Final Black Book (path Tracer)

Electronics & Telecom.

Path Tracer

Muchhala Polytechnic EDP’s Final Project

PATH TRACER Project In charge

Prof. K.B. Katkar Group Guide H.O.D

Prof. Aishwarya Diwane Prof. Rashmi Bhatia

Group Members Bhavesh V. Patel (Group Leader) Karan V. Shah _________________________________________________________________ 1 _

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Kunal H. Kava Varun K. Trivedi Syed Aqhsa

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DEDICATED TO OUR PARENTS

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are highly obliged to take this opportunity to express our sincere and deepest gratitude and indebtedness to all those who have contributed their valuable time are assistance in the successful completion of our project. Among the wide panorama of people we are grateful in presenting to you the rare shades of technology by documenting or project “Path Tracer”. To begin with it has to be our respected parents. They have been with us all through our thicks and thins, given us all sort of support whether it is financial support or a moral support. No doubt our basic foundation is laid by our parents but it will be a big mistake if we ignore the fact that although foundation sets the base but a building cannot stand erect without pillars and our pillar is our respected teacher and fortunately our group guide Mrs. AIshwarya We also deeply acknowledge our H.O.D Mrs. Rashmi Bhatia for their never ending encouragement, moral support & patience during the preparation of our project. We are also very thankful to Mini miss, Katkar sir & Madhuri miss giving solution for obstacles arising in our project.

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INDEX 1)

General Information

2)

Introduction

3)

Basic Principle

4)

Block Diagram

5)

Circuit Diagram

6)

Program & Flow Chart

7)

PCB Layout

8)

Components

9)

Fault Finding

10)

Advantages & Disadvantages

11)

Application

12)

Future Enhancement

13)

Bibliography

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GENERAL INFORMATION

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UNDERSTAND THE WORD ‘PROJECT’

P – Planning before carrying work R – Raw material required for work O – Organization of the work J – Joint efforts put together E – Estimation of the material C – Cost of the work T – Technique used in programming the work

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WHY PROJECT BECOMES NECESSARY?

During the past decade the skill of project management have become increasingly recognized as highly desirable for managers at all levels in an organization, most people today can benefit from the application of these skills to some part of their daily operation. The rapid growth of global market and the introduction of total quality management, continuous improvement programs and more recently the drive to redesign business processes all require these skills to some degree. All are aimed at improving organizational effectiveness and performance in a highly competitive world marketplace. The world market place is continually changing and every organization, irrespective of their service or product, must accept that internal change is a normal process to meet the demands of external changes.

The successful and effective implementation of change employs specific skills that have been traditionally owned by a select group of technical professionals. This is no longer true and the skills of managing change are essential for everyone in an organization at all levels. Change always requires a cultural shift for every one.

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Electronics & Telecom.  Introducing new processes

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

Finding new and better procedures and working practices



Throwing off the old habits to create a more dynamic and flexible organization



Ability to react effectively to market forces



Ways to maintain competitiveness



Ways to seek new horizons

To carry out such changes require some special skills. Project management provides a structured and organized way to achieve success every time.

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PLANNING Success of any project depends on careful and proper planning and efficient execution of such plan.

1. Project capacity:The first and the foremost step we saw were all factors affecting the capacity of the project. We decided that the work has to be done by all the members equally. We checked the feasibility which is most important thing to be done before starting any project, as it is obvious that any project is successful has to be practicable.

2. Distribution of work:All the partners were given equal work. It is task of each individual member to study each operation.

3. Design and drawing:Once the project was decided by us, the circuit diagram was drawn and checked by us as much details as possible. This made the execution much easier and more goals oriented. After this, P.C.B. was to be designed.

4. Material required:-

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Once the drawing of all components was prepared, it was easy to decide which of them are required for purchase. It depends on,



Details specified of each.



Quantity of each.



Price of each.



Market availability of each.

5. Operation Planning:The planning we did helped to find the best manufacturing processes so as avoid all kind of wastages. For this purpose this method study is necessary.

6. Time study:The exact time evaluation is essential for assuming the completion of project. Hence we conclude that it is necessary to work out the time required. For different processes such as:



Cost calculation



Budgeting



Procurement of capital



Design of capital

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Electronics & Telecom.  Soldering of all components stage by stage 

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Packaging and beatification of final circuitry

@ Pessimistic time:This is the assumption that everything will go badly rather than expected. Thus, it is maximum time taken for completion of project.

@ Optimistic time:In this, it is assume that everything will go well and minimum time is only required for each activity to complete under ideal condition better than normal is assumed.

@ Most likely time:This is value, which will probably the actual time. In this, it is assume that thing will in normal with few set back. This estimate of time lies between optimistic times.

7. Method study:We conducted to eliminate the wastage of all kind in material labor and time. First the work was divided into suitable stages and then each stage and their inter relationship are studied separately.

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Electronics & Telecom. 8. Equipment required:-

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After examination of the study, it became possible to decide the exact number of equipments and tools required. Drawing also helped us in deciding the requirement and accessories.

9. Budgeting:It can be defined as recast of program operation. It is based on definite period of time and can be prepared by studying statistical data. This is following types of budgeting.



Master budget



Sales budget



Production budget



Financial budget



Material budget



Labor budget

Financial budget:It is summary of capital to be received and the amount to be spending over a given period. Financial budget is most important type of project because economy is deciding factor in success or failure of any project.

10. Procurement of capital:_________________________________________________________________ 1 _ 3

Electronics & Telecom. Path Tracer Working capital is to be collected by the leader from the partners. Total cost is equally divided in number of partners. For large projects, a proper financer from industry is desirable.

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INTRODUCTIO N

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Introduction:The word “ROBOT” originates from the Czech word for forced labor, or self. It was introduced by playwright karel capek, whose frictional robotics inventions were much like Dr. Frankenstein’s monster creatures created by chemical and biological, rather than mechanical, robots of popular culture are not much different from these frictional biological creations.

Our Path Trace is an electro-mechanical device. It is as wheeled platform, arm, or other construction, capable of interacting with its environment.

Sensors are connected at bottom or around the device that is able to sense the environment and give useful feedback to the device.

Cars in large factory halls find their way with aid of sensors and track in or on the floor. The track may consist of black or dark line printed on right floor or another reflective substance such tracks can be detected with optical sensor. Other variants of track types include metal strips, which can be followed with the help of metal detector or a slot in the floor, which can be followed by probe or another mechanical device.

To avoid collagens with personal and object, most robot cars have additional sensors for instance infrared detectors cameras or a kind _________________________________________________________________ 1 _ 6

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of radar based on ultrasonic waves, laser light or radio waves. To enable them to be stopped in the (unlikely) event of collision or malfunction these robot vehicles usually have a number of easily accessible switches.

Robotics is a design and manufacture of intelligent machines that are programmed to perform specific tasks. Robots are generally designed to be a helping hand. They help us in difficult, unsafe or boring tasks. Simplify put robots are machines that can perform variety of jobs and they can range from simple machines to highly complex computer controlled intelligent system. The majority of robots today are used in factories, labs and houses. In future they might show up in the schools, homes or even in our bodies. The possibilities are end less.

Industrial

automation

gives

robotics

a

considerable

momentum to explore newer avenues of applications. Robotics is being used for industrial automation to extent that the terms robotics and industrial automation have become synonyms in the industrial word. The advance made in the field of mechatronics has virtually made sign of robotics system much easier, the need is only to identify right product for application.

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BASIC PRINCIPLE

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Basic Principle:-

Path Tracer works on the following principle. It uses optical sensor techniques for detecting black or dark color line. The presence and absence of black line will detect by IR sensor and proportional output will fetch by microcontroller. Thus microcontroller decides further action of robot. This output is helpful to motor driver IC for driving the motor in required direction.

At time any one sensor will detect the particular black line. The respective LED, which is glowing, indicates that a particular sensor had detected black line and there depending on black line, the output of respective sensor will changes and then microcontroller will take the decision that in one direction motor has to drive the car.

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BLOCK DIAGRAM

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Block Diagram:The adjoining sketch represents the block diagram of our Path Tracer. It basically consists of four parts.

1. Sensors [LED, LDR, Comparator IC LM324] 2. Microcontroller [AT 89C2051] 3. Motor driver IC[L293D] 4. Motors [D.C. Motor]

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Electronics & Telecom.

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Block Diagram Description: -

Sensors: The four sensors are the primary part of our project. Out of these four sensors any one of the sensors will active and the activating of sensor is depending on root of black line. When ever particular sensor detects black line, it passes output to comparator.

Comparator: Sensor will detect black or dark path, and send signal to comparator block. Depending on the signal send by sensors comparator will give according output to microcontroller

Microcontroller: The microcontroller is already programmed; when ever input arises it executes program and then respective output will pass to motor driver IC.

Motor driver IC: Motor driver IC is used to provide sufficient voltage and current to motor. It takes input from the microcontroller and drives the motor in required direction.

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Power supply: Power supply block is used to supply power to different blocks of our circuit.

IR Receiver: Receiver will receive signal transmitted from IR Transmitter. And the received signal will be send to microcontroller.

IR Transmitter: Work of IR transmitter is to transmit signal. The transmitted signal will be send to IR Receiver.

Basic Sensor Part: The sensors are primary part of our project. It is used to detect the black line. It is also called as black line sensor. Here we are using LDR &LED as a black line sensor. LDR & LED pair consists of transmitter & receiver. The transmitter is LED & receiver is LDR.

We have to arrange transmitter & receiver as shown. The distance between the surface & the sensor i.e. height of the sensor from the surface is 15mm. Here the TX is transmitter and Rx is receiver. The distance between TX and Rx is 2.5mm.

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The combination of LED and LDR make one sensor. So this type of four sensors is being used here.

As shown here, we have connected the sensors in four universal directions i.e. right, left, front and rare. The sensors are connected at the distance of 2cm from the middle point in all this four direction. The position of each sensor is,

 Sensor 1 - Right 

Sensor 2 - Back



Sensor 3 - Front



Sensor 4 - Left

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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Circuit Diagram: -

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Circuit Diagram Description: The circuit uses 4 sensors, 1 LM324 IC and 1 resistor of value 270 ohms, 10 k ohms and 470 ohms. The whole circuit is working on +5v supply. IC LM324 is comparator IC which consists of four comparators. At the non inverting terminal of all comparator we had set one voltage with the help of potentiometer. The inverting terminals of all the comparators are connected to collector of respective phototransistor i.e. receiver. The collector of all phototransistors connected to +5v supply through 10kohms resistor and emitter is grounded. Also the anode of all IR LED is connected to +5v supply through 270 ohms resistors and cathode is grounded. The LED is connected at the o/p of each comparator to +5v through 470 ohms for indicating that particular sensor is working.

Working of Circuit: The working of circuit can be understood by dividing it in two parts.

1) When LED emits Green light on black line and if there is presence of black line, it absorbs Green light and it remains off. The voltage divided network create voltage drop across resistance and given to inverting terminal of comparator so the o/p of respective comparator goes low and the particular LED will glow.

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Electronics & Telecom.

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2) Now when there is absence of black line, the green light which is transmitted by LED will receive by LDR. The low voltage at the collector of phototransistor will pass to inverting terminal of particular sensor will go high. So the respective LED will not glow.

So in short, at a time any one sensor will active and glowing of LED indicates that the particular sensor has detects black line.

Main Circuit: As we seen that the primary part of our project is sensor circuit and now we will see the secondary part of our circuit to which the o/p of sensor is given.

Construction: The outputs of these four sensors are given to port 5 of microcontroller. Port 5 of microcontroller is used as input port. Output of microcontroller is given to motor driver IC L293D. Port1 is used as an output port. Start switch is provided to restart the microcontroller by resetting the microcontroller we can start the robot. The output from out 1 and out 2 pin of L293D is given to right motor and output from out 3 and out 4 is given to left motor. Vcc to AT89C2051 and L293D is +5v and Vm to L293D is +10v.

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Working: When supply is ON sensor will detect black line and respective output will pass to microcontroller. When start switch is pressed. Microcontroller will read data of port 3. Microcontroller is already programmed after reading the data of port 3; microcontroller will execute the program and it will generate respective output which is then passed to L293D. Depending on output of microcontroller AT89C2051, Motor driver IC L293D will rotate the motor in respective direction and hence robot will go in the direction of black line and follows it.

Power Supply: To provide power supply to circuit we are using three Ni-Cadmium batteries. One cell provides 3.6v so such three cells provide total 11V and 800mA current. The battery is connected to IC 7805 which is regulator IC to achieve constant +5V supply. Thus we will get +11v & +5v supply. This +5v is used to provide Vcc supply to all the IC'S & 12v of supply of battery is applied to Vm pin of L293D which is reference for motor.

Transmitter: Here transmitter used is a IR Tx, it is use to ON / OFF path tracer. IC 555 is used as a transmitter in astable mode which generate

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Electronics & Telecom. Path Tracer frequency of 38k Hz and o/p is taken from pin no. 3 which is given to IR LED to transmit a signal.

Receiver: The transmitted signal is received by IC Tsop1738 it receive IR signal end give o/p at pin no. 3. That o/p is given to pin no.2 of IC 555 which is working in mono stable mode. This will increase the time period of received signal and o/p is taken from pin no. 3 of IC 555 end given to clock input of IC 4027. Which have two JK Flip-Flop which work as a T-Flip Flop and output of first flip-flop is given to pin number 18 of microcontroller and output of another flip flop is given to 1 of microcontroller

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PROGRAM & FLOW CHART

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Flow chart: -

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Program: -

*#cpu 8051 Tiny * * DDS MICRO-C 8031/51 Startup Code & Runtime library for TINY model * * Copyright 1991-1999 Dave Dunfield * All rights reserved. * ORG

$0000

$0800 CODE Starts here (Normally in ROM)

LJMP START

ORG

$0003

LJMP SERVICE_EX0

ORG

$000B

LJMP SERVICE_TIMER0_INTERRUPT

* Fixed memory locations for alternate access to the R0-R7 register bank. * If you are NOT useing BANK 0, these equates must be adjusted. ?R0

EQU 0

Used for "POP" from stack

?R1

EQU ?R0+1

Used to load index indirectly

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Electronics & Telecom. ?R2 EQU ?R0+2

""

?R3

EQU ?R0+3

Used by some runtime lib functions

?R4

EQU ?R0+4

?R5

EQU ?R0+5

?R6

EQU ?R0+6

?R7

EQU ?R0+7

""

""

Path Tracer ""

* * Startup code entry point * * If you are NOT using interrupts, you can reclaim 50 bytes * of code space by removing the following TWO lines. *

AJMP

*

DS

*+$0032

Skip interrupt vectors

$0032-2

Reserve space for interrupt vectors

* START EQU

*

MOV SP,#?stk-1

Set up initial stack

ORL TMOD,#%00000001

set timer 0 to be counter 16 bit

SETB

IE.7

$AF EA

SETB

IE.1

$A9 ET0 Enable timer 0 interrupt

SETB

TCON.4

LCALL SJMP

*

start timer 0

main

Execute program

JUMP HERE

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* EXIT to MON51 by calling the 'timer1' interrupt vector ($001B). * This causes MON51 to think that a single-step operation has just * completed, and therefore it saves the user registers, and performs * a context switch back to the monitor. * * When using 2K addressing (CC51: -Z option, ASM51: -A option) this LCALL * may fail "Out of range" because it gets translated to ACALL, and $001B * may not be in the same 2K block as your program. Since 2K devices cannot * support a debugger, change the ORG to $0000, and ...... * * If you are NOT using MON51 (or MONICA which works the same), you will * need to change this to whatever action you desire when main() returns. * Suggestions: 1:freeze (SJMP *) 2:Restart (SJMP *&$FF00) exit

LCALL SJMP exit

$001B

Call Timer-1 interrupt Incase he go's again

**************************** My code *********************************

SERVICE_TIMER0_INTERRUPT EQU * _________________________________________________________________ 3 _ 5

Electronics & Telecom. PUSH ACC

Path Tracer

PUSH PSW MOV TH0,#$FF

reload timer 0 for ms

MOV TL0,#$00 INC tick

MOV A,tick CJNE A,#100,RIGHT MOV tick,#0

RIGHT CLR C SUBB A,speedright JC ON_RIGHT CLR P1.0 SJMP LEFT

ON_RIGHT SETB P1.0

LEFT MOV A,tick CLR C SUBB A,speedleft _________________________________________________________________ 3 _ 6

Electronics & Telecom. JC ON_LEFT

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CLR P1.1

SJMP EXIT_I

ON_LEFT SETB P1.1

EXIT_I POP PSW POP ACC RETI

SERVICE_EX0 EQU * INC cputick RETI

$SE:1 *#map1 Segment 1, initialized variables $SE:2 *#map2 Segment 2, internal "register" variables ORG $0008

Internal ram ALWAYS starts here

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tick

Path Tracer

DS 1

speedright DS 1 speedleft cputick

DS 1 DS 1

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PCB LAYOUT

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P.C.B.: A printed circuit board can be defined as an insulating base material to which permanently attached a flat metallic network of conducting paths whose dimension depends upon the current that can be handled by them. The P.C.B used for this project is single sided one.

The basic material used may be resin coated papers, fiber glass, ceramic and the flat board configuration, however, is most widely used and it may be of the nature of single "mother board" into which smaller boards are plugged by the especially designed connectors which ensures adequate and permanent low resistance coupling.

Board Design: P.C.B designing is the most important and requires great care during work. In this case great are must be taken while tracing the circuit or the layout on the board because once PCB is designed, it is virtually impossible to alter it. While designing a circuit designer should take care to avoid crossing of conducting paths (tracks) as possible. Crossovers are unavoidable then only of the jumper can be used. Circuit board carrying copper on both the sides can also help to solve this problem when circuit is complicated.

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Main Circuit: 

Track Side layout of P.C.B: -

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

Path Tracer

Components Side Layout Of P.C.B: -

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Transmitter Circuit: 

Track Side layout of P.C.B: -



Components Side Layout Of P.C.B: -

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The Master DiagramThe next stage lies in proportion to designing i.e. to prepare “master diagram” which is commonly made twice as the finished circuit, since this makes the working on that much easier, especially when the circuit is complicated photography eventually reduces the size of the diagram to that circuit, before proceeding we must know some rules regarding the designing.



The space between the conductors must be strictly controlled to avoid the possibility of electrical discharge or unwanted capacitance. The amount by which the master diagram is to reduce in size is thus a critical design feature.



The conductor must be wider in those parts of circuits that are going to handle large currents must be handled without undue temperature of conductors.

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Electronics & Telecom.



Path Tracer

The minimum width of copper should not generally be less than about 1.5mm. This is related to mechanical strength rather electrical properties and it also ensures that strips remains securely bounded to the base material.



The points where the component holes for component lead wire occurs must be sited to suit the dimensions of the component and dimensions between lead-out wires, so that, the components can be situated correctly on finished board. The conductor is also main large at the point of holes.

P.C.B Making: When the master probable twice the size of real PCB has been involved, the text major step consists of etching or dissolving the unwanted meal from copper cladded board to create the circuit as depicted by master diagram. It must be stressed that very accurate checking of master is essential at this stage. Then, the master point is mounted on a special fame on easy facing of a larger camera and with the aid of the very powerful illumination a master diagram is clearly photographed on a glass sensitive plate. This is developed to give photographic negative. Next so called “step and repeat camera” is brought

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Electronics & Telecom. Path Tracer into operation. This comprises the camera body mounted so that side ways after each exposure. In this way number of copies of the original master diagram is setout exactly to cover standard sheet of copper clad lamination laboratory method of making PCB.

In case of simple and need of number of less PCB, economic and advisable to use the following lab method of PCB making.



Planning The Circuit: Although this is not particularly difficult, there are several

important factors that need not be taken into account. If the finished device is to work properly we must consider gain factor and ensure that the input and output parts are sufficiently well isolated to avoid the possibility. We must also that conductors and components carrying high frequency current are well separated from these parts of the circuits. We are also to make sure that all components need to return to earth are properly connected and that possibility of common impedance arising in earth returned. Circuit is totally eliminated by making all earth as substantial as consistent with nature of design. Other factors that have to successfully study include availability of adequate return points on board and it’s mounting from accessibility of switch connections made for mechanical fixing ventilation effect of vibration.



Cleaning The Board:-

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Electronics & Telecom. Path Tracer The copper side of the board must be thoroughly cleaned before circuit plan is transferred to it.

This is very important because even slightest trance of graze (from figure of instance) will impure the etching process and when the circuit plan has been neatly transferred to copper in this manner the board is held under running tap and allowed to dry before resist is applied.



Transforming The Plan:Now, once cleaning is done plan has to transfer on copper

surface of PCB material. A convenient way to do this is simply put a carbon paper between a copper surface of the board and working plan and carefully trace the lines of original plan with a ball pen.



Resist:Resist is northing more than a substance that is unaffected

by presence etching chemicals. It is usually colored so that, it can be easily seen the copper that are to be left in fact as the copper conductors must be covered when resists the leaguer type of paints posses good resists properties but disadvantages of relatively long time taken for drying. It is essential to resist.

Through hardening before etching is started. Nail polished are better as they quickly and are less difficult to remove. _________________________________________________________________ 4 _ 7

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To overcome this drying effect and to achieve the sharp edges of the trace on the PCB, now-a-days, etching taps along with IC pads are commonly used. The etching taps and pads are available in different sizes.



Correcting Errors:When a result has been thoroughly hardened any errors that

have been made can usually be corrected by gently scratching away with knife. To ensure clear out lines round edges of copper conductor’s board he resist must be applied with steady band.



Etching: Next comes etching of unwanted copper and whether a small

single is all that is required as quantity of board to be produced certain precautions must be taken before operation is commenced the most used etch anti ferric chloride and to this is added small quantity of HCL to

Accelerate, but not critical as lab construction is concerned. Mixing 10 grams of ferric chloride and 25 grams of HCL with 15 grams of water can produce a good etch ant.

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Electronics & Telecom.  Agitation: -

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Small plastic bath is idle for storing the etch ant process. The depth of liquid must be sufficient to completely cover laminate; the laminated board carrying the resist pattern circuit is then dropped into etch ant bath and the gentle agitation takes 5 to 20 minutes to complete depending on the strength of the etch ant temperature and thickness of copper foil.



Finishing Off: When all unwanted copper is dissolved from areas between

conductors, beard should be taken from an etch ant and washed in water. The .resist must be polished with any kind of cleaner. It should be seen that there is no slight incomplete etching between the conducing paths of the PCB. The PCBs are coated coating material for protection in lab

Coating itself is a solder. This process is called tinning. This process of coating involves tracks with solder. Advantage of tinning the effect of environment of conductors, then PCB is drilled i.e. holes for filling and mounting the components on PCB are drilled with suitable drill bit.



Assembling Of PCB:After the holes are drilled, the components have to be

assembled on PCB. Before assembling the components it is necessary to clean soldering iron in order to get easy and accurate soldering. Removing _________________________________________________________________ 4 _ 9

Electronics & Telecom. Path Tracer impurity particles that are gathered on iron bit due to repetitive use cleans soldering iron.

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COMPONENTS

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Component List: 1) The Sensor Circuit: ITEMS IC1 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 D5 D6 D7 D8 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4

SPECIFICATION LM324 270 ohms 270 ohms 270 ohms 270 ohms 10 k ohms 10 k ohms 10 k ohms 10 k ohms 470 ohms 470 ohms 470 ohms 470 ohms LED1 LED2 LED3 LED4 LDR LDR LDR LDR

2) Main Circuit: ITEMS IC1 IC2 R1 R2 C1 C2 C3 D1 X

SPECIFICATION AT89C2051 L293D 8.2 K ohms 220 ohms 10 mf 30 Pf 30 Pf IV4007 11.0592 MHZ

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Electronics & Telecom. IC3 IC4 IC5 MI M2

Path Tracer CD4027 LM555 TSOP1738 30 RPM gear motor 30 RPM gear motor

3) Power Supply Circuit: ITEMS IC1 CI C2 C3 D1 Battery

SPECIFICATION 7805 1000MF,50V 1MF,50V 0.1MF 1N4007 NI-CD 3.6*3=11

4) Miscellaneous: 

START SWITCH



WIRES

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Electronics & Telecom.



Path Tracer

Microcontroller IC 89C2051: -

Features: -



Compatible with MCS®-51Products



2K Bytes of Reprogrammable Flash Memory  Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles



2.7V to 6V Operating Range



Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz



Two-level Program Memory Lock



128 x 8-bit Internal RAM



15 Programmable I/O Lines



Two 16-bit Timer/Counters



Six Interrupt Sources



Programmable Serial UART Channel



Direct LED Drive Outputs

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Electronics & Telecom. 

On-chip Analog Comparator

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Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes

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Green (Pb/Halide-free) Packaging Option

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Internal Block Diagram:-

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Description: The AT89C2051 is a low-voltage, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 2K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read-only memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C2051 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications.

The AT89C2051 provides the following standard features: 2K bytes of Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, 15 I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters, a five vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, a precision analog comparator, on-chip oscillator and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89C2051 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning. The power-down mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the next hardware reset.

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Pin Description: 1) VCC Supply voltage.

2) GND Ground.

3) Port 1 The Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port. Port pins P1.2 to P1.7 provide internal pull-ups. P1.0 and P1.1 require external pull-ups. P1.0 and P1.1 also serve as the positive input (AIN0) and the negative input (AIN1), respectively, of the on-chip precision analog comparator. The Port 1 output buffers can sink 20 mA and can drive LED displays directly. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they can be used as inputs. When pins P1.2 to P1.7 are used as inputs and are externally pulled low, they will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 1 also receives code data during Flash programming and verification.

4) Port 3 Port 3 pins P3.0 to P3.5, P3.7 are seven bi-directional I/O pins with internal pull-ups. P3.6 is hard-wired as an input to the output of the on-chip comparator and is not accessible as a general- purpose I/O pin. The Port 3 output buffers can sink 20 mA. When 1s are written to Port

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3 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89C2051 as listed below: Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification.

5) RST Reset input. All I/O pins are reset to 1s as soon as RST goes high. Holding the RST pin high for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device. Each machine cycle takes 12 oscillator or clock cycles.

6) XTAL1 Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.

Port Pin Alternate Functions P3.0 RXD (serial input port) P3.1 TXD (serial output port) P3.2 INT0 (external interrupt 0) P3.3 INT1 (external interrupt 1) P3.4 T0 (timer 0 external input) _________________________________________________________________ 5 _ 8

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P3.5 T1 (timer 1 external input)

7) XTAL2 Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

Oscillator Characteristics: The XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier which can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator; either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven. There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be observed.

Special Function Registers: A map of the on-chip memory area called the Special Function Register (SFR) space is shown in the table below. Note that not all of the addresses are occupied, and unoccupied addresses may not be implemented on the chip. Read accesses to these addresses will in general return random data, and write accesses will have an indeterminate effect. User software should not write 1s to these unlisted locations, since

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they may be used in future products to invoke new features. In that case, the reset or inactive values of the new bits will always be.

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Comparator IC LM324: -

Specifications: 

True Differential Input Stage

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Single Supply Operation: 3.0 V to 32 V (LM224, LM324, LM324A)

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Low Input Bias Currents: 100 nA Maximum (LM324A)

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Four Amplifiers Per Package

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Internally Compensated

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Common Mode Range Extends to Negative Supply

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Industry Standard Pin outs

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ESD Clamps on the Inputs Increase Ruggedness without Affecting

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Device Operation

Description: The LM324 series are low–cost, quad operational amplifiers with true differential inputs. They have several distinct advantages over standard operational amplifier types in single supply applications. The quad amplifier can operate at supply voltages as low as 3.0 V or as high as 32 V with quiescent currents about one–fifth of those associated with the MC1741 (on a per amplifier basis). The common mode input range includes the negative supply, thereby eliminating the necessity for external biasing components in many applications. The output voltage range also includes the negative power supply voltage.

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IC L293D: -

Specification: 

600ma output current capability

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Per channel

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1.2a peak output current (non repetitive)

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Per channel

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Enable facility

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Over temperature protection

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Logical”0” input voltage up to 1.5 v

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High noise immunity

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Internal clamp diodes

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Description: The device is a monolithic integrated high voltage, High current four channel driver designed to Accept standard DTL or TTL logic levels and drive Inductive loads (such as relays solenoids, dc And stepping motors) and switching power transistors. To simplify use as two bridges each pair of channels Is equipped with an enable input. A separate Supply input is provided for the logic, allowing operation at a lower voltage and internal clamp diodes are included. This device is suitable for use in switching applications at frequencies up to 5 kHz. The L293d is assembled in a 16 lead plastic Package which has 4 center pins connected together and used for heat sink. The L293dd is assembled in a 20 lead surface Mount which has 8 center pins connected together and used for heat sink.

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IC 555: -

Features: 

High Current Drive Capability (200mA)

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Adjustable Duty Cycle

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Temperature Stability of 0.005%/C

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Timing From Sec to Hour

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Turn off Time Less Than 2

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Description: The LM555 is a highly stable controller capable of producing accurate timing pulses. With a monostable operation, the time delay is controlled by one external resistor and one capacitor. With an astable operation, the frequency and duty cycle are accurately controlled by two external resistors and one capacitor.

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IC 4027: -

Description: The HEF4027B is a dual JK flip-flop which is edge-triggered and features independent set direct (SD), clear direct (CD), clock (CP) inputs and outputs (O,O). Data is accepted when CP is LOW, and transferred to the output on the positive-going edge of the clock. The active HIGH asynchronous clear-direct (CD) and set-direct (SD) are independent and override the J, K, and CP inputs. The outputs are buffered for best system performance. Schmitt-trigger action in the clock input makes the circuit highly tolerant to slower clock rise and fall times.

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IC TSOP1738: -

The TSOP17 – series are miniaturized receivers for infrared remote control systems. PIN diode and preamplifier are assembled on lead frame; the epoxy package is designed as IR filter The demodulated output signal can directly be decoded by a microprocessor. TSOP17 is the standard IR remote control receiver series, supporting all major transmission codes.

Features: 

Photo detector and preamplifier in one package

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Internal filter for PCM frequency

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Improved shielding against electrical field disturbance

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TTL and CMOS compatibility

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Output active low

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Low power consumption

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High immunity against ambient light

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Continuous data transmission possible (up to 2400 bps)

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Suitable burst length 10 cycles/burst

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IC 7805: -

Features: 

Output Current In Excess Of 1a;

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No External Components Required;

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Internal Short Circuit Current Limiting;

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Internal Thermal Overload Protection;

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Output Transistor Safe-Area Compensation;

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Output Voltage Offered In 4% Tolerance.

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Resistors: -

Capacitor: -

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FAULT FINDING

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Fault Finding: -

Fault finding is the process of finding out fault in the circuit. Its plays a vital role in or project because it helps us to detect our mistake and thus guide to the path of success.

In this process each and every component section of the circuit and a complete circuit as a whole is checked to rectify the faults present if any. While doing so if any fault is detected, firstly its root cause is found out and appropriate correction is done. After making corrections the same process is repeated to assure accurate result.

So, we must not forget to note a point that in any project the process of trouble shooting should be included to make your project successful one.

Its rarely happens that any project work is accomplished without any problem. During the project we also had to face many problems.

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Difficulty Occurred During Project: -

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Micro controller IC 89C2051 was not readily available in the market so we had to travel again and again to the IC stockiest, while collecting the components.

SOLUTION: We requested the stockiest to arrange the IC as soon as possible.

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While soldering the components on the PCB, proper soldering was not done as we were not trained.

SOLUTION: We had taken help from lab assistant; he assisted in the work of soldering.

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While mounting micro controller IC 89C2051 on PCB the IC was getting short circuited.

SOLUTION: There was some fault in soldering process. Some where in circuit soldering was not done proper so there was wrong connection. _________________________________________________________________ 7 _ 7

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The car was operating in opposite condition i.e. when car has to move in right direction, the car will take left turn. And when the car has to move in left direction the car will take right turn. So car deflected from the path and it comes in toggle condition and stops over there only.

SOLUTION: We have connected motors of the car in wrong way. We have connected left motor to the signal coming of right motor and left motor to the signal coming of right motor. We interchanged the connection of motor.

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ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAG ES _________________________________________________________________ 7 _ 9

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Advantages: -

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It does not require a driver or a person to look after it. Once the path is laid and the project is implemented, then it works on its own.

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It can be easily operated through a remote from long distance.

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It simplifies the modification in routing

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If any change in route has to be incorporated, it is easy to repaint the mat with the new route or lay the mat according to new route.

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It eliminates expensive rail tracks and conveyors which needs maintenance.

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It is more economical then conveyor belts and railway tracks.

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It requires less maintenance then conveyor belts and railway tracks.

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It operates on very low power.

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It works on 12 volts battery or directly through external power supply.

Disadvantages: -

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It needs a path with a dark line to act as a guide.

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It is not programmed such a way that it can take its own decisions.

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It is not as intelligent as human.

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APPLICATIONS

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Applications: -

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Its can be used in Gold mines or diamond mines where it is not possible for humans to go or trustworthy

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In chemical and cement industries where raw materials are required to be frequently transferred from one place to another.

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It can be used in automated car parking systems

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It is applicable where goods are to be transported in small sections.

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It can be used in shopping in malls for helping customers in carrying goods.

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Can be used in factories, airports, etc.

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It can be used in toys.

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It can be used to transport goods in remote places where the temperature is high and humans can’t reach.

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FUTURE ENHANCEMEN T

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Future Enhancement: -

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The line it follows can be totally eliminated by introducing G.P.S. (Global Positioning System) in the project.

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The black line path or dark path can be replaced by metal strip and just modifying in our project from path tracer to metal detector.

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It can be made interfaced to computer via serial port or HyperTerminal by just adding an IC.

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By making certain changes in circuit, car can be made run on white path and surface would be of dark color.

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By adding Proxy Detector, it will stop automatically if there is some blockage on path.

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Features like overweight indications, check-in time, check-out time speed indications, etc. can be added or set according to requirement.

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Electronics & Telecom. Path Tracer  With using latest SMD technologies, it can be reduced in a size.

BIBLIOGRAPH Y

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Bibliography: -

Web-sites: -

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Our basic idea of Path Tracer is extracted from website www.roobotroom.com

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Other ideas and more information we got searching from www.google.co.in

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We also got through the website www.x-robotics.com.

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We got through www.alldatasheet.com for our paper work.

Reference books: -

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We referred book on microcontroller for information on our microcontroller 89C2051

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Digital principles and application by Malvino Leach

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Programming customizing 8051 microcontroller by Predko

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Software Used: -

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Atmel data manual for instructions of 89C2051.

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Atmel programmer kit.

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