachlon @ 1-2 kg/ha

Father of Hybrid rice – Prof. Long Ping Yuan First rice hybrid  COH R-1/MGR-1 WHEAT: Bread wheat

–T.Aestivum

Club wheat

– Tritium compactum

Macaroni wheat

-T.durum

Einkorn wheat Emmer wheat

– T. monococcum -T.dicoccum

India – area Production

-25 mha -65 mt

India is 2 n d largest producer only after China Wheat is World’s leading cereal Maximum area & production of wheat – Uttar Pradesh Critical stage – CRI stage Operations Topping & Suckering

30

Tobacco

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

Nipping

-

Gram (Bengal gram)

Tripping

-

Lucerne (Alfalfa)

Xanthomonas Bacterial Blight of rice

Xanthomonas Oryzae oryzae

Bacterial leaf streak of rice

Xanthomonas oryzae oryzicola

Bacterial blight of cowpea vignicola Citrus canker

Xanthomonas axonopodis Xanthomonas oxonopodis citri

Black rot of crucifers Campestris

Xanthomonas Campestris

Sugarcane gummosis vascularum

Xanthomonas axonopodis

Angular leaf spot of cotton malvacearum

Xanthomonas axonopodis

Leaf spot & Blight of beans

Xanthomonas axonopodis phaseoli

Leaf spot of Tomato Vesicatoria

Xanthomonas axonopodis

Leaf spot of red gram

Xanthomonas campestries cajani

Leaf spot of Bajra annamalaiensis

Xanthomonas

Leaf blotch of Bajra

campestris

Xanthomonas campestris Penniseti

Bacterial blight of Banana musarum Leaf spot of pomegranate

Xanthomonas

campestris

Xanthomonas axonopodis punicae

Leaf spot of cluster bean cyamopsidis

Xanthomonas compestris

Bacterial pustule of soybean

Xanthomonas axonopodis phaseoli - sojens

Bacterial bllight of sesamum

Xanthomonas campestris sesami

Pseudomonas Brown rot of potato solanacearum )

Ralstonia solanacearum

Bacterial wilt of Brinjal

(= pseudomonas

Ralstonia solanacearum 31

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

Bacterial wilt of Tomato

Ralstonia solanacearum

Moko disease of Banana

Ralstonia solanacearum

Wild fire of tobacco

pseudomonas syringae tabaci

Bacterial stalk rot of maize

pseudomonas lapsa

Leaf stripe of sorghum

pseudomonas lapsa

Leaf spot of mango

pseudomonas mongiferae indicae

Angular leafspot of tobacco

pseudomonas anguluta

Leaf spot of grape

pseudomonas viticola

Erwinia Stalk rot of maize dissolvens )

Enterobacter

dissolvens

(

=

Erwinia

soft rot of vegetable

Erwinia caratovora caratovora

fire blight of apple

Erwinia amylovora

Black leg of potato abroseptica

Erwinia

caratovora

Clavibacter Yellow ear of wheat

Rathayibacter tritici

Ring rot of potato spidonicum

Clavibacter michiganensis

Stem & fruit canker of tomato michiganensis michiganensis

Clavibacter

Agrobacterium Crown gall of stone fruits

Agrobacterium tumefacines

Streptomyces Potato scab

streptomyces scabis

Herbicides 2-4 DB

- can be used in pulse crops

Propanil - selective contact herbicide (used in Rice) Paraquat - non-selective contact herbicide used in non-cropped areas. Glyphosate

- non-selective translocated herbicide 32

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

Rice

- propanil, 2-4 D, Butachlor

Wheat - Isoproturon, sulfosulfuron, clodinofos Weight of top 15 cm soil  2.25 x 10kg/ha STATISTICS •

Probability of an event  any number lying between  0-1

•

Positive Binomial distribution – Variance< mean

•

Negative Binomial distribution – Variance> mean

•

Binomial distribution  variance < mean

•

Poisson distribution  variance = mean

•

Normal distribution  mean, median & mode are equal (Coincide at a single point)

•

Limiting value of correlation coefficient  -1 to =1

•

Limiting value of multiple co-relation coefficient  0 to 1 

S.E = -----√n  CV = ---------- x

100

X • CRD (completely randomized block design) is mostly used for lab experiments. Nipping: - is the process of plucking the apical buds of the crop at 30-40 DAS. It is done in Gram safflower, which promotes lateral branching, more flowers & pod yield. No. of soil orders – 12 Short day plants - soyabean, s/c, rice, tobacco LDP

-

wheat, oats, sugarcane, raddish, lettuce

Day neutral

-

tomato, ‘bulk wheat ‘ , maize & sun flower

True seeds of s/c are called as FLUFF Artificial s/c ripeners – polaris, sodium metasylicate, cycoul. 33

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

TMO -

technology mission on oilseeds

-May 1986 (mha)

•

ultimate irrigation potential

•

irrigation potential created

•

Irrigation potential utilized

•

Net irrigated area

-

55

•

Irrigated area (%)

-

35 %

• Igneous rocks

-

• Sedimentary rocks conglomerate

-

• Metamorphic rocks

-

- 148 - 92 -

82

granite , Basalt limestone, quartz, sandstone shale, gneiss, quartz, marble, slate

1.

True/particle density -

2.5 - 2.7 g/cc

2.

Apparent/bulk density

-

3.

First hybrid rice – WHR – 1/ MGR –1 (1994)

4.

Density of water is highest at - 4ºc ( 1.02 g/cc )

5.

1959 – 60  Urea was first produced at Sindri ( Bihar)

6.

ICPH – 8  first pigeon pea hybrid

7.

1 km² = 100 ha

8.

1 ft³ = 28.32 lbs

9.

1 ban = 10⁶ dynes/cm² = 0.1 Mpa

10.

C.N ratio  0.M = 10:1

11.

Indian soils = 14 :1

12. 0.05%

Most of Indian soils are deficit in N & contains about –

1.4

-

1.8 g/cc

13. Taking in to account the total land resources ( 328 mha) , the availability of land / head in India = 0.58 ha 14.

Australia - 59 ha

•

Graded bunding - if rainfall is - 780 cm

•

Zing terracing - 3- 10% slope 34

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

•

Bench terracing - 6-33% slope

•

1871 -

Department of Agriculture

•

1963 -

N S C

•

1972 -

I C R I S A T

•

1995 -

Institutional Village Level Programme

•

1998 -

National Agricultural Technology Project

• 1976 Agriculture)

N

•

R C A (Royal Commission on Agriculture)

1926 -

C

A

(National

•

Project Directors

-

10

•

A I C R P

-

78

•

N R C

-

10

•

National Bureaus

-

4

commission

on

During 2001-02 1.

GDP (Agricultural Share) 25.00%

2.

(Exports)

3.

Distribution of certified seeds – 100 lakh tons

16.18%

(27.00%)

(15.30%)

Cloud Seeding : Silver iodide

–

cold clouds

Sodium Chloride

–

Warm

•

Crumb and granular structure (Spheroidal) considered as favourable to plant growth.

•

Percentage of forest area to geographical area is highest in Japan (69%), while that of India is 22%

•

Water erosion: 3 forms, sheet, Rill, Gully erosion

•

Wind erosion: There are 3 types of soil movement Particle Size 35

of

soil

are

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

1) Saltation

0.1-0.55 mm in diameter – Major process

2) Suspension

< 0.1 mm

3) Surface creep

> 0.5 mm

•

DAP – 18% N, 46% P2O5 OR 16% N

•

CAN – 25-28% N

•

Ammonium nitrate – 33-35 % N – It is explosive

Statistics

48% P2O5

(1994-95)

Geographical area

-

328.73 mha

Forests

-

68.39 mha (22.40%)

Net area sown

-

142.82 mha

Gross area sown

-

188.15 mha

Cropping intensity

-

131.70 %

Net irrigated area

-

55 mha

Gross irrigated area -

82 mha

Fertilizers:

N

P

10.3 mt

2.97 mt

K 1.02 mt

Total 14.3 mt

Average haˉ² consumption of fertilizers India

-

86 kg/ha

World Avg.

-

86 kg/ha

Punjab

158 kg/ha  (Highest with respect to excluding UTs (Union Territories))

Netherlands

-

states

542 kg/ha

Gross capital formation in Agriculture – 9.4 % • Uttar Pradesh – Contributes maximum food grain production (42 mt) and has maximum area and production of wheat, maize, sugar cane, potato, mango • West Bengal – has maximum area and production of Rice, Jute and Mesta • Maharashtra – has maximum area and production of warse cereals, jowar, pigeon pea and cotton

36

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

• Madhya Pradesh – maximum area and production of pulses, chickpea, oilseeds and soyabean Groundnut  highest area – Andhra Pradesh Production – Gujarat Sugarcane  area & production – West Bengal Productivity – Tamil Nadu Rice and Wheat – Productivity is highest in Punjab Water requirement – Rice

–

100-120 cm

Sugarcane -

200-300 cm

Sugarcane •

Origin

-

Thincane -

Thickcane -

 •

Area – 4mha

•

Production – 279 mt

India

New Guinea

• Seed rate – 30.35 thousand setts 3 buded 2 buded – 75,000 1 single – 1,25,000 •

Herbicides – 2-4 D (75-80 gt) Atrazine

•

Brix nad refactometer – 17-18 ideal stage for harvest

GENERAL • Fibrinogen is the precursor of Fibrio • Fertilizin is an (hormone) chemical substance produced by the egg during fertilization which attract the sperm • First geneticist who had received Nobel Prize – T H Morgan • Agroclimate Zones

-

15

• Agroecological Zones

-

21

• Agroclimatic regions

-

126

• Fobrinogen

-

Fibrin

• Trypsinogen

-

Trypsin 37

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

• First enzyme crystalized – urease – by Sumner • Metallovitamin – B 1 2 (Cobalamine) • First aromatic hybrid Rice – Pusa basmati – 1 • First Basmati – Pusa RH – 10 • Stomata less (Astomatal) plant – potamogaton & submerged plants • Central molecule controlling cell division aquatic plant – cycline • Father of Physiology – Stephan Hales • Pollination by bats – Chiropterophylly • Most of the Indian soils are deficit in – Nitorgen and Zn • India is the largest producer of Mango, Banana, Sapota and Cauliflower • Elements absorbed in complex form  Na • Plant uptake maximum amount of  K from soil amount all elements (Luxury consumption) • Indian soils are usually poor in – OM & nitrogen • White Revolution

-

Milk

• Blue Revolution

-

Fishery

• Round Revolution

-

Potato

• Silver Revolution

-

Eggs & Poultry

• Brown Revolution

-

Biomass (fertilizer production)

• Orange Revolution

-

Onion

• Yellow Revolution

-

Oilseeds

• Green Revolution

-

Wheat & Rice

• Grey Revolution

-

I T in Agriculture

• Fertilizer having explosive nature – Ammonium nitrate • 50 % of Indian soils are deficit in Zn(among micro nutrients) • Neutral fertilizer – CAN – Calcium Ammonium Nitrate Crop

State

(%) 38

Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, [email protected]

Sugarcane Tobacco

West Bengal Andhra Pradesh

Potato

(51.00) (48.00)

Uttar Pradesh

(33.60)

Jute

West Bengal

(60.00)

Coconut

Kerala

(68.30)

Rubber

Kerala

(92.80)

Cashew

Kerala

(67.40)

Tea

West Bengal

Coffee

Kerala

Onion

Maharashtra

(18.50)

Chillies

Andhra Pradesh

(26.90)

Coriander

Andhra Pradesh

(36.00)

Weed Control • The crops like sudangrass, sorghum and cowpea are good competitors while crops like linseed, groundnut and lentil are poor competitors •

Prickly pear – opuntia spp

•

Water hyacinth – Eichhornia crassipes

•

Grass carp – feed on guatic weeds

• Eradication of prickly pear by using the cochineal insects Doctylopius tomentosus in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu is best example of Biological Control in India •

Parthenium

-

Compositae family

•

Cyperus

-

Cyperaccae

•

Echinochloa

-

Graminae

•

Orobanchae

-

Orobanchaceae

•

Argemone mexicana – Papaveraccae

•

Striga

-

Scrophulariaceae

39