Financial Structure And International Debt

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Chapter 13 Financial Structure and International Debt

Optimal Financial Structure • The domestic theory of optimal financial structure must be  modified considerably to encompass the multinational firm. • Most finance theorists are now in agreement about whether an  optimal financial structure exists for a firm, and if so, how it can  be determined. • When taxes and bankruptcy costs are considered, a firm has an  optimal financial structure determined by that particular mix of  debt and equity that minimizes the firm’s cost of capital for a  given level of business risk. • As the business risk of new projects differs from the risk of  existing projects, the optimal mix of debt and equity would  change to recognize tradeoffs between business and financial  risks. 13-2

Financing Patterns of Firms in India • In a study for World Bank it was found  that debt to asset ratios remained fairly  stable during the period 1994­2003. • Debt growth fell considerably during this  period. • Interest coverage ratio exhibited a U  shaped pattern. • Bank financing rose whereas nonbank  debt declined. 13-3

Financing Patterns of Firms in India • Young firms have lower debt ratios that  older firms. • Foreign firms carry less debt than  domestic firms • Manufacturing firms have higher debt  ratios than service firms. • IT firms have lowest levels of debt and  highest debt coverage ratios. 13-4

Financing Patterns of Firms in India • Smaller firms rely less on debt. • Smaller firms also borrow less from  formal financial institutions. • Smaller firms seem to be credit  constrained.

13-5

Optimal Financial Structure • The following exhibit illustrates how the  cost of capital varies with the amount of  debt employed. • As the debt ratio increases, the overall  cost of capital (kWACC) decreases because  of the heavier weight of low­cost (due to  tax­deductability) debt ([kd(1­t)]  compared to high cost equity (ke). 13-6

Exhibit 13.1 The Cost of Capital and Financial Structure ke = cost of equity

Cost of Capital (%) 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2

Minimum cost of capital range

kWACC = weighted average after-tax cost of capital

kd (1-tx) = after-tax cost of debt

0

20

40

Debt Ratio (%) =

60

80

100

Total Debt (D) Total Assets (V) 13-7

Optimal Financial Structure and the MNE • The domestic theory of optimal financial  structures needs to be modified by four more  variables in order to accommodate the case of  the MNE. • These variables include: – Availability of capital – Diversification of cash flows – Foreign exchange risk – Expectations of international portfolio investors 13-8

Optimal Financial Structure and the MNE • Availability of capital: – A multinational firm’s marginal cost of capital is  constant for considerable ranges of its capital  budget – This statement is not true for most small domestic  firms (as they do not have equal access to capital  markets), nor for MNEs located in countries that  have illiquid capital markets (unless they have  gained a global cost and availability of capital)

13-9

Optimal Financial Structure and the MNE • Diversification of cash flows: – The theoretical possibility exists that multinational  firms are in a better position than domestic firms to  support higher debt ratios because their cash flows  are diversified internationally – As returns are not perfectly correlated between  countries, an MNE might be able to achieve a  reduction in cash flow variability (much in the same  way as portfolio investors who diversify their  security holdings globally) 13-10

Optimal Financial Structure and the MNE • Foreign exchange risk: – When a firm issues foreign currency  denominated debt, its effective cost equals  the after­tax cost of repaying the principal  and interest in terms of the firm’s own  currency – This amount includes the nominal cost of  principal and interest in foreign currency  terms, adjusted for any foreign exchange  gains or losses 13-11

Optimal Financial Structure and the MNE • Expectations of International Portfolio  Investors: – The key to gaining a global cost and availability  of capital is attracting and retaining  international portfolio investors – If a firm wants to raise capital in global  markets, it must adopt global norms that are  close to the US and UK norms as these markets  represent the most liquid and unsegmented  markets 13-12

Financial Structure of Foreign Subsidiaries • If the theory that minimizing the cost of capital for  a given level of business risk and capital budget is  an objective that should be implemented from the  perspective of the consolidated MNE, then the  financial structure of each subsidiary is relevant  only to the extent that it affects this overall goal. • In other words, an individual subsidiary does not  really have an independent cost of capital;  therefore its financial structure should not be based  on an objective of minimizing it.

13-13

Financial Structure of Foreign Subsidiaries • Advantages to implementing a financing  structure that conforms to local norms: – Reduction in criticisms – Improvement in the ability of management  to evaluate ROE relative to local  competitors – Determination as to whether or not  resources are being misallocated (cost of  local debt financing versus returns generated  by the assets financed) 13-14

Financial Structure of Foreign Subsidiaries • Disadvantages to localization: – MNEs are expected to have a competitive advantage  over local firms in overcoming imperfections in national  capital markets; there would then be no need to dispose  of this competitive advantage and conform – Consolidated balance sheet structure may not conform t  any country’s norm (increasing perceived financial risk  and cost of capital to the parent) – Local debt ratios are really only cosmetic as lenders will  ultimately look to the parent, and its consolidated  worldwide cash flow as the source of debt repayment 13-15

Financial Structure of Foreign Subsidiaries •

In addition to choosing an appropriate financial structure for  foreign subsidiaries, financial managers of MNEs must choose  among alternative sources of funds to finance the foreign  subsidiary.



These funds can be either internal to the MNE or external to the  MNE.



Ideally the choice should minimize the cost of external funds  (after adjusting for foreign exchange risk) and should choose  internal sources in order to minimize worldwide taxes and  political risk.



Simultaneously, the firm should ensure that managerial  motivation in the foreign subsidiaries is geared toward  minimizing the firm’s worldwide cost of capital

13-16

Exhibit 13.3 Internal Financing of the Foreign Subsidiary Cash Equity Real goods

Funds From Within the Multinational Enterprise (MNE)

Funds from parent company

Debt -- cash loans

Leads & lags on intra-firm payables

Debt -- cash loans

Funds from sister subsidiaries

Leads & lags on intra-firm payables

Subsidiary borrowing with parent guarantee

Funds Generated Internally by the Foreign Subsidiary

Depreciation & non-cash charges

Retained earnings 13-17

Exhibit 13.4 External Financing of the Foreign Subsidiary

Borrowing from sources in parent country

Funds External to the Multinational Enterprise (MNE)

Banks & other financial institutions Security or money markets

Local currency debt

Borrowing from sources outside of parent country

Third-country currency debt Eurocurrency debt

Individual local shareholders

Local equity Joint venture partners

13-18

The Eurocurrency Markets • The Eurocurrency markets are one of the truly significant innovations  in international finance of the past 50 years. • These markets have provided a foundation for a series of innovations  in both the structure of and choices in financing the MNE. • Eurocurrencies are domestic currencies of one country on deposit in a  second country. • Any convertible currency can exist in “Euro” form (not to be confused  with the European currency called the euro). • These markets serve two valuable purposes: – Eurocurrency deposits are an efficient and convenient money  market device for holding excess corporate liquidity – The Eurocurrency market is a major source of short­term bank  loans to finance corporate working capital needs (including  imports and exports) 13-19

International Debt Markets • The international debt market offers the  borrower a wide variety of different maturities,  repayment structures, and currencies of  denomination. • The markets and their many different  instruments vary by source of funding, pricing  structure, maturity, and subordination or  linkage to other debt and equity instruments. • The three major sources of debt funding on the  international markets are depicted in the  following exhibit. 13-20

Exhibit 13.5 International Debt Markets & Instruments

Bank Loans & Syndications (floating-rate, short-to-medium term)

Euronote Market (floating-rate, short-to-medium term)

International Bond Market (fixed & floating-rate, medium-to-long term)

International Bank Loans Eurocredits Syndicated Credits Euronotes & Euronote Facilities Eurocommercial Paper (ECP) Euro Medium Term Notes (EMTNs) Eurobond * straight fixed-rate issue * floating-rate note (FRN) * equity-related issue

Foreign Bond 13-21

International Debt Markets • Bank loans and syndications: – International bank loans have traditionally been sourced in  the Eurocurrency markets, there is a narrow interest rate  spread between deposit and loan rates of less than 1%. – Eurocredits are bank loans to MNEs, sovereign  governments, international institutions, and banks  denominated in Eurocurrencies and extended by banks in  countries other than the country in whose currency the loan  is denominated. – The syndication of loans has enabled banks to spread the risk  of very large loans among a number of banks (this is  significant for MNEs as they usually need credit in an  amount larger than a single bank’s loan limit). 13-22

Exhibit 13.7 Comparative Spreads Between Lending and Deposit Rates in the Eurodollar Market Interest Rate Domestic Loan Rate

7.000 % 4.625 % Eurodollar Loan Rate

Domestic Spread of 4.000%

Eurodollar Spread of 0.500% 4.125 % Eurodollar Deposit Rate

Domestic 3.000 % Deposit Rate

13-23

International Debt Markets • The Euronote market: – Euronotes and Euronote facilities are short to  medium in term and are either underwritten and  non­underwritten – Euro­commercial paper is a short­term debt  obligation of a corporation or bank (usually  denominated in US dollars) – Euro medium­term notes is a new entrant to the  world’s debt markets, which bridges the gap  between Euro­commercial paper and a longer­term  and less flexible international bond 13-24

International Debt Markets • The International Bond Market: – A Eurobond is underwritten by an international syndicate of  banks and other securities firms and is sold exclusively in  countries other than the country in whose currency the issue  is denominated – A foreign bond is underwritten by a syndicate composed of  members from a single country, sold principally within that  country, and denominated in the currency of that country – The Eurobond markets differ from the Eurodollar markets in  that there is an absence of regulatory interference, less  stringent disclosure rules and favorable tax treatments for  these bonds 13-25

Project Financing •

Project finance is the arrangement of financing for long­term  capital projects, large in scale, long in life, and generally high in  risk.



Project finance is used widely today by MNEs in the development  of large­scale infrastructure projects in China, India, and many  other emerging markets.



Most of these transactions are highly leveraged, with debt making  up more than 60% of the total financing.



Equity is a small component of project financing for two reasons;  first, the scale of investment projects is often too large for an  investor or group of investors to fund and second, many projects  involve subjects traditionally funded by governments

13-26

Project Financing • Since project financing usually utilizes a  substantial amount of debt financing,  additional levels of risk reduction are needed in  order to create an environment whereby lenders  feel comfortable lending: – Separability of the project from its investors – Long­lived and capital­intensive singular projects – Cash flow predictability from third­party  commitments – Finite projects with finite lives 13-27

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