Final Paper Elp 544

Sociology and School Knowledge ELP 544

Research Paper

The Role of a Local Non-Governmental Organization in Education and Curriculum Development in the United States

Professor: Gregory Dimitriadis Master Student: Bopha Ong

Fall Semester December 12, 2008

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Abstract =============================================================== There exists a significant body of literature addressing the work of NonGovernmental Organizations (NGOs) in public health, in relation to civil society and the state government, and in resolving social and environmental issues in other developing countries. However, regarding the field of education, we know little about the role of NGOs as intermediary organizations in supporting education, particularly in regards to school curriculum. In the field of curriculum analysis, there is a controversy over what should be taught, how it should be taught and to whom it should be taught. In addressing this key concern Eisner (2002) clearly defines explicit and implicit curriculum—the null curriculum, and suggests some subject areas in the null curriculum that should be included explicitly in the school curriculum. Yet, in his research, there is a gap in literature surrounding how and who should assist in improving school curriculum. This article considers key questions in relation to the gap in the literature mentioned above: what are NGOs and what are their roles, strengths and weaknesses in assisting with curriculum development.

Furthermore, this article will also

address questions about the definitions and types of curricula, and the functions NGOs play in supporting school curriculum. The findings of this study suggest that NGOs have a role in improving school curriculum through parent involvement and teacher involvement in curriculum implementation. Key words: Non-Governmental Organization, curriculum, hidden and null curricula =============================================================== Introduction The mandated curriculum, nationwide high-stake testing, and the No Child Left Behind Act in Bush’s administration 2001 negatively impact schools’ performance, 2

teachers’ performance, and what students learn (Crocco & Costigan, 2007). The purpose of the curriculum should not be scripted or made into a particular form of ―official knowledge‖, particularly as ensconced in textbooks, which works in the interests of powerful groups, rather it must address the needs of the community and everyone in that community (Apple, 2004). Generally, NGOs are committed to addressing social needs and improving the human condition, and thus often use education and support schools in order to build stronger communities (Seffrin, 2002). Non-Governmental organizations have the ability to work closely with local communities and to develop innovative programs that address local needs and contexts (Klees, 2002). Therefore, local NGOs can play an important role as partners with the government in supporting schools to provide additional curriculum support and materials to enhance the mandated curriculum since local education-based NGOs have resources and networks between parents, teachers, students, administrators and other stakeholders. This paper will review the definitions of NGOs, ―curriculum‖ in a broader sense, and types of NGOs as well as types of curricula; and examine one local education-based nongovernmental organization—Every Person Influences Children (EPIC) that partners with the Buffalo Public schools and explore how and why this non-governmental organization is involved with school curriculum improvement. Literature Review In recent years Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) have become increasingly visible and active in various sectors of social life, including education (Ginsburg, 2002). Effectively, NGOs have been in operation since the 1800s; however, 3

the specific term NGO is differently defined and came into common usage with the development of the United Nations (UN) in 1945 (O'Sullivan, 2008). The terms used to identify these organizations have multiplied and evolved to include voluntary associations, non-profit associations, international nongovernmental organizations, nongovernmental development organizations, new social movement organizations, people’s organizations, membership organizations, grassroots support organizations, and membership support organizations (Fernando & Heston, 1997). Defining Non-Governmental Organization Most researchers agree that there are difficulties associated with the definitions of ―NGOs‖ and then go on to define them in the way that is most useful in the context they are discussing (Fernando & Heston, 1997). There are many definitions of NGOs. The Yearbook of International Organizations defines NGOs as organizations which have not been founded and are not formally controlled by national government (Union of International Associations, 2005). In addition to the definition given by the Yearbook of International Organizations, Reinalda and Verbeek (2001) give the second characteristic of these organizations, which is the pursuit by private means and private objectives that are likely to have domestic or transnational public effects. The World Bank defines NGOs as private organizations [i.e. independent from government] that pursue activities to relieve suffering, promote the interests of the poor, protect the environment, provide basic social services, or undertake community development (Categorizing NGOs, 2006). According to Clake (1998), nongovernmental organizations are non-profit, private, professional organizations with a distinctive legal character, concerned with public welfare goals. 4

The term NGO is somewhat misleading, since it suggests a broader scope in the present day—that is, everything outside the governmental sector—than is usually intended. In general, the term refers only to nonprofits and does not include any organizations in the corporate sector (Munchen, 2006). Institutions within the nonprofit or independent sector are also often referred to as nongovernmental organizations (Seffrin, 2002). Present-day NGOs are often legal corporations with full-time staffs and governing boards. In the United States NGOs are categorized by the Internal Revenue Service with specific tax designations as 501 (c)(3)s, (c)(4)s, and (c)(6)s (Seffrin, 2002). In fact, many NGOs, according to Seffrin (2002), choose to refer themselves as not-forprofits, indicating that although they are not in the business of making a profit like forprofit corporations, they raise more funds from other sources such as governments and other organizations for their work and other ongoing projects. Seffring (2002) also argues that although NGOs are commonly defined in opposition to government and forprofit organizations, they frequently display characteristics of both. Many NGOs receive support from the government and for-profit corporations. Types of NGOs O’Neill (1989) categorized NGOs into nine types; religious, private education and research, healthcare, arts and culture, social sciences, advocacy and legal services, international assistance, foundations, corporate funders and mutual benefit organizations. Certain types of NGOs are also variously called voluntary organizations, development agencies, civil society organizations, membership organizations, mutual aid societies, advocacy organizations, and grassroots organizations (Seffrin, 2002). However, Ginsburg 5

(2002) divides NGOs into four major types: (1) grassroots operations linked to social movements targeted at challenging and transforming unequal social structures; (2) nonprofit businesses run by professionals that give work and income opportunities for the disadvantaged in an effort to incorporate them in extant political economic setting; (3) some of them are locally-based organizations that operate on a shoe-string budget obtained from resources of those involved; (4) while others are international entities with sizable budgets supported by grants and contracts from international organizations, national governments as well as foreign governments with particular projects being undertaken. Work of NGOs and their Constraints The increasing roles/work of NGOs are due to the perception that the public sector is unresponsive and inefficient (Ginsburg, 2002). NGOs often work at a grass-roots level to provide aid, education, and most importantly for the libraries-- information both to the audience they are trying to reach, and to a wider audience of policy-makers, state organizations and funding agencies (Munchen, 2006). NGOs’ work and responsibilities have arisen as a response to the need of social groups, to secure social, economic and political equality; a sustainable environment; peaceful ethnic; religious or national relations; and as a resistance against all kinds of exploitation and domination (Ginsburg, 2002). Beside theses responsibilities, in helping the national government, NGOs are committed to addressing social needs and improving the human condition, especially helping resolve health issues (Seffrin, 2002). Other NGOs’ work focuses on educational

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and occupational issues by indirectly empowering individuals with new skills and competencies, thereby improves their overall standard of living (Seffrin, 2002). Positive impact of NGOs’ advocacy role on the issues they address depends on the extent to which they mobilize the support of and act in collaboration with the state, rather than acting in opposition to it (Fernando & Heston, 1997). Seffrin (2002) also stresses that NGOs often work in collaboration with the government and for-profit corporations, and each brings their particular competencies to bear on a common issue. Paul Streeten, during his seminar presentation, drew examples from different parts of the world to show that the work of NGOs lies in their role as brokers or catalysts in linking families and communities to the wider society and the government; and this broker function is likely to become more important in the future, and it is hoped that this function will contribute to an understanding of the ever evolving role of NGOs (Fernando & Heston, 1997). The missions and practices of NGOs are considered to be radically different from public and private sectors. NGOs which are partly funded by the national government still function within the boundaries set by the state and are subjects to various laws and regulations within that nation (Fernando & Heston, 1997). Apart from receiving grants from the national government, NGOs receive funding from foreign sources such as other governments, UN agencies, corporate and other private foundations. This dependence of funding can lead to a question of whether NGOs’ work represents the strengthening of civil society or only the intention to shape civil society in ways that external entities believe are desirable (Ginsburg, 2002). 7

Strengths and Weaknesses of NGOs NGOs continue to play a critical role in U.S. society. Although in the future some NGOs are likely to disband due to political or economic issues, others will evolve to address unresolved issues and emerging threats like improving the health, education and wellbeing of the public because of their strengths in some areas that the government and other private entities do not possess (Seffrin, 2002). NGOs provide support to marginalized communities, outreach capacity, the efficient provision of services, administrative efficiency, capacity building of the poor, and the development of civil society. In addition, NGOs are community focused and are generally politically neutral, have strong grassroots links and the ability to innovate, adapt, and receive trust of locals. NGOs also have field based experts such as an expert in education who may specialize in a particular field with cost effectiveness (O'Sullivan, 2008). Some other strong features of NGOs are the process-oriented approach to development, participatory methodologies and tools, long-term commitment, emphasis on sustainability, advocate on behalf of the poor, and the accountability towards client base (O'Sullivan, 2008). Local-based NGOs, focusing on a specific mission to help the communities, receive the passionate support of local communities and loyal volunteers, which make them able to address issues that organizations in other sectors cannot, or will not, do. Therefore, unlike organizations in the public sector, which are often subject to constant political pressure and regulation, or those in the corporate sector, which are beholden to their owners and shareholders, NGOs are accountable primarily to the public's trust (Seffrin, 2002). And, NGOs that closely collaborate with both public and 8

private entities, especially those with the corporate sector, have often led to and increased professionalism and efficiency (Seffrin, 2002) However, NGOs have some weaknesses in the areas they are working with such limited financial support and management expertise, limited instructional capacity, lowlevels of self-sustainability, isolation, and lack of inter-organizational communication and coordination. Some local-based NGOs are small organizations with only a handful of staff and volunteers (Seffrin, 2002); therefore they receive small scale intervention from the government and other agencies and lack understanding of the broader social or economic context (O'Sullivan, 2008). To study the connection between NGOs and schools in regards to the improvement of school curriculum, the second part of the literature in this case study is involving the discussion of the definitions of curriculum and types of school curricula. Defining School Curriculum The curriculum field has played an important role in the history of the relationship between school and community (Apple, 2004). The curriculum field, more particular than any other educational field, has been dominated by a perspective that might best be called ―technological‖ in that the major interest guiding its work has involved finding the one best set of means to reach pre-chosen educational ends (Apple, 2004). However, the problem of defining curriculum is complex (Portelli, 1987). Curriculum is a complex notion and a varied nature in the context specific, and thus it is hard to give a single definition to capture its full meaning (Portelli, 1987). Eisner (1994) also admits that 9

curriculum is not a natural entity but a complex notion, and a ―real‖ definition is impossible. In this study, it is important to distinguish the definitions of curriculum in narrow and broad senses. In a narrow sense, drawing from Portelli’s study in 1987, curriculum is defined in three major areas: contents, experiences and a plan. In his study, curriculum is defined as a course of studies, which list content, subjects or subject matter, and it is what students should be taught. Macdonald (1965) similarly defined curriculum as those planning endeavors which take place prior to instruction. The curriculum, in a narrow sense, is typically defined as ― a written description of what students will learn in a particular grade or course‖ (Jones, Jones, & Hargrove, 2003, p. 28).The definition of curriculum as content is clear but it is too narrow; and if curriculum is defined simply or exclusively in terms of content or subject matter, then we form the false impression that the question ―what should be taught?‖ is the primary (and for some the only) curriculum question (Portelli, 1987). The influences of curriculum on subject matter seem to neglect the learners and to separate the school from the rest of the students’ lives (Portelli, 1987). However, curriculum does not only mean the outline of the topic included in the instruction (Jones et al., 2003). In the broader sense, it also includes ―aspects of students development, sequencing of contents and skills, applications of learning, student activities, and the organization of instruction‖ (Jones et al., 2003, p. 28); and curriculum should be disseminated at different levels from the school, the district, families, communities, and the state to professional organizations. This definition is supported by Snyder, Bolin, and Zumwalt (1992). In the larger context, curriculum goes beyond the written educational objectives to include the lived experiences of teachers and students in 10

individual classrooms (Snyder, Bolin, & Zumwalt, 1992). Another broader definition of curriculum, stemming from in the late 1930s, is curriculum as experience. Some theorists define curriculum by the experiences of each individual. Curriculum is as all the experiences a learner has under the guidance of the school (Portelli, 1987). Similarly, the Center for Educational Research and Innovation (1998) has given the definition of curriculum as the activities added—what is added to the formal timetable outside subject boundaries. Also, curriculum is not only guidelines what to do to produce successful testtakers and high scorers, but also aims to help children think and act with intelligence, sensitivity and courage in caring for themselves and others as citizens in democratic societies (Pinar, 1995). Portelli (1987) comes to conclude that more focus should be directed toward investigating the relationship between curriculum and other educational issues and alternatives, as well as the underlying philosophical vision of curriculum. Apple (2004) critiques school curriculum by stating that the curriculum in schools responds to and represents ideological and cultural resources that are from somewhere, but not all people’s visions are represented and not all their meanings are responded to. Therefore, from the controversial ideas surrounding the definitions of the term ―curriculum‖, Cohen and Harrison (1982) offered the overall definition of curriculum as reality, which is what actually happens to the person or persons, arising from a complex network of interaction between people responding to a diverse array of influences, explicit and implicit, human and physical.

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Types of Curricula According to Goodlad (1979), there are five types of curricula. The ideal curriculum is the standardized plan defined by the developers. The formal curriculum is the one that gains official approval from the state and the school board and it is to be adopted by institutions and the teachers. The perceived curriculum is what parents and teachers believe to be the curriculum which will reflect their subjective views on what should be taught. The operational curriculum is what is presented to students in the classrooms. The experiential curriculum is what is actually experienced by the students. However, other researchers such as Apple, Eisner, and Portelli who are the experts in the field articulate other main implicit type of curricula, which are the hidden and null curricula. The Hidden and Null Curricula What is not taught, what schools choose not to teach and what is not included in the standardized curriculum is no less important than what schools choose to include (Henderson & Gornik, 2007). Eisner (2002) also argues that it is significant for the success of teaching and learning to consider not only the explicit curriculum of schools but also what schools do not teach, which may be as important as what they teach. This is considered hidden curriculum. Some theorists make the distinction between the formal (explicit, official or mandated) curriculum and the hidden (unstudied, invisible, unwritten, covert or unwritten) curriculum (Portelli, 1987). Explicit curriculum is what is 12

officially taught , what is planned and found in the state’s standard, plan books, courses of study, and textbooks (Henderson & Gornik, 2007). Different from explicit curriculum, Marsh and Willis (2003) define the hidden curriculum as ―parts of the implicit curriculum that are unplanned or even unplannable [that] seem to exert a more subtle but far greater influence over what students learn than the curriculum itself‖ (p. 11). The hidden curriculum is implicitly learned by students and includes what is not directly taught. It is extremely powerful and consists of a huge body of knowledge learned by students such as social and academic groupings and how to develop themselves in society; and the hidden curriculum often creates students’ values, attitudes and assumptions about race, class, gender, ethnicity, and disability (Henderson & Gornik, 2007). Moreover, another similar kind of curriculum to study is null curriculum. According to Eisner (1994), the null curriculum is characterized as the conscious or unconscious avoidance of certain instructional topics. The null curriculum is also associated with the hidden curriculum and consists of the components of knowledge that are conspicuous by their absence (Henderson & Gornik, 2007). Eisner (1994) describes ―It is my thesis that what schools do not teach may be as important as what they do teach. Ignorance is not simply a neutral void; it has important effects on the kinds of options one is able to consider, the alternatives that one can examine, and the perspectives from which one can view a situation or problems. The absence of a set of considerations, perspectives or the inability to use certain processes for appraising a context biases the evidence one is able to take into account‖ (p. 158). So, the null curriculum ―is identified as the options students are not afforded, the perspectives they may never know about, much less able to use, the concepts and skills that are not a part of their intellectual 13

repertoire‖ (Eisner, 2002, p. 107). It may be learned or not and often contains learners’ beliefs about social dynamics like premarital sex, homosexuality, and lifestyle preferences. And the null curriculum also may embody implicit political, spiritual and psychological ideologies (Henderson & Gornik, 2007). School programs’ aim is to focus on the development of a restricted conception of thinking. But not all thinking is operated by words, numbers in form of mathematics, nor is all thinking rule-abiding included in the school curriculum (Eisner, 2002). Eisner also argues that the modes of thought can be mediated in many ways such as visual, auditory, metaphoric, synesthetic and use forms of conception and expression that far exceed the limits of logically scripted criteria, discursive or mathematical forms of thinking offered in schools. Since the attention to such intellectual processes, or forms of thinking, is absent or marginal, they are not likely to be developed in school programs; but these forms of intellectual and skillful developments might take place outside of schools (Eisner, 2002). According to the body of research about brain development and the capacity of brain, children learn in different ways and through different subject areas; therefore, as far as school curriculum is concerned, for the development of productive thoughts, we should pay more attention to the processes of brain development and to the varieties of learning styles, and the schools should provide opportunities to use those processes in the course of their work in addition to the standardized curriculum (Eisner, 2002). ―The neglect of such consideration in schools, assuming they are not adequately fostered outside the schools, can lead to a kind of literalness in perception and thought that 14

impedes the appreciation of those objects or ideas that best exemplify metaphorical modes of thinking‖ (Eisner, 2002, p. 100). Eisner (2002) also raises controversial questions about subject areas in school curriculum: why schools spend time, space and energy on the advanced forms of mathematics, history, sciences and social studies; why is it that law, economics, anthropology, psychology, dance, the visual arts and music are frequently not offered or are not required as parts of secondary school programs? He also postulates that certain subject areas have been traditionally taught in schools not because of a careful analysis of the range of other alternatives that could be offered but, rather because they have become the status quo. School curriculum just includes what is in the past habit, and in the process that neglects the areas of study that could prove to be exceedingly useful to students (Eisner, 2002). The ideas of alternative subject matters such as law, economics and the arts, communication, and anthropology classified as null curriculum are just given by Eisner for the purpose of exemplification. In fact, he still believes that these subjects are just a few among many others that constitute the null curriculum, and there is no adequate conception of appropriate curriculum content without consideration of the context in which it is to be provided and the students for whom it is intended. The success of student learning can also take place through implicit curriculum, that pervasive and ubiquitous set of expectations and rules that defines schooling as a cultural system that itself teaches significant lessons (Eisner, 2002). If the null curriculum is not promoted, its absence will have a significant effect on the kind of life that students are able to choose to lead. What 15

we should examine to improve school curriculum is not only the main orientations that have guided thinking about what should be taught in school, but we should also examine what schools and wider community teaches students that teachers do not realize students are learning (Eisner, 2002). Eisner (2002) clearly points out that what is taught in schools is not always determined by a set of decisions that have entertained the alternatives; rather, the subjects that schools teach now are a part of a tradition, and the tradition creates expectations that make predictability and sustain stability for becoming the standard. In supporting Eisner’s work, Pinar (2004), suggests other possibilities for success in improving education and curriculum by criticizing the standardized management of education. He argues that educators should get involved in school curriculum by articulating relations among the school subjects, society, children’s lives and children’s self-formation by distancing teachers themselves from the standard of education. It is important to combine curriculum work with other initiatives. Walker (2003) also suggests that school curriculum can be improved or changed by asking the following questions: what other initiatives added to official school curriculum (explicit curriculum) are underway or under discussion? How can we work in ways that also facilitate desirable curriculum changes? In addition to this, Henderson and Gornik (2007) also stress that in almost all practices regarding curriculum, teachers engage in everyday activities from planning to assessing, from teaching to communicating with stakeholders. Educators will not be able to sustain the practice of curriculum successfully without the support of local professionals and stakeholders learning communities (Henderson & Gornik, 2007).

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The influential curriculum stakeholders such as parents and community leaders must learn the values of curriculum, types of curriculum and the proper ways to support the day-to-day details of this work; and they must learn the differences between collaborative support and destructive interference (Henderson & Gornik, 2007). Curriculum improvement requires the collaboration and the support within the context of a local learning community among administrators, teachers, parents and other stakeholders (Henderson & Gornik, 2007). When all the group of these individual stakeholders work together to come to a consensus of how to solve the problems, they will begin to know what is needed to teach children for the democratic good life (Henderson & Gornik, 2007) Generally, from the study of the work of Franklin Bobbitt, Henderson and Gornik (2007) come to understand that the curriculum is a journey of a long-term process with a certain degree of consistency. This interpretation is not as commonsensical as it seems. Curriculum is often thought by many people including educators as specific products such as school district frameworks, scope and sequence charts, course syllabi, and textbooks; and they seldom see curriculum at the experiential, process level, and what they keep in mind about the decision-making process of the curriculum is in short-term planning: a lesson, unit, or course decision (Henderson & Gornik, 2007). But students’ journey of understanding gained from experiencing all types of curricula, which is generally linked to teachers’ and other important curriculum stakeholders’ journeys of understanding (Henderson & Gornik, 2007).

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Methodology This study examines one locally-based nongovernmental organization (EPIC), located in Buffalo, New York, which has goals towards improving education and child learning in regards to school curriculum improvement. The reason to choose this organization is that it is has the connection between the educational stakeholders inside and outside schools. And, EPIC’s programs/trainings help teachers, parents and school administrators improve students’ learning by influencing what students learn at home and by adding useful skills and subject areas such as character education into school curriculum. Procedure and Data Source The methodological approach of this study is qualitative and primarily consists of document analysis. The documents include flyers, books, printed and electronic documents, curriculum handbooks for character education, parent manual for Ready Set Read parent training and the facilitators’ manual for Ready Set Read training, and the annual report from EPIC. This study will include an overview of EPIC, as well as the descriptions of EPIC’s programs, their work, philosophy and mission, their limitations and constraints, their strengths and weaknesses, and an analysis of how this NGO is involved with curriculum development through influencing curriculum content and delivery. The study is guided by the notion of the connection between NGOs and education to improve school curriculum.

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Limitations of the Study Typical of this case study involving a limited site, the findings of this case study are intended to be descriptive and informative, but not necessarily transferable to other contexts where other NGOs are in different contexts with different priorities. This study is most applicable to similar NGOs with education-based goals and missions since there are many types of NGOs with different missions and goals. The economic, demographical and political nature of the region the NGO is located within has also influenced its work and thus this study is also limited within the context of Buffalo, Western New York. Findings I- Descriptions of the Case Study

The organization that is the focus of this study is a local nongovernmental organization, Every Person Influences Children (EPIC). It is a national not-for-profit organization that provides effective programs and resources for parents, teachers and school administrators that help them raise responsible and academically successful children. EPIC was founded by Robert Wilson in 1980 after the murder of his wife in 1977. The reason he founded EPIC lies behind the violent actions of a 15-year-old neighbor who killed his wife. He investigated the child’s life and found out that he had been abused, neglected and experienced a miserable life. The establishment of EPIC is to prevent other children from falling into the same track as that boy. In addition to the main funding from the founder when he was alive, EPIC also receives other various sources of 19

funding such as federal fund (for some programs), donations from individuals, the public, and other funding from family and corporate foundations.

EPIC's mission is to help parents, teachers and community members raise children to become responsible adults. To achieve its mission, EPIC combines an awardwinning parenting program with a school-based character education curriculum and offers leadership training in several areas. EPIC is working with schools, churches, hospitals, and community agencies throughout New York Sate and New Jersey and has been implemented in sixteen states and the Virgin Islands. EPIC’s programs encourage parents and teachers to proactively develop the foundation of character and provide knowledge, skills and experiences to maximize the academic success of their children. Three main programs are offered to parents, children, teachers and administrators. Each EPIC program stems from the principle upon which EPIC was founded: to help parents, teachers and community members raise children to have successful lives in their community and wider society.

Pathway to Parenting Program offers parents a comprehensive and continuumstyled programming, from the birth of their child through young adolescence that develops parenting skills, parent advocacy in education, and parent leadership in communities. The program helps parents address behavior issues, develop family literacy, and gain understanding about how to be involved in their child’s education. There are many programs within Pathway to Parenting.

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Just for Teens Program is a comprehensive program geared to pregnant and parenting teens, focused on enhancing the skills and confidence of teens as people and as parents. The program is available for pregnant or parent teens through schools and other agencies. The curriculum for the program, which focuses on four main areas -fundamental parenting skills, bonding with the child, relationships and personal wellbeing, is created by EPCI to address the needs of participants. The beneficial impacts of the training are: increased confidence of teens as people and as parents, increased academic achievement, participating teens who graduate from high school at more than double the national average, and participating teen parents receive life skills and parenting skills in addressing key risk factors which contribute to child abuse.

Ready Set Read Program is a workshop series focused on family literacy development and preparing children for school success. The purpose of this training is for parents to identify and explore individual learning styles for themselves and their child, and to help them to better understand the best learning approach for their child. The program is invaluable for improving children learning through reading. Parents are trained to select age-appropriate books, and explore how to create stimulating learning experiences for their children in everyday surroundings. The curriculum is based on US department of Education National Reading Panel research on the best practices for reading instruction and family literacy. It provides practical guidance for parents to promote and encourage literacy in their children.

Pathway to Character Program is a character education program for teachers and parents to help children develop the basis traits of good character, while preparing 21

them to achieve academic success. EPIC implements the Pathway to Character initiative in the 24 schools in the Buffalo Public Schools in a three-year strategic plan. The program includes a parent involvement component that connects parents through letters home, parent development, and other EPIC parenting workshops. Designed for grades K6 and expending through the initiative Pre-K up to 8 grades, Pathway to Character helps students develop core ethical values that will enable them to think critically and act responsibly, and also seeks to improve their academic skills by providing a meaningful and challenging academic curriculum. It is a comprehensive academic curriculum that teaches to higher learning standards while incorporating personal character development. And the lessons in the curriculum are created by teachers who know what schools need in order to fit character education into a teacher’s busy day.

Pathway to Leadership Program is a training series that offers parents, school administrators, and communities training experiences that develop individuals to become leaders, at home and in their community, with an emphasis on developing effective partnerships between teachers and parents to benefit children. There are three series of programs. (1) Parents as Advocates Program aims at helping parents understand the importance of their roles as positive advocates for their children, and teaching their children to advocate for themselves. (2) Parent Leadership Institute Training develops leadership roles in the home environment and in the school community. It includes four topics: foundations of parent leadership, managing conflict, making decisions, solving problems, building on the foundations, and introduction to the standards and academic assessments. Similarly, (3) Creating Home/School Partnerships and Parent Involvement 22

Training engages school principals, teachers, and parent leaders as partners to help students achieve academic and personal success.

II- Discussions NGOs and Education

There are many types of NGOs, so it is reasonable to suggest that the complete understanding of NGOs is not limited only to international organizations such as UNICEF, UNESCO, or Oxfam, etc. NGOs are broadly involved in many areas, locally and internationally to address social needs. One type of NGOs, such as locally-based organization like EPIC, plays an important role in education to help the government solve the common social and educational issues. However, not many NGOs address the need of schooling or support education. Most NGOs’ work is dealing with health issues, political and environmental issues. Yet, many NGOs are coming to realize the importance of education because education also has an immense impact on the human society (Goel, 2007), which also needs the attention and additional support beyond that of national governments. The report on educational issues in Nation at Risk has escalated the continuing debates over educational issues such as parent involvement, teacher education, principal leadership, high-stake testing, assessments and especially curriculum in schools—focusing more on both skills and the content of curriculum (Sleeter & Grant, 1997). These are the fields that education-based NGOs can work on domestically.

From this brief case study, we can suggest that education-based NGOs can have a significant role in strengthening public schooling since they are independent entities and 23

work collaboratively with the government, schools and individuals, with greater intensity and often with great and more diverse financial support. Moreover, they have their own expertise that can be brought into the field of education as an additional support to the work of schools. For example, the NGO in the case study brings their own expertise such as conducting trainings on the topics of parent involvement, leadership and creating their own curriculum as a supplement to the school curriculum.

Role of NGO (EPIC) in Improving School Curriculum

EPIC plays a key role as an intermediary organization to link schools with parents and other stakeholders within the community. EPIC provides educational resources and trainings to parents, teachers, administrators and other community members, which ultimately influence child education and school curriculum. EPIC is not for profit and is oriented to serve the best interests of the children. Its missions, goals and history can lead to the assumption that EPIC is politically neutral, although some programs are partly funded by the federal government.

There are many areas in education that existing NGOs work with such as providing financial aids, child care service, afterschool programs, and supplying educational materials, etc. However, what EPIC has done is different. Obviously, the study of the programs of EPIC leads to a conclusion that EPIC’s work with teachers and parents, influences school curriculum/what children learn implicitly and makes the hidden and null curricula happen in another setting outside schools.

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Improving the Curriculum (Broader Definition) and the Null/Hidden Curricula

According to the literature, curriculum does not mean only what is taught in school by teachers. The meaning of ―curriculum‖ brought to this study is its broad definition-- curriculum as experience, curriculum as reality, student activities and what they learn outside the schools. Michael Apple critiques the taught curriculum in schools by stating that the prescribed curriculum and the textbooks that were meant to teach were often extraneous and tedious for students. They respond to, and represent, ideological and cultural resources that are from somewhere, but not address all people’s visions and needs (Apple, 2004). In addition to Apple’s critic, Eisner also articulates that the hidden and null curricula are as important as the taught curriculum, which should be addressed. In response to the concerns of the two authors, this study suggests that curriculum can also be improved or expanded outside of schools, and the hidden or null curriculum can take place through the involvement of parent and teacher education, which covertly influences or broadens the curriculum that children learn at schools. To this extent, local educationbased NGOs, such as EPIC, make this happen through two ways.

1- Parent Involvement EPIC believes that parents are the children’s first teachers at home. They can influence the children’s behavior and teach their children directly and indirectly at home in many subject areas such as character development, social justice, law, anthropology, economics (as suggested by Eisner to be null curriculum which should be included in the 25

formal school curriculum). Parents can also help support or strengthen the subjects currently included in formal school curriculum such as literacy or mathematics by best fitting the learning styles of their children with the ways they process information and are taught at schools. It is obvious that most of the time children closely interact with their parents. In Eisner’s study, the mode of thought can be operated in many ways and every child has a different way of learning. So, parents are the children’s educators at home since they may better understand their children’s modes of thoughts and learning styles. The programs of EPIC respond to this concern by improving parent’s education through training –Pathway to Parenting program and Pathway to Leadership Program, and establishing a parent resource center. In the trainings, EPIC provides other subject areas such as parenting skills to teens and parents, leadership skills, and literacy to parents. This provision is a supplemental form of knowledge or a content of curriculum that students will learn and what parents will teach their children.

Just for Teens Program helps develop parenting skills—how to take care of newborns for teens who are pregnant/ or will be parents in the future. This is an important basic life skill that is ignored and not taught in schools. Moreover, the curriculum in Ready Set Read Program is designed for training parents, which covers some good topics such as brain development and learning styles, the World of Reading: Understanding how children learn to read, Reading for Your Child (for both parents and children together), Reading is Everywhere: learning through play and daily life (for both parents and children), and Helping your Child Succeed in School. These are practical literacy topics that parents can use to improve their own literacy, and they also help 26

parents learn how a child’s brain develops and why reading is critical for them. Then they can teach their children at home.

2- Teachers involvement

Apart from parents/family involvement in influencing curriculum, teachers also play an important role in supporting the curriculum at the school level. As Young (1981) suggests that to enrich the curriculum, teachers need to include a large number of topics and skills in their instruction in addition to the official prescribed curriculum. The curriculum is also a field of enquiry and action that bears upon schooling including content, teaching, learning and resources (Lowe, Holt, Centre for Educational Research and Innovation., & Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development., 1998). So, teachers have an important role in teaching and improving curriculum. The program of EPIC, Pathway to Character Education implements indirectly character education in school curriculum through teacher training. According to Brannon (2008), today children often come to school with problematic behaviors and attitudes. And many parents ignore the need for character education in schools. They are often preoccupied with test scores, grades and what the state requires students to learn (McDonnell, 2008). So, character is also another necessary null curriculum content that is absent in formal school curriculum. EPIC’s character program brings parents and schools together to build the necessary character foundation in the children. The special features of the character education program are the nine core traits that are included in the standard-based 27

infusible curriculum that teachers insert into the four core subject areas such as English Language Arts, Social Studies, Science, and Math. EPIC’s annual report has shown that the inclusion of character education into the school curriculum benefits both children and parents. Students’ behaviors have shown improvement, along with an increase in academic achievement. It also increases parent involvement in schools, strengthens the relations between parents and teachers, and embraces character education at home.

Conclusions and Recommendations

When looking across the literature and the study of the work of EPIC, it should be immediately apparent that the education-based NGOs can be an intermediary party to connect schools, parents and communities to serve the children’s learning through helping improve the school curriculum and to make the hidden and null curriculum happen. The study sought to explore a number of questions—what is meant by NGO? What is their work? What is meant by curriculum? What are the types of curricula? What are hidden and null curricula? What NGOs do to help improve curriculum (implicit and explicit)? A number of critical messages emerged from this study that can raise questions and recommendations for EPIC, school administrators and future researchers. According to the literature, the work of NGOs is constrained by the rules and regulations of the government, especially when they are dependent on government funding. Although EPIC embraces new skills or subjects directly and indirectly into the school curriculum, it inevitably has to align them with the state’s standard. Therefore, EPIC should be more flexible in terms of the topic/programs selection and implementation without losing their independence, goals or missions. EPIC should also 28

build more inter-organizational partnership/cooperation with other education-based NGOs with similar missions and schools within and out of the country to learn more about their programs, and what schools need, to improve curriculum instead of teaching students only tests. According to Henderson and Gornik (2007), administrators’ work is to work collaboratively with parents, civic leaders, and cultural communities to help solve community issues and improve the school curriculum. Thus this study also sends a message to school administrators to be transformative curriculum leaders and to pay more attention to curriculum improvement through partnering with local education-based NGOs and getting teachers involved in their programs as a part of professional development. Generally, the findings of this study also contribute to the field of educational administration through providing ways for school principals, teachers, parents, community members and educators who work in schools and school districts to better understand the curriculum and to increase their awareness of ways to improve curriculum and teaching, [not just] internally, but also externally. Furthermore, the findings highlight the need for education-based nongovernmental organizations to give more attention to assisting schools with regards to curriculum development. Ultimately this study of EPIC provides an example for existing education-based NGOs and potential NGOs to be receptive to the ideas about how to develop students’ learning through curriculum and how to partner with schools and community members to implement more curriculum-

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related programs such as the subjects-- the arts, law, economics and communication in null curriculum, as recommended by Eisner (2002). Recommendation for Further Research Because of the scope of the study is only the work of EPIC within Western New York, it is hard to say how effective the programs are in other states. Thus it is also worth conducting additional research on all the programs of EPIC in all of the states that it is located. Also, further research in this field need to be done for better understanding of education-based NGOs’ work on a wider scope-- study the work of international NGOs in other countries, does their work influence the school curriculum? What they do to improve school curriculum? Then we should do the comparative case study of international NGOs in developing countries like in the South-east Asia and those of the U.S or Canada. Another possibility for research is to study the effectiveness of international NGOs and local NGOs’ partnership in educational programs and how they contribute to the improvement of school curriculum.

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