Exam Answers Edexcel A

The New Wider World Coursemate Edexcel A Answers to Exam Practice questions Chapter 1 The physical world 1 a Waterfalls and rapids develop when the river meets a band of softer, less resistant rock after flowing over an area of hard, resistant rock. The less resistant rock is eroded more rapidly due to abrasion and after a time the harder rock is undercut. In time the harder rock hangs over the softer rock and eventually collapses. Rapids occur in a similar way where the layers of hard and soft rock are very thin. b V-shaped valleys and interlocking spurs are formed when a river flows through an upland area and cuts downwards in a process called vertical erosion. This creates narrow, steepsided valleys shaped like the letter V. Valley sides are steep as loose rocks and soil are washed into the river by heavy rain. The rocks are carried by the river and used to erode the river bed and sides by abrasion. The river itself is forced to wind its way around protruding hillsides, known as interlocking spurs. (4) 2

The diagrams should be similar to Figure 1.5 with annotations as follows: „ Water flows slowly on the inside of the bend where there is an increase in friction and a decrease in velocity. This leads to deposition and the formation of a slip-off slope „ On the outside of the bend water flows faster, there is less friction and the river has more energy to erode the banks. The river bank is undercut, leading to the formation of a small river cliff. „ Over time the neck of the meander gets narrower until the river cuts across to flow in a straight line and leave a small crescent shaped ox-bow lake. (6)

3

The cross-section should be like Figure 1.8 with the following annotations: „ Freeze–thaw weakens the rock face as water in cracks in the rock freezes and expands repeatedly. „ Weakened rock is pulled away by the ice, a process known as plucking. „ Rocks carried in the ice erode the land by abrasion and form a hollow. „ Material is deposited as moraine and forms a corrie lip which keeps water in the corrie. (6)

4

Moraine is the name given to material carried by the glacier and deposited when the ice melts and the glacier retreats. If moraine is deposited at the end of a glaciated valley it may be slightly higher than the surrounding area and allow water to collect behind it to form a ribbon lake. (4)

5 a Hydraulic action is erosion caused by the sheer force of the waves breaking off small pieces of rock. b Attrition is caused when rocks carried in the waves bump into each other and break up into smaller pieces. c Corrosion is erosion caused by acids in sea water dissolving rocks by chemical action. (6) 6

The diagram should be like Figure 1.18 with the following annotations:

„ „

Longshore drift transports material along the coastline. A break of current is reached, for example at the mouth of a river, and the end of the spit becomes curved. (4)

Chapter 2 The human world 1

A natural increase in population is when there are more births than deaths and the population of a country is growing (BR – DR = NI). It is measured per 1000 of the population. (2)

2

Birth and death rates can be influenced by a variety of factors: „ Health: improvements in health care lower infant mortality rates. Birth rates subsequently fall as parents no longer need to have more children in the hope that some will survive. Death rates also fall as more diseases are treatable. „ Economic: increased wealth is associated with a falling birth rate (as has happened in MEDCs such as the UK) whereas in many LEDCs children are needed to work to grow food for the family, so birth rates remain high. Sometimes in a wealthy, developed society with an ageing population, death rates from heart problems and cancer may rise. „ Social: the changing role of women in society, greater equality and the use of contraception leads to a fall in the birth rates. Improvements in sanitation and the provision of a clean water supply can reduce death rates in LEDCs. „ Political: strict government schemes, e.g. China’s one-child policy, have been accompanied by a fall in birth rates, although in India, where the population comprises people with a variety of cultures, religions and languages, it has not be so easy for the government to influence birth rates. In a situation of political unrest, or when a country is at war, death rates may temporarily rise. (4)

3

The demographic transition model is a model that tries to show how changes in birth and death rates over a period of time may be related to different stages of economic development. (2)

4

MEDCs and LEDCs are at different stages of the demographic transition model due to the close links between levels of development and natural increase. In LEDCs, where there has been very little industrial growth, birth and death rates remain high. As health care improves, maybe with help from MEDCs, the death rate falls and this is later followed by a drop in birth rates. In the most highly industrialised MEDCs, having children is not a priority for many couples and so birth rates are very low. High levels of health care increase life expectancy and create a stable population. (4)

5

The pyramid should be like Figure 1.9 (India) on page 9 of The New Wider World with the following annotations: „ Wide base reflects high birth rates with large numbers of children needing medical care and education. „ Bars very quickly become smaller, reflecting a high infant mortality rate. Children die young due to lack of government funds to treat illnesses and provide vaccinations. „ Very narrow top shows high death rates due to poor living standards. Life expectancy is low and government money is needed to improve housing and food supply. (6)

6

Diagram should be similar to Figure 2.14 with the following annotations: „ An isolated, individual building, or a group of two or three buildings, perhaps forming a hamlet, and separated from the next group by 2–3 km is a dispersed settlement.

„ „

Several buildings grouped together, initially for defensive purposes and later for social and economic reasons, is a nucleated settlement. Buildings strung out along a line of communication, a river valley (e.g. in South Wales) or a canal or dyke form a linear settlement. (3)

7

There are many ways in which physical and economic factors affect the location, shape and growth of settlements. Water is an important physical factor as it is needed every day. In lowland Britain, many early settlements were located at wet-point sites near springs at the foot of chalk or limestone escarpments. In other, perhaps marshy areas dry-point sites were needed to avoid flooding or unhealthy marshland, e.g. Ely. Hills and the inside of meander bends provided good defensive sites for settlements such as Edinburgh and Durham. Wood was often beneficial for building material and fuel and fertile farmland enabled cattle to be reared and crops grown. Important economic factors include the ability to trade with other settlements, so a location at a route centre was an advantage. Many settlements developed important economic functions because of their location, e.g. ports developed at natural harbours. (5)

8

In a town in an MEDC, such as Burnley, Lancashire, the CBD is found in the centre surrounded by the twilight zone and old, nineteenth-century back-to-back housing. Modern residential areas and industrial estates have developed at the outskirts of the town. In Rio de Janeiro, an LEDC city, the CBD is surrounded by luxury apartments close to the bay and beaches. Poorer shanty towns are found closer to the outskirts, although some of these have now been replaced with newer homes built by the local authorities. (4)

Chapter 3 The economic world 1

Two hundred years ago in the UK, most people worked in the primary sector as farmers. One hundred years ago, after the Industrial Revolution, many more people worked in the secondary sector in steelworks, shipyards and textile mills. In the twentieth century farming and industry became more mechanised and needed fewer workers. At the same time, more people were needed to work in the tertiary sector, in schools, hospitals, shops, offices and transport. Today all regions of the UK have their highest percentage of workers in the tertiary sector and their lowest percentage in the primary sector; the South West has the highest percentage in the tertiary sector and the two Midland regions have the highest percentage in the secondary sector. (5)

2

The richer, industrialised MEDCs such as the USA, have a very high percentage in the tertiary sector (2%). In contrast, the poorer, least industrialised LEDCs such as Ethiopia, have a very high percentage in the primary sector (87% – most are farmers) and a low percentage in both the secondary and tertiary sectors (2% and 11% respectively). (5) In the Lower Ganges Valley, the Green Revolution (the introduction of high-yielding varieties of rice) brought both benefits and problems. Food production increased and shortages were less frequently experienced. An extra crop could be grown each year so more food was available and prices fell. Less money was lost as a result of diseased crops as the new varieties were more resistant to disease. Some farmers were able to grow extra crops which could be sold to make a profit and many of the more well-off farmers became richer. However, the HYVs needed large amounts of fertilisers and pesticides which increased costs, encouraged the growth of weeds and polluted water supplies. Many poorer farmers in Bangladesh did not own the land they farmed and could not afford to buy seeds, fertilisers and tractors. As a result they became even poorer. In addition, the mechanisation of farming led to unemployment and increased migration to cities such as the capital Dhaka.

3

(5) 4

Changing EU policy has affected activities on Lynford House Farm in East Anglia. As the EU is trying to reduce overproduction, 27.1 hectares of land have now been set aside and no crops are grown on them. The farmer earns 6% of his income from an EU subsidy called Arable Area Aid paid on wheat crops. In order to make up for income lost through set-aside land, diversification has taken place. There are 12 bungalows on the farm which are let out and may be sold in the future. They have become available as fewer farm labourers are needed. In the future, there may be wind turbines on the farm which will produce enough clean energy for 3500 homes and give the farmer additional income from renting his land to Eastern Generation and Wind Prospect, the two companies involved. (5)

5

An annotated sketch map is an ideal way of answering this type of question – a simplified version of Figure 9.10 on page 140 of The New Wider World would be useful, with the following features highlighted and annotated: „ M4 and railway lines provide good access to London and other major towns. „ Heathrow airport is nearby for business people. „ Other high-tech firms and research centres encourage more people to locate here. „ A large labour force is available in towns such as Reading and Swindon. „ Universities such as Oxford are nearby providing expertise and research facilities. „ The surrounding environment is attractive for residents with hills such as the Mendips and Chilterns. (5)

6

TNCs, such as Fiat, can bring both benefits and problems to an LEDC such as Brazil. The benefits include jobs as local labour is used, giving people a guaranteed income; levels of education and skills are improved as the workforce becomes trained; the country’s GNP improves and increased personal wealth creates greater demand for consumer goods, encouraging further development of industry. Despite the fact that new jobs are created, total numbers employed remain small and, by Western standards, the local labour force is poorly paid. Managerial posts are filled by foreign workers brought in by the company. Most of the profits go overseas as Fiat’s headquarters are in Spain. Finally, the company may not pay sufficient attention to the health and safety of its workers and the protection of the environment. (5)

Chapter 4 1

The natural world

An easy way to describe the origins and characteristics of the four main air masses which affect the UK is to draw a rough sketch to represent the UK (a triangle will do) and then add four annotated arrows representing the air masses: „ Polar maritime (Pm) air – originates from the north-west, occurs frequently and brings cool, wet weather „ Polar continental (Pc) air – originates from Siberia, not very frequent and gives cooler, drier weather „ Tropical maritime (Tm) air – originates from the south-west, occurs most frequently and brings warm, wet conditions „ Tropical continental (Tc) air – originates from the south and south east, the least frequent and gives warm, dry conditions (4)

2 a Relief rainfall is formed when warm, almost saturated air from the sea is blown inland by the wind. The air is forced to rise, especially if there is a coastal mountain barrier. The rising air cools, condensation occurs and clouds and rain are formed.

b Frontal rainfall is associated with depressions and results from warm, moist air from the tropics meeting colder, drier air from polar areas. The two air masses do not mix and the lighter, warmer, moister air is forced to rise above the denser, colder, drier air. Again, condensation, cloud and rain are formed as the air rises and cools. (6) 3

In the UK under anticyclonic conditions in summer there is no cloud and it is warm and sunny during the day. At night clear skies allow heat to quickly escape and temperatures may fall rapidly. Dew and mist may form at ground level and there is a risk of thunderstorms during the day. In anticyclonic conditions in the winter the weather is also dry and bright, although temperatures may remain low due to the low angle of the sun in the sky. Nights can be very cold and frost and fog may form which may be slow to clear the next day. In both summer and winter, conditions remain stable for several days. (6)

4

The West European Maritime climate is strongly influenced by the sea, which keeps places cooler in summer and milder in winter than those further inland. In Plymouth, for example, there is a small annual temperature range of 11°C with a maximum temperature of 17°C in July and a minimum of 6°C in January. Summers are warm, winters are cool or mild and rainfall is regular with an annual total between 9000 and 10 000 mm. The East European Continental Interior climate is not influenced by the sea in the same way and is very different. In Kiev, for example, there is a large annual temperature range of 27°C with a maximum temperature of 20°C in July and a minimum of –7°C in January. Summers are generally warm or hot, winters are exceptionally cold and precipitation is low but falls as snow in the winter months due to the low temperatures. In the summer, thunderstorms are common, due to convection (rising warm air currents) and annual rainfall totals are between 250 mm and 425 mm. (4)

5 a Climate is affected by distance from the sea because land heats up more quickly during the summer and cools down more rapidly in winter than the sea. This means that places towards the centre of continents (e.g. East European Continental) will have warmer summers and colder winters than those with a coastal location (e.g. West European Maritime). b Climate is also affected by ocean currents which may be warm or cold and affect the climate of coastal areas. Warm currents tend to raise winter temperatures (e.g. British climate) while cold currents usually lower summer temperatures. c Finally, climate is affected by latitude as places in the Tropics, being nearer the Equator, are much warmer than places towards the Poles. This is due to the curvature of the Earth and the angle of the sun. At the Equator the sun is always high in the sky. When it is overhead it shines directly downwards, concentrating its heat into a small area which will become very hot. In contrast, the sun is always low in the sky towards the Poles. This means that the heat is spread over a wide area, and so temperatures remain lower. The lower the angle of the sun, the greater the amount of atmosphere through which the sun’s rays have to pass. This means that more heat will be lost to gases, dust and cloud in the atmosphere. (4) 6

In Malaysia, sustainable development is being used to control deforestation and conserve the tropical rainforests through newer logging techniques which cause less damage to the forest than the previously used clear-felling methods. Now the Malaysian government tries to ensure that logging companies only use selective logging methods, do not fell trees under a minimum circumference and do not exceed the maximum number of trees per hectare that they are allowed to cut. If companies do not stick to these regulations, their licence is not renewed. In addition, money is being spent on conservation projects, such as the Taman Negara National Park and an increasing number of recreational parks. Now 14% of

peninsular Malaysia’s forest is protected from ‘development’. Through the Community Forest Development scheme three more sustainable projects are being developed: „ village forestry, which encourages the planting of traditional fruit trees to ensure a sustained food supply to the local people „ urban forestry, where trees are planted alongside main roads and in open spaces to stabilise temperatures, create shade and reduce soil erosion „ forest recreation, which develops a different source of income. (6) Chapter 5

Managing the environment

1

Cliff recession occurs in areas of both resistant and less resistant rock types. In areas of resistant rock, such as Flamborough Head (Yorkshire) and Beachy Head (Sussex), waves erode at the cliff base, forming a wave-cut notch and causing the rock above to become unstable and, in time, to collapse. In areas of less resistant rock, such as in Holderness (Yorkshire) and Barton-on-Sea (Hampshire), heavy rain can cause material to move downslope (mass movement) where it is removed by waves and coastal currents. In some places, sand and shingle forming a natural protection at the foot of a cliff, is removed by human activity enabling erosion by waves to accelerate. At Druridge Bay on the Northumberland coast, for example, sand used to be removed for the construction industry. Finally, human activity can lead to cliff recession. If people build on cliff tops this can add weight which may cause cliffs to collapse, e.g. at Overstrand, north Norfolk, the Overstrand Hotel was built close to a cliff edge and later collapsed when erosion caused the cliff to slump. (3)

2

The Holderness coast, to the south of Scarborough, experiences the highest rate of cliff erosion in the country – 2 m a year – and this is having a great effect on the people and the environment. Since Roman times, 29 villages and an area of land 5 km wide have been lost. Today, agricultural land, roads and small coastal settlements are all under threat, as well as the gas terminal at Easington. Those parts of the Holderness coastline which are economically valuable have been protected in different ways, although this has often created problems further down the coast. Mappleton village was in danger of falling in to the sea and several houses had already been lost. When the B1242 was also threatened, an offshore bar of granite was built at a cost of £2 million. This slowed the path of the waves and dissipated their energy before they reached the shoreline. The road and village were saved but the bar also restricted the southwards movement of material and caused greater erosion at Cowden, where a farm belonging to Sue Earle had to be abandoned in 1997. At Hornsea a sea wall and wooden groynes were constructed in the 1990s to protect cliff-top residences and businesses. The groynes prevented longshore drift and beaches developed which not only benefited the tourist industry but also protected the cliffs. These defences are reinforced regularly and recently a stone gabion was added to protect a caravan park to the south of the town. (8)

3

In 1952 the River Lyn in Devon flooded, causing widespread damage to people and the environment. Narrow bridges over the river trapped boulders and trees causing temporary dams which later ‘broke’ causing a 12 m high wave to travel downstream at 30 km/hr. The flood occurred at night when people were asleep and as a result of the flood 34 people died, 1000 were made homeless as 90 houses and hotels were destroyed. In addition, 130 boats and 19 cars were lost. Most of this damage happened when the river reverted to its natural course in the flood. It had previously been diverted and its channel made narrower due to the building of tourist accommodation and amenities. After the flood the village was rebuilt to try to ensure the safety of its inhabitants rather than to try to recapture all of its former character. The West Lyn was allowed to follow its natural course (the one taken during the flood) and part of the floodplain was not built on so that excess water could drain away more easily.

Larger bridges were built with wider spans. The land formerly occupied by the hotel was left open and used as a car park. Finally, the East Lyn channel has been straightened to allow floodwaters to flow off more quickly. (8) 4

The Sahel is an example of a fragile environment which has been damaged by agriculture and this has led to desertification. Traditionally the land is used for grazing animals but since the late 1960s there have been several lengthy droughts in countries of the Sahel such as Ethiopia. This means less grazing land and fewer crops can be grown although population is increasing as a result of high birth rates. As a result of overgrazing, the soil loses its protective vegetation cover, contains less humus and holds less moisture. As it becomes exposed to the wind and the occasional heavy downpour, it become increasingly at risk from erosion. Attempts are being made to protect the soil from desertification by careful management techniques. Replanting trees, grasses and shrubs can reduce soil erosion as they act s windbreaks, improve water retention and bind the soil together. The addition of mulch and manure can also increase soil fertility and keeps the ground moist by protecting it from evaporation. Stone lines can be used to trap surface water, runoff and soil. (6)

Chapter 6

Managing hazards

1

Tropical storms are found between latitudes 5 and 20 degrees north and south of the Equator. These areas are also highly populated because they have favourable climatic conditions and, in Bangladesh for example, very fertile soils for farming. Tropical storms form at sea and move over coastal land areas which are densely populated as people make a living from fishing or, as in Florida, from tourism. (4)

2

Tropical storms can have enormous effects on people and the environment. As winds exceed 160 km/hr. in LEDCs such as Bangladesh, whole villages are destroyed, and in MEDCs such as the USA, houses and coastal properties are damaged, telephone wires and power supplies cut and export crops ruined. Trees can be uprooted by the winds and water supplies may become polluted after heavy rains. Storm surges up to 5 m in height may flood and block roads and wash away any buildings on steep slopes. Following a tropical storm there may be outbreaks of disease such as cholera. (4)

3

In MEDCs the effects of tropical storms may not be as great as in LEDCs. In Florida USA, for example, 30 people were killed and 80 000 made homeless when Hurricane Andrew struck in August 1992. In comparison, when Hurricane Mitch hit Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala and El Salvador in October/November 1998, over 12 000 people lost their lives and 700 000 were made homeless. In total Mitch affected 3 million people compared with the 1.3 million people affected by Andrew. In the LEDCs help took several days to arrive and there were no telephones, electricity, fresh water or transport. In Florida, in an MEDC, there were also no telephones or electricity but help arrived within hours. LEDC effects were long term as crops which were the only product for sale and export were lost or damaged. MEDC effects were short term as many businesses were forced to close until electricity was restored. In Florida there were few secondary effects, whereas in the Caribbean there were shortages of food, clothing and medical supplies, as well as the danger of cholera outbreaks. Overall it was estimated that the Caribbean would take 10 years to fully recover from the disaster but in Florida life returned to normal after only a few days. In the Caribbean, early warning systems were much less effective than in Florida, where most people heard warnings on the radio and TV. In Honduras especially, emergency services were very limited and there are few hospitals and doctors, compared with the well-equipped hospitals and highly trained nurses and doctors in Florida. (4)

4 a In Kobe, Japan there was an earthquake which occurred on 17 January 1995 which recorded 7.2 on the Richter scale. The epicentre was under Osaka Bay, close to the built-up area of Kobe and so widespread devastation was caused. Immediately after the earthquake the people from the 200 000 buildings which collapsed needed food and shelter. There were accidents on the roads which needed to be dealt with as a 1 km stretch of the elevated Hanshin Expressway and numerous bridges collapsed. There were also problems and delays on the railway to sort out as buildings along a 130 km section of the bullet train route also collapsed. There were fires which needed to be put out which were caused by ruptured gas mains, although gridlock on the roads delayed fire engines and other emergency vehicles. b In the longer term, people were afraid to return home for fear of aftershocks. Many industries, including Mitsubishi and Panasonic, were forced to close down, causing large sums of money to be lost. Many people had to stay with relatives while their homes were rebuilt. However, the new Kansai International Airport and Akashi Bridge were undamaged as they had been built to high standards and withstood the earthquake. c Replacement buildings had to meet stronger earthquake-resistance standards. For example, high-rise buildings had to have flexible steel frames, smaller buildings had to have concrete frames with reinforcing bars to absorb shockwaves and houses had to be built with fireresistant materials. There was also an increase in the number of seismic instruments to record earth movements and be able to give people more warning of a possible earthquake. (8) 5

People live in areas where there are volcanic eruptions for a number of reasons. Sometimes they may simply not be aware of the risks or, if the volcano has not erupted for a long time, feel it will not happen in their lifetime. Others feel that the risk is worth taking. At Merapi in Indonesia, for example, material ejected from the volcano is weathered into a soil that is rich in minerals and ideal for plant growth. Intensive farming can be carried out on soils formed in this way. In addition in Indonesia, the tropical climate allows three crops to be grown each year. In other areas, such as Mount St Helens, USA, people feel safe in the knowledge that scientists are monitoring earth movements and will give them adequate warning of an eruption. Other advantages of volcanoes are that the surrounding area can provide geothermal energy for heating, as in Iceland, and activities such as skiing and sightseeing can take place, encouraging the development of a tourist industry. (5)

Chapter 7

Managing tourism

1

Active tourism is when tourists go on holiday and take part in an activity such as skiing in the Alps. Passive tourism involves more relaxing activities such as sunbathing, or visiting museums and art galleries when on a cultural holiday. (4)

2

The rapid growth in tourism has been caused by a number of factors. These may be social, economic or technological. Greater car ownership has increased mobility and given people more freedom to choose where and when they go for the day or for a longer period. In addition accessibility has improved as more roads have been built, especially motorways and urban by-passes. These have reduced driving times and encouraged more people to travel more frequently. Changes in lifestyles such as a shorter working week, flexi-time and an increase in the number of home workers, give people greater freedom of choice about when they travel. People now have a greater awareness of places due to coverage by the media and TV. Holiday programmes, magazines and brochures promote new and different places and activities. In countries such as the UK there is an ageing population, with more retired people who have more free time to travel. There has been an increase in affluence (wealth) as salaries have increased and people have more disposable income (money left to spend after the necessities have been paid for). People also receive holiday pay which means they

can take more than one holiday a year. The organisation of mass tourism by transnational companies such as Thomas Cook has lowered prices and brought improvements in transport, e.g. the introduction of larger jet planes has enabled more people to travel greater distances. Improved and enlarged airports have reduced air fares as has the introduction of low-cost ‘no frills’ airlines such as EasyJet. Computerised reservation systems enable travel agents to deal with more holidays; people are able to book their own holidays on the internet and teletext; and global distribution systems such as Galileo and Worldspan have made it possible for companies such as Thompson to operate globally. (5) 3 a The savanna grasslands of Kenya have become popular for tourist developments as more safari holidays have been developed. However, increasing numbers of visitors have brought problems which have caused damage to this fragile environment. Minibus drivers do not always keep to the defined tracks in National Parks and game reserves in an attempt to get passengers as close as possible to the wildlife, or to avoid marshy areas in wet months. Minibuses may get stuck in the mud, ruining vegetation or widening existing tracks. In Amboseli the wind, minibuses and herds of animals all cause dust storms which increase the rate of soil erosion. Minibus drivers are not supposed to go within 25 m of animals, but drivers often ignore this as they are likely to get good tips from their passengers for good close-up views. Animals may be prevented from mating, making a kill or forced to move to less favourable areas. Even balloon safaris are not without problems, as conservationists claim that the intermittent release of hot air and the shadow of passing balloons disturbs the wildlife. When the National Parks were established, nomadic tribes, such as the Maasai had to be moved away from their traditional grazing grounds. Many now live a more settled life and earn money by performing traditional dances for tourists – considered to be exploitation by some people. b The government is keen to manage the problems of tourism as it generates a lot of income for the country. Recently, for example, it has begun to work with the Maasai, allocating them a share of the wealth obtained from tourism to help improve their education, housing and water supply. In 1996 the Ecotourism Society of Kenya was founded to ‘promote tourism practices that will conserve Kenya’s natural environment and improve the livelihoods of associated communities’. This organisation has developed an ‘Ecorating’ system for scoring hotels and lodges according to the extent to which they conserve the environment whilst offering tourist facilities. There are three levels – bronze, silver and gold – and so far 20 lodges have achieved bronze ratings. One of the criteria is how energy-efficient the development is. This is especially important in remote locations not serviced by the national grid in order to avoid over-consumption of wood for fuel and heating. The Ecotourism Society has also developed a Safari Code with a wide range of regulations for tour operators and visitors to adhere to, including: „ keep to the designated roads in parks and reserves „ keep to the minimum recommended distances from animals „ keep to the speed limits „ take all litter away with you. (8) 4 a Courmayeur in Italy is a mountaineering and winter sports resort at the foot of Mont Blanc, the highest mountain in the Alps. The mountainous scenery provides not only beautiful views but also the snow and slopes needed for a variety of winter sports and activity holidays. Accessibility is also very good, as Courmayeur lies close to where the main road linking Turin and France passes through the Mont Blanc tunnel. The alpine climate also provides sufficient snow and the cold temperatures needed for skiing. The main skiing area has 100 km of marked pistes and is reached by cable car. There are also 316 snow cannons and 16 km of artificial piste. On the mountain itself are 27 restaurants and Courmayeur itself is a traditional Italian town with twisting streets, a range of accommodation, a weekly market, an ice rink and a swimming pool. At the local hotels tourists can enjoy local specialities such as fontina

cheese or beefsteak Valdostan and there are also many cocktail bars and nightclubs for evening entertainment. b Tourism has, however, brought many problems, both social and environmental. At peak times, tourists outnumber the local population and the traditional village has become swamped by new buildings such as hotels, chalets and souvenir shops. Many of these new buildings are unsightly, creating visual pollution and spoiling the beautiful scenery that first attracted tourists. The traditional way of life has changed and local culture may be lost; farmers have lost land and jobs and house prices have risen and become too expensive for local people. Seasonal unemployment may occur, as many jobs are linked to the winter skiing season, e.g. ski instructors. In order to create the ski-runs, hillsides have been deforested, destroying the fragile alpine ecosystem and increasing the risk of soil erosion and avalanches. The increase in traffic has been blamed for the increase in acid rain that is killing local vegetation. (8) Chapter 8

Managing urban areas

1

Inner city areas have undergone great change as a result of urban renewal and urban redevelopment. In some areas, existing houses were improved whilst in other places, new estates were built at a slightly lower density than the old terraces, e.g. Byker Wall, Newcastle. The Byker redevelopment was planned in conjunction with the residents and involved the demolition of the old Victorian terraces and the building of the Byker Wall. This was a continuous row of flats and maisonettes built of brightly coloured bricks. In addition to the Wall there was also a low-rise development which was pedestrianised, with houses and small gardens, including trees to improve the environment. Different colours were allotted to houses to create sub-neighbourhoods and there were only limited parking spaces and garages as few of the original residents had cars. Local ‘greens’ for public use were incorporated into the development with small sitting, picnic and play areas. These are maintained by local residents and consequently vandalism has been reduced. In 1987 The Tyne and Wear Development Corporation (TWDC) was set up to bring land and buildings back into use and encourage the development of new industry and commerce. It covered an area of land 42 km (26 miles) along the River Tyne in Newcastle, North Shields, South Shields and Gateshead. One-third of the land was derelict, polluted or under used. The work of the TWDC involved the development of a series of flagship schemes (large, innovative developments) including Newcastle Business Park and the Sage Music Centre. (5)

2

There are often conflicts over land in the outer urban area because suburbanisation has led to the development of private estates such as Chapel Park, outer city council estates such as Newbiggin Hall, and new industrial/trading estates such as the Newburn Industrial Estate (all in Newcastle upon Tyne). In addition there are demands on the land for recreation and transport, including airports and ring roads. This is because the rural–urban fringe is the ideal location for future development because it has: „ less congestion and easier access, especially to other urban areas „ a more attractive and less polluted environment with plenty of open space „ cheaper land. This has led to competition for land and conflict between those who wish to see the economic development and extension of the urban area and those who wish to protect the rural environment that surrounds it. (4)

3

The rapid urbanisation in LEDCs has been caused by high birth rates and rural to urban migration. High birth rates may be due to a lack of birth control and high infant mortality rates which encourage parents to have more children. In some countries children are seen as a sign of virility and in others religious beliefs may encourage large families. Rural to urban

migration is due to a range of factors, known as rural push and urban pull. The push factors include: extreme physical conditions such as droughts and floods, lack of employment other than agriculture which is very poorly paid, a high birth rate which leads to overpopulation, and inheritance laws which subdivide land between male heirs until plots are uneconomical to farm. Urban pull factors include: the possibility of better-paid jobs in the city, expectations of better living conditions and services such as schools, hospitals and entertainment, a more reliable source of food, and the fact that religious and political activities can be carried on more safely in larger cities. (4) 4 a Air, noise and land pollution are major problems in Cairo. Air pollution is caused by a large increase in the numbers of vehicles on the roads combined with a very low provision of road space per capita. The increase in cars was, in the past, encouraged by government subsidies on fuel and the fact that there was little early investment in public transport, so privately owned passenger car companies grew. In 1998 there were 530 000 vehicles on the roads but this has since more than trebled to over 2 million and 60% of these vehicles are over 10 years old. Bridges over the Nile add to the problems as bottlenecks and congestion are caused. Noise pollution is caused by the constant traffic jams, car horns and inefficient exhaust systems; the constant flow of boats on the River Nile and noise from the increasing number of discos and floating nightclubs. Land pollution is caused by poor waste management, with only 60% of the solid waste produced daily being collected, and the fact that rubbish is often left to collect in tips and may be burnt, adding to the air pollution. In addition, industrial waste such as scrap metal is often left in backyard dumps; hazardous waste from chemical plants is not safely disposed of and solid waste recycling methods are primitive. b The consequences of high levels of air pollution include high levels of suspended air particulates and lead, deaths due to respiratory problems estimated at 10 000 a year, lead emissions which reduce children’s IQ by 4 points and cause high blood pressure, kidney problems, infertility and nervous disorders. Noise pollution causes bad tempers because of constant gridlock, hearing disorders and annoyance and nuisance to residents who live near the clubs and discos. The consequences of land pollution include large numbers of rats, the threat of outbreaks of disease, and a stockpile of 50 000 tonnes of toxic waste. (6) 5

In Cairo, pollution is being managed in several different ways. The government has set up set up the Cairo Air Improvement Programme (CAIP). With the help of finance from USAID, 42 air monitoring stations had been set up across the city by 2001. The media are used to publicise practices which encourage environmental conservation, such as the use of compressed natural gas engines, and by 2001 CNG was used in 50 of Cairo’s buses. The CAIP also set up vehicle emission testing stations across the city in an attempt to reduce the number of older, less efficient cars. To reduce industrial pollution, environmentally friendly technology is being developed at lead smelting plants. To tackle the problem of land-based pollution a more comprehensive waste management strategy is being developed. The underground system is being expanded in an attempt to reduce the number of vehicles on the road. In MEDCs, one way in which the threat of increasing development in the countryside is being managed is by the use of brownfield as opposed to greenfield sites – using land which has already been built on instead of open countryside which further encourages the use of the car and its associated problems. In 1998 the government announced that 50% of new houses built would be on brownfield sites such as the Newcastle and Gateshead Quayside area. The CPRE (Council for the Protection of Rural England) and Friends of the Earth support the development of brownfield sites because there are already three-quarters of a million unoccupied houses in cities that could be upgraded and a further 1.3 million could be created by either subdividing larger houses or using empty space above shops and offices. The government assumes that 80% of the demand for new houses will come from single-parent families who prefer, or need, to live in cities. Alongside the use of brownfield sites, the UK government is trying to improve public transport to both improve the

urban environment and reduce the need for road building in the countryside. In 1998 the Department of the Environment produced ‘The New Deal for Transport in the UK’ which set out a ten-year development plan to include road widening schemes, improvements to intercity rail links and inner city light railways and funding to support local public transport schemes. (6)