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Angela G. Grava BBF 2-4s 1. History of computer Inventor Charles Babbage did not invent the computer. However, he was the first to conceptualize and actually design a model that would be fully programmable and functioning, way back in 1837—if only he’d had the time, the finances and the resources to complete it. Unfortunately, Babbage could not complete construction of his design in his lifetime, and so the would-be first computer walked the doom path that many computer-related engineering projects still follow today: inadequate funds and lack of time. So, who invented the computer? The machine that is widely considered to be the predecessor of modern computers was known as ENIAC: Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer. ENIAC was developed by the United States Army during World War II, with the purpose of calculating ballistic firing tables. No single person can claim credit for the invention and development of ENIAC; like most computer projects, it was a team effort. However, two of the key people behind ENIAC’s creation were University of Pennsylvania professors J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchley. There has been quite a bit of debate over whether ENIAC truly was the first computer. Many consider the Atanasoff Berry Computer (ABC) to be the true first computer, as its development preceded that of ENIAC; and indeed, Mauchley utilized some of the ideas behind it to develop ENIAC. The Atanasoff Berry Computer was constructed at Iowa State University during the period from 1937 to 1942, by Dr. John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford E. Berry. This computer was the first to separate computation and memory (processing and storage, in modern computers); use binary digits to represent all data; and perform every calculation using electronics rather than wheels and ratchets. The ABC used punch cards to input data rather than the keyboards we know today; and it stored data in memory drums. Electronic operation was achieved through the use of vacuum tubes. 1943 saw the commissioned beginning of the ENIAC project, and the first machine was unveiled on February 14, 1946. This was an important date in the history of the computer, as it was the first time a working computer was announced to the public. The total cost of the ENIAC project was around $500,000. The final product made headlines because of its sheer size: ENIAC took up an entire room and weighed in at nearly 30 tons. The components involved in the construction of ENIAC were also impressively immense—17,468 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors, 10,000 capacitors, 1,500 relays and 7,200 crystal diodes made the monstrous computer tick. Like the ABC, ENIAC received input through punch cards, and did not have the means to store programs. However, the machine did suit its purposes—when it worked. Because of the sensitivity of the vacuum tubes to heat, during its initial operation the ENIAC was down 50 percent of the time due to blown vacuum tubes, which occurred at a rate of several tubes per day. Those of us who use modern computers cannot conceive of the hassle of owning a computer that only worked half the time! However, ENIAC’s users soon discovered that by keeping the computer running constantly, the intense heat that occurred during boot-up and shut-down was prevented, and soon lowered the rate of vacuum tube blow-out to one every two days. Could you imagine the price of ENIAC’s electric bill? The day-to-day operation of ENIAC was carried out, surprisingly enough, by women—an almost unheard-of circumstance in the 1940’s. Six women were responsible for the bulk of ENIAC’s

programming: Jean Jennings Bartik, Frances Snyder Holberton, Ruth Lichterman Teitelbaum, Frances Bilas Spence, Marlyn Wescoff Meltzer, and Kathleen McNulty Mauchly Antonelli. These six super-women were inducted into the Women in Technology International Hall of Fame in 1997 to commemorate their contribution to the history of the computer. Several improvements to ENIAC were made over the years, and the machine remained in operation until 1955. However, the room-sized computer design was never repeated, and the next step in the history of the computer came with EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator), which more closely resembled today’s computers—in operation, at least. The EDSAC, a British invention developed by Maurice Wilkes and his team at the University of Cambridge, actually resembled a series of oversized metal abacus (lacking, of course, the moveable components). The EDSAC was the first practical computer, allowing for storage capability and the use of program applications to carry out different operations. Similar to ENIAC, the EDSAC made use of vacuum tubes, but used punched tape instead of punch cards for input purposes. It also used mercury delay lines for memory, an improvement over ENIAC. Perhaps no one can say with certainty who invented the computer. However, the history of the computer is an interesting look at the ingenuity of humans in our pursuit of knowledge. Whether we consider the ABC, the ENIAC, or the EDSAC the great-grandfathers of the machines that now grace desktops and homes around the world, we know that many people contributed the ideas, the research, the technology and the inspiration to forge one of humanity’s greatest inventions: the computer. Where would we be today without it? Though it’s doubtful that we would be scratching calculations in the mud with sharp sticks, our global community is certainly a more exciting place to live thanks to the pioneers who developed the very first computers. 2. Definition of Computer A .computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a set of instructions. B. A device that computes, especially a programmable electronic machine that performs highspeed mathematical or logical operations or that assembles, stores, correlates, or otherwise processes information. C. One who computes. 3) Classification of computers (1) Micro computers: These computers use a microprocessor chip and this chip is used instead of CPU means that this microprocessor chip works as a CPU. These computers are also called personal computers. Two major types of these computers are laptop or Desktop computers. Only one user uses these computers at time that's why they are also known as personal computers. (2) Mini Computers: These are powerful computer. These computers come into existence in 1960s at that time mainframe computer was very costly. Mini computers were available in cheap prices, so users start using it. This computer is next in he line but less offers less than mainframe in work and performance. These are the computers, which are mostly preferred by the small type of business personals, colleges, etc. (3) Mainframe Computer: It as a very powerful and large computer. You can get idea of its power as it can handle processing of many users at a time.

Terminals are used to connect a user to this computer and users submit there task through mainframe. Terminal is a device which has keyboard and a screen. By using terminal users put inputs into the computer and get the output through screen. Another giant in computers after the super computer is Mainframe, which can also process millions of instruction per second and capable of accessing billions of data. This computer is commonly used in big hospitals, air line reservations companies, and many other huge companies prefer mainframe because of its capability of retrieving data on a huge basis. This is normally to expensive and out of reach from a salary-based person who wants a computer for his home.This kind of computer can cost up to thousands of dollars. (4) Super Computers: As the name "super computer" specifies that these are most powerful computers even than mainframe. Actually, when we optimize a mainframe computer then we get super computer. The biggest in size, the most expensive in price than any other is classified and known as super computer. It can process trillions of instructions in seconds. This computer is not used as a PC in a home neither by a student in a college. Governments specially use this type of computer for their different calculations and heavy jobs. Different industries also use this huge computer for designing their products.In most of the Hollywood's movies it is used for animation purposes. This kind of computer is also helpful for forecasting weather reports worldwide. (5) Microprocessor: You will find these computers everywhere. Microprocessor chips are used in many devices as I-pod, DVD, headphone etc. (6), Personal computers Almost all the computer users are familiar with the personal computers. They normally know what the personal computer is and what are its functions. This is the computer mostly preferred by the home users. These computers are lesser in cost than the computers given above and also, small in size; they are also called PCs in short for Personal computers. This computer is small in size and you can easily arrange it to fit in your single bedroom with its all accommodation. Today this is thought to be the most popular computer in all. (7). Notebook computers Having a small size and low weight the notebook is easy to carry to anywhere. A student can take it with him/her to his/her school in his/her bag with his/her book. This is easy to carry around and preferred by students and business people to meet their assignments and other necessary tasks. The approach of this computer is also the same as the Personal computer. It can store the same amount of data and having a memory of the same size as that of a personal computer. One can say that it is the replacement of personal desktop computer.

4) Capabilities and Limitations of computers Capabilities are, 1. Can solve complex calculations quickly which takes a long time to solve manually 2. Capable of handling and processing large calculations at a single time 3. All Electronic Items have some form of Computing functions.

Accuracy-

Volume-

SpeedProcessing AbilityAccess to Data-

They are accurate. Although there is the possibility of hardware failure or software bugs, computers are much more accurate in processing data than humans because they can perform repetitive tasks without becoming bored or tired. They can handle a large volume of data. In many applications -e.g. banking the number of transactions that need to be handled is far greater than would be possible to deal with manually. In addition the computer system is able to store a large amount of data. Computers can process the data at high speed. This allows them to process a large volume of data but, in some situations, a small volume of data must be processed very quickly, such as in critical control systems. Computers can search large volumes of data quickly to provide complex information - e.g. all customers whose account is more than 3 weeks overdue and who owe more than £20. Computer systems can link to other computers to access data through a network. Thus the amount of available data is increased.

Limitations are, 1. Cannot replace a Human Brain 2. Works only on Stored Procedures and cannot think on its own. 3. Not all complex calculations can be solved through computers 4. Cannot depend on computers all the time

5). Components of computer systems 1. Central Processing Unit. The most powerful microprocessor chip in your computer is the CPU. For example the Intel Pentium chip handles the central management functions of a high-powered PC. Intel's newest Hyper-Threading (technology that allows the CPU to process two separate threads of data simultaneously) CPU supports a 1 megabyte on-board L2 cache (the on-board cache functions as a buffer to feed data to the CPU at a faster rate). The speed of the CPU is measured in GigaHertz (billions of cycles per second).

2. Random-Access Memory. Hardware inside your computer that stores information while you work. RAM is one of the things that makes your computer run faster. RAM is not permanent storage of data. When you turn your computer off, all data in RAM is lost. RAM is available in different types, sizes, and speeds. Currently, depending on the Motherboard, the Intel Celeron D CPU uses PC-2700 ram with 533 MHz FSB (Front Side Bus). The Intel Pentuim 4 HT CPU uses PC-3200 DDR (double data rate) ram with 800 MHz Front Side Bus. 3.Hard Drive A Data Storage medium that houses all of the information in your computer. This would include your operating system (Windows), device drivers, programs, and data you have created using your programs (word documents, spread sheets, etc.). Unlike RAM the Hard Drive retains data when the computer is turned off. Hard Drives sizes are in GigaBytes or billions of characters. EIDE hard drives spin at a speed of 7200 RPM. Older EIDE hard drives spin at 5400 RPM. New technology hard drives are now on the market, and these are SATA (Serial ATA) hard drives. Currently, these SATA hard drives have speeds approximately the same as EIDE. Looking ahead, the SATA hard drives will be faster and the prices will drop. The SATA hard drives require different MotherBoard technology to support them. 4.Motherboard The main circuit board of the computer. All key internal and external components of your computer plug into the MotherBoard, such as the CPU, RAM, Hard Drive, etc. The speed at which information travels across the MotherBoard is referred to as the BUS speed. Recently a new technology has been introduced called PCI Express. This allows a faster data transfer speed across the MotherBoard, especially for video graphics. 5.Case Often called the "computer", the case houses and provides power to the major computer components, including the MotherBoard, CPU, Hard Drive, RAM, Video Card, Sound Card, etc. Those components not housed in the computer case are usually referred to as "peripherals". The case also houses the power supply. It is important to have a large enough power supply to handle your current and future needs. Also important is that the case be large enough and have enough ball bearing fans so the internal components do not overheat and cause damage to themselves. Miniature cases are to be avoided. Never put your computer in a desk compartment or other small space where it can't breathe. Heat is the enemy of all computers. 6.Monitor The video display unit that sits on your desktop and serves as your computer screen. Monitors are available in two basic types. The CRT (cathode ray tube - looks like a TV set), called "flat" or "perfect flat" and the LCD (liquid crystal display) called "flat panel"- pictured on the left. The LCD Flat Panel monitors are more expensive, but have a smaller footprint on your desktop. The better LCD monitors can support digital (better) or analog input from the video card. With LCD Monitors we must watch closely the "response time". This is how fast the monitor redraws the picture. If you get a LCD with a slow refresh rate, some video or games may be jerky to watch. 7.Video Card A circuit board that plugs into a MotherBoard slot, usually an AGP (accelerated graphics port) slot or PCI Express slot (newer/faster/more bandwidth) and handles multimedia applications and graphics-intensive web sites freeing up the CPU (thereby increasing your computers speed). The monitor plugs into the video card which is accessed thru a slot in the back of your computer. The better the graphics chip on the video card, and the more ram built on the video card, the faster the display on the monitor. Top of the line games need very high performance video cards. Better Video Cards have both Digital (better) and Analog outputs.

8.Speakers Produce sound (music, voice, etc.) based on data created and sent by the sound card. Today, computer speakers have become very high quality and many include a sub-woofer for good bass. 9.Sound card A circuit board that plugs into your MotherBoard that adds audio capability to your computer, providing high quality stereo output to the speakers. 10.CD- ROM Compact Disk - Read Only Memory. An optical storage technology that stores and plays back data. "Read Only" means the information can be displayed and used or copied, but cannot be deleted or changed (on the disk). One CD-ROM can hold around 650 megabytes of data, or the equivalent of 450 floppies. The speed of a CD-ROM refers to how fast the disk spins in the device. 11. CD-Burner or DVD/CD Burner A CD Burner is the informal name for a CD recorder, a device that can record data to a compact disc. CD-Recordable (CD-R) and CD-Rewritable (CD-RW) are the two most common types of drives that can write CD's, either once (in the case of the CD-R) or repeatedly (in the case of the CD-RW). In the CD-R recording process, the data is actually etched into the disc (burned) with a laser. In the CD-RW process the disk must first be formatted (burned) and then data is copied to or erased from the CD-RW media. Almost all burners can do both tasks - record (CD-R) and rewrite (CD-RW). 12.Modem A circuit board that plugs into your MotherBoard that enables your computer to communicate with other computers and the Internet. Phone lines are "analog" and computers are "digital" so the modem has the job to MOdulate and DEModulate between analog and digital, thus the name MODEM. 13.Ethernet card A circuit board that plugs into your MotherBoard and provides the capability to connect or "Network" your computer to other computers and/or the Internet. If you use a cable modem, your computer will need an Ethernet card. Ethernet cards come in different speeds. A 10 Mbps card can transmit/receive at 10 million bits (8 bits to a byte) per second. A 10/100/1000 Mbps card can transmit/receive at up to 1000 million bits per second. 14. Keyboard The peripheral device used to input information into a computer. It provides a set of alphabetic, numeric, punctuation, symbol and control keys. When a character is pressed, it sends a coded input to the computer, which then displays the character on the Monitor. Keyboards are available in corded and wireless models. Keyboards should come with a wrist rest. 15.Mouse A peripheral device connected to your computer, used to reposition the cursor or move the pointer on your screen. A mouse usually has at least two buttons, you can use to highlight text, open menu items, launch programs, etc. A mouse can be corded or wireless. Some mice have a ball on the bottom that rolls as you push the mouse, and some mice have optical function. No ball, the mouse senses the movement by an optical beam it emits. There is no need for a mousepad with an optical mouse. 16.Floppy drive

A device in your computer that allows removable (a floppy disk) storage. Data can be written to or read from a floppy disk in a floppy drive. Each floppy disk can be removed, so you can store data on more than one disk. 17. Operating system The foundation software of a computer system. Responsible for controlling and launching the installed applications and computer peripherals. It schedules tasks, allocates storage, handles the interface to peripheral hardware and presents a "default" interface to the user when no application program is running. 6) Elements of Computer system: Hardware - Compose of the physical components. The tangible parts of a computer. ex. power supply, keyboard, mouse, etc. Software - Intangible parts. The parts which do not have material form. ex. datas, programs, protocols, etc. :Included in the hard ware is mother board which is pretty much the hub of everything and manages all the different connections for other components such as your cd drive, hard drives, ram, graphics cards, sound cards, mouse and keyboard, monitor and anything else. Some motherboards have ethernet (a way of connecting to the internet), graphics, and sound cards built into them. You than attach the CPU. The cpu is your main processing chip and is generally made by AMD or Intel. The hard drives store all your information and files. Dedicated sound cards and video cards handle all your sound and visual stuff respectively. They generally do a better job than the motherboard does so if you are using intensive applications such as CAD or gaming you may want dedicated graphics and sound. Ram is memory that is used while the computer is on for running programs, generally more ram helps you run more programs simultaneously. Your keyboard and mouse are input devices that you use to type or navigate the computer and generally connect via usb or ps2 ports on the back of your computer. The monitor displays what your computer is doing and allows you to interface with your machine graphically. Your cd drive is an optical device that lets your read cd's you can also get drives that read dvd's blu-ray discs and hd dvds. ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit): The ALU is the digital circuit that is able to perform different types of functions, such as Addition, Subtraction, and Multiplication etc. (2) Control Unit: The control unit is the part of CPU (central processing unit) or other devices that performs the duty to direct its operations, the control unit is just like a finite state machine that has some finite states and the transaction from one state to the other state is called action. (3) Memory: The memory is another very important element of the computer without memory the computer can't operate in today's modern age it is called the RAM (Random Access Memory) when ever we give some instruction to the computer it passes through RAM to the Processor and the processor processes it and send it back. The main reason behind memory is that it is faster in communication with the processor then the other memory devices such as hard disk etc. (4) Input/output devices: The input and output devices is another important element for example the processor is the input device and it gives its output to the monitor etc for output. There is another very important point the basic elements are considered as CPU (central Processing Unit), I/O devices, and Memory actually the CPU is the composition of different other elements such as ALU, Control Unit, Registers which is another type of memory.

Primary Sources of Law: can be divided into two categories: (i) legislation (statutes, regulations, and orders-in-council) and (ii) case law (decisions of courts and administrative tribunals). Primary legal resources are the products of official bodies with the authority to make law. Thus, primary legal resources can affect the legal rights of citizens. In our law class we will use American Legal Net to research California cases and codes, and we will use Loislawschool.com to research federal case law and statutes. Secondary Sources of Law: are background resources. Unlike primary resources, they do not have the power to affect legal rights, and are referred to instead for their instructive value and for the references they provide to relevant primary sources of law. Secondary legal resources include textbooks, legal journals, legal encyclopedias, and case law digests/summaries. Because of the broad overview of the law that they provide, secondary legal resources can be an excellent starting point for legal research. Meaning of obligation

1. LAW a. an agreement or duty by which one person (the obligor) is legally bound to make payment or perform services for the benefit of another (the obligee) b. the bond, contract, or other document setting forth the terms of this agreement OBLIGATION - The requirement to do what is imposed by law, promise, or contract; a duty. In its general and most extensive sense, obligation is synonymous with duty. In a more technical meaning, it is a tie which binds us to pay or to do something agreeably to the laws and customs of the country in which the obligation is made. The term obligation also signifies the instrument or writing by which the contract is witnessed. And in another sense, an obligation still subsists, although the civil obligation is said to be a bond containing a penalty, with a condition annexed for the payment of money, performance of covenants or the like; it differs from a bill which is generally without a penalty or condition though it may be obligatory. It is also defined to be a deed whereby a man binds himself under a penalty to do a thing. The word obligation, in its most technical signification imports a sealed instrument. Obligations are divided into imperfect obligations and perfect obligations. Imperfect obligations are those which are not binding on us as between man and man, and for the non-performance of which we are accountable to God only; such as charity or gratitude. In this sense an obligation is a mere duty. A perfect obligation is one which gives a right to another to require us to give him something or not to do something. These obligations are either natural or moral, or they are civil. A natural or moral obligation is one which cannot be enforced by action, but which is binding on the party who makes it, in conscience and according to natural justice. As for instance, when the action is barred by the act of limitation, a natural obligation is extinguished. Although natural obligations cannot be enforeed by action, they have the following effect: 1. No suit will lie to recover back what has been paid, or given in compliance with a natural obligation. A natural obligation is a sufficient consideration for a new contract. A civil obligation is one which has a binding operation in law, vinculum juris, and which gives to the obligee the right of enforcing it in a court of justice; in other words, it is an engagement binding on the obligor.

Civil obligations are divided into express and implied, pure and conditional, primitive and secondary, principal and accessory, absolute and alternative, determinate and indeterminate, divisible and indivisible, single and penal, and joint and several. They are also purely personal, purely real, and both real and mixed at the same time. Express or conventional obligations are those by which the obligor binds himself in express terms to perform his obligation. An implied obligation is one which arises by operation of law; for example, if I send you daily a loaf of bread without any express authority and you make use of it in your family, the law raises an obligation on your part to pay me the value of the bread. A pure or simple obligation is one which is not suspended by any condition, either because it has been contacted without condition or having been contracted with one, it has been fulfilled. A conditional obligation is one the execution of which is suspended by a condition which has not been accomplished and subject to which it has been contracted. A primitive obligation, which in one sense may also be called a principal obligation, is one which is contracted with a design that it should, itself, be the first fulfilled. A secondary obligation is one which is contrasted and is to be performed in case the primitive cannot be. For example, if I sell you my house, I bind myself to give a title but I find I cannot as the title is in another, then my secondary obligation is to pay you damages for my nonperformance of my obligation. A principal obligation is one which is the most important object of the engagement of the contracting parties. An accessory obligation is one which is dependent on the principal obligation; for example, if I sell you a house and lot of ground, the principal obligation on my part is to make you a title for it; the accessory obligation is to deliver you all the title papers which I have relating to it; to take care of the estate till it is delivered to you and the like. An absolute obligation is one which gives no alternative to the obligor, but he is bound to fulfil it according to his engagement. An alternative obligation is, where a person engages to do, or to give several things in such a manner that the payment of one will acquit him of all; as if A agrees to give B, upon a sufficient consideration, a horse or one hundred dollars. In order to constitute an alternative obligation, it is necessary that two or more things should be promised disjunctively; where they are promised conjunctively, there are as many obligations as the things which are enumerated, but where they are in the alternative, though they are all due, there is but one obligation, which may be discharged by the payment of any of them. The choice of performing one of the obligations belongs to the obligor, unless it is expressly agreed that all belong to the creditor. If one of the acts is prevented by the obligee, or the act of God, the obligor is discharged from both. A determinate obligation, is one which has for its object a certain thing; as an obligation to deliver a certain horse named Bucephalus. In this case the obligation can only be discharged by delivering the identical horse. An indeterminate obligation is one where the obligor binds himself to deliver one of a certain species; as to deliver a horse, the delivery of any horse will discharge the obligation. A divisible obligation is one which being a unit may nevertheless be lawfully divided with or

without the consent of the parties. It is clear it may be divided by consent, as those who made it, may modify or change it as they please. But some obligations may be divided without the consent of the obligor; as, where a tenant is bound to pay two hundred dollars a year rent to his landlord, the obligation is entire, yet, if his landlord dies and leaves two sons, each will be entitled to one hundred dollars; or if the landlord sells one undivided half of the estate yielding the rent, the purchaser will be entitled to receive one hundred dollars, and the seller the other hundred. An indivisible obligation is one which is not susceptible of division; as, for example, if I promise to pay you one hundred dollars, you cannot assign one half of this to another, so as to give him a right of action against me for his share. A single obligation is one without any penalty; as, where I simply promise to pay you one hundred dollars. This is called a single bill, when it is under seal. A penal obligation is one to which is attached a penal clause which is to be enforeed, if the principal obligation be not performed. In general equity will relieve against a penalty, on the fulfilment of the principal obligation. A joint obligation is one by which several obligors promise to the obligee to perform the obligation. When the obligation is only joint and the obligors do not promise separately to fulfil their engagement they must be all sued, if living, to compel the performance; or, if any be dead, the survivors must all be sued. A several obligation is one by which one individual or several individuals bind themselves separately to perform the engagement. In this case each obligor may be sued separately, and if one or more be dead their respective executors may be sued. The obligation is, purely personal when the obligor binds himself to do a thing; as if I give my note for one thousand dollars, in that case my person only is bound, for my property is liable for the debt only while it belongs to me, and if I lawfully transfer it to a third person, it is discharged. The obligation is personal in another sense, as when the obligor binds himself to do a thing, and he provides his heirs and executors shall not be bound; as, for example, when he promises to pay a certain sum yearly during his life and the payment is to cease at his death. The obligation is real when real estate, and not the person, is liable to the obligee for the performance. A familiar example will explain this: when an estate owes an easement, as a right of way, it is the thing and not the owner who owes the easement. Another instance occurs when a person buys an estate which has been mortgaged, subject to the mortgage, he is not liable for the debt, though his estate is. In these cases the owner has an interest only because he is seised of the servient estate, or the mortgaged premises, and he may discharge himself by abandoning or parting with the property. The obligation is both personal and real when the obligor has bound himself, and pledged his estate for the fulfilment of his obligation.