Final Psych Study Guide

Laurence AP Psychology

Davis Jeon Per. 3 AP Study Guide: Modules 1 & 2

Module 1: History and Scope A. History of Psychology a. Definition of psychology i. Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes ii. Behavior: an action of an organism iii. Mental processes: internal, subjective experiences inferred from behavior 1. Ex. sensations, perceptions, dreams, thoughts, beliefs, feelings b. Psychology is a way of asking and answering questions c. Pre-scientific Psychology i. Aristotle 1. Thought soul is inseparable from the body ii. Descartes 1. Descartes + Socrates + Plato: mind separate from death 2. Dissected animals, thought brain contained spirits iii. Bacon 1. Founder of modern science 2. Suggested an order in nature iv. Locke 1. Modern empiricism: knowledge originates in experience, science relies on observation and experimentation d. Psychological Science Born i. Wilhelm Wundt 1. Lag time measured for tasks and response 2. Thus tried to measure mental processes ii. Structuralism 1. Edward Bradford Titchener and introspection 2. Wanes as introspection proves to be unreliable iii. Functionalism 1. William James and functions 2. Why an organ does what it does => evolutionary adaptation 3. Mary Calkins and Margaret Washburn e. Psychological Science Develops i. Varied definitions of psychology 1. Wundt/Titchener/James: introspection 2. Freud: responses to childhood and unconscious

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thought processes 3. Psychology: the science of mental life until 1920’s 4. 1920-1960: Watson and Skinner redefine as “scientific study of observable behavior” a. Behaviorism 5. Humanistic psychology a. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow b. Response to Freudian psychology and behaviorism c. Importance of current environmental influences and meeting our needs for love and acceptance 6. Cognitive revolution a. Expanded upon ways that people perceive, process, and remember information 7. Modern definition a. The scientific study of behavior and mental processes B. Contemporary Psychology a. Psychology’s big debate i. Nature vs. nurture 1. Plato: character/intelligence inherited 2. Aristotle: everything externally through senses 3. Locke: reject innate ideas; “blank sheet” 4. Descartes: Some ideas are innate 5. Darwin and natural selection 6. Common topics a. Treatment of depression: biological or mental? b. Sexual behaviors: innate or external? c. Gender differences: biological or social? 7. Solution: nurture works on what nature endows b. Psychology’s Three Main Levels of Analysis i. Biopsychosocial approach 1. Biological, psychological, social-cultural factors ii. Psychology’s current perspectives 1. Neuroscience 2. Evolutionary 3. Behavior genetics 4. Psychodynamic 5. Behavioral 6. Cognitive 7. Social-Cultural Psychology’s Subfields iii. Industrial/organizational psychologists 1. Applied research: practical problem solving 2. Help companies select/train employees, boost

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morale/productive, design products, implement systems iv. Counseling psychologists 1. Help people cope with challenges by recognizing strengths and resources v. Clinical psychologists 1. Asses and treat mental/emotional/behavior disorders vi. Psychiatrists 1. Offer psychotherapy, prescribe drugs and treat physical casuses or disorders Module 2: Thinking Critically With Psychological Science A. The Need for Psychological Science a. The Limits of Intuition and Common Sense b. Did We Know It All Along? Hindsight Bias i. I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon 1. Stock market, 9/11 c. Overconfidence i. Caused by hindsight bias d. Hindsight bias and overconfidence can be overcome by scientific inquiry B. The Scientific Attitude a. Curiosity underlies psychology (and science in general) b. Critical thinking i. Examining assumptions, discerning hidden values, evaluating evidence, assessing conclusions ii. What has been learned is not yet widely believed C. The Scientific Method a. Make observations, form theories, refine theories with new observation b. Theory i. Explains through principles that organizes and predicts behaviors/events c. Hypotheses i. Testable prediction that give direction to research d. Operational definition i. Check on biases, allow anyone to replicate results D. Frequently Asked Questions About Psychology a. Can Laboratory Experiment Illuminate Everyday Life? i. Lab environment is intended to be simplified reality ii. People’s traits unchanging whether in experiment or life iii. The experiments give principles that explain behaviors 1. The findings themselves are not sufficient b. Does Behavior Depend on One’s Culture? i. Some behaviors do differ across different cultures ii. However, there are biological similarities for every human being c. Does Behavior Vary With Gender? i. Similar to cultures, there are both differences and similarities

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d. Why Do Psychologists Study Animals? i. Fascinating ii. Understand differences in learning/thinking/behaving iii. Learn about people through similarities e. Is It Ethical to Experiment on Animals? i. Irony of testing animals based on similarities then ethically defending experimentation based on differences ii. Right to place human well-being above animal rights iii. Safeguards to animal rights f. Is It Ethical to Experiment on People? i. Ethical principles including consent, protection, information g. Is Psychology Free of Value Judgments? i. Values affect what psychologists study ii. Preconceptions can bias observations and interpretations h. Is Psychology Potentially Dangerous? i. Concerns about growing influence of psychology ii. Power to deceive, purpose to enlighten Short Answer: 1) Today, psychology is defined as: ______________________________________. 2) Descartes, along with Socrates and Plato, thought that: _____________________________. 3) Stucturalism, founded by ______________, advocated _______________. 4) Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow developed __________________ in response to _____________ psychology. 5) Psychologists study animals because ____________________________________.

Multiple Choice: 1. In deciding the ethics of experimenting on people, principles require: A) Consent of subject, protection of subject, and information of experiment B) Integrity of experimenter, honesty of experimenter, and courage of subject C) Enthusiasm of both subject and experimenter D) Indifference of experimenter, fear of subject, and incentives for subject 2. Stock market gurus’ comments that the market was overdue for a correction after a fall in stock prices are most likely an example of: A) Overconfidence B) Introspection C) Magic D) Hindsight bias 3. The interpretation of psychology focusing on self-examination, or introspection, is

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called: A) Functionalism B) Self-examinationism C) Structuralism D) Freudism 4. Contrary to the modern definition of psychology, the science was defined until 1920 as: A) The science of mental life B) The study of life C) The one and only way of achieving enlightenment D) The science of behaviors

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Crossword puzzle activity 1

Puzzle: http://www.variety-games.com/CW/Puzzles/1388041582-puzzle.htm 2 3 4 Solution: http://www.variety-games.com/CW/Puzzles/1388041582-solution.htm 5

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Brain Crossword 7 8

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EclipseCrossword.com

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Across 2. 6. 8. 10. 11. 13. 15. 17. 21. 22. 23. 24.

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain. controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe. A doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus. Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area or to Wernicke's area. cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, & protect neurons The brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development. A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres Two lima bean-sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion. Behind the forehead; involved in speaking & muscle movements and in making plans & judgments Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking. The area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

Down 1. 2. 3.

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion. The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing. A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.

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An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions. A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. MRI scans show brain anatomy; fMRI scans show brain function At the top of the head and near the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position The "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance. At the back of the head; includes visual areas, which receive visual information from opposite visual field On the sides of the head (just above the ears); includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information mainly from the opposite ear The brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Short Summaries: 5.1 • MRI’s reveal brain structures • EEG’s, PET, and fMRI’s scans reveal brain activity • Scientists use these to explore the connections between the brain, mind, and behavior 5.2 This section talks about the older brain structures. For example, it goes through the parts of the brainstem, the cortexes and the limbic system. Each part of the brain is described in terms of location and what each function is. It explains why we act the way we do, such as the role certain parts play in our emotions. 5.3 This section mostly talks about the cerebral cortex and the different parts of it. Everything that makes up the cerebral cortex helps us with our life functions. There are four lobes that control speech, hearing, etc, and cortexes that help with movement and processing body touch and sensations. 5.4

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Cerebral Cortex = the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres o the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center Expansion of cerebral cortex means: o relaxed genetic controls and increased adaptability of organism People have larger cerebral cortexes, resulting in: o increased capabilities for learning & thinking and increased adaptability

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Glial Cells (glia) = cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, & protect neurons o guide neural connections, provide nutrients & insulating myelin, and mop up ions & neurotransmitters o may participate in information transmission & memory o proportion of glia to neurons increase as animal complexity increases Human cerebral cortex has a huge surface area, increased by many folds Each brain hemisphere divided into 4 lobes (so total of 8), geographic parts of the cerebral cortex separated by prominent fissures or folds: 1) Frontal Lobes = behind the forehead o involved in speaking & muscle movements and in making plans & judgments 2) Parietal Lobes = at the top of the head and near the rear o receives sensory input for touch and body position 3) Occipital Lobes = at the back of the head o includes visual areas, which receive visual information from opposite visual field 4)Temporal Lobes = on the sides of the head (just above the ears) o includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information mainly from the opposite ear

5.6 • Different areas of the cortex control specialized functions • Motor functions can be caused by electrical stimulation • Motor cortex (Output) • Controls voluntary movement • One side of cortex controls the opposite side of the body • Fingers/moth = largest space • Neural prosthetics – the thought of something activates an electric appliance • Sensory Cortex (Input) • Right behind motor cortex • Receives sensory info • Association areas • Cerebral cortex that does not include motor, sensory, auditory, and visual cortex • Integrates info • Frontal lobe damage – difficulty judging, planning, processing new memories (Phineas Gage) • Parietal lobe damage – interferes with mathematical reasoning • Temporal lobe – interferes with ability to recognize faces 5.7 • Aphasia – impairment of language • Reading process o Words register in visual area 9

o Relayed to angular gyrus, which transforms words to an auditory code o Code received and understood in Wernicke’s Area o Sent to Broca’s area, which controls motor cortex to create pronounced word 5.8 o Plasticity – Brain’s ability to modify itself after damage  Losing one sense increases sensitivity in other senses  Blind people respond better to touch  Deaf people respond better to sight 5.9 • Left hemisphere focuses on verbal • Right hemisphere focuses on visual perception and recognition of emotion • Each hemisphere contributes individually to the brain 5.10 • right-handers process speech on the left hemisphere • ½ of the left-handers process speech on the right hemisphere • As age increases the number of lefties decreases Diagrams

Label the Diagram: Match the lobe name to the color (Red, Yellow, Light Green, and Light Blue).

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Answers to Diagram: Red = Frontal Lobe Yellow = Parietal Lobe Light Green = Occipital Lobe Light Blue = Temporal Lobe Brain Stem and Thalamus

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Brain Structures and Their Functions

Practice Questions: 1) The _____________ lobes receive sensory input for touch and body position. A. Frontal B. Parietal C. Occipital D. Temporal 2) Which of the following is NOT a function of glial cells? A. Mopping up ions & neurotransmitters B. Guiding neural connections C. Providing nutrients & myelin D. Increasing the surface area of the cerebral cortex 3) MRI’s

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A. reveal brain activity B. only work on animals C. shows brain function D. reveal brain structures 4) The left hemisphere A. focuses on verbal B. focuses on visual perception C. focuses on recognition of emotion D. All of the above 5) Left- handers A. process speech on their left hemisphere B. always process speech on their left hemisphere C. process speech on their right hemisphere D. always process speech on their right hemisphere 6) What is the oldest and most central part of the brain? A. cerebellum B. hypothalamus C. brainstem D. cerebral cortex 7) The limbic system includes everything except: A. hippocampus B. amygdala C. hypothalamus D. cerebellum 8) Which lobe receives auditory information? A. temporal B. occipital C. parietal D. frontal 9) Broca’s area… A. controls language expression B. is in the left temporal lobe C. directs muscle movement involved in speech D. is in the left hemisphere 10) Aphasia is… A. Inability to read B. Impairment of hearing C. Impairment of memory D. Impairment of language Answers:

1) B,

2) D, 3) D, 4) A, 5) C, 6) C 7) D, 8) A, 9) C, 10) D.

Key Terms:  Environment- every external influence, in terms of our behavior differences

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 Behavior Geneticists- people who study our differences and weigh the relative effects of heredity and environment  Chromosomes- the genetic structures of cells containing the cellular DNA that bears in its proteins  DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)- a nucleic acid that carries genetic information about the cell  Genes- a segment of DNA, the basic unit of heredity  Genome- a full set of chromosomes; all the inheritable traits of an organism  Identical Twins- siblings born of the same egg, split into two  Fraternal Twins- twins born of separate eggs  Temperament- the natural predisposition of emotional excitability in a person  Heritability- the capability of being inherited, the extent to which variation among individuals can be attributed to their differing genes  Interactions- the effect of one factor (such as the environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)  Molecular Genetics- the branch of genetics that deals with genes at the molecular level, or “bottom-up” genetics  Evolutionary Psychology- the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection  Natural Selection- the principle that inherited trait variations that improve survival and reproduction will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations  Mutations- random errors in gene replication that lead to changes  Gender- the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female

Summary: Nature vs. nurture is the biggest controversy in the study of what makes us who we are. Our genes and our environment come together to define the things that make us different from one another. As a reference point for how much genes play a role, humanchimpanzee DNA similarity is 99.4%. Throughout the study of heredity versus environment, behavior geneticists often use two types of studies: twin and adoption. While, with 850 US twin pairs given questionnaires in 1976, identical twins were much more similar than fraternal twins in many ways, identical twins also reported being treated alike more often. The personalities of adopted children tend to follow those of their biological parents, though their values and attitudes tend more towards those of their adoptive parents. Although genetic differences help to explain individual diversity in traits, they don’t necessarily account for differences between men and women, or between people of different races. Our enormous adaptive capability is the most important of our similarities. As a species, our shared biology enables our developed diversity. Genes do more than just code for particular proteins, they also respond to environments in a selfregulating manner. By itself, the gene does not cause depression, but it is part of the recipe. The goal of molecular behavior genetics is to find genes that influence normal human traits. Genetic tests can now reveal at-risk populations for at least a dozen diseases.

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Natural selection has shaped our human traits in its acting across the course of human evolution. Men are universally more uninhibited in terms of sexual interactions, according to many studies and surveys on the general subject. This is most likely due to the fact that, while a woman normally incubates and nurses one’s infant, a male can spread his genes through other females. In our ancestral history, women were better off pairing wisely, men widely. Men tend to be more inclined to take risks than women, because of their predisposition to impress women and thus spread their genes. Even taking all of this into account, women and men are much more alike than they are different.

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QuickTimeª and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture.

Nurture

Nature

Crossword:

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11. the way changes are formed in gene replication

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Crossword Answer Key: 1. GENES 2. BEHAVIOR GENETICS 3. IDENTICAL TWINS 4. GENDER 5. NATURE 6. TEMPERAMENT 7. MOLECULAR 8. HERITABILITY 9. ENVIRONMENT 10. NATURAL SELECTION 11. MUTATIONS

7.1: Parents and peers Parents and Early Experiences Prenatal Environment

Nurturing begins in the womb. Even identical twins, whether they share the same placenta or not, are exposed to different types of nutrition and toxic agents! Twins with different placentas tend to have less similar psychological traits.

Experience and Brain Development

Experience helps develop the brain’s neural connections. In an experiment done by Mark Rosenzweig and David Krech, they found that rats reared in an enriched environment developed a much thicker brain cortex. Similarly, infants who are constantly handled are proven to gain weight and develop faster neurologically. During maturation, a child's neural connections increase in areas associated with repetitive activities, and degenerate in unused areas, a process also known as pruning. In other words, use it or lose it!

How Much Credit (or Blame) Do Parents Deserve? While parents do influence some areas of their children's lives, such as their manners and political and religious beliefs, the home environment accounts for less than 10 percent of siblings' differences in areas such as

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personality. Parental nurture can be compared to nutrition. Whether we get our protein from chicken or beans, we need food. Similarly, it doesn’t matter how early or late we were toilet trained by our parents, just that we have someone who cares about us.

Peer Influence At all ages, people conform in order to be accepted. But children also select peers who share their same attitudes and interests. Parents are important models for education, discipline, responsibility, orderliness, charitableness, and ways of interacting with authorities, while peers are influential in learning to cooperate with others, achieving popularity, and finding appropriate styles of interaction with people of a similar age. By choosing the neighborhoods in which their children live, parents can exert some influence over the peer group culture that helps shape children.

So what have we learned? Fill in the blank.

Nurturing begins __________________________(1). During ____________(2), a child's neural connections increase in areas associated with ____________(3) and deteriorate in ____________(4). This process is also known as ___________(5).

_____ (6) it or _____ (7) it! Identify each environmental influence as either a PARENTAL influence or a PEER influence. 1)Orderliness 18

2)Manners 3)Interests 4)Cooperation 5)Responsibility 6)Religious beliefs 7)Interaction with similar age groups 8)Interaction with authorities 9)Popularity 10)Charitableness Answers to review questions:

Parents and peers Fill in the blank: 1. in the womb. 2. maturation 3. repetition 4. unused areas 5. pruning 6. use 7. lose Matching 1. parent 2. parent 3. peer 4. peer 5. parent 6. parent 7. peer 8. parent 9. peer 10. parent

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7.2: Cultural Influences Cultural Influences Culture is the behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next (Brislin, 1988). Human nature seems designed for culture in that is supports social and economic systems that enable us to access broader resources and accumulate information. Though many animals are social, humans differ in that culture allows for change and progress outside of biological adaptations. Language allows humans to preserve innovation. We can accumulate and pass on knowledge, which accounts for human’s extended life expectancies. Language and culture allow for a division of labor, where many people can create something together, such as a building, that just one person would not be able to create. Cultural diversity would be less relevant if we all lived in isolated homogenous societies. 99% of Japan’s inhabitants are of 20

Japanese decent. Therefore internal cultural differences are minimal compared with those found in Los Angeles, where the public schools recently taught 82 different languages.

Variation Across Cultures Norms are rules for accepted and expected behavior. For example, the British have a norm for orderly waiting in line. Within each culture norms vary. In North America, people like to maintain a large buffer zone around their bodies… therefore they like more personal space than the French. Many other things vary across cultures- each culture has different norms on expressiveness, pace of life, and punctuality.

Variation Over Time Changes in cultures occur rapidly overtime. Whether it’s a switch from snail mail to email or an increased rate of divorce, there is no denying cultures change. Change can be positive or negative, and we cannot explain them by changes in the human gene pool, which evolves far too slowly to account for high-speed cultural transformations.

Culture and the Self Individualists give relatively greater priority to personal goals and define their identity mostly in terms of personal attributes. They strive for personal control and individual achievement. People in competitive, individualist cultures have more personal freedom, take more pride in personal achievements, are less geographically bound to their families, and enjoy more privacy. Individualism can come at the cost of more loneliness, more divorce, more homicide, and more stress-related disease. Collectivists give priority to the goals of their groups, often 21

their family, clan, or company, and define their identity accordingly—not as "me" but as "we." People in collectivist cultures, such as Korea, place a premium on maintaining harmony and making sure others never lose face. To preserve group spirit, people avoid direct confrontation, blunt honesty, and uncomfortable topics; they defer to others' wishes and display a polite, self-effacing humility (Markus & Kitayama, 1991).

Table 7.1: Value contrast between individualism and collectivism Concept

Individualism

Collectivism

Self

Independent (identify Interdependent (identify from individual traits) from belonging)

Life task

Discover and express Maintain connections, one's uniqueness fit in, perform role

What matters

Me—Personal achievement and fulfillment; rights and liberties; self-esteem

Us—group goals and solidarity; social responsibilities and relationships; family duty

Coping method

Change reality

Accomodate to reality

Morality

Defined by individuals (selfbased)

Defined by social networks (duty-based)

Relationshi ps

Many, often Few, close and temporary or casual; enduring; harmony confrontation valued acceptable

Attributing

Behavior reflects

Behavior reflects social

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behavior

one's personality and norms and roles attitudes

Culture and Child-Rearing Child Rearing varies across cultures. Westerners typically raise their children to be independent, while Asian and African communities raise their children to value emotional closeness. Children in these cultures grow up with a stronger sense of family self—a feeling that what shames the child shames the family, and what brings honor to the family brings honor to the self.

Developmental Similarities Across Groups Similarities can be found throughout the world despite differing cultures. Humans share the same life cycle and parent’s respond the same to children’s cries and coos no matter which culture they were raised in. So in surface ways we may differ, but as members of one species we seem subject to the same psychological forces. As members of different ethnic and cultural groups, our languages vary, yet they reflect universal principles of grammar. Our tastes vary, yet they reflect common principles of hunger. Our social behaviors vary, but they reflect pervasive principles of human influence.

Review Exercises: Put an “I” for traits common among Individualists and a “C’ for traits common amongst Collectivists: Independent Interdependent 23

American Culture Korean Culture Relatively free to switch jobs or divorce Connections with a group defines you Enduring Commitment is valued more than romance

Multiple Choice 1. Why are social norms important? A) They make everyone alike B) They free us from self pre-occupation and allow us to relax C) They make diagnosing diseases easier D) They are common across all cultures 2. Where is cultural diversity less relevant? A) Japan B) North America C) Canada D) Australia 3. What are some of the ways cultures vary? A) In their pace of life B) In their expressiveness C) Sense of punctuality D) Cultures vary in all of these ways

Fill in the Blanks Word Bank: Language, Division of Labor, Human Diversity, 24

Norms, Personal Space, Individualists, Collectivists, Independent, Family Self, Grammar exhibit greater shyness toward strangers and greater concern for social harmony and loyalty while may feel more comfortable leaving their family, switching jobs, or divorcing. We all speak to our infants in ways to their coos and cries.

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ACROSS DOWN 2. These people find 1. The coordination and satisfaction in advancing their commitment of a team of groups' interests, even at the women and men to produce expense of personal needs. something, no one of whom is 4. These people give capable of producing it alone. relatively greater priority to 3. This is enabled by our personal goals and define shared capacity for culture. their identity mostly in terms 8. Our languages vary, but of personal attributes. they reflect universal 5. Most Westerners now raise principles of THIS. 25

their children to be THIS. 6. Behavior seen as appropriate in one culture may violate the THESE of another group. 7. Thanks to our mastery of this, humans can preserve innovation. 9. Scandinavians, North Americans, and the British prefer more of this, while Latin Americans, Arabs, and the French are accustomed to less. 10. A feeling that what shames the child shames the family, and what brings honor to the family brings honor to the self.

Key Terms Word Bank: Culture, Norms, Personal Space, Individualism, Collectivism : the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. : an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. They prescribe "proper" behavior. : giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals, and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications. : giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly.

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: the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies

Answer Key: I, C, I, C, I, C, C Multiple Choice: 1-B, 2-A, 3-D Fill in the Blanks: Collectivists, individualists; similar, similar Cross word puzzle answers: 1. Division of Labor 2. Collectivists 3. Human Diversity 4. Individualists 5. Independent 6. Norms 7. Language 8. Grammar 9. Personal Space 10.Family Self Key Terms (in order from top to bottom): culture, norms, individualism, collectivism, personal space

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7.3: Gender Development Gender Similarities and Differences Men and women are very similar, and among your 46 chromosomes, 45 are unisex. Woman have more body fat, less muscle and are 5 inches shorter hand the average man. Women enter puberty sooner, express emotions freely, and smell faint odors. However, they are more vulnerable to depression, anxiety, and eating disorders. Men are more likely to commit suicide, become alcoholic, be autistic, and to be color-blind.

Gender and Aggression Men admit to more aggression than do women in a physical sense, and more men than women commit murders. Men also express more support for war.

Gender and Social Power People all around the world perceive men as more dominant, forceful, and independent than women. In society males are

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socially dominant and more likely to be leaders. Yet compared to women, men are more autocratic leaders and more likely to speak their opinions. Men are also more likely to act powerful by being assertive and dominant; it is these sorts of behaviors that perpetuate sexual inequality in salary and leadership positions. However, these gender differences can lessen with maturity.

Gender and Social Connectedness

Some believe that the struggle to create one’s own identity is more of a male struggle than a female one because females are more concerned with their relationships with others. Children’s play shows this theory: girls have intimate friendships with a small group and are more responsive. The male answer syndrome describes a male’s reluctance to admit they don’t know an answer to a question. Women use conversation to explore relationships, while men use it to communicate solutions. Men are more skeptical and emphasize freedom and self-reliance more than women. This means that women turn to one another for help and support, and as a result, develop more intimate and personal

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relationships.

The Nature of Gender The biopsychosocial view suggests that our environment and biology both contribute to gender diversity. Genetic influences on our gender are determined by differing sex chromosomes and physiologically from our sex hormones. Your sex is determined by the 23rd pair of chromosomes; you received an X chromosome from your mother, and if you are a boy you received a Y chromosome from your father as opposed to an X chromosome, making you a girl. The Y chromosome triggers the testes to develop and produce testosterone, the principal male hormone. During the fourth and fifth prenatal months, different brainwiring patterns for males and females develop. Females with high levels of testosterone have masculine-appearing genitals and tend to be more aggressive; this exposure can affect one’s biological appearance as well the social experiences that shape one’s character. Biology influences gender development. Recent research suggests that there are differences in the brains of males and females.

The Nurture of Gender Gender is influenced by biology, but is also socially constructed.

Gender Roles A role refers to a cluster of prescribed actions and the expected behaviors of people. Our culture’s gender roles, our expectations about the way men and women behave, shape the way men and women behave and act as members 30

of society. The diversity of gender roles over time shows that culture rather than biology influences these roles. Gender ideas have varied greatly over time and across generations.

Gender and Child-Rearing Our gender identity is our sense of being male or female, and is determined by society based on our biological gender. We are also gender-typed by acquiring a traditionally masculine or feminine role. The social learning theory assumes that children learn gender-linked behaviors by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished. Parents aren’t the only ones influencing a child’s gendertyping, as studies show differing parenting styles don’t

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account for a child’s gender identity. The gender schema theory states that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and adjust their behavior accordingly. Children have very rigid stereotypes about boys and girls that peak around age 5.

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Review exercises Fill in the blanks: 1.

More women are diagnosed with _____________________ more men with _________________________________.

2.

In most societies, men are socially ___________________ and are perceived as such.

3.

_____________ tend to emphasize freedom and selfreliance, while _____________ tend to be more nurturing and caring.

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Biological sex is determined by the twenty-third pair of _________________.

5. _____________ use conversation to explore relationships, while _____________ use it to communicate solutions. 6. Gender is influenced by both _________________ and _______________.

Key Terms: Word bank: gender schema theory, gender role, X chromosome, role, gender identity, social learning theory, Y chromosome, gender-typing, testosterone

1. and women.

: the sex chromosome found in both men

2. : the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional amount in males stimulates the growth of the 33

male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty. 3. : the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with a chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child. 4. : a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave. 5. for females

: a set of expected behaviors for males and

6. : the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished. 7. : the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role. 8. : the theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly. 9. female.

: one’s sense of being male or

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Answers Fill in the blanks: 1. depression; antisocial personality disorder 2. aggressive 3. men; women 4. chromosomes 5. women; men 6. biology; society

Key Terms: 1. X chromosome 2. testosterone 3. Y chromosome 4. role 5. gender identity 6. social learning theory 7. gender typing 8. gender schema theory 9. gender identity

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Reflections on Nature and Nurture

Genes form us. Experience forms us. Our biology provides us with certain abilities and places limits on others, while the people and customs in our social environment direct us toward specific roles and reward us for adhering to cultural expectations. “Nature seems cunningly and ingeniously devised to produce extraordinary, self-replicating, informationprocessing systems—us. Although we appear to have been created from dust, over eons of time, the end result is a priceless creature, one rich with potentials beyond our imagining.” Pg. 127

Review:

The approach to development which combines biological, psychological, 36

and social-cultural influences is called the ______________ (1) approach. Answers 1. biopsychosocial

Module 8: Prenatal Development & The Newborn (pages 133-159) Ali Arams

Bravely Bold Sir Robin Tunes Continued…(chapter reviews) Conception of Bravely Bold Sir Robin Bravely bold Sir Robin Was conceived in the spring Because during that summer, his parents had a fling His father ejaculated 200 million sperm And swam upstream to his mother’s egg First the boy sperm said hello to the lady egg By breaking down her outer coating with his special enzymes Then he penetrated her, and she refused the others And then their nuclei fused together First a zygote Attatched to the uterus Then an embryo then a fetus Then proportion With arms and legs Then facial features Like hands and feet Brave Sir Robin’s Birth Defects

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Bravely bold Sir Robin Had an irresponsible Mom During pregnancy, she drank alcohol Then the teratrogens entered Robin’s placenta And killed many of his brain cells This is why when Robin was born, he was not quite right He was a victim of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome 40% of women who drink bear babies with FAS And is the leading cause to mental retardation Disproportioned With a very small head Brain damage And abnormities Learning deficits And depression Bad motor skills And neurotransmitter problems Brave Sir Robin after Birth Bravely bold Sir Robin was born with many skills When he was born he already could suck nipples He had the rooting reflex, and also would cry with hunger Because of his predisposition to survive His perceptual abilities developed right after birth He could even identify his mother by smelling her scent He could go as far as identifying her breast milk And shortly after recognized her voice Rooting reflex and breathing Detecting cents And voices too And cries of hunger That drive his mother crazy

Important Terms to Remember… Developmental Psychology: a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span. Zygote: the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops

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into an embryo. Embryo: the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month. Fetus: the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth. Teratogens: agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions. Rooting Reflex: a baby’s tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple. Habituation: decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

Bravery Review… When Bravely Bold Sir Robin was conceived, he was first a _______, then a _______, then a ________ about nine weeks after conception. After that stage, Robin developed (in order), proportion, _____ and legs, then _____, and ______ and feet. Because His mother drank during his pregnancy, Robin’s brain cells were ________ by the millions. This caused learning ___________, disproportion, and slowed _______ skills. 40% of babies born with _______ _______ Syndrome develop mental ___________. Then, when Robin was born, the first thing that he began to recognize was his mother’s ________. He could even recognize the scent of his mothers ________ _______. His ______ reflex allowed him to search for ______ to suck on for milk. Then he recognized her sweet, soothing __________. Word Bank: retardation

rooting

fetus

voice breast milk motor zygote nipples

hands

killed

deficits

fetal alcohol

scent embryo

facial features

Kelsey Browne, Hana Raftery, Shireen Tofig 39

Period 2 4/14/08

Adolescence and Adulthood Study Guide Modules 10 and 11 Module 10: Adolescence Key Terms: Adolescence: the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence. Puberty: the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing. Primary sex characteristics: the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible. Secondary sex characteristics: nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair. Menarche: the first menstrual period. Identity: one’s sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles. Intimacy: in Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood. Summaries: 10.1 Physical Development

During puberty, primary sex characteristics (the reproductive organs and external genitalia) and secondary sex characteristics (nonreproductive sexual characteristics such as a girl's breasts and a boy's deepened voice) develop. For most girls, menarche happens within a year of age 12. For most boys, spermarche occurs by about age 14. Individual onset of puberty varies, depending on heredity and environment, and other people's reactions to early or late maturation can influence adolescents' adjustment. During adolescence, frontal lobes mature and unused neurons and their connections are pruned. 40

10.2 Cognitive Development Lawrence Kohlberg proposed three levels of moral thinking: preconventional morality (selfinterested, based on reasoning that attempts to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards); conventional morality (law-abiding, based on reasoning that existing laws must be upheld), and postconventional morality (self-defined, based on abstract reasoning about what is ethical, right, and fair). 10.3 Social Development Erik Erikson proposed the eight stages of life. In infancy (to 1 year), the issue is trust versus mistrust; in toddlerhood (1 to 2 years), the issue is autonomy versus shame and doubt. Preschoolers (3 to 5) learn initiative or guilt, and elementary school children (6 to puberty), competence or inferiority. A chief task of adolescence (teens to twenties) is solidifying one's sense of self—one's identity. For young adults (twenties to early forties), the issue is intimacy versus isolation, and for middle adulthood (forties to sixties), generativity versus stagnation. Late adulthood's (late sixties and up) task is integrity versus despair. Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages: Stage (approximate age) Infancy (to 1 year)

Issues Trust vs. mistrust

Toddlerhood (1 to 2 years)

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt

Preschooler (3 to 5 years)

Initiative vs. guilt

Elementary school (6 years to puberty)

Competence vs. inferiority

Adolescence (teen years into 20s)

Identity vs. role confusion

Young adulthood (20s to early 40s)

Intimacy vs. isolation

Description of Task If needs are consistently met, infants develop a sense of basic trust. Toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities. Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent. Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior. Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are. Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated.

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Middle adulthood (40s to 60s)

Generativity vs. stagnation

Late adulthood (late 60s and Integrity vs. despair up)

In middle age, people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose. When reflecting on his or her life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure.

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Three Stages of Moral Thinking: Stage Preconventional morality

Conventional morality

Postconventional morality

Description Obey either to avoid punishment or to gain concrete rewards. Example: I better share this toy or Mommy will be mad. Cares for others and upholds laws and social rules simply because they are the laws and rules. Example: If you drive too fast, you will break the law. Affirms people's agreed-upon rights or follows what one personally perceives as basic ethical principles. Example: I don’t care if it is the law, it’s not right and it’s not fair!

Module 11: Adulthood Key Terms: Menopause: the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines. Alzheimer’s disease: a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning. Cross-sectional study: a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another. Longitudinal study: research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period. Crystallized intelligence: one’s accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age. Fluid intelligence: one’s ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood. Social clock: the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement. 42

Summaries: 11.1 Physical Development Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac output begin to decline in the late twenties. Women outlive men and outnumber men at most ages past early infancy. In late adulthood, especially after age 70, hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell diminish, as do muscle strength, reaction time, and stamina. Lifethreatening diseases such as cancer and pneumonia increase, but short-term ailments decrease. Neural processes slow, but physical exercise can stimulate the development of some new brain cells and connections. With age, the incidence of dementia increases, but dementia is not a normal part of the aging process. The ability to recall new information declines during early and middle adulthood, but the ability to recognize such information does not. Older adults recall meaningful information more easily than meaningless information. Today's view is that fluid intelligence (the ability to reason speedily and abstractly) declines in later life, but crystallized intelligence (accumulated knowledge and skills) does not. 11.2 Cognitive Development Well-being and people's feelings of satisfaction are stable across the life span. As we age, highs may be less high and lows less low, but the average level of satisfaction remains stable. 11.3 Social Development Piaget (cognitive development), Kohlberg (moral development), and Erikson (psychosocial development)

Modules 10 and 11 Review Quiz 1. Which is NOT considered a secondary characteristic?

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a. male facial hair b. female hips c. male deepened voice d. female ovaries 2. Female breasts are to _____ as male testes are to _____. a. primary sex characteristic; secondary sex characteristic b. puberty; menarche c. secondary sex characteristic; primary sex characteristic d. menarche; puberty 3. The process of developing a sense of identity during adolescence was highlighted by: a. Piaget b. Kohlberg c. Erikson d. Pavlov 4. A decline in the ability to reproduce is most closely associated with: a. menopause b. dementia c. puberty d. menarche 5. A researcher who administers a personality test to the same children every three years as they progress though school is conducting a (n) _____ study. a. case b. experimental c. cross-sectional d. longitudinal 6. Which of the following is true about the physical development in adult life? a. Most adults are clearly aware of the first signs of physical decline. b. Sensory ability and reaction time reach their peak by the mid-twenties. c. The outward signs of advancing years are psychologically stressful for adults in every culture. d. None of the above 7. As adults age, they show the greatest declines in: a. crystallized intelligence and in the memory capacities needed to recall recently presented information. b. fluid intelligence and in the memory capacities needed to recognize recently presented information. c. crystallized intelligence and in the memory capacities needed to recognize recently presented information. d. fluid intelligence and in the memory capacities needed to recall recently presented information.

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8. Mark thinks he should obey his teachers only if they are carefully watching him. Kohlberg would suggest that Mark demonstrates a (n) _____ morality. a. conventional b. preconventional c. postconventional d. unconventional 9. Adolescence is typically a time of: a. growing parental influence and growing peer influence b. growing parental influence and diminishing peer influence c. diminishing parental influence and growing peer influence d. diminishing parental influence and diminishing peer influence 10. The best predictor of a couple’s marital satisfaction is the: a. ratio of their positive to negative interactions with each other b. frequency of their sexual intimacy c. intensity of their passionate feelings d. all of the above Answers: 1. D, 2. C, 3. C, 4. A, 5. D, 6. B, 7. B, 8. B, 9. C, 10. A MODULE SUMMARIES MODULE 12+13: Intro to Sensation and Perception and Vision A. Section 12-1: explains the difference between sensation and perception and bottom up and top down processing. a. Sensation i. The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment. b. Perception i. The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events. c. Bottom-up processing i. Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information. d. Top-down processing i. Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. B. Section 12-2: Explains the difference between absolute and difference thresholds. Describes how although we can sometimes sense stimuli below our absolute threshold, the effect is too small to make us susceptible subliminal messages. a. Absolute threshold i. The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time. b. Difference threshold i. The minimum difference between two stimuli required for 45

C.

D.

E.

F.

detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference. (Also called just noticeable difference or jnd.) c. Weber’s law i. The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount). d. Psychophysics i. The study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them. e. Subliminal stimuli i. Below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness. f. Signal detection theory i. A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus ("signal") amid background stimulation ("noise"). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue. Section 12-3:Explains what sensory adaptation is. Ex: when we are exposed to a certain sensory stimulus for a long period of time, we become no longer aware of its existence because of sensory adaptation. a. Sensory adaptation i. Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. Section 12-4: a. Inattentional Blindness i. Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere. Section 13-1: Defines transduction. Explains how the hue and brightness of a light depends on its intensity and wavelength. a. Sensory transduction i. Conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret. b. Wavelength i. The distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission. c. Hue i. The dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth. d. Intensity i. The amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave’s amplitude. Section 13-2: Describes how the eye processes light. (And explains the major

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structures of the eye) 1. Light enters through the cornea 2.The iris contracts to controls the size of the pupil (which decides how much light to let in). 3. The lens changes shape to focus light rays on the retina where receptor cells convert the light energy into neural impulses.

CONTINUE

Macula

i. ii. iii.

iv.

Accommodation a. The process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina. Acuity a. The sharpness of vision. Nearsightedness a. A condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina. Farsightedness a. A condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused

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G.

H.

I.

J.

behind the retina. Section 13-3:Describes the difference between rods and cones and other structures of the eye. a. Parts of the Eye: i. Pupil: the adjustable opening in the center of the eye trough which light enters ii. Lens: the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes form to help focus images on the retina. iii. Iris: a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening iv. Cornea: Where light enters through v. Retina: the process by which the eye’s les changes shape to help focus images on the retina vi. Fovea: the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster. vii. Optic Nerve: The nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain viii. Blind Spot: The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are located there. ix. Rods: retinal receptors that detect black, white and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight visions, when cones don’t respond. x. Cones: retinal receptors cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensation. Section 13-4:Defines feature detection a. Feature detection i. Nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement. Section 13-5: Defines parallel processing and its role in visual information processing. a. Parallel processing i. The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-bystep (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving. Section 13-6: Describes two theories on color: Young-Helmholz trichromatic theory and the opponent process theory. a. Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory i. the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors— one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color. b. Opponent color i. Red vs. green ii. Blue vs. yellow iii. White vs. black 48

c. Opponent-process theory i. The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green. K. Section 13-7: Explains the concept of color constancy. a. Color constancy i. Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object. L. Other Key Terms: a. Illusory contours i. Illusory contours or subjective contours are a form of visual illusion where contours are perceived without a luminance or color change across the contour. Friedrich Schumann discovered illusory contours b. Primary colors of light i. Red, green, and blue c. Afterimage effect i. After staring at some color like red for a long time and then looking at a white piece of paper and then seeing green… you always see the opponent color d. Visual capture i. The tendency for vision to dominate the other senses. e. Depth perception i. The ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.

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M. Review Quiz: Matching: Pair the definition with the appropriate letter 1. Pupil 2. Red 3. Sensory Adaptation 4. Blue 5. Feature detection 6. Weber’s law 7. Hue 8. Opponent-process theory 9. Depth Perception 10. Blind spot

A. One of the primary colors B. The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye; no receptor cells are located there. C. Where opposite colors enable vision in color D. the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light E. The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount). F. Green’s opponent color G. the adjustable opening in the center of the eye trough which light enters H. The ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are twodimensional; allows us to judge distance. I. Nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement. J. Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.

11. Henry walks into a room that smells strongly of paint varnish. After a couple of minutes however, Henry no longer notices the smell. This phenomenon is best described by: A. Weber’s Law B. The difference threshold C. Sensory Adaptation D. Selective Attention 12. __________ is the conversion of one form of energy into another. 13. The distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next is called________

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14. The theory that the retina contains three different color receptors – the most sensitive to red, one to green and one to blue—which when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color is called ___________ 15. Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wave lengths reflected by the object is called _________ Answers: 1. G 2. F 3. J 4. A 5. I 6. E 7. D 8. C 9. H 10. B 11. C 12. Transduction 13. Wavelength 14. Trichromatic theory 15. Color constancy Study Guide: Module 14 – Hearing (Pg. 214-223) By: DJ Shelton, Bubba Paguirigan, Kelvin Wang, Gracie Varda, and Caitlin Heising Module 14: Summary (Psychology: Eighth Edition in Modules by David G. Myers) 14-1 AUDITION: Audition is the sense of hearing. Sound waves consist of bands that are either compressed or expanded air. Ears detect these changes in air pressure and turn them into neural impulses, which is then created into sound by the brain. Sound waves vary in frequency and amplitude, which we perceive as differences in pitch and loudness.

14-2 THREE REGIONS OF THE EAR: The outer ear is the visible portion of the ear. The middle ear is the chamber between the eardrum and the cochlea. The inner ear consists of the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs. Through a mechanical 51

chain of events, sound waves traveling through the auditory canal cause tiny vibrations in the eardrum, which the bones of the middle ear amplify and relay to the fluid-filled cochlea. Rippling of the basilar membrane, caused by pressure changes in the cochlear fluid, causes movement of the tiny hair cells, triggering neural messages to be sent (via the thalamus) to the brain’s auditory cortex. - The Inner Ear:

- The Outer Ear:

- Transforming Sound Waves into Nerve Impulses

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14-3 CONTRAST PLACE AND FREQUENCY THEORIES: Place theory proposes that our brain interprets a particular pitch by decoding the location where a sound wave has stimulated the cochlea’s basilar membrane. Frequency theory proposes that the brain deciphers the number and rate of the pulses traveling up the auditory nerve to the brain. Place theory can explain how we hear high-pitched sounds but not how we hear lowpitched sounds. Frequency theory can explain how we hear low-pitched sounds, but not how we hear high-pitched sounds. Some combination of the two explains how we hear sounds in the middle range. 14-4 PINPOINT SOUNDS: Sound waves strike one ear sooner and more intensely than the other. Using parallel processing, the brain analyzes the minute differences in the sounds received by the two ears and computes the source of the sound. 14-5 HEARING LOSS: Conduction hearing loss results from damage to the mechanical system that transmits sound waves to the cochlea. Sensorineural hearing loss results from damage to the cochlea’s hair cells or their associated nerves. Diseases and accidents can cause these problems, but age-related disorders and prolonged exposure to loud noise are more common causes of hearing loss, especially of nerve deafness. 14-6 COCHLEAR IMPLANTS: Cochlear implants wired into various sites on the auditory nerve transmit electrical impulses to the brain. These devices can help deaf children to hear some sounds and to learn to use spoken language. But cochlear implants are most effective when children are very young, which means that parents must make this decision for their deaf children. In opposing the transplants, Deaf culture advocates maintain that deafness is not a disability – Deaf people already have a complete language, sign – and that sensory compensation, which enhances other senses, gives Deaf people advantages the hearing do not have.

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Module 14: Key Terms - Audition: the sense or act of hearing - Frequency: the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second) - Pitch: a tones experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency - Middle Ear: the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones

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(hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window - Cochlea: a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses - Inner Ear: the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs - Place Theory: in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch - Conduction Hearing Lost: hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea - Sensorineural Hearing Loss: hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves, also called nerve deafness - Cochlear Implant: a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

Module 14: Review Matching 1. Audition 2. Frequency 3. Pitch 4. Middle Ear 5. Cochlea 6. Inner Ear

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7. Place Theory 8. Conduction Hearing Loss 9. Sensorineural Loss 10. Cochlear Implant ___A. a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses ___B. a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea ___C. the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs ___D. the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second) ___E. hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves, also called nerve deafness ___F. the sense or act of hearing ___G. a tones experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency ___H. hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea ___I. the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window ___J. in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch Module 14: Answers to Matching: 5 – 10 – 6 – 2 – 9 – 1 – 3 – 8 – 4 – 7 Study Guide: Module 15 – Other Important Senses (Pg. 224­234) By: DJ Shelton, Bubba Paguirigan, Kelvin Wang, Gracie Varda, and Caitlin Heising Module 15: Summaries (Psychology: Eighth Edition in Modules by David G. Myers) 15-1 TOUCH: Our sense of touch is actually for senses— pressure, warmth, cold, and pain— that combine to produce other sensations, such as “hot”. Of these, only pressure has specialized receptors.

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Fig. 15.1 Warm + cold = hot When ice-cold water passes through one coil and comfortably warm water through another, we perceive the combined sensation as burning hot.

15-2 PAIN: Pain is an alarm system that draws our attention to some physical problem. One theory of pain is that a “gate” in the spinal cord either opens to permit pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers to reach the brain, or closes to prevent their passage. The biopsychosocial approach views a person’s experience of pain as the sum of three sets of forces; biological influences, such as nerve fibers sending message to the brain; psychological influences, such as the situation and our past experiences; and socialcultural influences, such as cultural expectations and the presence of observers. Treatments to control pain often combine physiological and psychological elements.

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Pain perception: A cool look at a hot topic At the University of Pittsburgh, Johnstown, physicist David Willey used eight cords of wood to construct the world's longest firewalk. After explaining heat-diffusion principles that permit firewalking, he then joined several others in putting his feet where his mouth was. (Think of a cake baking in a 350-degree oven. Touch the aluminum cake tin and you'll get burned; briefly touch the cake—like wood, a poor conductor of heat— and you'll be okay.) Both photos: David Willey

15-3 TASTE: Taste, a chemical sense, is a composite of five basic sensations—sweet, sour salty, bitter, and umami—and the aromas that interact with information from the taste buds. Taste buds on the top and sides of the tongue and in back and on the roof of mouth contain taste receptor cells. These cells send information to an area of the temporal lobe near the area where olfactory information is received. The influence of smell on our sense of taste is an example of sensory interaction, the ability of one sense to influence

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another.

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Sensory interaction: One sense influences another When a hard-of-hearing listener sees an animated face forming words being spoken at the other end of a phone line, the words become easier to understand (Knight, 2004). Courtesy of RNID: www.rnid.org.uk

15-4 SMELL: Smell is a chemical sense, but ther are no basic sensations for smell, as ther are for touch and taste. The 5 million olfactory receptor cells, with the approximately 350 different receptor proteins, recognize individual odor molecules. The receptor cells sens messages to the brain’s olfactory bulb, then to the tempora lobe and to parts of the limbic system. Some odors trigger a combination of receptors. An odor’s ability to spontaneously evoke memories and feelings is due in part to the close connections between brain areas that process smell and those involved in memory storage.

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Fig. 15.5 The sense of smell If you are to smell a flower, airborne molecules of its fragrance must reach receptors at the top of your nose. Sniffing swirls air up to the receptors, enhancing the aroma. The receptor cells send messages to the brain's olfactory bulb, and then onward to the temporal lobe's primary smell cortex and to the parts of the limbic system involved in memory and emotion.

15-5 SENSE: by means of millions of position and motion sensor s all over our body, our

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kinesthetic sense monitors the position and movement of our individual body parts. Our vestibular sense relies on semicircular canals and vestibular sacs in the inner ear to sense our head’s— and thus our whole body’s— position and movement, letting us maintain our balance.

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The intricate vestibular sense Thank your inner ears for the information that enables your brain to monitor your body's position. Bob Daemmrich/The Image Works

Module 15: KeyTerms ­ Gate­control Theory: the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that  blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The “gate” is opened by the  activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger  fibers or by information coming from the brain. 

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- Sensory Interaction: the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste. - Kinethesis: the system for sensing the position and movement and position of individual body parts. - Vestibular Sense: the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance (based in our inner ear). Module 15: STUDY QUESTIONS (QUIZ) T/F ___ The gate­control theory refers to the taste buds monitoring levels of spiciness and/or  bitterness in our food.  ___ Sensory interaction refers to bodily senses interacting with each other, as in smell enhancing/hindering taste. ___ Kinethesis refers to the part of our nervous system that controls the movement of specific body parts. ___ Vestibular Sense refers to the inner ear helping us keep our balance and keep our head straight. Answer: F – T – T- T

Module 12 sensation: the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment. perception: the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events. bottom-up processing: analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information. top-down processing: information processing guided by higherlevel mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. psychophysics: the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them. absolute threshold: the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time. signal detection theory: a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus ("signal") amid background stimulation ("noise"). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation,

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and level of fatigue. subliminal: below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness. priming: the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response. difference threshold: the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference. (Also called just noticeable difference or jnd.) Weber’s law: the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount). sensory adaptation: diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. selective attention: the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, as in the cocktail party effect. inattentional blindness: failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.

Module 13 transduction: conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret. wavelength: the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission. hue: the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth. intensity: the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave’s amplitude. pupil: the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters. iris: a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening. lens: the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina. accommodation: the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina. retina: the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information. acuity: the sharpness of vision. nearsightedness: a condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina. farsightedness: a condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind the retina.

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rods: retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond. cones: retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations. optic nerve: the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain. blind spot: the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there. fovea: the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster. feature detectors: nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement. parallel processing: the processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-bystep (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving. Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory: the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color. opponent-process theory: the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellowblue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green. color constancy: perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object.

Module 14 audition: the sense or act of hearing. frequency: the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second). pitch: a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency. middle ear: the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window. cochlea: [KOHK-lee-uh] a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses. inner ear: the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs place theory: in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated. frequency theory: in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. conduction hearing loss: hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.

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sensorineural hearing loss: hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness. cochlear implant: a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

Module 15 gate-control theory: the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain. sensory interaction: the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste. kinesthesis: [kin-ehs-THEE-sehs] the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts. vestibular sense: the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance.

Module 16 visual capture: the tendency for vision to dominate the other senses. gestalt: an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. figure-ground: the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground). grouping: the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups. depth perception: the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance. visual cliff: a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals. binocular cues: depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes. retinal disparity: a binocular cue for perceiving depth: By comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object. convergence: a binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object. The greater the inward strain, the closer the object. monocular cues: depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone. phi phenomenon: an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession. perceptual constancy: perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent lightness, color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change.

Module 17 perceptual adaptation: in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even

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inverted visual field. perceptual set: a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. human factors psychology: a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use. extrasensory perception: the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input. Said to include telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition. parapsychology: the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis.

Sensation and Perception FILL.in.Blank REVIEW 1. __________ includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition. 2. You see a tomato on the kitchen table. When the sun shines on it, you see it as “red”. When the sun sets outside, you still see it as “red”. This is called ________. 3. Retinal disparity and convergence are __________ cues. 4. The following picture is an example of_________.

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5. In the following picture, is the guy spearing the elephant or the antelope? You can tell because of….?

6. According to gate control theory, you only experience pain if the signal passes through the ________ and goes to the brain. 7. _______+ _______ + ________ = flavor. This is called sensory interaction.

ANSWERS: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Extrasensory Perception Color constancy Binocular Interposition Antelope; Relative size; Relative Height Spinal cord

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7.

Smell; texture; taste

Sensation and Perception More for you to learn (With PICS)!  1. Through bottom-up processing, we detect lines, angles, and colors, and form them into a full image. Through top-down processing, we use our understanding of the title to direct our attention to certain details.

2. The eye.

3. The Ear

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4. The sense of smell

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5. Grouping

6. A caricature of Arnold Schwarzeneggar is more recognizable than a normal picture of him because we notice certain unique features of his face more than others, and caricatures exaggerate these points.

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Sensation and Perception MATCHING REVIEW Directions: Match the correct term to its description. a. When your mommy hears you whimper in another bedroom, it’ll catch her attention, while a louder sound on the street may not affect her. b. A positive image is flashed in front of you. When a neutral image is shown to you immediately after this flash, you will think it’s more positive. This is because of …? c. You live on a farm with stinky animals. After awhile, you have diminishing sensitivity to that odor because of…? d. In the following picture, you see an image because your brain forms it. You have grouped everything. This is called_______.

placed. In the other, one quarter is placed. You can tell the difference easily. If you had 5 quarters in one hand, and six quarters in another, you wouldn’t be able to tell the difference. You can only detect the difference if your other hand has 10 quarters. This is…? 1. Sensory Adaptation

2. Signal Detection Theory

3. Gestalt

4. Weber’s Law

e. In one hand, two quarters are

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5. Priming

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ANSWERS FOR CROssWORD PUzzLE ACROSS 3. Sensation 5. Accomodation 7. Cochlea 8. Lens 9. Selective Attention DOWN 1. Perception 2. Acuity 4. Nearsighted 6. Place Theory Module 18.1 Objective 18.1: Consciousness and Information Processing Summary: Psychology began as a study of one’s consciousness or awareness of ourselves and the environment around us—later turning into the study of behavior. Conscious awareness is what enables us to communicate our mental states to others, though it is not the only component of this process. While you are consciously thinking, our unconsciousness simultaneously occurs. For example, when one sees a car drive by, they know it is a car, but subconsciously they know that it is a certain make or model of car.

Table 18.1: States of Consciousness Some Occur Spontaneously

Some Are Physiologically Induced

Some Are Psychologically Induced

Daydreaming

Hallucinations

Sensory Deprivation

Drowsiness

Orgasm

Hypnosis

Dreaming

Food or Oxygen

Meditation

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Starvation Review: 1) What does consciousness do? 2) Give an example of simultaneous consciousness. 3) Name three kinds of states of consciousness.

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Module 18.2 Objective 18.2: Biological Rhythms Summary: There are four types of biological rhythms, also known as periodic physiological  fluctuations. These four types are called annual cycles, twenty­eight­day cycles, twenty­ four­hour cycles, and ninety­minute cycles. When on an annual cycle, a person may  undergo appetite, sleep length, and mood swings. For instance, seasonal affective disorder  may occur when one lives in a dark and gloomy atmosphere, causing depression. An  example of twenty­eight­day cycle is a female’s menstrual cycle. The twenty­four­hour  cycle changes ones alertness, body temperature, and growth hormone secretion. Lastly,  the ninety­minute cycle occurs during change of sleep stages.

Review: 1) What is a component of a twenty­four­hour cycle? a. Depression b. Attentiveness c. Menstrual Cycle 2) How many biological rhythms are there? What are they called? 3) What happens during seasonal affective disorder?

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Module 18.2 Objective 18.3: Circadian Rhythm Summary: Circadian rhythm is the human’s biological clock, a 24­hour cycle. One’s body  temperature is at its highest during the day and it’s lowest before going to bed. Brightness  of light affects the circadian clock by turning on light­sensitive retinal proteins, setting off  the suprachiasmatic nucleus (clusters of cells controlling the circadian clock). The longer  one is awake, the more chemicals produced, causing sleepiness.

Figure 18.3 The biological clock Light striking the retina causes the suprachiasmatic nucleus (a tiny neural center in the hypothalamus) to alter the production of biologically active substances, such as melatonin production by the pineal gland. Illustration © Cynthia Turner 2003 Review: 1) When is one’s body temperature at its peak? a. When they first wake up b. During the late afternoon c. In the middle of the day 2) What are the clusters of cells control the circadian clock called? a. Syprachiasmatic nucleus b. Pineal gland c. Optic nerve 3) What affects the circadian clock?

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Module 18.2 Objective 18.4: Sleep Stages Summary: Around every 90 minutes of sleep, we pass through a cycle of five distinct sleep stages. Stage one is very similar to being awake and only lasts a couple of minutes. Alpha waves are present at this time; slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state. During state one, it is common to experience images resembling hallucinations. At this time, hypnagogic sensations occur. This is when your body suddenly jerks. Next is stage two. Sleep spindles, bursts of brainwave activity, occur in this stage. One can easily be awaken during this stage, but you are now asleep. Stage two is also where sleep talking can begin. The third stage lasts about thirty minutes. This is a much deeper sleep where you are hard to awaken. At this point your brain emits delta waves; slow brain waves associated with deep sleep. Stage four is the deepest sleep of them all. At this stage, one can experience episodes of sleepwalk or wetting the bed. During stage two and three, you enter REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep. During REM your heart rate rises, breathing becomes rapid and irregular, and your eyes move around behind the closed lids.

Fig. 18.7 The stages in a typical night's sleep Most people pass through the five-stage sleep cycle (graph a) several times, with the periods of Stage 4 sleep and then Stage 3 sleep diminishing and REM sleep periods increasing in duration. Graph b plots this increasing REM sleep and decreasing deep sleep based on data from 30 young adults. (From Cartwright, 1978; Webb, 1992.) Review: 1) Around how many minutes does it take to pass through a sleep cycle? 2) What is it called when you body jerks during stage one? 3) At what stage(s) does REM occur? List the three changes that occur to your body at this time. 78

Module 18.2 Objective 18.5: Why Do We Sleep? Summary: Every human needs sleep to survive. Sleep takes over around one-third of our lives (around 25 years!!!). Sleep patterns and duration vary from person to person. They can be culturally influenced and such things as light, work, hobbies, and past times can impact one’s amount of sleep. Those who get more sleep are more efficient and accurate than those who sleep less. While people may make up for a short sleep the night before, sleeping for a long period of time the day after does not necessarily help. It is a consistent sleep schedule that does the job.

Review: 1) What is the best kind of sleep one can get? 2) About how long does sleep take over ones life? 3) Why is a good night of sleep a smart choice for someone who has a test the next day?

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Module 18.2 Objective 18.6: The Effects of Sleep Deprivation Summary: Sleep deprivation experiments reveal slowed reaction times and increase errors on visual tasks. Some examples of sleep deprivation include: 1) Struggling to get out of bed in the morning 2) Feeling tired, irritable, and stressed out during the week 3) Often falling asleep during boring meetings or lectures 4) Often feeling drowsy while driving 5) Often needing a nap to get through the day Sleep loss can also affect us in a more subtle way such as a weaker immune system that fights off viral infections and cancer. Sleep dept can also alter metabolic hormonal functioning causing obesity, hypertension, and memory impairment. Some other effects are: 1) Slowed performance 2) Impaired creativity 3) Concentration 4) Communication

Review: 1) List some examples of sleep deprivation. 2) Sleep Deprivation can ____ reaction time and ________ visual errors.

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Module 18.2 Objective 18-8: Sleep Disorders Summary: The major disorders of sleep include insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, night terrors, sleepwalking, and sleeptalking. -

Insomnia – Persistent problems falling and/or staying asleep Narcolepsy – Uncontrollable sleep attacks Sleep Apnea – Temporary cessations of breathing during sleep along with repeated momentary awakenings Night Terrors – High arousal and an appearance of being terrified; occur during Stage 4; and are seldom remembered Sleepwalking – Occurs during Stage 4; common among mostly children Sleeptalking – Common among mostly children

Review: 1) What are some ways to prevent sleep disorders? 2) Do people remember their night terrors? Why or why not? 3) Sleepwalking and talking is most common among what age groups?

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Module 18.2 Objective 18-9: What do we dream? Summary: People usually dream of ordinary events and everyday experiences. Most dreams occur during REM sleep and are most vivid then. Dreams that do not occur during REM tend to be vague, unmemorable images. Dreams are marked by negative emotions 80% of the time. According to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream is called manifest content. A common dream one has is to be falling, but suddenly awoken when about to hit the ground.

Review: 2) REM dreams are… a. Vivid b. Emotional c. Bizarre d. All of the above 3) __ in 10 dreams are marked by negative emotions. a. 2 b. 5 c. 8 d. 10 4) What sometimes incorporates traces of previous days’ experiences and

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preoccupations? a. REM sleep b. Sleepwalking c. Night terrors d. Manifest content

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Module 18.2 Objective 18-10: Why do we dream? Summary: There are five major perspectives on why we dream: 1) To satisfy unfulfilled wishes by expressing them through latent content 2) To file away memories by sorting the day’s experiences 3) To develop and preserve neural pathways during sleep 4) To make sense of neural activity 5) To reflect cognitive development of knowledge and understanding Table 18.3: Theory Freud's wishfulfillment

Informationprocessing

Dream Theories Explanation Dreams provide a “psychic safety valve”—expressing otherwise unacceptable feelings; contain manifest (remembered) content and a deeper layer of latent content—a hidden meaning. Dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate our memories.

Physiological function

Regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways.

Activationsynthesis

REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories, which our sleeping brain weaves into stories. Dream content reflects dreamers’ cognitive development-their knowledge and understanding.

Cognitive theory

Critical Considerations Lacks any scientific support; dreams may be interpreted in many different ways. But why do we sometimes dream about things we have not experienced? This may be true, but it does not explain why we experience meaningful dreams. The individual's brain is weaving the stories, which still tells us something about the dreamer. Does not address the neuroscience of dreams.

Review: 1) Freud’s ____-___________ theory proposed we dream because of a deeper, hidden meaning. 2) Dreams help us sort out the day’s events is part of the ___________-__________ theory.

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3) REM rebound is the tendency for REM sleep to _________ following REM sleep deprivation.

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Module 19.1 Objective 19-1: Hypnosis Summary: Hypnosis is a social interaction in which the hypnotist suggests to the subject that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur. Researchers, after many experiments, now agree that the strength, stamina, learning, and perceptual abilities of those under hypnosis are like those of motivated unhypnotized people. For example, hypnotized people can perform “the amazing human plank,” but this can also be performed by extremely motivated unhypnotized people as well.

Review: 1) What are some examples of what people do under hypnosis? 2) What are some examples of feats that researchers now agree are impossible to accomplish?

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Module 19.1 Objective 19-2: Can Anyone Experience Hypnosis? Summary: Nearly everyone is suggestible to hypnosis. The people who respond to suggestions without hypnosis are people that are likely to respond with hypnosis. During hypnosis, hypnotists can suggest a large range of different experiences like spreading your arms out, or seeing imaginary things while your eyes are open. Hypnotic ability is the ability to focus one’s attention on a certain task and become imaginatively absorbed in it.

Review:

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Module 19.1 Objective 19-2 continued: Can Hypnosis Enhance Recall of Forgotten Events? Summary: Hypnotically refreshed memories combine fact with fiction. Hypnotists can plant ideas in the subject’s pseudomemory by asking leading questions. Research has revealed that most reports of UFOs have come from people who were inclined to believe in aliens, are easy to hypnotize, and have undergone hypnosis.

Review: 1) True or False: Memories recalled under hypnosis are 100% fact. 2) True or False: Those who have reported UFO sightings are easily susceptible to hypnosis.

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Module 19.1 Objective 19-2 continued: Can Hypnosis Force People to Act Against Their Will? Summary: Martin Orne and Frederick Evans found that hypnotized people could perform dangerous acts if told to do so. After doing dangerous acts, patients had no memory of them and denied performing such acts. Stanley Milgram found that authoritative people can force hypnotized and unhypnotized people to perform unusual acts.

Review: 1) Explain what happens after a person is hypnotized to perform a dangerous act. 2) What did Milgrim find in regards to authoritative people?

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Module 19.1 Objective 19-2 continued: Can Hypnosis Be Therapeutic? Summary: Hypnotherapists simply try to help patients heal themselves. Hypnosis has helped people alleviate pain, asthma, and stress-related problems. It was found that hypnosis helps a lot with obesity. But it was also found that hypnosis didn’t help with drug or alcohol problems.

Review: 1) Hypnosis helps people… a. Grow hair b. Reduce pain c. Run faster d. None of the above 2) Hypnosis helps rid of… a. Obesity b. Drug addiction c. Alcohol addiction d. None of the above

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Module 19.1 Objective 19-2 continued: Can Hypnosis Alleviate Pain? Summary: Hypnosis does alleviate pain. Dissociation is a theory of hypnotic pain relief. The theory happens when the sensation of pain dissociates from the emotional suffering during hypnosis. Another theory of hypnotic pain relief is selective attention when people choose when to feel the pain. Hypnosis doesn’t block sensory input, but it does block one’s attention to the stimuli of the sensory input.

Review: 1) True or False: Does hypnosis relieve pain? 2) True or False: Dissociation occurs when we combine the pain sensation with our conscious awareness 3) True or False: Selective attention is when we focus our attention on other things

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Module 19.2 Objective 19.3: Hypnosis as Divided Consciousness Summary: There are three findings that support the theory of dissociation: 1) Hypnotized people may carry out posthypnotic actions when no one else is watching. 2) Brain scans show that people hypnotized to see imaginary things will show higher brain activity during those things. 3) Brain scans show that people hypnotized to alleviate pain will show less brain activity relating to that sensory information.

Review: 1) Brain scans show _________ brain activity when hypnotized to see imaginary things. 2) Brain scans show _________ brain activity when hypnotized to relieve pain.

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Review Question: Answers Module 18.1 Objective 18.1: Consciousness and Information Processing 1) Consciousness enables us to communicate our mental states to others. 2) Answer should be similar to the following: When one sees a car drive by, they know it is a car, but subconsciously they know that it is a certain make or model of car. 3) Daydream, Orgasm, Hypnosis (or any others from the chart) Module 18.2 Objective 18.2: Biological Rhythms 1) B 2) Four; Annual Cycles, Twenty-Eight-Day Cycles, Twenty-Four-Hour Cycles, and Ninety-Minute Cycles 3) Depression Module 18.2 Objective 18.3: Circadian Rhythm 1) C 2) A 3) Light Module 18.2 Objective 18.4: Sleep Stages 1) 90 minutes 2) Hypnagogic Sensations 3) Two and Three; During REM your heart rate rises, breathing becomes rapid and  irregular, and your eyes move around behind the closed lids. Module 18.2 Objective 18.5: Why Do We Sleep? 1) Consistent sleep schedule 2) Around one­third of our lives or around 25 years 3) You are more efficient and accurate

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Module 18.2 Objective 18.6: The Effects of Sleep Deprivation 1) Struggling to get out of bed in the morning, feeling tired, irritable, and stressed  out during the week, often falling asleep during boring meetings or lectures, often  feeling drowsy while driving, and often needing a nap to get through the day. 2) Slow; increase. Module 18.2 Objective 18-8: Sleep Disorders 1) Relax before bedtime, use a dimmer light, avoid caffeine, sleep on a regular schedule, exercise regularly, hide the clock face so you aren’t temped to check it, etc. 2) No they don’t because they occur during Stage 4 of sleep. 3) Children and adolescents. Module 18.2 Objective 18-9: What do we dream? 1) D. All of the above 2) C. 8 3) D. Manifest content Module 18.2 Objective 18-10: Why do we dream? 1) Wish-fulfillment 2) Information-processing 3) Increase Module 19.1 Objective 19-1: Hypnosis 1) Forget the number six, think foul odors smell good, etc. 2) See the back of their head, talk to dead people, etc. Module 19.1

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Objective 19-2: Can Anyone Experience Hypnosis? ACROSS 3) Hypnotic ability DOWN 1) Suggestible 2) Range Module 19.1 Objective 19-2 continued: Can Hypnosis Enhance Recall of Forgotten Events? 1) False 2) True Module 19.1 Objective 19-2 continued: Can Hypnosis Force People to Act Against Their Will? 1) They do not recall it once they are no longer under hypnosis 2) An authoritative person can induce hypnotized or non hypnotized people to perform acts Module 19.1 Objective 19-2 continued: Can Hypnosis Be Therapeutic? 1) B 2) A Module 19.1 Objective 19-2 continued: Can Hypnosis Alleviate Pain? 1) True 2) False 3) True Module 19.2 Objective 19.3: Hypnosis as Divided Consciousness 1) Increased 2) Decreased

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Learning Review Sheet Definition of learning a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience. Associative Learning 98

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). Ivan Pavlov Classical conditioning a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus.

UCR in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. UCS in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically— triggers a response. CR in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS). CS in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response. Acquisition the initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. Discrimination in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. Generalization the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. Extinction the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an 99

unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. Spontaneous recovery the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response. Thorndyke Law of Effect Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. B.F. Skinner-invented the operant conditioning chamber Shaping an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. Operant conditioning a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Table 22.1: Some Differences Between Classical and Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Response

Involuntary, automatic.

Voluntary, operates on environment.

Acquisition

Associating events; CS announces US.

Associating response with a consequence (reinforcer or punisher).

Extinction

CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone.

Responding decreases when reinforcement stops.

Cognitive processes

Organisms develop expectation that CS signals the arrival of US.

Organisms develop expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished; they also exhibit latent learning, without reinforcement.

Biological predispositions

Natural predispositions constrain what stimuli and responses can easily be associated.

Organisms best learn behaviors similar to their natural behaviors; unnatural behaviors instinctively drift back toward natural ones.

Primary reinforcers

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an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need Secondary reinforcers a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer. Immediate reinforcement A reinforcing stumulus, that immediately follows behavior. (conditions quickely) Delayed reinforcement A reinforcing stimumus that is delivered with a delay after behavior, (takes longer to condition) Positive reinforcement increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. Negative reinforcement increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.) Continuous reinforcement reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. Partial reinforcement reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. Schedules of partial reinforcement Fixed interval in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed Variable interval in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals Fixed ratio in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. Variable ratio in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. Punishment an event that decreases the behavior that it follows. Latent learning learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. Overjustification Effect- extrinsic rewards for previously intrinsically motivated behaviors, becomes reason for behavior, so behavior decreases Observational Learning learning by observing others. Modeling the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. Albert Bandura demonstrated that we are likely to imitate actions that go unpunished

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Mirror Neuron frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or observing another doing so Prosocial Behavior positive, constuctive, helpful behavior Table 22.3: Ways to Decrease Behavior Type of Punisher Description

Possible Examples

Positive punishment

Administer an aversive stimulus

Spanking; a parking ticket

Negative punishment

Withdraw a desirable stimulus

Time-out from privileges (such as time with friends); revoked driver's license

Table 22.4: Comparison of Classical and Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Response

Involuntary, automatic.

Voluntary, operates on environment.

Acquisition

Associating events; CS announces US.

Associating response with a consequence (reinforcer or punisher).

Extinction

CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone.

Responding decreases when reinforcement stops.

Cognitive processes

Organisms develop expectation that CS signals the arrival of US.

Organisms develop expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished; they also exhibit latent learning, without reinforcement.

Biological predispositions

Natural predispositions constrain what stimuli and responses can easily be associated.

Organisms best learn behaviors similar to their natural behaviors; unnatural behaviors instinctively drift back toward natural ones.

Module Summaries Module 21: Classical Conditioning Learning Objective Summary Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience. In associative learning, we learn to associate two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response its consequences (as in operant conditioning). In observational learning, we 102

learn by watching others' experiences and examples. Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. Pavlov's work on classical conditioning laid the foundation for behaviorism, the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes. In classical conditioning, a UR is an event that occurs naturally (such as salivation), in response to some stimulus. A US is something that naturally and automatically (without learning) triggers the unlearned response (as food in the mouth triggers salivation). A CS in classical conditioning is an originally neutral stimulus (such as a bell) that, through learning, comes to be associated with some unlearned response (salivating). A CR is the learned response (salivating) to the originally neutral but now conditioned stimulus. In classical conditioning, extinction is diminished responding when the CS no longer signals an impending US. Spontaneous recovery is the appearance of a formerly extinguished response, following a rest period. Generalization is the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to a CS. Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other irrelevant stimuli. Module 22: Operant Conditioning Learning Objective Summary Classical conditioning, the organism forms associations between behaviors it does not control; this form of conditioning involves operant behavior (automatic responses to some stimulus). In operant conditioning, the organism learns associations between its own behavior and resulting events; this form of conditioning involves operant behavior (behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences). Thorndike's law of effect asserts that rewarded behavior is likely to recur. Using this as his starting point, Skinner devoted his life to exploring the principles and conditions of learning through operant conditioning. Positive reinforcement adds something desirable to increase the frequency of a behavior. Negative reinforcement removes something undesirable to increase the frequency of a behavior. Primary reinforcers (such as receiving food when hungry or having nausea end during an illness) are innately satisfying—no learning is required. Conditioned (or secondary) reinforcers (such as cash) are satisfying because we have learned to associate them with more basic rewards (such as the food or medicine we buy with them). Immediate reinforcers (such as the nicotine addict's cigarette) offer immediate payback; delayed reinforcers (such as a weekly paycheck) require the ability to delay gratification. In continuous reinforcement (reinforcing desired responses every time they occur), learning is rapid, but so is extinction if rewards cease. Continuous reinforcement is preferable until a behavior is learned. In partial reinforcement (reinforcing responses only part of the time), initial learning is slower, but the behavior is much more resistant to extinction. Reinforcement schedules may vary according to the number of responses rewarded or the time gap between responses. Fixed-ratio schedules offer rewards after a

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set number of responses; variable-ratio schedules, after an unpredictable number. Fixedinterval schedules offer rewards after set time periods; variable-interval schedules, after unpredictable time periods. Module 23: Learning by Observation Learning Objective Summary In observational learning, we observe and imitate others. Mirror neurons, located in the brain's frontal lobes, demonstrate a neural basis for observational learning. They fire when we perform certain actions (such as responding to pain or moving our mouth to form words), or when we observe someone else performing those actions. Bandura and others demonstrated that we are likely to intimate actions that go unpunished. And we tend to imitate models we perceive as similar to us, successful, or admirable. Children tend to imitate what a model does and says, whether the behavior is prosocial (positive, constructive, and helpful) or antisocial. If a model's actions and words are inconsistent, children may imitate the hypocrisy they observe. Correlation does not show causation.

Questions: 1. A response is learned most quickly and is most resistant to extinction if it is learned under conditions of __________ reinforcement followed by __________ reinforcement. a. Partial, continuous b. Secondary, primary

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c. Continuous, partial d. Primary, secondary B. F. Skinner elaborated on what Thorndike had called: a. The law of effect b. Observational learning c. Latent learning d. Shaping The ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus is called: a. Acquisition b. Shaping c. Discrimination d. Generalization In what form of learning is behavior said to be influenced by its consequences? a. Observational learning b. Classical conditioning c. Latent learning d. Operant conditioning Maria developed an intense fear of snakes five years ago when she was bitten. The fact that today she can again be around snakes without distress indicates that her fear has undergone: a. Spontaneous recovery b. Discrimination c. Extinction d. Generalization The fact that learning can occur without reinforcement is clearly demonstrated by studies of: a. Shaping b. Latent learning c. Spontaneous recovery d. Operant conditioning The highest rate of operant responding are associated with the ________ schedule of reinforcement. a. Fixed-ratio b. Variable-ratio c. Fixed-interval d. Variable-interval Stimulus-stimulus associations are to _______ as response-stimulus associations are to ________. a. Latent learning, observational learning b. Classical conditioning, operant conditioning c. Operant conditioning, classical conditioning d. Acquisition, extinction For purposes of effective child raising, most psychologists favor the use of ________ over _________. a. Shaping, modeling

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b. Reinforcement, punishment c. Spontaneous recovery, extinction d. Classical conditioning, operant conditioning 10. In order to quickly teach a dog to play dead on command, you would be most successful using _________ rather than __________. a. Negative reinforcers, positive reinforcers b. Partial reinforcement, continuous reinforcement c. Latent learning, shaping d. Immediate reinforcers, delayed reinforcers 11. Who invented the operant conditioning chamber? a. Watson b. Bandura c. Skinner d. Pavlov 12. A child’s fear at the sight of a needle is: a. Conditioned response b. Unconditioned response c. Conditioned stimulus d. Unconditioned stimulus

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Questions: 13. A response is learned most quickly and is most resistant to extinction if it is learned under conditions of __________ reinforcement followed by __________ reinforcement. a. Partial, continuous b. Secondary, primary c. Continuous, partial d. Primary, secondary 14. B. F. Skinner elaborated on what Thorndike had called: a. The law of effect b. Observational learning c. Latent learning d. Shaping 15. The ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus is called: a. Acquisition b. Shaping c. Discrimination d. Generalization 16. In what form of learning is behavior said to be influenced by its consequences? a. Observational learning b. Classical conditioning c. Latent learning d. Operant conditioning 17. Maria developed an intense fear of snakes five years ago when she was bitten. The fact that today she can again be around snakes without distress indicates that her fear has undergone: a. Spontaneous recovery b. Discrimination c. Extinction d. Generalization 18. The fact that learning can occur without reinforcement is clearly demonstrated by studies of: a. Shaping b. Latent learning c. Spontaneous recovery d. Operant conditioning 19. The highest rate of operant responding are associated with the ________ schedule of reinforcement. a. Fixed-ratio b. Variable-ratio c. Fixed-interval d. Variable-interval

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20. Stimulus-stimulus associations are to _______ as response-stimulus associations are to ________. a. Latent learning, observational learning b. Classical conditioning, operant conditioning c. Operant conditioning, classical conditioning d. Acquisition, extinction 21. For purposes of effective child raising, most psychologists favor the use of ________ over _________. a. Shaping, modeling b. Reinforcement, punishment c. Spontaneous recovery, extinction d. Classical conditioning, operant conditioning 22. In order to quickly teach a dog to play dead on command, you would be most successful using _________ rather than __________. a. Negative reinforcers, positive reinforcers b. Partial reinforcement, continuous reinforcement c. Latent learning, shaping d. Immediate reinforcers, delayed reinforcers 23. Who invented the operant conditioning chamber? a. Watson b. Bandura c. Skinner d. Pavlov 24. A child’s fear at the sight of a needle is: a. Conditioned response b. Unconditioned response c. Conditioned stimulus d. Unconditioned stimulus

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Crossword Clues: Across: 7. Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. 8. Positive, constructive, helpful behavior 12. The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response. 14. In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. 15. In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. 17. Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or observing another doing so 18. A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. 19. Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). 20. In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals 21. An event that decreases the behavior that it follows. 22. The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. Down 1. Extrinsic rewards for previously intrinsically motivated behaviors, becomes reason for behavior, so behavior decreases 2. In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. 3. A relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience. 4. The initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. 5. Father of classical conditioning 6. The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. 9. A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. 10. Learning by observing others. 11. Anything that strengthens behavior 13. In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response. 16. An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

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Memory Review Packet By Isaac Yao, Alan Chu, Jessica Yu, Kelsey Liu, Alfred Chen Module 24: Memory • •

Memory is the persistence of (1)_____________ over time through the storage and retrieval of information. A person’s memory capacity is perhaps most apparent in his or her recall of unique and highly emotional moments in the past. • A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event is called a (2)_____________ memory. • Like other memories, these memories can err.

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To remember any event, we must get information into our brain, retain that information, and later get it back out. • (3)_____________ is the processing of information into the memory system. • (4)_____________ is the retention of encoded information over time. • (5)_____________ is the process of getting information out of memory storage.

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Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin’s classic three-stage processing model of memory: • Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed that we first record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory, from which it is processed into a short-term memory bin, where we encode it through rehearsal for longterm memory and later retrieval. •

Sensory memory is the immediate, very brief recording of (6)____________ information in the memory system.

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Short-term memory is the activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or (7)______________. Long-term memory is the relatively (8)______________ and limitless storehouse of the memory system. It includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. Criticism: Some information skips the first two stages and is processed into long-term memory automatically without our conscious awareness.

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The modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory incorporates the concept of the working memory.

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Since Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model, we have learned that short-term memory is more than passive rehearsal. Working memory is a newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, (9)___________processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long term memory. Working memory’s auditory and visual-spatial elements are coordinated by a central executive processor These separate mental subsystems allow us to process images and words simultaneously, which explains why we can talk while driving but working memory's limited capacity explains why it is so difficult to try to remember the melody for one song while we are listening to another. Module 25: Encoding: Getting Information In How We Encode • • •

Sensory input is processed consciously and unconsciously. Consciously processed input is encoded into our working or short-term memory. Further rehearsal and processing encodes into long-term memory.

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Automatic Processing • •

Without conscious effort we can process space, time and frequency due to parallel processing. Some conscious processing can become automatic such as reading and driving.

Effortful processing • • • • • • •

Effortful processing requires attention and effort, but is durable and retrievable. Rehearsal or conscious repetition helps create long-term memories. Hermann Ebbinghaus found the amount remembered depends on the time spent learning, an overlearning increases retention. Next-in-line effect-forgetting the information presented before we present. Information is processed best an hour before sleep, not immediately before sleep. Spacing effect-learn better when rehearsal is distributed over time. Serial position effect- first and last items are recalled more often than the middle.

What We Encode • • • • • •

Information processed by encoding its meaning, image or mentally organizing it. Self-reference effect- information that is relevant to the person is easier to remember. Visual encoding-encoding of images. Acoustic encoding-encoding of sounds, particularly words. Semantic encoding- encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words. Visual and Acoustic are both shallower than semantic encoding.

Visual Encoding • • • •

Imagery- mental pictures, that help with effortful processing. People remember words that have string images more easily than those that do not. Rosy retrospection-negative emotion fades faster than positive emotion of events. Mnemonics- memory aids, may use imagery and organizational devices, such as the peg-word system like five is a hive.

Organizing Information for Encoding • • •

Meaning and imagery boost memory by organizing information. Chunking-organizing items into familiar units to make it easier to recall, such as acronyms like HOMES for the names of the Great Lakes. Hierarchies- organizes information by dividing it into levels from general to specific

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Matching Terms and Definitions: 1.Automatic processing 2.Effortful processing 3.Rehersal 4.Spacing effect 5.Serial Position effect 6.Visual encoding 7.Acoustic Encoding 8.Semantic Encoding 9.Next-in-line effect 10.Imagery 11.Mnemonics

a. Practice makes memories easier to retrieve and longer lasting. b. The first and last items are easier to remember than the middle ones. c. Most difficult to remember the information presented right before you present. d. ROY G. BIV e. Conscious processing f. Mental pictures, helpful when combined with semantic encoding. g. Stopping at a stop sign. h. Learning over a semester provides better recall than learning in two weeks because of this. i. One is a bun, two is a shoe. j. Self-reference effect falls under this. k. Is rhyming and sounds not listening to tapes to learn information. l. Easier to remember fire and typewriter because of this.

12.Chunking Module 26: Retaining Information • We have two kinds of sensory memories: Iconic (Momentary sensory memory of image stimuli) and Echoic (Momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli) • Both types have extremely short lifetimes, about 3-4 second, because we are virtually flooded with sensory stimuli everyday (so we ‘make room’ for incoming sensory information) • Short-term memory (or working memory) is the transitional stage between sensory memory and long-term memory • Relative to sensory memories, short-term memories last a long time (about 12-15 seconds) • We can recall about 7 items (give or take 2) that are in short-term memories • If short-term memories are rehearsed enough, they turn into long-term memories, which

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stay with you (practically speaking) forever • Long-term memories are not stored in just one central place; they are all over the brain because of the way they are encoded (visual, audio and semantic) • What we encode for long-term memories and what we actually experienced are two completely different things • Physically, memories seem to be stored in the synapses in between the brain’s neurons • One piece of evidence pointing to this is long-term potentiation (an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation), where a neuron adapts to the frequent firing and lowers its threshold to fire • Further proof that memories reside in the synapses is that if LTP (long-term potentiation) is blocked then learning becomes difficult if not impossible • If an electric current is passed through the brain after LTP, the old memories are intact but very recent memories are cleared away (a blow to the head will do the same) • Stress can literally ingrain memories into the mind; the more emotion, the more vivid the memory becomes (conversely the duller the emotion, the weaker the memory) • This is because of the stress hormones make the brain go into a flurry of activity, leading to vivid memory recall (any event causing stress, like a first kiss or natural disaster, can lead to powerful memory recall) • However too much stress will cause the brain areas related to memories shrink and block older memories • People with a type of amnesia (loss of memory), in which they cannot form new memories, can learn new things like riding a bicycle or reading a story over and over (faster each time) • They cannot say they know they learned something, they have no explicit memory (memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" [also called declarative memory]) of the deed • They do have implicit memory (retention independent of conscious recollection [also called procedural memory]) of the activity (basically they know how to do an activity but are not away of it) • So they will say they cannot ride a bicycle but when they do get on, they can ride it with ease (assuming that they learned it after they lose the ability to make new memories) • The explicit memories seem to be stored in the hippocampus (a neural center located in

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the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage), which is lateralized • Explicit memory of images and locations are located in the left hippocampus and memory of verbs and words are located in the right. • If the hippocampus is lost, then recent (month old) long-term memories disappear, but older ones are still intact (further proving that long-term memories are stored in different locations) • Implicit memories are stored in the cerebellum, which is the part of the brain controlling body motion (Thanks to implicit memories, classical conditioning is possible) • Since the cerebellum develops and matures before the hippocampus, it is little wonder that memories of learning how to walk/crawl are not explicit but implicit (and memories before three years of age is forgotten)

Module 27: Retrieval: Getting Information Out Key Terms -recall -recognition -relearning -priming -déjà vu -mood-congruent memory Outline I.

Recall/recognition/relearning a. Memory is the retention of learning b. Retrieval= process of getting information out of memory system i. Recall=a measure of memory concerning ability to retrieve information not in conscience awareness (Example: fill-in the blank) ii. Recognition=a measure of memory concerning ability to identify items even if one can not recall them (Example: multi-choice test question) iii. Relearning=a measure of memory concerning the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time (Example: reviewing for a final)

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Retrieval Cues a. A retrieval cue is some supplementary information that you associate with a memory when it is created b. Priming=the activation of associations in one’s memory i. Priming is often done unconsciously i. Example 

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Context Effects a. Being in the context where you experienced or thought something makes you remember the experience or thought better. b. Déjà vu = the feeling that one has already experienced this before caused by cues from the current situation which cause retrieval of a memory.

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Moods and Memories a. State dependent memory=you can recall information better when you are in the same state that you encoded it in b. Mood-congruent memory= you tend to recall experiences that fit your current mood. c. Mood will also influence how one interprets events

Questions 1. Memory is__________. 2. The three different types of retrieval are a. b. c. 3. The activation of associations in one’s memory is… a. retrieval b. déjà vu c. priming d. mood congruent memory 4. What kind of retrieval was tested in question number 3? 5. What is the difference between state dependent memory and mood congruent memory?

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Module 28: Memory 4/11/08 28.1 ~Three Sins of Forgetting~ • • •

Absent-mindedness—inattention to details produces encoding failure (your mind is somewhere else as you are storing something away). Transience—storage decays over time (after a conversation, information that is not used, fades away overtime). Blocking —inaccessibility of stored information (you know what to say, but you can’t express it in that manner).

~Three Sins of Distortion~ • • •

Misattribution —confusing the source of information (remembering something prior to what actually happened). Suggestibility —the lingering effects of misinformation. Bias —belief-colored recollections.

~One Sin of Intrusion~ •

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Persistence —unwanted memories (such as memories of murder and assault).

Information in short term memory stays there temporally and will be forgotten eventually, unless encoded to long term memory. Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885)

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Forgetting Curve – how much we learn, yet how fast we forget the info.

Harry Bahrick (1984) • • •

Followed up on Hermann’s “Forgetting Curve” Says that when we learn a language and stop learning it for a while, we forget what we learned, but will even out later in life. People, who studied and stopped studying early, will forget the same amount.

Forgetting Curve:

Spanish Forgetting Curve:

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Even if we encode information in our long term memory, sometimes we have a hard time to retrieve the information; hence, we forget it eventually.

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proactive (forward-acting) interference: the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information (such as if we got a new phone, we are trying to remember the new number, but instead, we remember the old number). retroactive (backward-acting) interference: the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information (learning new things, then when trying to remember the old, we have forgotten it or had a hard time to recall). Retroactive interference can be minimized when we learn new things and then going to sleep after learning. Jenkins and Karl Dallenbach (1924) • Did an experiment, two people learn two nonsense syllables, then one person stayed awake and the other sleeps. • Next day, when both of them try to recall the syllables, the one who got sleep could recall faster and clearer. positive transfer: when old and new information compete with each other that interference occurs.

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Retroactive Interference:

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repression: in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

28.2 • • • •

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misinformation effect: After exposure to subtle misinformation, many people misremember. It is nearly impossible to give suggestive ideas to a person who has misinformation of the event that took place. Non-existing objects, events, actions, etc, can create misinformation / false memories. Debra Poole and Stephen Lindsay (1995, 2001, 2002) • source amnesia: attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories. • Experimented “source amnesia” with preschoolers by engaging them with Mr. Science who gave demonstrations such as blowing up a balloon with baking soda and vinegar. • Three months later, a book was published about the event, but some of the parts of the story were made up. • An interviewer asked the preschoolers if the story was accurate (4 out of the 10 preschoolers said the story was genuinely true). People who are committed to protecting abused children and those committed to protecting wrongly accused adults agree on the following:

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Injustice happens. Some innocent people have been falsely convicted. Some guilty people have evaded responsibility by casting doubt on their truth-telling accusers. Incest and other sexual abuse happen. And it happens more often than we once supposed. There is no characteristic "survivor syndrome" (Kendall-Tackett & others, 1993). However, sexual abuse can leave its victims predisposed to problems ranging from sexual dysfunction to depression. Forgetting happens. Many of the abused were either very young when abused or may not have understood the meaning of their experience— circumstances under which forgetting is "utterly common." Forgetting isolated past events, both negative and positive, is an ordinary part of everyday life. Recovered memories are commonplace. Cued by a remark or an experience, we recover memories of long-forgotten events, both pleasant and unpleasant. What is debated is whether the unconscious mind sometimes forcibly represses painful experiences and, if so, whether these can be retrieved by certain therapist-aided techniques. Memories "recovered" under hypnosis or the influence of drugs are especially unreliable. "Age-regressed" hypnotized subjects incorporate suggestions into their memories, even memories of "past lives." Memories of things happening before age 3 are also unreliable. People do not reliably recall happenings of any sort from their first 3 years—a phenomenon called infantile amnesia . Most psychologists—including most clinical and counseling psychologists—therefore are skeptical of "recovered" memories of abuse during infancy (Gore-Felton & others, 2000; Knapp & VandeCreek, 2000). The older a child's age when suffering sexual abuse, and the more severe it was, the more likely it is to be remembered (Goodman & others, 2003). Memories, whether real or false, can be emotionally upsetting. If a false memory of abuse becomes a real part of one's history, both the accuser and the accused may suffer. What was born of mere suggestion can, like an actual trauma, become a stinging memory that may drive bodily stress (McNally, 2003). People knocked unconscious by unremembered accidents sometimes later develop stress disorders when haunted by memories constructed from photos, news reports, and friends' accounts (Bryant, 2001).

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Ways to improve memory: • Study repeatedly to boost long term recall • Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material • Make the material personally meaningful • To remember a list of unfamiliar items, use mnemonic devices (memory aids that use vivid images or organizational devices) • Refresh your memory by activating retrieval cues • Recall events while they are fresh, before you encounter possible misinformation • Minimize interference • Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to help determine what you do not yet know

Word Search activity Dirrections: look for the words in the blanks/answers 1. Inattention to details produces encoding failure. 2. Storage decays over time. 3. Inaccessibility of stored information. 4. Confusing the source of information. 5. The lingering effects of misinformation. 6. Belief-colored recollections. 7. Unwanted memories. 8. Famous for the “Forgetting Curve”. 9. The _______ shows how much we learn, yet how fast we forget the info. 10. _______ Interference is the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information. 11. _______ Interference is the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information. 12. When old and new information compete with each other that interference occurs. 13. In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxietyarousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. 14. Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined.

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Answers Module 24 1. learning 2. flashbulb 3. encoding 4. storage 6. retrieval 7. sensory 8. forgotten 9. permanent 10. active Module 25 Answers: 1-g, 2-e, 3-a, 4-h, 5-b, 6-l, 7-k, 8-j, 9-c, 10-f, 11-I, 12-d. Module 26 Module 27 1. The persistence of learning 2. a. Recall b. Recognition c. relearning 3. c. priming 4. recognition 5. state dependent memory affects how well you remember things while mood congruent memory affects what type of things you remember. Module 28 1. Inattention to details produces encoding failure. (absent mindedness) 2. Storage decays over time. (transience) 3. Inaccessibility of stored information. (blocking) 4. Confusing the source of information. (misattribution) 5. The lingering effects of misinformation. (suggestibility) 6. Belief-colored recollections. (bias) 7. Unwanted memories.(persistence) 8. Famous for the “Forgetting Curve”. (harry bahrick)

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9. The forgetting curve shows how much we learn, yet how fast we forget the info. 10. Proactive Interference is the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information. 11. Retroactive Interference is the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information. 12. When old and new information compete with each other that interference occurs.(positive transfer) 13. In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxietyarousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.(repression) 14. Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined.(source amnesia)

Module 29, Thinking Cognition=thinking; refers to all mental activities associated with processing, understanding, remembering, and communicating. Concepts- mental groupings of similar objects, events, and people. Prototypes- mental image or best example that incorporates all the features we associate with a category. Algorithm- Step by step procedure Heuristics- Thinking strategy that allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently. Insight- Sudden realization of the solution to a problem. Confirmation bias- Tendency to search for the information that confirms one’s preconceptions. Fixation- the inability to see a problem from a new perspective Functional fixedness- to think of things only in terms of their usual functions. Belief perseverance-clinging to our ideas because the explanation we once accepted as valid lingers in our mind even after it has been discredited. TEST YOURSELF! Questions1. If you were told to find another word using all these letters, SPLOYOCHYG, by excluding letter combinations, how would you be solving the problem? a. Prototypes b. Heuristics c. concepts d. algorithm 2. While you are trying to figure out the above word, you finally figure out that the answer is psychology. How did this happen? a. Confirmation bias b. Fixation c. Insight d. Déjà vu 3. When someone does not consider seeing a problem in a completely different perspective, this person is being… a. Stereotypical b. Dyslexic c. Fixated d. Dumb 4. Most of us see the number sequence 2-4-6 as “counting by two’s” while the actual rule is any three ascending numbers. How do we come to the conclusion that we 127

are counting by two’s? a. Functional fixedness b. insight c. cognition d. confirmation bias 5. Our tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence is… a. Belief perseverance b. confirmation bias c. fixation d. concepts

Answers: 1. d 2. c 3. c 4. c 5. a

30.1 Language Structure pg. 412 Phonemes: Definition: A set of basic sounds There are 869 different phonemes total in all languages.

English contains 40. Changing phonemes changes the meaning. Ex: Feat/feet, fete, fit, fight Consonant phonemes give us more information than vowel phonemes. People that grow up with one set of phonemes don’t easily pick up another set, which explains why people speaking a new language have trouble pronouncing some 128

words. Sign language also contains phonemes. Morphemes: Definition: The smallest unit of language that carries meaning. Some morphemes are also phonemes. Many morphemes contain two or more phonemes. Morphemes are sometimes words, and are also prefixes are suffixes – ex. The “ed” in watched or “pre” in prenatal. Grammar: Definition: A system of rules in a given language that enables us to communicate with and understand others. Grammar contains syntax (the rules we use to order words into sentences) and semantics (the set of rules we use to derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences). A rule of English syntax is that adjectives come before nouns, but in other languages like French and Spanish, adjectives come after nouns. Semantics helps us know that when an “-ed” is added to a word like “jump” that the event happened in the past.

30. 2 Language Development pgs. 413-415 Summary of language development: Approximate age (in months) Stage 4 Babbles speech sounds 10 Babbling resembles household language 12 One-word stage 24 Two-word stage 129

24 +

Language develops rapidly into complete sentences

One-word stage: During this stage, children learn to associate words with images. They begin to use sounds to communicate meaning. They generally learn a new word once a week and will use single words in place of a sentence. For example, if a one-year-old says “Cookie!” instead of “Can I have that cookie?”. Two-word stage: Children learn at a pace of one word per day. Their speech is characterized as “telegraphic speech”, containing mostly nouns and verbs. They are able to put words in an understandable order. Once children move on from this stage, they rapidly engage in sentence-making and soon understand complex sentences and basic humor conveyed by double-meanings. B.F. Skinner: Operant Learning He believes language development can be explained through three principles: association (an image with a sound), imitation (of words and syntax modeled by others), and reinforcement (smiles and encouraging words when the child says the correct word). Hearing children with deaf parents do not learn to speak with as much ease and quickness as those with hearing parents, but do learn to sign at a normal pace. Chomsky: Inborn Universal Grammar Chomsky believed that environment had a larger effect on 130

language development. Children learn to make up sentences they have never heard before and arrange words in different orders. They do tend to overgeneralize grammar, however. For example, once they learn past-tense words generally end in “-ed” they will apply that to every word in the past tense (holded instead of held). Chomsky believed language would just naturally occur. He believes all languages are similar in that they have universal grammar (they all contain nouns and verbs, subjects and objects, etc.). All people start to speak mostly in nouns rather than adjectives and verbs. If children are raised in isolation, they will not learn language. But if a group of children are raised alone, they will create a language of their own. Deaf children will also create their own language if not exposed to signing. Chomsky believes we are born with a “language acquisition device” that allows us to develop language quickly and naturally. We learn the surface structure of our home language, which consists of phonemes, morphemes, sentences, words, and rules with which we combine them. We then learn deep structure – the meaning of the words and sentences.

+ It takes both environment and genes to speak language. 131

Cognitive Scientists: Statistical Learning and Critical Periods Infants are able to discern word breaks in speech by recognizing how often syllables are grouped. Babies as young as seven months will detect a difference in phrases by the pattern of syllables within them. The best years to learn a new language are during your childhood and early adolescence. Grammar and accents are learned with much greater ease. This is why implants for deaf children are much more effective when implanted from age two to four. Both hearing children of hearing parents and deaf children of deaf parents learn language in the same way. But deaf children of hearing parents often learn signing later, and thus can never sign like native signers. They also show less brain activity in the right hemisphere in comparison to native signers. Test Yourself! Multiple Choice: 1) When Suzie’s mom asks her, “What happened to all the cookies?”, Suzie replies “I eated them.” What principle of language development is she employing? a) telegraphic speech b) overgeneralization c) linguistic determinism d) syntax 2) Which group has the most difficult time acquiring language? a) hearing children of hearing parents b) deaf children of deaf parents c) hearing children of deaf parents d) deaf children of hearing parents 3) Deaf children of hearing parents show less activity in which part of the brain? 132

a) the left hemisphre b) the right hemisphere c) the parietal lobes e) the frontal cortex Short Answer: 1. Compare and contrast Skinner and Chomsky’s views on language development. 2. Describe the various stages of language development. ANSWER KEY: Multiple Choice: 1)B 2)D 3)B Short Answer: 1. See B.F. Skinner: Operant Learning and Chomsky: Inborn Universal Grammar. 2.

See Summary of Language Development table.

Thinking, Language and Thought

Modules 30.3 – 30.4

30.3 Explaining Language Development Language Acquisition Debate: behaviorist view of the malleable organism versus the view that each organism comes biologically prepared to learn certain associations (naturenature debate) Behaviorist B.F. Skinner believed language development is explained through nurture using familiar learning principles, such as: • Association (using the relationship between sight and sound) • Imitation (modeling others' word and syntax) • Reinforcement (positive rewards when said correctly)

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He believed "verbal behavior came into existence when the vocal musculature became susceptible to operant conditioning." Linguist Noam Chomsky believed behaviorists' view of how language develops was oversimplified. He believed that language occurs naturally, stating that we have the capacity for developing language natural and quick, because we are born with a language acquisition device. Chomsky argued part of his stand by citing evidence that there is a sort of universal grammar that underlies all human language and statistical learning. Statistical Learning – ability to detect speech patterns The critical period for learning language is during childhood.

QuickTimeª and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture.

30.4 Language Influences Thinking Thinking or language, which comes first? Linguist Benjamin Lee Whorf argued that language determines thought and that different languages impose different conceptions of reality. Linguistic determinism – Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think. Bilingual people are more prone to Whorf's theory, who has shown that two different languages can embody two different ways of thinking or two different personalities. Most psychologists today, however believe that language influences what we think. Language transforms experience.

Review Questions 1. Behaviorist B.F. Skinner believed language development is explained using association, imitation and _________. A. Generalization B. Reinforcement C. Classical Conditioning D. None of the Above 2. Statistical Learning is the ability to: A. Analyze critically B. Advance the critical period

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C. Understand the relationship between sight and sound D. Detect speech patterns 3. Linguistic determinism is: A. Whorf's hypothesis that language determines thought B. Chomsky's belief in universal grammar C. Whorf's hypothesis that thought determines language D. Whorf's belief that bilingual people embody two different ways of thinking

Review Answers 1.

(B) Reinforcement

2.

(D) Detect Speech Patterns

3.

(A) Language determines thought

Modu le 31 : Intr o to inte ll igence ( p.430 -441) 31.0 Intr oduction •

Most psychologists now define intelligence as the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.

•

Two controversies in research on intelligence: 1. if there is one general intelligence or multiple intelligences 2. whether neuroscientists can locate and measure intelligence within the brain

 What are the three qualities that define a being as “intelligent”? 1.__________________________________ 135

2. __________________________________ 3. __________________________________ •

To reify intelligence is to treat it as though it were a real object, not an abstract concept. o i.e We commit reification when we refer to someone's "IQ" (intelligence quotient) as a real trait.

•

_________________________________________ _

•

L.L Thurstone’s theory: o identified seven clusters of primary mental abilities 1. fluency 2. verbal comprehension 3. spatial ability 4. perceptual speed 5. numerical ability 6. inductive reasoning 7. memory o Thurstone did not rank his subjects on a single scale of general aptitude.

•

Traditional intelligence tests assess academic intelligence. o They predict school grades reasonably well but predict work success more modestly.

•

Howard Gardner’s theory: o Gardner argues that we do not have an intelligence, but instead have multiple intelligences.

In research studies, intelligence is whatever intelligence tests measure, which historically has tended to be school smarts.

31.1 Is intelligence one gener al abilit y or se veral specific abilitie s? •

Factor analysis is a statistical procedure used to show that mental abilities tend to form clusters o Charles Spearman (a developer of factor analysis) named this general mental ability the g factor, short for general factor or general intelligence. o The g factor said that we have a common level of intelligence that can predict our abilities in all other academic areas. o G factor scores - do correlate with ability to solve various problems (in academic and work situations) - do not much correlate with individuals' skills in "evolutionarily familiar" situations—such as marrying and parenting, displaying social competence, and navigating without maps.  Give another example of an evolutionarily familiar situation:

Gardner's Eight Intelligences Ability

Example

1. Linguistic

poet

2. Logical-mathematical

scientist

3. Musical

composer

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•

•

4. Spatial

artist

5. Bodily-kinesthetic

dancer

6. Intrapersonal (self)

psychiatrist

7. Interpersonal (other people)

leader

8. Naturalist

naturalist

Critics of Gardner’s theory: o Argue that Intelligence is a mental ability; other abilities are better classified as talents.

_________________________________________ _

31.2 Emotional intelligence •

Emotional intelligence is defined as the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

•

A person with high emotional intelligence is self-aware o Can more easily control his or her own emotions  avoids overwhelming anger or being manipulated.

Sternberg’s triarchic theory:

1. Analytical (academic problemsolving) intelligence:

assessed by intelligence tests

2. Creative intelligence:

demonstrated in reacting adaptively to novel situations and generating novel ideas.

3. Practical intelligence

•

 List one major difference between Gardner’s and Sternberg’s theories:

often required for everyday tasks; illdefined with multiple solutions.

Critics of Sternberg’s theory: o Argue that all three intelligences share an underlying general intelligence

 What else might someone with more control over their emotions avoid?

____________________________________________ _

•

Mayer, Salovey, and David Caruso’s four components to emotional intelligence 1. The ability to perceive emotions o to recognize them in faces, music, and stories 2. To understand emotions

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o to predict them and how they change and blend 3. To manage emotions o to know how to express them in varied situations 4. To use emotions to enable adaptive or creative thinking.

•

Although the academic ability revealed by intelligence tests is important, our skill in everyday living cannot be measured by traditional intelligence tests o This is where emotional intelligence comes in  List an activity, quality, or trait that you have that could not be measured by a traditional intelligence test

_________________________________________ _

 Your Turn: Summarize the intelligence theories in this chart to the best of your ability Theory Summary Spearman's general intelligence (g factor) Thurstone's primary mental abilities Gardner's multiple intelligences Sternberg's Triarchic

31.3 Intelligence and cr •

•

•

High intelligence does more to get you into a profession than it does to make you successful once there. o Emotional intelligence is required to deal with clients or employers appropriately

Critics of emotional intelligence: o question whether we stretch the idea of intelligence too far when we apply it to emotions

ea tivi ty

Creativity is defined as the ability to produce ideas that are both novel (original) and valuable.

•

Different brain areas are active when we engage in o convergent thinking  demand a single correct answer  the type required for intelligence test solutions o divergent thinking  the type required for multiple imaginative solutions  Give an example of a convergent and divergent way of thinking. - ________________________________________

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intelligence  Greater intelligence may lead to experiences that exercise the brain and build more connections

- ________________________________________

•

There are five components of creativity beyond a minimal level of skill: 1. Expertise o a well-developed base of knowledge. The more we know through accumulated learning, the better we can create original ideas. 2. Imaginative thinking skills o provides the ability to see things in new ways, to recognize patterns, and to make connections. 3. A venturesome personality o tolerates uncertainty and risk, persists in overcoming obstacles, and seeks new experiences rather than following the crowd. 4. Intrinsic motivation o concept of focusing more on intrinsic pleasure and challenge of one’s work rather than the extrinsic motivators (meeting deadlines, impressing people, or making money). 5. A creative environment o sparks, supports, and refines creative ideas.

•

If intelligence does modestly correlate with brain size the cause could be o differing genes o nutrition o environmental stimulation o some combination of these

•

Experience alters the brain. o Being raised in a more stimulating environment will develop thicker, heavier cortexes in the brain

•

Evidence suggests that highly intelligent people differ in their neural plasticity o Neural plasticity is a person’s ability during childhood and adolescence to adapt and grow neural connections in response to his or her environment.

•

Higher intelligence scores were linked with more gray matter in some specific areas known to be involved in memory, attention, and language

•

People who score high on intelligence tests tend also to retrieve information from memory more quickly, and to perceive stimuli faster than

31.4 Is intelligence Neur ologicall y Measur able ? •

There is some correlation between brain size and intelligence scores. o The direction of the relationship is not clear o Larger brain size may enable greater

This in turn increases brain’s size

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others.

•

Quick-wittedness and intelligence o To define "quick-wittedness," researchers are taking a look at speed of perception and speed of neural processing of information.  intelligent people being more quick-witted is in question

•

Perceptual Speed: o The correlation between intelligence score and the speed of taking in perceptual information. Neurological Speed o In question: do the quicker processing and perceptions of highly intelligent people reflect greater neural processing speed?

•

Key Ter ms ( in red )  Intelligence : mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations. (p. 431)  Factor Analysis : a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one’s total score. (p. 432)  General Intelligence : a general intelligence factor that according to Spearman and others underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test. (p. 432)  Savant syndrome : a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing. (p. 433)  Emotional intelligence : the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions. (p. 436)  Creativity : the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas. 140

•

Module 32: A sse ss ing inte ll igence ( p. 442 -453) 32.0 Intr oduction • An intelligence test is defined as a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores. o Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon started the modern intelligence-testing movement. o Lewis Terman of Stanford University revised Binet's work for use in United States. o Terman believed his Stanford-Binet could help guide people toward appropriate opportunities, but more than Binet, he believed intelligence is inherited. •

During the early twentieth century, intelligence tests were used to "document" assumptions about the innate inferiority of certain ethnic and immigrant groups.

•

Intelligence test scores have been expressed as an intelligence quotient (IQ) o established by dividing mental age by chronological age times 100.

 What two people started the modern intelligence-testing movement? 1. __________________________ _ 2.

__________________________ _

32.1 T he origins tes ting

o f intelligence

Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon, began by assuming that all children follow the same course of intellectual development but that some develop more rapidly. o on tests a "dull" child should perform as does a typical younger child o a "bright" child as does a typical older child. • Mental age is defined as the chronological age typical of a given level of performance. o Binet and Simon set out to measure the mental age. o The average 9-year-old has a mental age of 9. o Children with below-average mental ages  i.e 9-year-olds who perform at the level of a typical 7-year-old  struggle with schoolwork considered normal for their age.   Review: Fill in the missing words Mental age is the __________________ age typical of a given level of __________________.

32.2 Modern tests of mental abilities • Aptitude tests are designed to predict what you can learn. o The WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale), an aptitude test, is the most widely used intelligence test for adults. o The SAT is an aptitude test • Achievement tests are designed to assess what you have learned.  What’s the difference between aptitude and achievement tests? _________________________________________ _________________________________________ 141

__ 32.3 Principles of test construction • Standardizing is the process of administering a test to a representative o Sample of future test-takers to establish a basis for meaningful comparisons of scores. o The distribution of many physical and psychological attributes forms a normal curve (also known as a bell-shaped curve)  a roughly symmetrical shape - most scores cluster around an average, - increasingly fewer fall at the extremes.  Intelligence test scores form a normal curve - In past six decades, the average score has risen 27 points—a phenomenon known as the Flynn effect. •

•

A test is reliable when it yields consistent results. o researchers establish reliability through:  comparing the consistency of test-takers' scores on two halves of the test  alternating forms of the test  retesting on the same test. A test can be reliable but not valid. o A valid test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. o Content validity is the extent to which a test samples the pertinent behavior - as a driving test measures driving ability o Predictive validity is the extent to which the test predicts a behavior it is designed to predict - aptitude tests have predictive

ability if they can predict future achievements  Give one example of how a researcher might test reliability ____________________________________________ _

32.4 T he dynamics of intelligence • The stability of intelligence test scores increases with age. o By age 4, scores fluctuate somewhat but begin to predict adolescent and adult scores. o At about age 7, scores become fairly stable and consistent. •

•

Mental Retardation: o Marked by people with intelligence scores below 70, the cut-off mark for the diagnosis of mental retardation, - Vary in their abilities - Vary from near-normal, to requiring constant aid and supervision. Down syndrome is a form of retardation with a physical cause—an extra copy of chromosome 21. o High-scoring people tend to be healthy, well-adjusted, and unusually successful academically

 Circle the right answer: The consistency of test scores testing intelligence, decreases / increases with age.

Key Ter ms ( in red )  Intelligence test a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores.  Mental age a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Thus, a child who does as well as 142





 









the average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8. (p. 443) Stanford-Binet the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet’s original intelligence test. (p. 443) Intelligence quotient (IQ) defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = ma/ca × 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100. (p. 444) Achievement test a test designed to assess what a person has learned. (p. 444) Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) the WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests. (p. 445) Standardization defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested standardization group. (p. 446) Normal Curve the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes. (p. 447) Reliability the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting. (p. 448) Validity the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (See also content











validity and predictive validity.) (p. 448) Content validity the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest (such as a driving test that samples driving tasks). (p. 448) Criterion the behavior (such as future college grades) that a test (such as the SAT) is designed to predict; thus, the measure used in defining whether the test has predictive validity. (p. 448) Predictive validity the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. (Also called criterion-related validity.) (p. 448) Mental retardation a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound. (p. 452) Down syndrome a condition of retardation and associated physical disorders caused by an extra chromosome in one’s genetic makeup. (p. 452)

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Modu le 33 : Genet ic and En vi ronmental Inf luences on Inte ll igence 33.1 Genetic I nfluences • Similarities in intelligence o Twins and Siblings  Studies show that identical twins reared together have very similar, almost exact, intelligence levels  analogy: “the same person taking the same test”

o Conversely, fraternal twins differ more and the results are much less similar o The test scores of identical twins reared separately differ  Are similar enough to conclude that such variation can be attributed to genetic variation o Likewise, the test scores of identical twins reared separately.  Similar enough to lead researcher Thomas to estimate that about 70 percent of intelligence score variation can be attributed to genetic variation o Identical twins share very similar gray brain matter volume o Their brains are virtually the same in areas associated with verbal and spatial intelligence •

Children and Parents o Between adopted kids and adoptive families there is a decreasing tread of similarities  Occurs as the influence of parents decreases as the kid grows older

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o By the time of adulthood there is no correlation between adoptive parent and adopted child o With more time and experience, genetic influences are more significant than environmental influences •

Heritability o Heritability means that you can attribute genetic factors or heredity to a certain percentage of a variation in intelligence in a study  This refers to the extent that the differences (among those studied) are due to one’s genes o Conversely, there are studies where environmental influences are more predictive than genetics o Having a genetic advantage to be better at something (like an academic subject or sport) solely gives an edge  This can then lead to experiences that shape us 1. There is a correlation between genes and experience o Genes get your foot in the door o Experience can break the door open 2. Example: if you have a genetic disposition to be good at chemistry then you might be compelled to take chemistry. o Once you’re in the class and you’ve learned and have lab experience – o You are more likely to score higher on a chemistry aptitude test o your talent and your experience play into part.

 Heritability attributes what two factors? 1. ___________________________ 2. ___________________________ Key word (as defined by the textbook) Heritability the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

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33.2 En vir onmental Influences • Early Influences o The severely disadvantaged are influenced by such environmental factors  Example: children at a destitute Iranian orphanage developed “little sense of personal control over their environment.  They were instead becoming passive “glum lumps.”  Extreme deprivation was bludgeoning native intelligence.”  After training caregivers in language-fostering techniques (like imitating babies’ babbling and playing vocal games with them) the infants improved their language skills and vocabulary o Siblings within poor families have similar test scores more so than the affluent • This means that environmental conditions can override genetic differences (like malnutrition and the slowing of cognitive development)  However, this is the only real significant difference in environment than can influence one’s intellect. In other words, there is little difference between a normal and an “enriched” environment  Schooling and intelligence is conducive to prolonged schooling  Circle the right answer: Siblings in poor families have more similar / different scores in comparison to the wealthy.

33.3 Gr oup Dif fer ences in I ntelligence T est S cor es • Racial/General Differences o Foundation of this section:  Racial groups differ in their average scores on intelligence tests  High-scoring people are more likely to attain high levels of education and income o Differences among individuals in a group reflect genetic differences but the comparison to other groups show the environment influences  Example: Allow some children to grow up hearing their culture's dominant language, while others, born deaf, do not.  Then give them an intelligence test rooted in that language, and (no

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surprise) those with expertise in the test's language will score highest. Although individual performance differences may be substantially genetic, the group difference is not.

Gender Differences o The textbook cites differences between the verbal and math skills of men and women but only to acknowledge that such differences are “exciting” and newsworthy.

Thus, the examples and studies that are cited to apparent difference in math or verbal excellence are only for discussion and readers’ personal reference.  This section also includes Emotion-detecting ability, which is an Emotional intelligence that allows one to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions • how to be empathetic and understand others’ emotions  Review. Complete the statement: High-scoring people are more likely to attain high levels of ________________ and ________________. 

33.4 T he Question o f Bia s • Inherent bias to intelligence tests o Some argue that there is a bias in how some tested information is based on environmental conditions and thus, there is not an equal playing for all taking the test o Others argue the opposite of such argument, saying that although there is a bias the test is not responsible for the unfairness but only for uncovering it o Scientifically, there is a bias if the test can only predict a certain portion of the individuals (taking the test) •

Influence of labeling o Stereotype threat is when people perform worse or better depending on performance expectation or social influences o People box themselves into thinking that they are only so smart or if they feel threatened when they take a test

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which ultimately, changes how they perform on an intelligence test or their own self-perception

Key word (as defined by the textbook) stereotype threat: a selfconfirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.

 What two occurrences happen when a person falls under stereotype threat: 1. _______________________________ 2. _______________________________

Key Ter ms ( in red )  Heritability: the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied. (p. 102)  Stereotype threat: a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. (p. 465)

Ans wer K ey 31.0  31.1   31.2  

The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations Forming close friendships Gardner has eight theories while Sternberg only has three Giving good advice/ being empathetic Intelligence theories: Theory

Spearman's general

Summary

A basic intelligence predicts our abilities in varied

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intelligence (g factor)

academic areas.

Thurstone's primary mental abilities

Our intelligence may be broken down into seven factors.

Gardner's multiple intelligences

Our abilities are best classified into eight independent intelligences, which include a broad range of skills beyond traditional school smarts.

Sternberg's Triarchic Our intelligence is best classified into three areas that predict our real-world success: analytical, creative, and practical.  Could possibly help avoid getting a ticket 31.3  Convergent: math problem; divergent: different ways to draw the sun 31.4  Convergent: math problem; divergent: different ways to draw the sun 32.0  Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon 32.1  Chronological; performance 32.2  Aptitude is for what you can learn, achievement is for what you have learned. 32.3  alternating forms of the test 32.4  increases

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33.1  33.2  33.3  33.4 

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genetic factors; heredity similar education; income changes performance and self-perception

Module 34: Introduction to Motivation I. Instinct Theory a. Genes predispose species-typical behavior remains as strong as ever b. To qualify as an instinct, a complex behavior must have a fixed pattern through-out a species and be unlearned c. Early instinct theorists simply named instincts, not explained them II.

Drive Reduction Theory (Clark Hull) a. The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state that drives the organism to reduce the need by, say, eating or drinking

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II.

III.

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b. The physiological aim of drive reduction is homeostasis—the maintenance of a steady internal state. i. Not only are we pushed by our "need" to reduce drives, we also are also pulled by our incentives— positive or negative stimuli that lure or repel us. ii. Arousal: We are much more than homeostatic systems, however. Some motivated behaviors actually increase arousal. c. Behavior originated from physiological needs 1. Biological needs or tissue deficits lead to the drive state i. Need to reestablish balance or homeostasis and strengthens drive d. Behavior is geared to reduce the need or deficit 2. Eating, drinking, and breathing 3. Above behaviors reduce the need by restoring balance or homeostasis 4. Behaviors are reinforced and strengthened through the reduction of needs Arousal Theory: relates to differing individual preferences for stimulation in their environment A. Yerkes-Dodson law states the relationship between task performance and levels of arousal 1. Participants perform low-difficulty tasks better with higher than average arousal 2. Participants perform moderate-difficulty tasks better with moderate arousal 3. Participants perform high-difficulty tasks better with lower than average arousal Hierarchy of Needs a. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

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i. Base needs are physiological: food, shelter, water ii. If base needs are met, we want safety and want to satisfy the human needs to give and receive love, enjoy self-esteem iii. Beyond this lies the highest of human needs: to actualize one's full potential.

Maslow’s hierarchy: The order of such needs is not universally fixed. People have starved themselves to make a political statement. Nevertheless, It is the simple idea that some motives are more compelling than others Glossary of Terms Motivation

A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

Instinct

A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned. The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

DriveReduction Theory

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Homeostasis Incentive Hierarchy of Needs

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A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level. A positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior. Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.

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Module 34 Quiz: Multiple Choice 1. After spending years in the ocean, a mature salmon swims up its home river to return to its birthplace. This behavior is an example of: a. homeostasis b. drive c. instinct d. incentive 2. For someone who is hungry, eating a hamburger reduces: a. drive b. instinct c. homeostasis d. set point 3. Students work hard in school to obtain high grades. This illustrates the importance of: a. homeostasis b. set point c. refractory periods d. incentives Fill-in

Place the needs in order: Physiological, Self-Actualization, Belongingness and love needs, Safety needs, Esteem needs

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Module 34 Answers: Multiple Choice 1. (c)-Instincts 2. (c)-Drive 3. (d)-Incentives

Fill-in

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Module 35: Hunger

IV.

Physiological Component a. Glucose i. Increased level of the hormone insulin diminishes blood sugar ii. Hunger increases when blood glucose level drops b. Hypothalamus i. Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH): if stimulated, the animal will stop eating; if destroyed the animal will overeat ii. Lateral hypothalamus (LH): if stimulated, animal eats vast quantities of food, even if they have just eaten; if destroyed, animal stops eating almost entirely iii. Set point: one theory maintains that these two hypothalamus regions interact to maintain a set point of body weight, food intake, or related metabolic signals (weight thermostat) iv. Metabolic rate: resting rate of energy expenditures A lesion near the middle (ventromedial) area of the hypothalamus caused this rat's weight to triple.

V.

Taste Preferences a. Body chemistry and environmental factors together influence not only when we feel hunger, but what we feel hungry for—our taste preference. i. Our preferences for sweet and salty tastes: genetic and universal. ii. Culture affects tastes too

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b. Adaptive tastes i. Spices most commonly used in the recipes of hot climates, where food—especially meat—spoils more quickly

Hot cultures like hot spices VI.

VII.

Obesity a. Causes i. Genetic predisposition ii. Early childhood eating patterns iii. Adult overeating b. Set Point i. The particular level of weight the body strives to maintain ii. Obese people’s set points are higher than the average range c. Metabolism i. Human bodies regulate weight through the control of food intake, energy output, and basal metabolic rate—the rate of energy expenditure for maintaining basic body functions when the body is at rest. Eating Disorders a. Anorexia Nervosa i. A person becomes significantly underweight ii. Feels fat (Even though is underweight) iii. Is obsessed with losing weight iv. May be caused by: 1. Genetic influences 2. Cultural influences: weight conscious, western cultures 3. Media: use of ultra thin models in advertisement 4. Behavioral reasons

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VIII.

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b. Bulimia i. A disorder marked by repeated binge-purge episodes of overeating followed by vomiting or laxative use ii. Weight fluctuations iii. Caused by generally similar stimulants as Anorexia Nervosa Biopsychosocial a. We are biologically driven to eat, yet psychological and social-cultural factors strongly influence what, when, and how much we eat.

Glossary of Terms Glucose Set Point Basal Metabolic Rate

The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger. The point at which an individual’s "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight. The body’s resting rate of energy expenditure.

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Anorexia  Nervosa Bulimia  Nervosa

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An eating disorder in which a normal-weight person (usually an adolescent female) diets and becomes significantly (15 percent or more) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve. An eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise.

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Module 35 Quiz: Multiple Choice 1. Destruction of the _____ causes the mouse to _____ a. lateral hypothalamus; overeat b. lateral hypothalamus; start eating c. ventromedial hypothalamus; overeat d. ventromedial hypothalamus; stop eating 2. Anna is extremely afraid of becoming obese even though she is underweight. She often checks her body in the mirror for any signs of fat and refuses to eat most foods because she insists they are fatty or high in calories. She exhibits symptoms of: a. anorexia Nervosa b. bulimia Nervosa c. abnormally High Set Point d. abnormally Low Set Point 3. Recipes commonly used in countries with hot climates are more likely to include _____ than those in countries with colder climates a. carbohydrates b. fats c. proteins d. spices 4. In an attempt to lose some of the weight she gained from binge eating, Melissa uses laxatives and exercises until she is exhausted. Melissa most clearly demonstrates symptoms of: a. anorexia Nervosa b. hyper-metabolism c. bulimia Nervosa d. high set point Fill-in the blanks 1. Humans inherently prefer certain tastes: ____ and ____. (salty/sweet/bitter/sour). Cultures with hotter climates prefer ____ (hotter/milder) spices. Some taste aversions (to new foods or foods that have made us ill) have survival value. 2. Eating disorders may have a _____ component, but cultural pressures, low selfesteem, and negative emotions seem to interact with stressful life experiences to produce these conditions.

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Module 35 Answers:

Multiple choice: 1. (c)-Ventromedial hypothalamus; overeat 2. (a)-Anorexia nervosa 3. (d)-Spices 4. (c)-Bulimia Nervosa Fill-in the blanks 1. Salty and Sweet 2. Genetic

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Module 36: Sexual Motivation and the Need to Belong IX.

X.

Sexual Response Cycle (Masters and Johnson) a. The sexual response cycle identified four stages, similar in men and women. i. Excitement phase: the genital areas become engorged with blood, a woman's vagina expands and secretes lubricant, and her breasts and nipples may enlarge ii. Plateau phase: excitement peaks as breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates continue to increase iii. Orgasm: muscle contractions- increases in breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates iv. Resolution phase: 1. the male enters a refractory phase, lasting from a few minutes to a day or more, during which he is incapable of another orgasm. 2. The female has a much shorter refractory period-may enable her to have another orgasm if re-stimulated during or soon after resolution. b. Sexual Disorders are problems that consistently impair sexual functioning. Hormones and Sexual Behavior a. The female becomes sexually receptive ("in heat") when production of the female hormone estrogen peaks at ovulation. i. Estrogen: a sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males. b. Testosterone: the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty. Compared with our motivation for eating, our sexual motivation is less influenced by biological factors. Psychological and socialcultural factors play a bigger role.

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XI.

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Sexual Motivation: motivation to procreate or maintain the species (Note that sexual motivation is not simply for procreation) a. Neurological factors i. Role of brain (hypothalamus and the pituitary gland) ii. Role of sex glands (testes and ovaries) iii. Hormones (testosterone and estrogen) b. Behavioral factors: organisms seek pleasure and avoid pain c. Cultural/social factors i. Society determines what is sexually attractive ii. Factors of sexual attraction differ among cultures d. Evolutionary factors: sexual motivation as necessary for the propagation of the species Sexually explicit TV programs also divert attention from TV ads, making the ads more forgettable. Ads embedded in nonsexual and nonviolent programs more often produce memory for the products

XII.

XIII.

Teen Pregnancy: a. Ignorance: Half of sexually active Canadian teen girls have mistaken ideas about which birth control methods will protect them from pregnancy and STIs b. Guilt related to sexual activity: In one survey, 72 percent of 12- to 17year-old American girls who have had sex said they regretted it c. Minimal communication about birth control: Many teenagers are uncomfortable discussing contraception with their parents, partners, and peers d. Alcohol use: Those who use alcohol prior to sex are less likely to use condoms e. Mass media norms of unprotected promiscuity: An average hour of primetime tele-vision on the three major U.S. networks contains approximately 15 sexual acts, words, and innuendos. The Need to Belong a. Aiding Survival i. Social bonds boosted our ancestors' survival rate. By keeping

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b. c. d.

e.

f.

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children close to their caregivers, attachments served as a powerful survival impulse. Wanting to Belong i. We spend a great deal of time thinking about actual and hoped-for relationships. When relationships form, we often feel joy. Acting to Increase Social Acceptance i. When we feel included, accepted, and loved by those important to us, our self-esteem rides high Maintaining Relationships i. The fear of being alone has some basis in reality. Children who move through a series of foster homes, with repeated disruption of budding attachments, may come to have difficulty forming deep attachments. Avoiding Ostracism i. Sometimes, though, the need to belong is denied. ii. If rejected and unable to remedy the situation, people sometimes turn nasty. Fortifying Health i. People who have close friends tend to be happier. Those who feel supported by close relationships also live with better health and at lower risk for psychological disorder and premature death than do those who lack social support.

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Glossary of Terms Sexual  Response Cycle

The four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson—excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

Refractory  Period Sexual Disorder Estrogen

A resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm.

Testosterone

A problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning. A sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity. The most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.

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Module 36 Quiz: Multiple Choice 1. During which phase of the sexual response cycle does the refractory period begin? a. Plateau phase b. Resolution Phase c. Excitement phase d. Orgasm 2. When asked what is most necessary for a happy and meaningful life, most people first mention the importance of satisfying their _____ needs. a. Sexual b. Achievement c. Belongingness d. Physical 3. Our ______ is said to be a gauge of how socially accepted we feel. a. Erotic feelings b. Set Point c. Basal Metabolic Rate d. Self-Esteem Matching

Plateau Phase

Excitement Phase

Resolution Phase

Orgasm

The genital areas become engorged with blood, a woman's vagina expands and secretes lubricant, and her breasts and nipples may enlarge Muscle contractions- increases in breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates Excitement peaks as breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates continue to increase The male enters a refractory phase. The female has a much shorter refractory period

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Module 36 Answers: Multiple Choice 1. (b)-Resolution phase 2. (c)-Belongingness 3. (d)-Self-Esteem Matching Excitement phase: the genital areas become engorged with blood, a woman's vagina expands and secretes lubricant, and her breasts and nipples may enlarge Plateau phase: excitement peaks as breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates continue to increase Orgasm: muscle contractions- increases in breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates Resolution phase: The male enters a refractory phase. The female has a much shorter refractory period

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Module 37: Motivation at Work XIV.

Working Experience a. Flow: a completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one’s skills. i. Csikszentmihalyi (chick-SENT-me-hi) formulated the flow concept after studying artists who spent hour after hour painting or sculpting with enormous concentration. b. Industrial-organizational psychology (I/O): the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces. i. Personnel psychology: a subfield of I/O psychology that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development. ii. Organizational psychology: a subfield of I/O psychology that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change. iii. A third subfield, human factors psychology, explores how machines and environments can be optimally designed to fit human abilities XV. Interviews a. Interviewer Illusion i. Interviewers often overrate their discernment, a phenomenon psychologist Richard Nisbett (1987) has labeled the interviewer illusion. b. Structured Interviews i. Unlike casual conversation aimed at getting a feel for someone, structured interviews offer a disciplined method of collecting information. ii. The interviewers then put the same questions, in the same order, to all applicants, and rate each applicant on established scales. iii. To reduce memory distortions and bias, the interviewer takes notes and makes ratings as the interview proceeds XVI. Appraising Performance a. Performance Appraisal Methods i. 360-degree feedback: You will rate yourself, your manager, and your other colleagues, and you will be rated by your manager, other colleagues, and customers. 1. The net result is often more open communication and more complete appraisal. ii. Checklists: supervisors simply check behaviors that describe the worker iii. Graphic Rating Scales: supervisor checks the extent to which a worker is dependable, productive, and so forth. iv. Behavior Rating Scales: a supervisor checks behaviors that best

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describe a worker's performance

360-degree feedback: With multisource 360-degree feedback, one's knowledge, skills, and behaviors are rated by self and surrounding others. Professors, for example, may be rated by their department chairs, their students, and their colleagues. After receiving all these ratings, professors discuss the 360-degree feedback with their department chair. XVII. Achievement Motivation (Murray) a. Achievement Motivation: a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard. i. People with high achievement motivation do achieve more. b. Motivating achievement i. Great managers: 1. Start by helping people identify and measure their talents. 2. Match tasks to talents and then give people freedom to do what they do best. 3. Care how their people feel about their work. 4. Reinforce positive behaviors through recognition and reward. ii. Leadership Style: 1. Task leadership: goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals. 2. Social leadership: group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support.

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Glossary of Terms Flow Industrial­ organizational  psychology Personnel Psychology Organizational  Psychology Structured  Interviews Achievement  Motivation Task Leadership Social  Leadership

A completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one’s skills. The application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces. A subfield of I/O psychology that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development. A subfield of I/O psychology that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change. Interview process that asks the same jobrelevant questions of all applicants, each of whom is rated on established scales. A desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard. Goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals. Group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support.

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Module 37 Quiz Multiple Choice 1. After studying artists who would spend hour after hour painting or sculpting with enormous concentration, Csikszentmihalyi formulated the concept of: a. Strength based selection b. 360-degree feedback c. flow d. personnel psychology 2. Mr. Walters has many years of experience as a personnel officer for a large corporation. He does not review most job applicant's reference files because he is confident of his ability to predict their future work performance based on his direct face-to-face conversations with them. Mr. Walter's confidence best illustrates: a. Interviewer Illusion b. 360-degree feedback c. Personnel psychology d. Task leadership 3. Managers who build teamwork and effectively mediate employee conflicts are said to excel in: a. Structured Interviews b. Social Leadership c. Achievement Motivation d. Direct Management Style Fill-in the blanks 1. Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology studies behavior in the workplace through the three subfields of ______ psychology, _______psychology, and human factors psychology. 2. _______ is the desire for significant accomplishment; for mastery of things, people, or ideas; and for attaining a high standard.

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Module 37 Answers: Multiple Choice 1. (c)-Flow 2. (a)-Interviewer Illusion 3. (b)-Social Leadership Fill-in the blanks 1. Organizational psychology, personnel 2. Achievement motivation

AP Ψ Chapter 13: Emotion Review Emotions have three components: (1) physiological activation, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience. Example: Scenario: An attractive person approaches you and you feel excited. (1) Physiological activation: heart rate increases (2) Expressive behaviors: you smile (3) Conscious experience: feeling excited YOUR TURN… Scenario: _____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________ (1) Physiological activation: ___________________________________________ (2) Expressive behaviors: _____________________________________________ (3) Conscious experience: _____________________________________________

I

Theories of Emotion  James-Lange Theory

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 Emotion comes from awareness of physiological responses to a stimulus. ▪ e.g. Heart rate increases, you feel fear  Criticism: are the body’s responses so distinct so as to evoke different emotions. How would one distinguish between a racing heart due to fear from a racing heart due to love.  Criticism: physiological reactions are too slow to trigger sudden emotion.  One can control emotions through outward behaviors ▪ e.g. Act cheerful and cheerfulness will follow Perception of Stimulus

(1)

(2)

 Cannon-Bard Theory  Arousal and emotion occur together in response to a stimulus. ▪ Heart starts pounding AS you feel fear  Stimulus is simultaneously routed to brain’s cortex, causing subjective awareness of emotion, and to sympathetic nervous system, causing body’s arousal.

(4) (3) (5)  Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory  Two ingredients for emotion ▪ physiological arousal ▪ (6) ______________________________  Like James-Lange, experience of emotion grows from awareness of arousal; like Cannon-Bard, experience of emotion requires a conscious interpretation

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of arousal  Sometimes arousal from one event spills over into next event. ▪ Schachter & Singer, 1962: Subjects “caught” the emotion of another after being unwittingly aroused by an injection. Subjects who were aware of the effects of the injection were not affected by the emotion of the other.  e.g. Sam and Diane from the TV show Cheers kiss passionately after fighting. Perception of Stimulus

(7) (8) Emotion

 Other Theories  Robert (9)_________________________ ▪ Emotional reactions can be quicker than our interpretations of a situation  Feel, then think (on some occasions)  Subliminally flashed smiling or angry face can prime us to feel better or worse about a follow-up stimulus ▪ Emotional shortcuts exist through the brain, which bypass the cortical areas involved in thinking; Brain comes in later and can take over. ▪ Enables quick, precognitive emotional response  Richard Lazarus ▪ All emotion requires some sort of cognitive appraisal of the situation, even if we are not consciously aware of it.  Dimensions of emotion  Emotions seem to be placed on two dimensions: ▪ Valence (pleasant vs. unpleasant) ▪ Arousal (high vs. low) + Valence

Pleasant relaxation

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Low Arousal

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High Arousal

SadnessFear Anger

- Valence

II The Physiology of Emotion  Arousal – controlled by autonomic nervous system  (10)___________________________ division – activates arousal by directing adrenal glands to release stress hormone epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline).  (11)___________________________ division – after crisis passes, inhibits further release of stress hormones ▪ Arousal diminishes gradually, as hormones already in bloodstream linger  Prolonged arousal (sustained stress) = (12) good/bad?  Usually perform best when arousal is moderate ▪ Easy or well-learned task: (13)_________ level of arousal = optimal ▪ More difficult or unrehearsed tasks: (14)_________ arousal = optimal  Physiological States  There are real, if subtle, physiological differences in emotion ▪ Negative emotions (e.g. disgust) – (15)_____________ hemisphere of brain becomes more active  Man loses part of right frontal lobe and becomes less irritable and more affectionate ▪ Positive emotions – (16)_____________ hemisphere activates  Rich supply of dopamine receptors in left hemisphere may help explain  Lie Detection  Polygraph measures several arousal responses that accompany emotion (e.g. changes in breathing, pulse rate, blood pressure, perspiration) ▪ Assumption is that only guilty become agitated when denying a crime  Problem: innocent person may also respond with heightened tension – the fear of being disbelieved physiologically looks a lot like the fear of being caught lying  Many rape victims similarly “fail” lie detector tests when reacting emotionally while telling the truth about their assailant

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▪ Polygraph cannot distinguish between anxiety, irritation, and guilt ▪ Err about 1/3 of the time ▪ Savvy criminals can “beat” the test III Expressing Emotion  Nonverbal Communication  Kestenbaum (1992) ▪ Fear and anger are read mostly from (17)_____________ ▪ Happiness is read mostly from the (18)_____________  Rosenthal and Hall (1979) ▪ Introverts are better at reading others’ emotions ▪ Extraverts are easier to read  Gender and nonverbal behavior ▪ Females identify themselves as empathetic more than do men, though physiologically there is only a slight difference ▪ Kring and Gordon (1998) – women reacted more visibly to witnessing emotion in a film ▪ Coats and Feldman (1996) – women express (19)_______________ more effectively and men convey (20)_______________ more effectively  Detecting and computing emotion ▪ Specific facial muscles are linked to varying emotions, but it is difficult to detect deceiving expressions ▪ Ekman and O’Sullivan (1991, 1999)  “Expert” lie-detectors guessed near chance (50%) when trying to detect liars  With training and skill, however, some groups can detect—reasonably well—liars based on microexpressions ▪ We DO communicate nonverbally, so one must be aware of WHAT one is communicating… (think about your frosh/soph Communications class: stand up straight, speak clearly, dress nicely, etc…)  Culture and emotional expression ▪ Izard (1977, 1994) and Ekman & Friesen (1975, 1987, 1994) discovered that regardless of culture and background, most people (21) are/are not? universally able to identify the meaning of a facial expression ▪ Seems to be inborn and adaptive ▪ Cultures may differ in how much emotion is acceptable to express  Effects of facial expression ▪ Laird, et al. (1974, 1984, 1989) – found that (22)

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_______________________ ___________________________________________________ _______ ▪ Strack, et al (1988 – simply activating smiling muscles by holding a pencil in one’s teeth is enough to make one enjoy cartoons more IV Experiencing Emotion Izard (1977) isolated 10 basic emotions (joy, interest-excitement, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, and guilt)  Fear  Fear is adaptive = alarm system that prepares body to flee danger  Can learn to fear almost anything through conditioning and observation  Biologically prepared to learn some fears more quickly than others ▪ Adaptive (for our ancestors) to learn quickly to fear that which can realistically cause harm (spiders, snakes, etc) ▪ There are things now (cars, bombs, etc) that we are less predisposed to fear ▪ AMYGDALA – limbic system neural center deep in brain  Plays key role in associating various emotions with situations and

(23)_____________________________________________ _________  If damaged, individual may understand association, but will demonstrate no emotional effect ▪ Genes and experience help shape fearfulness or fearlessness  Anger  Individualistic societies encourage “venting” of anger, called (24)_______________ (emotional release); Collectivist societies view anger as maladaptive/threat to the group ▪ Catharsis can be temporarily calming if it does not leave one feeling guilty or anxious; but ultimately it usually fails to fully eliminate the anger OR it may even amplify the anger and underlying hostility.  Think about a time when you’ve been mad at someone. Does talking about that person and venting your frustration make you feel better or worse about it? It may make you feel better in the short-run, but ultimately it may make you think about it even more and thus dwell on it. ▪ To deal with anger:  Wait… bring down physiological arousal  Deal with anger directly by either confronting source of anger, exercising, playing an instrument

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 If you approach the source of anger, look to promote reconciliation rather than retaliation  Happiness  People who are happy, perceive the world as safer, make decisions more easily, rate job applicants more favorably, are more cooperative, and report greater satisfaction with their whole lives. (Not a bad deal!)  When we feel happy we are more willing to help others

   





▪ (25)_________________________________ – a mood-boosting experience make people more likely to do something helpful/nice for another Subjective well-being – self-perceived happiness or satisfaction of life People tend to rebound from bad days with a better-than-usual good mood; overall, our ups and downs tend to balance Those who suffer tragedy recover near-normal levels of day-to-day happiness Same is true to dramatically positive events… once rush of euphoria wears off, overall happiness is unchanged (e.g. lottery winners) ▪ People with money (in affluent countries) are not dramatically happier than those without  Those who value love over money report much higher satisfaction with life than do money-hungry peers ADAPTATION-LEVEL PRINCIPLE: ▪ Happiness is Relative to Our Prior Experience: we judge everything relative to what has happened to us before  If one’s financial situation increases, she would feel an initial surge of pleasure, but eventually she would settle into (adapt to) her new financial situation and come to consider it normal RELATIVE DEPRIVATION PRINCIPLE: ▪ Happiness is Relative to Others’ Attainments: we also compare our situation to those around us  Relative Deprivation –

(26)______________________________________ ________________________________________________________ ___________  Every famous person wants to be paid as much as “the other guy,” even if the first guy is being paid way too much in the first place  Could explain why middle- and upper-income people tend to be slightly happier than lower-income in a given country ▪ Predictors of happiness  Satisfying tasks and relationships affect happiness, but genetics matter, too.

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 50% of the difference among people’s happiness ratings is heritable Happy People Tend to… Have high self-esteem (in individualistic countries Be optimistic, outgoing, and agreeable Have close friendships or a satisfying marriage Have work and leisure that engage their skills Sleep well and exercise

Happiness seems not related to… Age Gender (women are more often depressed, but also more often joyful Education levels Parenthood (having children or not)

▪ Opponent-Process Theory of Emotion (Solomon, 1980) (Recall a similar theory for viewing color in the Sensation chapter)  Every emotion triggers an opposing emotion  e.g. Parachute jump: first experience immense fear, which gives way to elation  Once opposing emotion activates, you experience a diminishing of initial emotion’s intensity  Repetition strengthens experience of opposing emotion

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Answers 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16) 17) 18) 19) 20) 21) 22) 23) 24) 25) 26)

Physiological Arousal Emotion Perception of stimulus Physiological Arousal Emotion Cognitive label Physiological Arousal Cognitive label Zajonc Sympathetic Parasympathetic Bad High Low Right Left Eyes Mouth Happiness Anger Are … forced facial expressions will lead to feelings that reflect that expression … producing the physiological responses Catharsis Feel-good, do-good phenomenon perception that one is worse off than those to whom he compares himself

AP Review: Stress and Health Henry Becker, Allen Au, Joshua Marcum Module 41 •

___________ integrates behavioral and medical study o Health Psychology is how psychology contributes to the field

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Definition of stress o Stress is a way in which people appraise and cope with a situation, or stressor o Stress therefore depends on how the individual interprets a situation

•

Walter Cannon discovered in the 1920’s systematic responses to stress o Adrenal gland secret hormones __________ and ____________ o This is considered a part of the sympathetic nervous system, called “fight or flight”

•

Hans Selye developed his theories regarding what he called General Adaptive Syndrome, GAS, and its three faze o 1) Alarm Reaction (mobilization of body’s resources during stress) o 2) _______ (coping with stressor, the longest phase) o 3) Exhaustion (after long periods of Resistence, the body has depleted its resources and can result in serious health problems)

PROVIDE YOUR OWN EXAMPLES OF EXHAUSTION DURING GAS

•

Catastrophes, or disturbing events out of personal control, significant life changes, such as divorce, and continued exposure to daily hassles increases stress and may cause disease

•

Stress also leads to __________, where ventricles to the heart close or are obstructed, by helping build up plaque on ventricle walls

•

Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman during stress research and experiementation classified people as: o Type A (who take on obstacles and consequent stress when faced by a challenge)

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o

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Type B, who are more relaxed

o They found that Type A people, under challenging situations develop stress much more easily and are more susceptible to illness therefore •

Both pessimism and depression can cause higher susceptibility to heart disease

REAL LIFE EXAMPLES Provide examples from your own life when stress or depression caused illness or hindered physical healing.

•

Psychophysiological diseases are termed as diseases directly related to a psychological condition

•

White blood cells, called lymphocytes, are grouped in _ lymphocites (for bone marrow) and _ lymphocytes (for thymus)

•

Stess has been found to obstruct the process of fighting disease by obstructing lymphocytes

•

AIDS, Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome caused by HIV is an enormous killer worldwide and also stress-related o Stress can cause acceleration of AIDS, whereas a happy temperament can slow and ease the symptoms of AIDS

•

Stress’ affect on cancer has been mixed o Some research has found stress to accelerate the rate of cancer in patients, whereas other studies have found no adverse effects o Some patients, however, can become more stressed by over-emphasizing the importance of stress to disease

•

Robert Ader and Nicholas Cohen disocovered conditioning can affect the human body by administering inumodepressing drugs with sugar water and then water alon

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o Since then, psychologists have been looking for means to positively condition the immune system

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Module 42 Key terms Problem-Focused Coping__________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Emotion-Focused Coping___________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _ Biofeedback_____________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Aerobic Exercise__________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _

Key Concept Review •

Low stress ____1___ life expectancy. o Reduces o Increases

•

Uncontrollable threats trigger the ___2___ stress responses. o Strongest o Mildest

•

Losing control increases output of stress hormones, blood pressure rises, and immune responses drop, causing the person to be more succeptable to sickness or disease.

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Optimists tend to lead less stressful and longer lives o Mirthful humor reduces stress o Laughter reduces stress

•

Social support is extremely helpful in dealing with hardships o Family can ________3_______, but can help more when dealing with serious sickness

•



Cause stress



Relieve stress



Cause stress and relieve stress

Talking about a stressful event can calm people in the long run o Holocaust survivors who talked about their experiences tended to be shocked at first, but then lived longer than those who had not relived their experiences

•

Aerobic exercise increases life expectancy o Aerobic exercise can benefit ____4____ 

Mood



Life expectancy



Stress levels



All of the above

o 3/10 Americans who exercise more than 3 times a week manage stressful events better and exhibit higher self confidence o Every 10-minute walk stimulates two hours of increased well-being by raising energy levels and lowering tension o Many studies show that exercise reduces depression and anxiety. •

There seems to be a correlation between stress levels and the amount of religious attendance o Frequent religious attendees tend to live longer o Although there is a correlation, it does not mean that being religious

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directly affects life expectancy

Answers to questions: Problem-Focused Coping: attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor. Emotion-Focused Coping: attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction Biofeedback- a system of recording amplifying, and feeding back information Aerobic Exercise: sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness 1) increases 2) strongest 3) Cause stress and relieve stress 4) All of the above

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Module 43 Smoking

Section Summary Risks •

Tobacco kills about 5 million people per year

•

You have a 50% chance of dying from smoking if you start

•

Eliminating smoking would increase life expectancy more than any other preventative measure

•

Smoking harms nearly every organ of your body

•

Smoking correlates with ____1____, ____2_____, and _____3____.

•

Smoking’s bad mkay

Why do people start? •

More common among those who: o 4 o 4 o 4 o 4

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•

If you make it to college without smoking you probably won’t start

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Want to be cool/accepted-peer pressure

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Allure of ads

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Hollywood has a large influence

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Gene and social influence

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Why don’t they stop? •

Nicotine is as addictive as heroin and cocaine

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People initially sensitive, who get sick or dizzy will develop a tolerance quickly and become addicted more strongly

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Withdrawal is miserable when you try to quit

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Smoking is reinforcing, nicotine gets into blood within 7 seconds

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Triggers release of____5____ and _____6____which diminish appetite and increase alertness and mental efficiency

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Nicotine stimulates CNS to release neurotransmitters to calm anxiety and reduce sensitivity to pain

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Stimulates ____7____ and opiod release

How can you quit/ prevent it? •

Treated with counseling, drug, hypnosis, ave4rsive conditioning, operant conditioning, cognitive therapy and support groups

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1/5 of people who quit go back to smoking

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Withdrawal symptoms can go on for up to 6 months

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Smoking has dropped in US, Canada, and UK, especially in upper socioeconomic groups, while it has skyrocketed in Asia and developing countries like Kenya and Zimbabwe.

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To stop smoking-educate people, raise taxes-Work best on those in low socioeconomic statuses and teenagers

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Key Terms Pediatric Disease-Usually begins during adolescence Dependent-Need for a drug to avoid withdrawals Tolerance-Needing Larger and larger doses to get the same effect Nicotine Withdrawal-Craving, insomnia, anxiety, and irritability associated with a lack of nicotine in the blood stream 8) Which of the following is the most noticeable nicotine withdrawal symptom? a) Insomnia b) Atherosclerosis c) Increased Serotnonin Levels d) Reduced Appetite for Carbohydrates 9) Smoking triggers ________ levels of epinephrine in the blood and ________ levels of dopamine in the synapses. a. increased; increased b. decreased; decreased c. increased; decreased d. decreased; increased

Obesity

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Risks •

Fat is an ideal form of stored energy, high in calories for when food is scarce

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Being slightly overweight is only a slight health risk-Fitness matters more

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Significant obesity especially in children can increase risk of diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, gallstones, arthritis and types of cancer

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Greater risk in people with potbellies than those with fatty thighs and hips

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Being overweight takes off average of 3 years

Social Effects •

Stereotyped-slow, lazy, sloppy

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Many see as a matter of choice/lack of self discipline

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Obese women make average $7000 less per year

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Obese people are less likely to be hired

Physiology •

Typical adult has 30-40 billion fat cells-range from deflated to full

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Obese people, twice normal size and divide, up to ___10__ billion fat cells

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Dieting causes fat cells to shrink not disappear

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Once fat, less food is required to maintain weight, fat has a lower metabolic rate

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Set-weight increases, body tries to keep weight steady

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Dieting/Starvation causes increase in hunger decrease in metabolism body adapts to burn fewer calories

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After first 3 weeks of dieting, weight loss slows way down

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Overweight people predisposed to sit still, eat more, and have a higher set-point

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Genetics play a huge part. Adopted kids have closer body types to birth parents than adopted

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___11___ is protein produced by brain to eat less and be more active

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Car’s, lack of exercise/walking, and high calorie food also contributes

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People eat 250 calories more per day since 1971 and 3X fast food since’97

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The average American since ’60 has grown an inch and gained 23lbs.

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Theaters, subways etc. have begun to put on wider seats

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Losing Weight •

Most people regain weight that has been lost

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Surgery is an option

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Accepting weight is OK too.

Key Terms Set-Point-Body weight thermostat, tries to regulate body weight through hunger and metabolism

12) A classic experiment, obese patients whose daily caloric intake was dramatically reduced lost only 6 percent of their weight. This limited weight loss was due, at least in part, to the fact that their dietary restriction led to: a) A proliferation of their lymphocytes b) The inhibition of their dopamine reuptake

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c) A sharp decrease in their metabolic rates d) A dramatic surge in their cholesterol levels

Answers 1. Depression, 2. Disabilities 3. Divorce 4. Get low grades Drop out of school Feel less in control of their future (locus of control) Have parents/friends who smoke 5. Norepinephrine 6. Epinephrine 7. Dopamine 8. a 9. a 10. 75 11. Leptin 12. c Brook Seaman

Contemporary Research on Personality Module 46 46.1 The Trait Perspective

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Traits are a way of classifying different types of people. Psychologists have been working with traits for years to help put people into groups based on their personalities. The simplest form of this is categorizing people into two main groups, introverts and extroverts, and sometimes adding stability as a second divide (as seen in image). It has been shown that extraverts seek stimulation because their normal brain arousal is relatively low. Biological factors play a big role in personality traits, especially between boldness and shyness. Trait inventories are used to test a wide range of traits and more specifically classify people. These are also useful because they can be scored objectively by a computer, unlike many modern psychological tests. Today the “Big Five” traits are more commonly used to characterize people. These five traits are: conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion. Many people have different personalities depending on the situation however, but this stabilizes as one grows older. Overall, personality traits waver, but dominant traits are present in everyone and can be seen most of the time in a familiar atmosphere.

Key Terms: Traits-Characteristic behaviors and unconscious motives by which people are grouped and categorized Factor Analysis- A statistical procedure that has been used to identify clusters of related items. Introversion-The tendency toward being predominantly concerned with ones own mental life Extraversion-The tendency toward being predominantly concerned with what is outside the self Temperament- Our emotional reactivity Personality Inventories- Long questionnaires covering a wide range of feelings and behaviors 46.2 The Social-Cognitive Perspective

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The social-cognitive perspective looks at how people work depending on their environment. There are three specific ways in which individuals and environments interact; we choose the environment and then it shapes us, our personalities shape how we interpret events, and our personalities help create situations to which we react (we are mean to people we consider mean, worsening the problem). Many people are split upon the question of how much control one has over their own fate. Studies show that those who believe that they can control over their fate do better in school are more successful. It is shown that with more control people live happier, such as those under democracy instead of communism. Optimism helps people stay healthy and happy through life, but some amount of pessimism is important to stay realistic and safe. The most effective way to predict future behavior in a given situation is to look at past behavior or to simulate the behavior desired. Key Terms: Reciprocal Determinism- The process of a person interacting with their environment. Personal Control- How much control one has in his/her relationship with their environment. External Locus of Control- The perception that outside forces determine their fate. Internal Locus of Control- The perception that we control our own destiny. Learned Helplessness- The feeling that one has no control over his/her life and becomes hopeless, usually due to uncontrolled bad events in the past.

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46.3 Exploring the Self It is important to have a true sense of self to set a foundation for future aspirations. A person with high self-esteem tends to live a happier life and respond better to happy news. High self esteem is important, but many psychologists think that success causes high self-esteem and not the other way around, so it is worthless to encourage high self-esteem in unsuccessful children. It is seen however, that people with low self-esteem tend to be more judgmental and critical of others. Three ways that people that are discriminated against can raise self-esteem is by valuing the things that they excel at, attributing problems to prejudice, and comparing themselves to their own group. It is shown that even those who have low self-esteem still think decently of themselves.

Overall, people tend to perceive themselves favorably by accepting more responsibility for good deeds than bad. But why do people have low self-esteem if they consider themselves above average (as nearly everyone does). It is to prepare themselves for failure, get sympathy, or criticize their past self, which is much easier to do. Key Terms: The Spotlight Effect- The false idea that everyone notices and evaluates everything that we do. Self-Esteem- The feeling of self worth. Self-Serving Bias- Our readiness to perceive ourselves favorably

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Module 46 Review 1) Which is NOT one of the “Big Five” traits used today? (pg 619) A) conscientiousness B) agreeableness C) optimism D) openness E) extraversion 2) What would be an example of a trait inventory? (pg 618) A) The IQ Test B) The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator C) The Introversion/Extroversion Test D) A Free Association Test 3) People with a(n) _______________ can more easily suffer from _______________.(pg 627) A) Internal Locus of Control/Learned Helplessness B) Internal Locus of Control/Reciprocal Determinism C) External Locus of Control/Reciprocal Determinism D) External Locus of Control/Learned Helplessness 4) Which is NOT a significant influence on behavior according to the Social-Cognitive perspective? (pg 626) A) Biological influences B) Physiological influences C) Psychological influences D) Socio-Cultural influences 5) Most people with low self-esteem think of themselves as worse than average people. (pg 635) A) True B) False 6) How do people with low self-esteem view others? (pg 634) A) Critically B) Empathetically C) Happily

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D) None of the Above

Answers: c, b, d, b, b, a

Introduction to Psychological Disorders Module 47 (p.642-653) Mika Ben-Shaul and Sahar Raz This module focuses on: (1) Defining psychological disorders (2) Understanding psychological disorders (3) Classifying psychological disorders (4) How Prevalent are psychological disorders 1. Defining Psychological Disorders Psychological Disorders are defined as: “persistently harmful thoughts, feelings and actions.” A person who acts especially differently from what is considered the norm would be regarded as “disordered” by psychologists and psychiatrists (deviant behavior = disordered behavior). The standards for deviance vary according to: a. culture and context (certain customs may be trivial in some cultures and obscene in others) b. time (society often adjusts to what was once considered deviant) Disorder differentiates from simply deviance because it also causes distress (those different the norm, athletes for examples, are not disordered- those who cannot sleep at night, also different from the norm, are distressed and therefore most likely disordered.)

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Disorders are more likely to be detected if symptoms cause dysfunction (if a person’s irrational behavior seriously impairs his lifestyle he is more likely to be identified as disordered.)

2. Identifying Psychological Disorders The medical model (which was first discussed in the 1800s after decades of dark beliefs regarding the basis of psychological disorders) states that psychological disorders are diseases with physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured. Mental illness

Symptoms

Cure

Therapy

The Biopsychosocial Approach claims that all human behavior (normal and abvnormal) results from the constant interaction of nurture and nature. This approach argues that a disorder is the product of biological, cultural and psychological influences.

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3. Classifying Psychological Disorders Diagnostic psychology aims to: - describe the disorder - predict its future course - imply appropriate treatment DSM-IV: A worldly used manual for classifying psychological disorders. Some psychologists believe it is accurate and reliable, while others believe it is too general. The five questions psychologists look to answer when using the DSMIV are: 1. Is a clinical syndrome present? 2. Is a personality disorder or a mental retardation present? 3. Is a general medical condition also present? 4. Are psychological or environmental problems also present? 5. What is the global assessment of this person’s functioning? (ranging from 0-100, 100 being superior functioning) 4. Labeling Psychological Disorders Critics of the DSM claim that classifying people into categories creates a false label that sticks and affects judgment of others. Labels, some claim, alter our true perceptions and create biases and presumptions. Various experiments have also showed that the DSM is easy to “cheat” and being diagnosed is a very easy task. The stigmatizing power of labels has slightly decreased over the past few years as the understanding that disorders are actually diseases of the brain and not personality flaws has come into light.

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5. Rates of Psychological Disorders - 450 million people suffer from psychological disorders world wide (according to World Health Association) - Research shows that 1 in 6 has or has had a psychological disorder by early adulthood - 1 in 7 Americans has suffered a clinically significant mental disorder over the year of 2002 (according to US national mental institute) - Immigrants or people who have moved from a culture they knew well to another are more likely to develop a psychological disorder. - Poverty is a predictor of a mental disorder (rates of psychological disorders have shown to be twice as high). It is unclear, though, whether the disorders cause poverty or whether poverty causes disorders. Review Activities 1. labeling people with disorders can lead to a. false assumptions about their personalities b. brain diseases c. immediate violence 2. The DSM-IV is a. a personality disorder b. a common manual used to identify disorders c. a new technique used to detect brain waves of people with schizophrenia d. another name for the DMV 3. The standard for deviance do NOT vary according to a. Time b. The person

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c. Culture d. Context 4. Disorder, unlike deviation, causes _______.

Answer key: a, b, b, distress

Anxiety Disorders Module 7 (pgs 654-661) Mika Ben-Shaul and Sahar Raz Anxiety Disorders: psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety. There are 5 anxiety disorders covered in this module: (1) Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) (2) Panic Disorder (3) Phobias (4) Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) (5) Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 1.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder: an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal. a. People with this condition (2/3 are women) are continually tense and jittery, worried about various bad things that might happen, and plagued by muscular tension, agitation, and sleeplessness. b. Characteristics i. Physical Symptoms: furrowed eyebrows,

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twitching eyelids, fidgeting, trembling, or perspiration. May lead to ulcers and high blood pressure. ii. Other Symptoms: concentration is difficult, unable to identify the cause (anxiety is freefloating)

2.

Panic Disorder: an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations. a. For the 1 person in 75 with this disorder, it strikes suddenly, wreaks havoc, and then disappears. b. Characteristics i.

3.

Physical Symptoms: heart palpitations, shortness of breath, choking sensations, trembling, or dizziness

Phobia: an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object or situation. a. Disrupts behavior because it leads to some people’s incapacitating efforts to avoid the feared situation.

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4.

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Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): an anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions). a. Obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviors cross the fine line between normality and disorder when they become so persistent that they interfere with everyday living and cause the person distress. b.

Common obsessions (repetitive thoughts): i. Social Phobia – an intense fear of being scrutinized by others ii. Fear of germs, dirt, or toxins iii. Fear of natural disasters causing death (fire, flood) iv. Symmetry, order, or exactness

c.

Common compulsions (repetitive behaviors): i. Excessive hand washing, bathing ii. Repeating rituals (in/out of a door, shutting lights) iii. Checking doors, locks, appliances, homework.

d. Effective functioning becomes impossible for 2-3% of the people who have this debilitating disorder. i. Recovery – although only 1 in 5 people completely recover from OCD, obsessions and compulsions gradually lessen as you get older.

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ii.

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Example - The Aviator: Howard Hughes, and his lifelong struggles with obsessivecompulsive disorder, was portrayed in this 2004 film starring Leonardo Dicaprio. 1. Hughes compulsively dictated the same phrases over and over again. Under stress, he developed a phobic fear of germs, which led to compulsive behaviors. Hughes became reclusive and insisted his assistants carry out elaborate hand-washing rituals and wear white gloves when handling any document he would later touch. He ordered tape around doors and windows and forbade his staff to touch or even look at him. "Everybody carries germs around with them," he explained. "I want to live longer than my parents, so I avoid germs.”

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5.

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Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: an anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience. a. Symptoms: lingering symptoms including haunting memories and nightmares, a numbed social withdrawal, jump anxiety, fearful wariness, troubled sleep, nightmares, hopelessness, and insomnia. b. The more frequent and severe the assault experiences are, the more adverse the long-term outcomes tend to be. c. A sensitive limbic system that floods the body with stress hormones also increases vulnerability. d. Common victims of PTSD - many combat veterans, accident and disaster survivors, and sexual assault victims, including an estimated two-thirds of prostitutes, have experienced the symptoms of PTSD. i. Examples 1.

Toxic trauma: Stressed soldiers, such as these in Northern Ireland, are at risk for being diagnosed with PTSD. a. "Debriefing" survivors right after a trauma by getting them to revisit the experience and vent emotions has actually proven generally ineffective and sometimes harmful

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e.

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Post-traumatic growth: Tedeschi and Calhoun have found that the struggle with challenging crises often leads people later to report an increased appreciation for life, more meaningful relationships, increased personal strength, changed priorities, and a richer spiritual life. Explaining Anxiety Disorders

A. The Learning Perspective a.

Fear Conditioning: When bad events happen unpredictably and uncontrollably, anxiety often develops. Researchers have linked general anxiety with classical conditioning of fear. i. Conditioned fears may remain long after we have forgotten the experiences that produced them ii.

Stimulus generalization occurs, for example, when a person fears heights after a fall and later develops a fear of flying in an airplane without ever having flown. Once phobias and compulsions arise, reinforcement helps maintain them. Avoiding or escaping the feared situation reduces anxiety, thus reinforcing the phobic behavior. Feeling anxious or fearing a panic attack, a person may go inside and be reinforced by calmed anxiety. 1.

Example - If washing your hands relieves your feelings of unease, you

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may wash your hands again when the feelings return. B. Observational Learning a. We might also learn fear through observational learning—by observing others' fears. i. Example – Parents often transmit their fears to their children. C. The Biological Perspective a. The biological perspective does help explain why we learn some fears more readily and why some individuals are more vulnerable.

D. Natural Selection a. We humans seem biologically prepared to fear threats faced by our ancestors. b. Just as our phobias focus on dangers faced by our ancestors, our compulsive acts typically exaggerate behaviors that contributed to our species' survival. E. Genes a. Some people more than others seem genetically predisposed to particular fears and high anxiety. Pair a traumatic event with a sensitive, highstrung temperament and the result may be a new phobia.

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F. The Brain a. Anxiety disorders are biologically measurable as an over arousal of brain areas involved in impulse control and habitual behaviors. b. Fear-learning experiences can traumatize the brain, by creating fear circuits within the amygdala. Thus biology is part of anxiety. c. An Obsessive Compulsive Brain i. Neuroscientists used fMRI scans to compare the brains of those with and without OCD. The fMRI scans showed elevated activity in the anterior cingulate cortex of those with OCD.

Review Questions for Anxiety Disorders:

1. Anxiety is a part of our everyday experience. It is classified as a psychological disorder only when it becomes distressing or _______, or is characterized by maladaptive

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behaviors intended to reduce it.

2. How do generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder differ?

3. How do phobias differ from the fears we already have?

4. Give 2 examples of someone with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder.

5. What are the chances of people eventually completely recovering from Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder? a. 25% b. 50% c. 20% d. 90%

6. Can you recall a fear of yours? What role, if any, was played by fear conditioning and by observational learning?

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Answers for Anxiety Disorders Review:

1. persistent

2. Generalized anxiety disorder is unfocused tension, apprehension, and arousal. Phobias focus anxiety on specific feared objects or situations. Obsessive-compulsive disorders express anxiety through unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) or actions (compulsions).

3. Phobias are more extreme and more disabling than normal fears. People with a phobia experience such persistent and irrational fears that they may be incapacitated by their attempts to avoid a specific object, animal, or situation.

4.

1. A woman is concerned with dirt and germs so much that when one single thing in her kitchen is dirty, she cleans the entire kitchen all over again.

2. A man is terrified of lightning so much that he is overwhelmed with anxiety when hearing on the news that a storm is ahead. Every time lightning starts, he hides in the basement to not see or hear anything.

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5. C. 20% nd

2  Period AP Psych 4/10/08 Philip Homnack Hilary Taber Laurence Varda Dissociative, Personality, and Mood Disorders  +  Schizophrenia Bulleted Summaries  Mod 51­ Schizophrenia • Nearly 1 in 100 people are schizophrenic. • 24 million people worldwide have the disorder. • It is typically found in teenagers and people in their early twenties. • Schizophrenia includes disorganized thinking, disturbed perceptions, and  inappropriate emotions/actions. • Disorganized thinking contains fragments of thought, thoughts out of context,  and delusions. • Delusions are most commonly false thoughts of persecution or a heightened  sense of grandeur. • Insignificant stimuli can easily distract those with schizophrenia from important  situations. • Schizophrenic hallucinations are normally auditory hallucinations. • They take the form of domineering voices. • They can tell people to hurt themselves or that they have hurt others. • Also, hallucinations can come in the forms of vision, touch, taste, and smell, but 

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they are not as common and hearing voices. • Schizophrenia can make people have inappropriate emotions, such as crying  when others laugh or sudden bursts of anger. • It can also make the people have loss of emotion and become apathetic. • It can bring on compulsive actions like rocking, swaying, or rubbing of an arm. • Catatonic schizophrenics can go for hours without moving and then become  suddenly agitated.

Mod 50­ Mood Disorders • Mood disorders present themselves in two different forms, Major Depressive  Disorder and Bipolar Disorder. • Depression is said to be the “common cold” of psychological disorders. • It is in response to loss of something important, • Lasting two weeks or more, Major Depressive Disorder presents itself with  symptoms such as lethargy, feelings of worthlessness, or loss in interests. • Lasting two years or more, Dysthymic Disorder is the “down in the dumps”  mood that continues daily. • Bipolar Disorder is a disorder filled with extreme highs and lows. • Mania is the state in which the person is filled with temporary extreme euphoria  and optimism. • Going back and forth to depression and mania is what defines Bipolar disorder. • Unlike major depressions, this disorder affects women as much as men. • Accompanying depression are many behavioral and cognitive changes. • Women are twice as vulnerable to major depression as men. • Preceding depression is often stressful events related to work, family, or other  relationships. • Although scientists realize that there is a connection between mood disorders  running in people’s genes, they haven’t found what exactly that link is. • Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter that, while it increases arousal and boosts  moods in normal people, is scarce in those with depression and prosperous in  those in mania. • Serotonin is also scarce in those suffering from depression. • Studies have recently shown that there are neurological signs of depression. • There is less activity going on while the subject is depressed. • The frontal left lobe, while active in positive states, is inactive while in negative 

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states. • Depressed people are likely to explain bad events in terms that are stable,  global, and internal. • Depression comes about in a circle, something triggers it and the subject goes  through four phases. • Stressful experience, negative explanatory style, depressed mood, and  cognitive and behavioral changes. • If that first trigger comes back, then the cycle starts over again.

Mod 49­ Dissociative and Personality Disorders • In dissociative disorders, the subject experiences a sudden loss in memory or  change in personality or identity. • This happens when a situation becomes too stressful or overwhelming. • A sense of being detached from one’s body is not uncommon, also feelings that  the situation is “unreal”. • Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) is defined as the presumed massive  dissociation of self from ordinary consciousness. • This can result in people having two or more personalities that control that one  person. • Most of the time, memories fail to transfer from one personality to the next. • The psychoanalytic and learning perspectives see this as a method of dealing  with anxiety. • Another theory about DID is that it is a form of post­traumatic stress disorder, a  way of coping with the trauma of another event. • Personality disorders are ones that impair a person’s social functioning. • There are three clusters of disorders all expressing different things.  • Anxiety, eccentric behaviors, and dramatic or impulsive behaviors are the three  different types of disorders. • Known as sociopaths or psychopaths, a person with antisocial personality  disorder displays symptoms such as lying, stealing, fighting, or uncontrollable  sexual behaviors. • Made up of biological and psychological strands, antisocial personality disorder  does not yet explain why these people act the way they do. Key Terms

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Chapter 49 dissociative disorders: disorders in which conscious awareness becomes  separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings. dissociative identity disorder: a rare dissociative disorder in which a person  exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Also called multiple   personality disorder. 

Dissociative amnesia: a disorder characterized by abnormal memory  functioning in the absence of structural brain damage or a known neurobiological  cause; severe cases are very rare. personality disorders: psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and  enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning. Somatoform disorder: is characterized by physical symptoms that mimic 

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disease or injury for which there is no identifiable physical cause or physical  symptoms such as pain, nausea, depression, and dizziness. Conversion disorder is a condition where patients present with  neurological symptoms such as numbness, paralysis, or fits, but where no  neurological explanation can be found. It is thought that these problems arise in  response to difficulties in the patient's life, and conversion is considered a  psychiatric disorder antisocial personality disorder: a personality disorder in which the person  (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends  and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist.

Chapter 50 mood disorders: psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes.  See major depressive disorder, mania, and bipolar disorder.

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major depressive disorder: a mood disorder in which a person experiences, in  the absence of drugs or a medical condition, two or more weeks of significantly  depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure  in most activities.

mania: a mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state. bipolar disorder: a mood disorder in which the person alternates between the  hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania. 

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(Formerly called manic­depressive disorder.)

Explanatory style and  depression: 

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Chapter 51 schizophrenia: a group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and  delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and  actions.

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delusions: false beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany  psychotic disorders. Hallucinations: A sensory impression in the absence of any external stimuli; can  arise in respect to any sensory modality ­ visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile or  gustatory. 

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1) Psychological Therapies a) Psychoanalysis i) Aims (1) Uncover repressed feelings/confront them (2) Releases energy from id-ego-superego conflicts ii) Methods (1) Free association (a) Resistance > interpret it (2) Dream interpretation (a) Latent content (b) Censored meaning (3) Problems (a) Lengthy (b) Transference (c) Not a science/ interpretations iii) Psychodynamic Therapy (1) Examines past and present relationships (2) Confronts feelings and thoughts (3) Shorter than analysis (4) Interpersonal psychotherapy (a) Current relationships is the focus (b) Even shorter than psychodynamic therapy b) Humanistic Techniques i) Boosts self-fulfillment, awareness, and acceptance ii) Focuses on the present and future, not the past iii) Conscious thoughts iv) We are responsible for our feelings v) Promotes growth instead of “curing” the illness (1) Clients not patients vi) Client-centered Therapy (1) Carl Rogers (2) Non-directive therapy (a) Active listening (b) Therapist gives unconditional acceptance c) Behavior Therapies i) Ones behavior/response is the problem and self-awareness alone is not a cure ii) Classic Conditioning techniques (1) Counter conditioning (2) Exposure therapies (a) Calm response is paired with a stimulus that provokes an inappropriate response (b) Systematic desensitization (c) Virtual reality exposure therapy (d) Progressive relaxation therapy (3) Aversive Conditioning (a) Substituting a negative response for a positive one to a harmful stimulus like alcohol iii) Operant Conditioning (1) Token economy (a) Rewards for doing good things (b) To unlearn problems d) Cognitive Therapies i) Thinking colors feelings ii) Depression (1) Think happy > are happy iii) Stress inoculation training (1) Restructure thinking in stressful situations (2) Attitude is everything

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iv) Cognitive behavior therapy (1) Aware of negative thinking and behaviors e) Group and Family Therapy i) No person is an island ii) Problem behaviors from wanting to connect and differentiate from your family iii) Opens up communication within the family 2) Evaluating Psychotherapies a) Is it effective? i) Clients perspectives (1) People often enter therapy in crisis (a) Attribution of improvement to therapy when crisis has passed naturally (2) Want to believe therapy was worth effort (a) Self-justification (3) Speak kindly of therapist ii) Clinicians Perspectives (1) Clients justification for leaving (2) Therapist is only aware of other therapists failures when their clients search for a new therapist iii) Outcome research (1) Randomized clinical trials (therapy vs. no therapy) (a) Meta-Analysis- shows results of studies (b) Fig. 53.1 (c) Those not undergoing therapy often improve, but those undergoing therapy are more likely to improve b) The relative effectiveness of different therapies i) Empirically supported therapies (1) Depression: cognitive, interpersonal, and behavior therapies (2) Anxiety: cognitive, and exposure therapies, stress-inoculation training (3) Bulimia: Cognitive-behavior therapy (4) Bed-wetting: Behavior Modification ii) Behavior conditioning is helpful with specific behavior problems (ex phobias) iii) More specific problems are more effectively treated c) Eve movement desensitization and reprocessing i) While imagining traumatic scenes the therapist triggers eye movements, enabling them to unlock and reprocess frozen trauma memories ii) It is the combination of exposure therapy and the placebo effect d) Light exposure therapy i) Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) ii) Give patients a daily dose of intense light iii) Morning bright light is proven to help e) Commonalities among Psychotherapies i) All offer benefits (1) Hope for demoralized people (2) A new perspective (3) An empathetic, caring, and trusting relationship with ones therapist 3) The Biomedical Therapies a) Used to treat serious disorders by altering the brains chemistry b) Drug Therapies i) Psychopharmacology (study of drug effects on mind/behavior) ii) Researchers must subtract rates of (1) Normal recovery among untreated patients (2) Recovery due to the placebo effect iii) Antipsychotic drugs (1) Dampen responsiveness to irrelevant stimuli (2) Patients with negative symptoms don’t respond well (3) Chlorpromazine (Thorazine) used mostly to treat schizophrenia

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(4) (5) (6) (7)

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Clozapine (Clorazil) also used for schizophrenia Blocks dopamine receptors Can produce sluggishness, tremors, and twitches Long term use > tardive dyskinesia (involuntary movements of facial movements, tongue, and limbs) iv) Antianxiety Drugs (1) Depresses CNS activity (2) Reduces symptoms without the person learning to cope with the stimuli (3) Negative reinforcement >dependency (4) Withdrawl symptoms v) Antidepressent drugs (1) Increases availability of Seratonin or norepinephrine (2) Selective-Seratonin-Reuptake-Inhibitors (Prozac) partially blacks reabsorbtion and removal of Seratonin from synapses (3) Dual action drugs (block both seratonin and norepinephrine) (4) Take s four weeks to have full effect (5) Increased seratonin might promote neurogenesis (a) The birth of new brain cells, reversing stress- induced loss of neurons (6) Drugs reduce lethargy before effecting emotions (a) Can, and has led to suicide vi) Mood Stabilizing Medications (1) Lithium for manic depression c) Brain Stimulation i) Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) (1) Limited to severly depressed paitens (2) 80% show marked improvement in 2-weeks (3) Reserved for those who don’t respond to medications ii) Alternitives to ECT (1) Chest implant that simulates to ragus nerve (a) Stimulated limic system (2) Electrodes implanted in brain (3) Repetitive Transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) (a) Magnetic pulses surge through a magnetic coil held close to paitents skull, these magnetic pulses penetrate the skull to stimulate neurons (b) No immediate side effects (i) Long term potentiation 1. when repeatedly stimulated nerve cells in the left frontal lobe form functioning circuts d) Psychosurgery i) Removes or destroys brain tissue (1) Most drastic form of treatment, used in cases of EXTREME rarity ii) Lobotomy (1) Cuts nerves connecting frontal lobes, disconnecting emtions from thought (2) Produces a lethargic immature impulsive personality

AP Chapter 55 & 56

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Social Thinking & Social Influences Michael Fortune, Geng Wang, Rafy Cahill 55-1) Three main focuses of Social Psychology a) How people think about one another b) How people influence one another c) How people relate to one another 55-2) Important terms: Define Attribution theory:

Fundamental attribution error: the tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition. Write an example from your own experience of Fundamental Attribution Error:

A)

Tolerant Reaction

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Negative Behavior

Dispositional Attribution

B)

55-3) Define attitudes:

55-4) How do our attitudes influence our behaviors and perceptions? How might the external situation affect our behaviors and perceptions?

55-5) People often stand up for what they believe in, but more surprisingly, people will often come to believe in an idea they stand up for. Actions

A)

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55-6) Foot in the door phenomenon: the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a ________ request. An example you may be familiar with is Milgram’s experiment (the experiment with a line of switches that supposedly delivered increasing levels of electric shock in increments of 15 all the way up to 450 volts.) 55-7) “What we do, we gradually become.” While adopting a new role does not feel real at first, it will eventually become part of you. An example of this is when you first start working at a job somewhere, and eventually the employee behavior you acted at first becomes part of your personality. Another example is what happened to the people in the Stanford Prison Experiment. Write an example of this from your life:

55-8) Cognitive Dissonance Theory: the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are __________. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by ___________ our attitudes.

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56-1) Behavior is contagious. IE: when one person laughs or yawns, others will do the same. The chameleon effect: we often unconsciously _______ others’ expressions, postures, and voice tones More serious instances of mimicry include clusters of suicides together, and there was a huge spike in threats of violence in the wake of the Columbine Massacre. 56-2) Conformity: adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

Asch’s conformity experiment:

Although it seems clear that line 2 is the same size as the standard line, if the subject of the experiment hears 5 people before them (not actually real subjects) say that they think line 3 is the same size, they will often change their mind and say that line 3 is actually the same size in order to avoid disagreeing with the rest of the group.

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Factors in Strengthen Conformity: One is made to feel incompetent or insecure The group has at least three people Group is unanimous One admires the group’s status One has made no prior commitment to any response Others in the group observe one’s behavior One’s culture strongly encourages respect to social standards

normative social influence: influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain _________ or avoid _____________. informational social influence: influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality. 56-3) Situational Power • People are more likely to conform to wrong answers when the decisions are important ones. • People are more likely to obey orders when the person giving the orders is near by and perceived as a legitimate authority figure. • In the case of Milgram’s experiment, when the victims were depersonalized or at a distance, the subjects were more likely to continue increasing the voltage, but the opposite would be true were the victims visible or audible while being shocked. This is evidenced by soldiers being more willing to fire a missile into a populated area than to aim at and shoot someone.

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• In Milgram’s experiment as well as other situations, if no one models defiance, the subject is less likely to object to orders • If the authority figure is supported by a prestigious figure or group, people are more likely to obey. People were more likely to obey in Milgram’s experiment when he said it was a Yale study 56-4) Social Influence • Randomly chosen people obeyed instructions to deliver punishments that if real would have harmed strangers. • People who resisted instructions did so early

56-5) Group Behavior Presence of observers or co-actors increases arousal, which strengthens our most likely response. This is called ______. Social Facilitation improves performance on easy or welllearned tasks, but makes performance worse on difficult or newly learned ones. Social Loafing often occurs when many are working towards the same goal. Social loafing is: Deindividuation is a psychological state where people become _______ self aware and self-restrained, and this may happen when people act as part of a group and feel anonymous or less accountable. This also occurs because people view their contribution as insignificant. 56-6) Polarization and Groupthink When people in a group with similar points of view talk, group polarization occurs, which is an enhancement of the group’s prevailing opinions.

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This fosters groupthink: alternative options are often not found, as the group pressures members to conform and suppress dissenting ideas. 56-7) Group members that sway majority opinion usually express their views consistently.

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ANSWER KEY 55-2) A) situational attribution B) unfavorable reaction 55-5) A) attitudes 55-6) Larger 55-8) Inconsistent Changing 56-1) Mimic 56-3) Approval Disapproval 56-5) Social Facilitation Social Loafing: letting others in your group do the work for you Less

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Module 57.1-57.5 The three components of prejudice: It is an attitude with three parts: beliefs, emotions, predispositions to action. Beliefs are the stereotypes, usually vastly overgeneralized. Emotions are fear, hostility and envy Action is discrimination which is considered unjustifiable negative behavior. The difference between overt and subtle forms of prejudice: Overt prejudice is blatant such as segregation, some form of discrimination which is not hidden whatsoever. Subtle prejudice is based on the beliefs and emotions and is much harder to root out. An example is someone who feels very uncomfortable around a certain ethnic group. They will most likely not voice their discomfort but rather try to distance themselves entirely from the group. This is mostly an unconscious act. Social factors contributing to prejudice: Inequality contributes to prejudice. In societies, the “haves” would develop rationalizations as for why they are more affluent than the “have-nots” “Have-nots” in turn develop their own prejudices against those who have more than them. As humans we like to belong to a group, or culture of sorts. We all like to relate to people so that we can be in the “in crowd” and be a part of “we.” That is where “ingroup bias” is created, because we like to think favorably of our own and discriminate those who are not members of our society. Scapegoating: Bad times always lead to scapegoating. We as humans like to find ways to justify and rationalize everything that happens. During turbulent situations ingroup bias and outgroup prejudice spike and the result is a scapegoat. Bill Buckner a Red Sox first baseman during the 1980s, let a groundball go through his legs in the 10th inning of game 6 of the 1986 World Series allowing the winning run to score. The Red Sox lost the game and game 7, losing the series. Red Sox fans quickly blamed Buckner as the reason for their team’s loss. Buckner was the scapegoat so Red Sox fans could boast their self-esteem and live with the fact the Sox had lost the World Series yet again. Ways that create and maintain prejudice: Humans love to categorize and organize everything they can to make things easier to comprehend. As a result, groupings are made for not just objects and thoughts, but for people as well. We use stereotypes, generalizations of characteristics and the underestimation of differences to help separate everyone into different sects of society. We also can misjudge the frequency of events by readily remembering things that stood out more than those that didn’t. The just-world phenomenon also adds to prejudice because it is the belief that people will in the end get what they deserve. Finally, hindsight bias and blaming the victim also contribute to prejudices as they serve to assure people that bad things will not happen to them because they know better.

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57.6 – 57.10 57.6- Aggression: Any verbal or physical behavior intended to hurt or destroy, whether done reactively out proactively. Aggression stems from a combination of biological and external influences. 57.7- Biology of Aggression: Genetics- Twin studies show that twins often have similar temper dispositions. Also, human males are much more likely to exhibit aggression than females because of increased testosterone. Neural Influences- Electrodes implanted in the brain of patients are able to activate random acts of aggression in normally mild-mannered people. Studies of death-row inmates have shown that a vast number suffered head injuries at a younger age, and most have reduced frontal lobe activity. Biochemical Influences- Testosterone is a proven aggression-inducing agent. Violent criminals tend to be muscular young males with lower-than-average intelligence scores, low levels of serotonin, and higher-than-average testosterone levels. Testosterone can induce aggressiveness, and aggressive actions can cause the body to secrete testosterone. Drinking alcohol also increases aggression. 57.8- Psychology of Aggression: Aversive Events- Misery often breeds people who wish to make others miserable through aggressive actions. Frustration at being stopped short of a goal has been proven to cause aggression. In addition, stress causes a fight-or-flight response and causes aggressive actions. Heat can cause aggressiveness as well as ostracism, foul odors, and cigarette smoke. Learning that Aggression is Rewarding- Social attitudes toward violence can cause individuals to continue their aggressive nature or can encourage people to forget aggressive impulses altogether. Once established however, aggressive behavior is difficult to change. Modeling violence is more likely to produce violent behavior in others, while positive, aggression free approaches to problems, reduce aggression in others. Observing Models of Aggression- Media, including films and videogames, affects our outlook on the acceptability of certain levels of aggression. A study of sex-offenders showed an unusually high appetite for sexually explicit and violent material. It has been shown that repeated watching X-rated films makes a monogamous partner seem less attractive, transforms simple friendliness into sexual advances, and desensitizes the viewer to sexual aggression. Acquiring Social Scripts- By giving us social scripts by which to live our lives, media deeply affects how we act and react to situations. The more violent and sexual media we watch, the more highly probable we are to act in an aggressive manner due to our perceived societal position to do so. 57.9 - Do Videogames Teach or Release Violence?: Young adults have reenacted violent scenes that occurred in their videogames. And, while most people do not follow the social scripts provided by these violent games, it has been proven that playing violent games increases levels of arousal and that people who

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spend prolonged amounts of time playing violent videogames are generally more aggressive. Most research has disproved that videogames are an outlet for release of tension and aggression. 57.10 Conflict: Destructive human interactions that have the potential to produce negative results for both parties. Social Traps- A situation in which we harm the collective well-being by pursuing our own personal interests. This can be seen in global warming, where each individual car owner emits greenhouse gases and doesn’t cut back consumption, and the sum total of emissions causes a huge problem. Psychologists are exploring ways to improve communication, regulations, and awareness so that people can more easily cooperate. Enemy Perceptions- Humans have a tendency to demonize our adversaries. “They” are evil and untrustworthy. This view of enemies helps fuel aggression.

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Module 58 Prosocial Relations Guide Outline: - 58 introduction summary - 58.1 Attraction summary - 58.2 Altruism summary - 58.3 Peacemaking summary - Key Terms Summaries: - Introduction o Prosocial Psychology is the study of our positive social interactions, namely attraction, altruism, and peacemaking - Attraction o Proximity is one of friendships greatest predictors. The more you see and get to know someone, the more likely you are to befriend them. o Sometimes known as the mere exposure effect, within limits mere familiarity breeds fondness. o Curiously enough ones similarity to you also increases your fondness of that person. Evolution could be a culprit in this phenomenon because in early times one must only associate with its own kind for survival. o Physical attractiveness does play a role in what we think of people. First impressions are often greatly influenced by attractiveness; many studies have proven this as fact. o Beauty is in the eye of the culture o Beauty has some things that remain constant through time and culture (such as a young appearance) and some things that don’t. o The more you see a loved one the more the physical imperfections are not noticed o Similarity in personality is generally the norm, opposites do not usually attract. o We like people who like us o Emotions have two ingredients physical arousal plus cognitive appraisal. Thus if aroused before we see someone we may think different of them than if we were in a usual state. o In relationships equity is important. Both sides need to share their time o In relationships Self Disclosure Is also important the more intimate details you share the closer you feel to that person. - Altruism o Altruism is the unselfish regard for the welfare of others. o When people are in big groups they are less likely to help someone in distress, possibly because they think others will do it. o When some situations are present, it is more likely that someone will help, for example: the victim appears to need help, the victim is similar to us, we have just observed someone helping someone else, we are not in a

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hurry, we are in a small town, we feel guilty, we are focused on others, we are in a good mood. o We help if the benefits outweigh the cost (think do treat others as you would like to be treated.) o Interestingly religious people often donate 3 times as much as their counterparts Peacemaking o Cooperation increases the chance of peacemaking, if two competitive teams are forced to work together to achieve a common goal, hostilities dissipate. o Communication is key in settling differences. Mediators are even hired to give advice and to focus on creating a win-win situation. o Conciliation is also a good way to create peace, parties should act politely to one another, and slowly bring pressure down. Both parties should keep retaliatory capability in order not to scare the other party away Key Terms o Superordinate Goals- shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation. o Social-Responsibility Norm- An expectation that people will help those dependent upon them. o Social Exchange Theory- The theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs o Self-Disclosure- Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others o Reciprocity Norm- an expectation that people eill help, not hurt, those who have helped them o Passionate Love- An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship o Mere Exposure Effect- The phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them o GRIT- Graduated and Reciprocated Initiative in Tension-Reduction- a strategy designed to decrease international tensions. o Equity- a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it o Companionate Love- the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined o Bystander Effect- the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present o Altruism- unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

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57 & 58 Key Terms Social Relations Term Reactance Frustration-Aggression Principle Altruism Bystander Effect Social Exchange Theory Ingroup Outgroup Ingroup Bias Just-World Phenomenon Equity Prejudice Scapegoat Theory Social Traps

Mere exposure effect Companionate love Passionate love

Definition the reaction when we feel our freedom is threatened; often single-minded and irrational frustration – blocked attempt toward a goal – creates anger which creates aggression unselfish regard for the wellbeing of others tendency for a bystander to be less likely to help if other bystanders are present our social behavior is a series of exchanges – all trying to max benefits + min costs “us”; others who share your identity “them”; perceived people who are different tendency to favor your own group tendency to believe the world is fair and people should get what they deserve people receive proportionately to what they give in the relationship unjustifiable attitude toward a group (typically negative) theory that prejudices offers an outlet for blame situation where conflicting parties, rationally acting in selfinterest, are caught in mutually destructive behavior repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking it deep affectionate love for persons involved in our lives aroused state of intense positive interest in other; present at beginning of relationship

ZZPD How the following affect attraction: Similarity Proximity

Physical attractiveness Self-disclosure

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despite Hollywood, opposites often retract, shared interested breeds satisfaction most important factor – determines if you’re likely to come into contact with the person important factor despite our denial of it – appearance often determines first impressions revealing intimate secrets; builds/strengthens connection

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minimize costs

ACROSS 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 14 17 18 19 20

Action when a freedom is threatened Unjustifiable belief Unselfish regard for others Revelation of intimate details to another Slant toward favoring your own group Increased preference toward a stimulus When you are less likely to help someone because of those around you Love for intertwined members of our lives “Them” Often affects first impressions The love present at the start of a relationship System that tries to maximize benefits and

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57 + 58

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Social Relations Proportionality of given and received emotion in a relationship “Us” Idea that love is best sustained when the couple shares many commonalities The explanation of emotions

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57 + 58 when a goal is not attained Belief that the universe should be fair Most significant component in attraction Situation where rational behavior of parties leads to mutually destructive results The blame outlet

ACROSS 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 14 17 18 19 20

Action when a freedom is threatened Unjustifiable belief Unselfish regard for others Revelation of intimate details to another Slant toward favoring your own group Increased preference toward a stimulus When you are less likely to help someone because of those around you Love for intertwined members of our lives “Them” Often affects first impressions The love present at the beginning of a relationship System that tries to maximize benefits and minimize costs

DOWN 2 3 6 7 10 11 15 16

Proportionality of given and received emotion in a relationship “Us” Idea that love is best sustained when the couple shares many commonalities The explanation of emotions when a goal is not attained Belief that the universe should be fair Most significant component in attraction Situation where rational behavior of parties leads to mutually destructive results The blame outlet

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