Ethiopian Education

Promoting basic education for women and girls Pai Obanya

Four African Case Studies

Ethiopia Swaziland a zil z illa n Mozambique za am mb m biiq qu q Burkina Burkin in na n a Faso Fa aso

UNESCO, 2004

Promoting m basic education for women and girls

Four african n case studies

Pa Obanya Pai

The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The author is responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this work and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization.

Published by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 7 place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris Composed and printed in the workshops of UNESCO © UNESCO 2004 Printed in France (ED-2004/WS/17

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14435)

Ethiopia Swaziland wa w azil Mozambique o am Burkina Burkin u k n Faso s Contents

Preface

5

Introduction

7

Ethiopia: Women’s issues are development me issues

9

Swaziland: Apparent gender er balance

27

Mozambique: Inclusion and d participation

37

Burkina Faso: Education–responsibility–empowerment bil General conclusions Bibliography

49

61

65

Appendix: Persons interviewed w and organizations/institutions ns visited

68

Ethiopia S waziland Swaziland wa w azila Mozambique Mo M oz o zam mb b u Burkina Burkin B urkina Faso s Preface

T

he h e four case studies es reported here are a follow-up to the study entitled ed “Promoting Basic Education for Women end Girls: A Survey of Structures, Stru Programmes and Activities in Africa”, whi which has been published in this series. Four countries (Burkina a Faso, Ethiopia, Mozambique, Swaziland) were involved in th the study, each selected for a specific purpose: Ethiopia for fo its progressive women’s department, with a unit represented es in every government department; Swaziland for its s rrecord on gender balance in basic education; Mozambique e for f its dynamic post-conflict education initiatives; and Burkina ur Faso for the positive contributions of its NGOs. All the studies examine ne developments in both the formal and the non-formal sectors s of basic education. They all show bold steps undertaken de to address countryspecific problems of girls’ and an women’s education and draw attention to the immense ns challenges the countries concerned are facing in their ir efforts to achieve gender equality in education. Particular attention should ho be drawn to the challenges and the lessons highlighted hl at the end of each country report as well as to the conclusions of each

5

Ethiopia Swaziland iland Mozambique mbiqu Burkina na Faso Faas aso s report. They include: the e pervasive influence of traditional beliefs and practices that at are harmful to the promotion of girls’ and women’s status; tu the under exploitation of the immense possibilities of non-formal education; the slow development of statistics cs that in addition are not gender disaggregated, and insuffi fficient funding for girls’ and women’s education. These stu studies have implications for our on-going EFA process, and nd should be a golden opportunity for us to draw appropriate at lessons from today’s promising practices for the challenges ng we face in promoting girls and women’s education. I would like to express my appreciation for the assistance provided by the UNESCO National Commissions in the four countries to the author and to ackno acknowledge the cooperation of various agencies that provided the information that makes this report a good learning tool.

Aicha Bah Diallo

Assistant Director General for Education a.i.

6

Ethiopia Swaziland wa w aziland Mozambique zamb biiqu Burkina Burkin rkina Faso Faaso s
Mozambique: e:: The impact of a wide variety of innovative initiatives ti for the promotion of basic education for g girls and women.
Burkina Faso: so the contribution of NGOs to the promotion n of basic education for girls and women. The study was carried o out u in August-September, 2002. It involved visits to each o of the countries, in the course of which the following data ta collection methods were used: (a) visits to projects; (b) in interviews and focus group discussions with policy-makers rs and operators of programmes; (c) analysis of documentary tary materials; and (d) exchange of views with national authorities horities and other stakeholders on the major observations of the fact-finding exer exercise. UNESCO National Commissions facilitated facilitate the work of the consultant in all the four countries. Valua Valuable contributions of UNESCO cluster ter offices in Ethiopia, Mozambique and Nigeria are also gratefully ate acknowledged. The report is presented es according to the order in which the countries we were visited: Ethiopia, Swaziland, Mozambique and Burkina na Faso. While, the experience of each country is unique, the t reports have followed a similar pattern: (a) background un information (or context), to situate the experiences studied; ud (b) an outline of the policy framework; (c) an assessment ss of the performance of the policy on the ground; an and (d) some concluding remarks, drawing special attention on to the lessons to be learnt from the experiences.

8

Ethiopia

Ethiopi Ethiopia: Women’s issues are a development issue issues

Background and policy framework We must do things with instead of for women.

T

he Ethiopian experience is rooted in the cou country’s Constitution (Proclamation number 1 of 1995), which states in its Article 35:

“The historical legacy of inequality and discriminaThe discrimi historical legacy of inequality and discriminatio discrimination suffered by women in Ethiopia taken into account, women, w in order to remedy this legacy, are entitled to affirm rmative measures. The purpose of these measures shall be to provide special attention to women so as to enable them compete and participate on the basis of equality equalit with men in political, social and economic life, as wel well as in public and private institutions [Article 35.3].” “Women have the right to full consultation in the formuf lation of national policies, the designing and execu execution of

9

Ethiopia

projects, and particularly in the case of projects affecting the interests of women [Article 35.6].”

Women en constitute approximately half of the population of Ethiopia (see Table 1), and a concerted effort has been made made to give vent to the equality provisions of the Constitution titution in the form of a ‘National Policy on Ethiopian Women’, en’, which targets the following twelve priority areas:: 1. Women and poverty. 2. Education and training for women. 3. Women and health. 4. Violence against women. 5. Women and armed conflicts. 6. Women and the economy. 7. Women in power and decision-making. 8. Institutional mechanisms for the advancement of women. 9. Human rights of women. 10. Women and the media. 11. Women and the environment. 12. The girl child. Table e 1: Ethiopia – projected population (1999) Zone

Total population

Female (%)

Urban Rural

9 074 000 52 598 000

50.4 49.7

61 672 000

49.8

Total

The objectives bjectives of the policy are to:
Guarantee women equal rights with men.
Amend laws which adversely affect women’s social, cultural and economic conditions.

10

Ethiopia

Government rnment agencies operate at each of these levels of government nment and they all have women’s affairs departments s (the federal and Woreda a levels), and gender focal points s (at the Kebele level). The horizontal axis shows a system of co-ordination of gender-in-development activities among government agencies, non-governmental and civil society organizations, ns, educational research institutions (particularly Addis Ababa University), and a number of international agencies, ies, notably USAID, Save the Children, UNESCO, UNICEF, EF, WHO, FAO and the World Bank. Ethiopia’s policy guidelines and the institutional arrangements gements for the implementation of the policy seem to be guided by a coherent philosophy, whose underlying principles iples are:
Education for overall human development, with very special emphasis on the integration of women into the development process.
Gender-in-development, with the development of women as the key element.
General guidelines, capacity-building, co-ordination at the federal level.
Practical development operational activities at the level of the regions and other decentralized administrative structures.
Inter-agency collaboration.
Close collaboration between government agencies and all other development partners.

12

14

Ethiopia Women’s Affairs Departments

Regions

Woreda

Kebele

Fig. 1.

Government agencies

Prime Minister’s Office Education Agriculture Industries Environment Health Communications Water Resources Labour and Social Welfare Youth, Sports and Culture

NGOs/Civil Society Organizations

BEN: Basic Education Network FAWE: Forum for African Women Educationalists CDRA: Christian Development and Relief Association

Institutions

Addis Ababa University (Centre for Education Research and Training on Women in Development CERTWID)

International Agencies

USAID UNICEF UNESCO Save the Children WHO FAO World Bank

Vertical and horizontal co-ordination of gender-in-development activities in Ethiopia

Ethiopia

There is a system of annual co-ordination meetings meetin at various levels, at which ongoing activities are crit critically reviewed. The Prime Ministers’ Office organizes such meetings with the regions and the sectoral ministries. minis Each sectoral ministry holds similar meetings with specialized bureaux in the regions, while the regions relay rel the co-ordination meetings to the Woreda, and the Woreda Wore to the Kebele.. NGOs and other development partners are ar also fully involved in these programme review meetings. meetings

Formal education An educated girl is likely to become • • • * • • •

A more competent mother. A knowledgeable family planner. A more productive and better paid worker. An informed citizen. A skilled decision-maker. A self confident individual [By courtesy of UNICEF]

One major characteristic of the on-the-ground ope operation of the Ethiopian experience is that literacy and educae tion are considered as the bedrock of all programm programmes of women-in-development. forma eduLow literacy rates and poor access to formal cation are among the issues that Ethiopia has tried tri to address in the past decade through: (a) ETP: Educ Education and Training Policy (1994); (b) ESDP: Education Sector S Development Programme (1997–2001); and (c) ESDP ES II (2002–2006). These programmes have resulted in a progressive progre improvement in net primary enrolment over the yea years, as

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Ethiopia

Table 2 illustrates. The table also shows that improved net enrolment nrolment for both sexes has still not narrowed the gender er gap. It has, in fact, widened it. There are wide regional variations in gender parity at the e primary level: 0.5 in the Somali region, 1 in Addis Ababa, a, and 0.7 as the national average. The system is also characterized by wide urban– rural disparities. Girls tend to be more disadvantaged in rural areas (primary net enrolment in 2001 = 45.5 per cent urban n girls and 37.9 per cent rural girls). The figures for net enrolment nrolment for boys show an interesting trend: 54.6 per cent ent urban and 62.1 per cent rural. Table e 2. Ethiopia – net primary enrolment rates (percentage) Year

Boys

Girls

Total

1996/1997 1997/1998 1998/1999 1999/2000 2000/2001

29.5 43.0 44.9 51.2 55.7

20.0 28.0 31.9 36.6 41.7

24.9 36.0 39.5 44.0 48.8

Source: Education Statistics Abstracts: 2000-2001

Improving oving the participation of girls in primary education is an ongoing concern, and measures to address the problem fall all into the following major categories:
Research and studies to enlighten issues and guide policy and practice.
Awareness raising.
Dissuasion of traditional practices that affect the education of girls (for example, marriage by adoption, or MBA).
Policy interventions (example: the 1 : 1 textbook ratio policy in favour of girls).

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Ethiopia


Poverty reduction (including revenue generation activities for women).
Social and political empowerment (including the promotion of access to decision-making positions).
Strengthening of women organizations (including organizational/institutional capacity- building).
Improved participation of women in specific sectors: industry, agriculture, education, culture, science and technology, politics, etc.

A synopsis ynopsis of the areas of focus: achievements and challenges of selected agencies/institutions/organizations involved in mainstreaming gender into development activities in Ethiopia Prime Minister’s Office Responsibilities: onsibilities: national level co-ordination, between government agencies, with all partners, and among the three levels of government. Achievements: vements: the national policy on women, specific provisions on women in the Constitution, family laws at the federal level (laws at the regional level in progress), gender mainstreaming in education and all social sector development policies, civil service reforms, incorporating maternity leave and affirmative action in favour of women, and progressive attitude change in society. Challenges: enges: Inadequate financial and human resources. Ministry of Health Responsibilities: onsibilities: mainstreaming gender into the policies, programmes and activities of the Health Sector.

18

Ethiopia

Achievements: mainstreaming gender into the Heath S Sector Development Programme (HSDP), advocacy/gender advocacy/g awareness and sensitization training and affirmative action within the ministry, studies on jjunior midwives, traditional birth attendants, and w women traditional healers and care-givers. Challenges: poor level of staffing, pockets of resis resistance, even among women.

Ministry of Water Resources Responsibilities: promoting gender specific water iss issues. Achievements: regular training programmes tech technical experts at the regional level on gender an analysis techniques and gender and water issues generally, gene training of staff of the ministry on assertiv assertiveness and gender awareness. Challenges: wrong perception of gender in the ministry, min departments sending ‘inappropriate staff’ for training programmes.

Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare Responsibilities: addressing women-specific issues iin the labour force (employment opportunities, work workplace hazards, and rights of women workers). Achievements: a functioning network arrangement with women’s affairs departments at the reg regional level, compilation of Basic Statistical Data and Women’s Profile, studies on HIV and the fa factory worker, survey of women’s self-help groups groups, and NGO social services, production of an adv advocacy manual. Challenges: need for more in-depth training, limited financial resources.

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Ethiopia

Ministry of Youth, Sports and Culture Responsibilities: onsibilities: Gender mainstreaming within the department and its various organs and services. Achievements: vements: capacity building and gender awareness creation, a wide variety of studies (women and culture, women participation in journalism, stereotypes on women in oral literature, analysis of the culture policy from a gender perspective, women and reading). Challenges: enges: lack of appropriate follow-up to the studies. Ministry of Agriculture Responsibilities: onsibilities: women farmers and women professional agriculturists as primary targets. Achievements: vements: ensuring that women are specifically targeted in the five-year development agricultural sector development plan, ensuring women participation — and that they do benefit as equal partners — in agricultural extension services, baseline data to generate information for mainstreaming women issues in agricultural sector activities, research and technology generation for the benefit of women farmers, regular training programmes on gender issues for agriculture sector staff, promotion – capacity building – organization of women professional in agriculture. Challenges: enges: ‘It’s not an easy job’. Addis Ababa (regional) Education Department Responsibilities: onsibilities: promotion of girls’ education. Achievements: vements: annual scholarships for girls scoring a GPA of 3.6 and above in primary school certificate examinations – 94 awards in 2000 and 236 in 200l/2002, special tutorials by ninety-seven educa-

20

Ethiopia

tion bureaux, to enhance the achievement of girls in mathematics and the natural sciences. Challenges: low level of awareness at the grass-roots level, ‘gender gap not getting narrower’. Oromia (regional) Education Bureau Responsibilities: working closely with women burea bureaux in all other sectors to promote the education of girls. Achievements: gender awareness training for teach teachers in cluster schools, for relay to satellite schools, schools and even to mobile schools, assertiveness training trainin for women teachers, provision of desks to schoo schools, as reward for promoting the retention of girls, tu tutorial services to female students. Challenges: retention still a major problem, regional regiona disparities in the participation of girls still strong. stron FAWE - Forum for African Women Education Educationalists Mission: high-level advocacy, social mobilization, mobilization and capacity-building in favour of girls’ and women’s wo participation in education. Activities: a functioning national organization of committed comm women educationalists, research to enlighten go government policy, annual prize awards, bursary for girls (some 1,200 awards over the years), promotion of o girls’ participation in mathematics and science, counselling couns and assertiveness training for girls and women. Challenges: ‘There is still a lot more to be done’.

CRDA - Catholic Relief and Development Association Mission: an umbrella organization of 215 local and international NGOs providing a more enabling en environment for NGOs to work effectively.

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Ethiopia

Achievements: vements: capacity building for members, functioning networking arrangements for improved government–NGO relationships, task force on PRSP – poverty reduction strategy programme, gender working group as a cross-cutting concern, regular training programmes on a variety of gender issues (reproductive health, gender analysis, lobbying skills, rights-based approach to human development, leadership skills for women). Challenges: enges: ‘Capacity building is not an easy task’. BEN - Basic Education Network Mission: on: a forum for experiences and ideas sharing for a collective voice and action in the realization of the EFA agenda. Achievements: vements: networking of some twenty member organizations (local NGOs), working on a variety of special-need areas: the disabled, pastoralists, the urban poor, rural communities, etc. Challenges: enges: resource constraints. CERTWID - Centre for Education Research and Training g on Women in Development Mission: on: research and training to enhance capacity to promoting the full participation of women in development. Achievements/activities: vements/activities: (a) research – a research agenda covering women in the labour force, women and the law, women in the media, women and education, women, health, population and development and rural women; (b) training: undergraduate courses on gender issues, one credit master’s degree course on the subject, (full-scale graduate programmes in the pipeline), assertiveness training to women

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Ethiopia

students, regular open forum on gender issu issues; (c) grants to bachelor’s and masterss degree stu students for projects on gender-related topics; and (d (d) lobbying of academic departments to integrate g gender into their programmes. Challenges: limited capacity, due to lack of full-time staff and high staff turnover.

Conclusions and major lessons

T

he most interesting point about the Ethiopian experience is the government’s strong commitme commitment to women and gender issues, as seen in the promi prominence given to these issues in the country’s Constitution, in the development of a National Policy on Ethiopian Wo Women, and in entrusting the co-ordination of women-in-dev women-in-development programmes to the Office of the Prime Minister. Ministe Related to this is the fact that women’s and girls’ education is being promoted as an integral part o of the nation’s development agenda, hence the full integration integ of women-in-development issues into the work and programmes of all sectoral departments and at all levels lev of government. Ethiopia has also come up with an ambitious co-ordico nation mechanism, which seeks to consolidate the e efforts of all partners, in different places and at different levels. lev Above all, Ethiopia has had a long-serving W Woman Minister of Education, who is a founding member of FAWE (Forum for African Women Educationalists) and an activist ac on girls’ and women’s education. This situation has certainly worked in favour favo of Women’s and Girls’ Education, in that it has contributed contribut to:

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Ethiopia


Raising awareness among different classes in society.
Building capacity at different levels.
Progressively narrowing the gender gap, especially at the basic education level.
Improving the level of awareness of the magnitude of the problems involved in enhancing the status of women in general, and in improving the participation of girls and women in education in particular.
Above everything else, putting women-in-education to its proper policy pedestal, that of a high priority area of national development. Negative attitudes to the emancipation of women can also be feminine.

The Ethiopian thiopian experience is, however, still facing a number of challenges. allenges.
Co-ordination with NGOs would require a great deal of improvement. While the major NGOs are making efforts to co-ordinate their activities, and while a good number of them have built up capacity for operating at the grass-roots level, they seem to have a strong feeling that government is not fully utilizing their potentials. This feeling is strongest in the case of government activities outside the formal education sector.
The research activities of the sectoral departments seem to have yielded knowledge that can be ploughed back to the process of curriculum material development. Those responsible for the research admitted, however, that these research projects were not carried out in

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Swaziland Sw S wa w az az nd n d

Swaziland: apparent gend gender balance balan

The context

T

he situation of women and girls in educatio education in the Kingdom of Swaziland can best be understood understoo in the wider national context revolving around specific so socio-historical and demographic factors. Over the years, women in Swazi socie society have become accustomed to being heads of househol households, as a result of the migration of the men folk to the m mines of South Africa. They have, in the process, sought to acquire the basic skills needed for their changing roles. Th They have also in the process tried to pass on the same skill skills to the girl-child, as preparation for their own adult roles. roles Therefore, there has traditionally been a pra practice of driving girls hard in the course of their upbringing. upbringi This practice seems to have impacted on the ways in wh which parents have pursued the formal education of the girl-child. gir A major political action taken over the ye years was the attainment of Universal Primary Education as far back

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Swaziland S waz zil iland il

as 1985. The approach to the development of basic eduas cation has, since then, been more or less ‘gender neutral’ cation (i.e.. in terms of access), with most of the efforts on addressing dressing the problems of relevance and quality. In terms of demography, there are more females than an males in all segments of the population, as shown in Table ble 1. Table ble 1. Swaziland – general population structure

Age Range

Male

Female

Total

Female (%)

0– 4 5–14 15–29 5–29 30–49 0 –49 50–64 0–64 65 5 and above

67 529 137 176 113 207 71 439 25 882 11 538

68 868 139 556 141 764 91 575 29 220 15 957

136 397 276 732 254 973 163 014 55, 072 29 495

51.51 50.43 55.60 56.18 53.06 58.03

Total

440 154

489 564

929 718

52.66

Source: Report of the 1997 Swaziland Population and Housing Census

Women and girls in education The he formal system Enrolment rolment figures for primary education (Table 2) give the e impression that the gender gap is narrow. A more fundamental ndamental interpretation, however, is that girls are still underrepresented derrepresented in primary education. This is because their eir numerical superiority within the school-age population n is hardly reflected in the overall primary enrolment statistics. tistics.

28

Swaziland Sw S waz azilan nd

Table 2. Swaziland – primary school enrolment: 2000 Grade

Boys

Girls

Total

Girls (%) G

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

20 033 18 678 18 625 15 820 14 097 12 592 10 599

17 675 16 401 16 544 15 343 14 187 12 600 10 738

37 708 35 079 35 169 31 213 28 284 25 196 21 337

46.88 46.75 47.04 49.32 50.16 50.03 50.33

110 444

103 542

213 986

Total

48.39

Source: Planning Division, Ministry of Education, Educatio Mbabane

Table 2 provides some evidence of a higher attrition attrit rate for boys as well as a more impressive completion rate for girls, a phenomenon which makes for an equitable gender representation in the last three grades of primary education. This point is, to a certain extent, supported b by Table 3, which shows examination entry figures for the th years 2000 and 2001. The most interesting points emerge from Table 4, which shows the performances of boys and girl girls in the terminal examinations at the end of primary and junior secondary education. For both years, girls have a higher success rate than boys. Table 3. Examination entries for 2000 and 2001

Group Boys Girls Total Girls (%)

Primary (2000)

Primary (2001)

Junior secondary (2000)

Junior J sec secondary ((2001)

10 235 10 394 20 629

9 964 9 962 19 926

4 166 3 910 8 076

4 634 4 345 8 979

50.3

49.99

48.42

48.39

29

Swaziland S waz zila an nd

Table ble 4. Examination success rates (percentage) for boys and girls

Group

Primary (2000)

Primary (2001)

Junior secondary (2000)

Junior secondary (2001)

Boys Girls Overall

82.90 86.30 84.61

82.40 85.51 84.46

76.81 81.61 79.14

73.50 77.91 75.63

Source: Exams Council of Swaziland

Table ble 5, which gives the latest available enrolment figures for secondary schooling, shows a 50: 50 participation rate for both boys and girls. Table ble 5. Trend in secondary school enrolment (1997–2000) Year

Boys

Girls

Total

Girls (%)

1997 1998 1999 2000

29 020 30 228 30 741 30 003

29 177 30 602 30 825 30 252

58 197 60 630 61 566 60 253

50.13 50.31 50.07 50.20

There is still the culture and belief in many schools that some subjectsare strictly for girls while others are for boys.

Apparent pparent gender balance To what extent does the picture just painted amount to g gender ender balance in participation in basic education in Swaziland? aziland? Some operators of the system believe that the

30

Swaz Swaziland S wa wa

situation is one of ‘apparent gender balance’. In the early years of secondary education, girls are in the majority, but the table turns in favour of the boys in later years. In the 1999 school year, for example, girls constituted 51.71 per cent of children in the first year of secondary education. In the fifth year, the proportion of girls was 46.22 per cent. The corresponding proportions for the year 2000 were 52.6 per cent girls in the first year and 48.60 per cent in the fifth year. In addition, girls in Swaziland are still subject to the negative influences on girls’ education, which are at work in other countries of Africa. Thus, poverty, pockets of resistance to Western education (and particularly negative attitudes to schooling for girls), gender stereotyping in the choice of careers and areas of study, unwanted pregnancies, etc., are still stark realities in the country. As is very well known, these factors contribute to non-enrolment, drop-out, irregular attendance, repetition, and poor performance among girls.

The threat of teenage pregnancy

Pregnancy continues to be a leading cause for dropping droppi out of school of most teen-age girls. 27 per cent of hospita hospital deliveries are 15–19 year old girls. Efforts have been ma made by different organizations working with youth, but the impact im is hardly measurable, as more girls drop out of school because b of pregnancy. Young girls are faced with many challenges cha as they follow their line of growth from puberty to teenage te stage and young adults. The home environment is n not supportive. Proper education and counselling is something somethin that homes do not offer. Extracts from FAWESWA, Needs Assessmen Assessment Report on Teenage/Young Mothers, November 2000 200

31

Swaziland S w nd

Interventions erventions and incentives Like most African countries, Swaziland is pursuing teady programme of encouragement to the education a steady of women and girls, and the following are the key areas of intervention ervention in that regard.
Bursary awards to children in difficult circumstances, with special attention to girls.
Guidance and counselling for both in-school and out-of-school girls, comprising activities in the areas of education, health (including HIV/AIDS), psychological testing.
Parent counselling on the needs of the girl-child (with the support of FAWE and UNICEF).
Public enlightenment, through radio programmes, leaflets, focus group discussions, etc.
Science, mathematics and technology clinics for girls, with the assistance of FAWE (Forum for African Women Educationalists).
Encouraging teen-age mothers to return to school.
Regular exposure of curriculum developers, school administrators and teachers to the ABC of Gender.
The ongoing enrichment of curriculum materials through the elimination of gender bias.
Development and encouragement of the nonformal route to basic education.

The he non-formal route The e provision of non-formal education in Swaziland is exemplifi emplified by the work of the Sabenta National Institute, which ich has been in existence for some forty years.

32

Swaziland S Sw waz wa azil nd

Many girls drop out of school before the last grade of primary education. Many more do not go to school at all. Poverty and early pregnancies prevent others othe from fitting into the formal basic education system. T The nonformal route, provided by Sabenta, has been tryin trying to fill this vacuum for both boys/girls and men/women. men/women There are 222,000 Swazi who are unable to read, write and count – one of whom could be your relative. Ask for a form at a the information desk and register as many people as a possible with Sabenta, your you literacy provider.

Sabenta is a highly decentralized institution that o operates in nine centres spread throughout the country. IIt is run by regional officers fully utilizing the traditional administrative and political structure (traditional chiefs, chief inner councils, rural development motivators, head tteachers, and community leaders) in the development and conduct of its programmes. There are two parallel programmes (Siswati and English) and these operate at three levels: (a) basic literacy; fu functional literacy; and (c) AUPE (Adult Upper Primary Education). Education The functional literacy programme teaches a wide range of life skills: sewing, carpentry, computer compute operations, weaving, hair-dressing, poultry farming, h horticulture, catering, etc. Available statistics show that th these programmes have been women dominated. In the year yea 2000, for example, the total enrolment was 4,074 and 2,587 2, (i.e. 63.50 per cent) were women. AUPE is intended to provide: (a) adults w with the opportunity to progress beyond conventional literacy liter and numeracy; (b) adults with the means of achieving a quali-

33

S Swaziland land la

fication equivalent to the Swaziland Primary Certificate (grade 7), as a gateway to further learning; and (c) an (grade opportunity portunity for children aged 13 and over to rejoin the formal mal education system.

Conclusions onclusions and major lessons

W

hile enrolment figures show some cause for hope, it can still not be said that gender balance has been achieved hieved in basic education in Swaziland.
There seem to be more girls out of school, at all levels, even when the enrolment figures show that there could be more girls in school.
In percentage terms, girls are performing better than boys in primary and junior secondary certificate examinations. A larger proportion of the girls however tends to withdraw before the final examination years of high school.
Most girls are still restricted to studying the ‘soft option’ subjects, and this has limited the access of girls to scientific and technical disciplines in higher institutions.
Poverty at the household level is still a hindrance to access to basic education, and girls have remained the sacrificial lambs in the hard choices that parents have to make in deciding whether the boy or girl child should go to school.
The non-formal route (particularly AUPE) is fee-paying, and therefore portends a potential obstacle to women from low-income families.
Teenage pregnancy and the spread of HIV/AIDS

34

Mo Mozambique Mo oz zam am qu qu

Mozambiqu Mozambique: Inclusion Inclusio and participatio participation

The context

A

fter gaining independence from Portugal in 1975, Mozambique waged a bitter civil war that lasted laste sixteen years. The country has been engaged, howeve however, in a steady process of consolidation of democracy and socioeconomic reconstruction since the signing of a peace accord, and the holding of the first multi-party elec elections in 1992. An essential part of the reconstruction proces process is a national education policy (Política Nacional de Educaçã Educ o), published in 1995, which identified basic education educatio and adult literacy as the ‘topmost priority of the governm government’. The policy has since given birth to an Education S Sector Strategic Plan 1999–2003, the first priority of wh which is ‘increased access to educational opportunities, at a all levels of the education system’.

37

M Mozambique mbiqu q

Expanded partnerships

The he central goal is accelerated progress towards universal primary rimary schooling, with particular emphasis on increasing ng enrolment among girls. Accomplishing this goal would require equire the participation of all Mozambicans – parents, communities, employers, NGOs, religious organizations – and government’s overnment’s international partners as well. In the future the he Mozambican educational system will comprise a diverse array rray of institutions – public and private, formal and nonformal ormal – supported by provisions from and governed in collaboration aboration with stakeholders. This implies a new vision of the Ministry of Education’s role, and greatly expanded roles of other ther actors as they assume a greater share of responsibility in n the system. Extracts from Mozambique Education Sector Strategic Plan, 1999–2003

The women-in-education policy in practice Formal education

Net enrolment figures for the seven years of primary education (EP1, or first cycle – 5 years and EP2; or second cycle – 2 extra years) for the year 2001 show that 46 per cent of first-grade children were girls. The proportion of girls, however, decreases steadily through the higher grades, down to 39 per cent in the seventh grade (see Table 1).

38

M Mozambique

The drop-out rate is relatively high among the girls, but the reverse is true of repetition rate. The 2001 school survey recorded 641,072 repeaters at the primary level. Of this figure, 284,536 (44.38 per cent) were girls. Access to basic education is characterized by regional disparities, as shown in Table 2. Regions with relatively high enrolment rates also tend to record relatively high girls’ participation rates. This phenomenon has been explained in terms of a combination of socio-cultural and historical factors.
In some regions, initiation rites are followed by boys returning to school, while the girls are considered ripe for marriage.
Some parts of the country were more intensively exposed to Christian missionary educational influences than others.
Some areas also suffered more severely from the post-independence civil war than others. Table 1. Mozambique: primary school enrolment – 2001 Grade 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total

Total enrolment

Number of girls

Girls (%)

844 732 607 356 475 903 338 374 242 246 152 696 109 438

396 451 269 761 203 225 139 299 94 191 60 006 42 903

46.92 44.42 42.70 41.17 38.88 39.30 39.20

2 770 745

1 205 836

43.52

Source: Annual School Survey – 2001

Gender parity is more noticeable in the larger cities. In the capital (Maputo) and the administrative region around it, there are in fact more girls than boys in primary schools.

39

Mozambique M oz za biq za qu

Table ble 2. Regional trends in net enrolment rates (percentage) – 2001 Province

M/F

Boys

Girls

01 1 C Delgado 02 2 Gaza 03 3 Inhambane 04 4 Manica 05 Maputo 06 6 Nampula 07 7 Niassa 08 8 Sofala 09 9 Tete 10 0 Zambezia 11 1 C Maputo

54.1 71.7 71.0 58.1 80.6 47.3 58.3 54.3 55.9 61.7 86.2

59.6 72.0 71.4 64.3 80.1 51.1 63.5 60.8 59.9 68.3 84.8

48.7 71.5 70.6 52.2 81.0 43.4 53.1 47.8 51.9 55.0 87.6

Difference 0.9 0.5 0.8 12.1 – 0.9 0.7 10.4 12.0 8.0 13.3 – 3.2

Mai (mothers) and Pai (fathers) drawn from the local community and from older students have proved very effective as counsellors.

Policy licy interventions and incentives Mozambique’s zambique’s commitment to the promotion of girls’ and women’s men’s education is part of its adherence to an SADC declaration laration to enhance women’s participation in education, n, in public life, and in decision-making positions. In the basic education sector this commitment is pursued through ough a wide range of interventions and incentives:
Gender units, focal points, and working groups. The Special Adviser to the Minister of Education on gender issues leads a team of specialists who constitute the gender unit at the central level. Similar structures (known as gender focal points) are at work at the provincial and district

40

Mozambique M Mo oz oz


Poverty reduction measures. Free tuition and free books in primary schools, and in many places, the provision of potable water to schools and their host communities
Decentralization of the management of basic education. Through the division of administrative districts into a number of areas with identical education needs known as ZIPs (Zona do Influenco Pedagógico), and the establishment of school councils, intended to ‘devolve school daily business o communities, parents, NGOs, respected citizens and community leaders’.
Curriculum enrichment. A new curriculum is being piloted in twenty-nine schools nationwide, and is expected to come fully on board in 2004. Its objectives are to: (a) eliminate gender stereotypes in the content and activities of textbooks; (b) enhance gender sensitivity among teachers; (c) enhance assertiveness among girls; and (d) enhance gender awareness among boys. Head teachers have to acknowledge that schools really belong to the communities.

A tale of two pilot schools The gender pilot schools concept is intended to boost the enrolment olment and retention of girls in basic education, and the two examples below illustrate the joys and the challenges ges of the experiment. Muda-Mufo da-Mufo Originally ginally (during the colonial period) a catholic mission, one-teacher -teacher school, Muda-Mufo was upgraded after inde-

42

Mozambique M oza oz zam amb mbi biq iqu

pendence by the Sofala provincial and the Nhamata Nhamatanda district education authorities, with the support of UNE UNESCO and the World Bank. It was closed between 1981 and 1984, due to the civil war. Reopened in 1995, it became part of a nati national pilot project for the enhancement of the participatio participation of girls in primary education. The major thrust of the project pro was the involvement of the local community and the sensitization of society to the need for girls’ educat education. Community involvement was in membership of the sch school council, the provision of six classrooms, using local m materials, the preparation of school meals. There has been increased in enrolment over the years In 1996, the school had 345 children, made up of: 220 boys and 125 girls (i.e. 36 per cent girls). In 2 2002, total enrolment was 1,298 – 834 boys and 464 g girls (i.e. 36 per cent girls). Learning activities in the school are closely lin linked with poverty reduction; hence students are involve involved in practical work in the following areas: poultry farm farming, green zone protection, sewing and typewriting. Houses are provided for teachers on the sch school premises, while the school has a health centre and s solar electricity. Sixty-eight of the pupils (forty-eight boys and twenty girls) live in the boarding facilities provided within wi the school. The school still faces the problems of shortage shortag of classrooms, while some children travel as much as 50 50–60 kilometres to the school. Only two of the eighteen teachte ers are women. Estoril The school is housed in rehabilitated structures a few kilometres outside Beira, capital of Sofala province. It operat operates a

43

Moz Mozambique Mo ozam am mb biiq b iqu

double ble shift system, and only at the senior primary level. Its 1,565 pupils, 708 boys and 717 (i.e.45.8 % girls) Its 1,565 pupils, there are758 boys and 717 girls (i.e.45.8 45.8 % girls) The headship of the school always conferred on women, in keeping with government policy, and with the intention n of providing role models for girl children. The school has been adjudged successful in the mobilizing of the community mmunity for the maintenance of infrastructure, and of teachers chers fully mobilized for the production/adaptation of teaching–learning ching–learning materials. Muda Mufo is a rural environment while Estoril is in the he select suburbs of a provincial capital city. The 35 per cent girl participation rate in Muda Mufo is considered d an ‘improvement’ by persons familiar with the harsh socio-economic io-economic terrain of the school. Child marriages are still rampant in the area. The school is also located along the ‘Beira corridor’, a transnational trade route that lures young ng villagers (including girls), in search of an escape route te from rural poverty, to the neighbouring countries of Zambia and Zimbabwe, as well as to the cities of Mozambique. zambique.

The e non-formal sector Mozambique zambique has a national strategy for the literacy and non-formal sub-sector (Estratégia do Subsector de Alfabetizaç˜ abetizaç˜ao e Educação de Adultos/educação NãoFormal) mal)) that runs from 2001-2005, the priority areas of which ch are:
Continuous review of policies and strategies, including systematic monitoring and evaluation.

44

Mozambique M Mo zam za mb b


Regular/professional teachers also used.
NGOs very active, especially at the grass-roots level.
Diplomas are awarded as incentives – EP1 (fifth grade equivalent), allowing persons who so desire to rejoin the formal sector. Literacy is not enough; it must help to alleviate poverty.

The overall illiteracy rate for the country is 60.5 per cent, t, while the illiteracy rate for women is 74.1 per cent. Illiteracy eracy is being tackled through a network of 1,162 literacy racy and adult education centres. Women seem to be responding ponding to the call to acquire literacy and life skills, as they hey form approximately half of registered students in these se centres (Table 3). The figures represent persons duly registered stered and attending classes as at June 2001. Table ble 3. Mozambique – Enrolment in adult education and literacy classes – 2001

Year I II III Total

Total enrolment

Women

Women (%)

72 602 49 516 31 024

40 941 25 313 14 769

56.39 51.12 47.61

153 142

81 023

52.91

NGOs for practical matters; government for long-term perspective guidance.

There re has been a steady evolution in the approach to the he provision of adult literacy and non-formal education. n. Until 1978, the emphasis was on reading–writing–

46

Mozambique M Mo oz oz iq q


Gender sensitization is an ongoing activity and the level of awareness is believed to be steadily rising.
Girls and women are embracing literacy and nonformal basic education and are more strongly represented in ongoing programmes than men.

The nation’s pursuit of gender equality in education is also o facing a number of challenges:
Regional disparities are a feature of the system. Girls’ participation in formal basic education is steadily improving, but this is related to the extent to which schooling is embraced in specific localities. With the pilot projects, for example, rural pilot schools are believed to be making an improvement when barely 36 per cent of learners are girls.
The pockets of resistance to Western education and to schooling by girls are still quite strong, while poverty is an inhibiting factor to decisions by families to invest in the education of girls.
Resources are scarce, as the country has numerous other areas of human welfare needing attention. However, wever, the fact still remains that Mozambican authorities are seriously rebuilding the nation. Education (and particularly ticularly basic education for women and girls) is an integral gral element of this national rebuilding exercise. The ongoing EFA master planning process should be an opportunity ortunity for consolidating the gains already made, for designing igning a frontal attack strategy on the major challenges and,, most especially, the question of regional disparities in attitudes ttitudes to education in general and to the education of girls and women in particular.

48

Burkina B Bu kiin ina na Fa F as Faso


Girls’ Education Conference of FAAPE: Federation of African Parents-Teachers Associations (2001). The T he International Centre for Girls’ and Women’s Education in Africa (CIEFFA) has since taken off, with Ouagadougou in (the capital of Burkina Faso) as its headquarters. Available statistics show that access to basic education c ation is still low in Burkina Faso. Only 901,291 of the school age population of 2,110,395 (i.e. 42.7 per cent) are school in school, and only 36.2 per cent of these are girls. The gender gap is approximately 10 percentage points in the urban centres and 12 in the rural areas. There are wide regional variations in access to primary education. The net enrolment rate in the province around the capital city is 20 per cent, while that of the most under-schooled province (Komandjari) is a mere 13.5 per cent. Burkina Faso also has one of the lowest literacy rrates ates in the Africa region. UNESCO’s estimates for 1995 show a national average illiteracy rate of 80.8 per cent – 90.8 per cent for women and 70.5 per cent for men. The challenges of bridging the wide gender gap in access a ccess to education were recognized in the ten-year action plan of 1993, which addressed the issues from six fronts, as follows:
Action-research, involving insightful analyses of the major problems and the search for viable solutions.
Sensitization and mobilization, with the involvement of NGOs.
Teacher education, including gender-sensitivity training.
Special incentives: free textbooks for girls, improvement of the school environment, special admission quotas, housing for teachers, etc.
Collaboration with other government depart-

50

Burkina B Bu urki ur kin na Fa na F as a s Faso

Organizational competence An element of the beauty of the NGOs visited in Burkina Faso is their simple (flat) organizational structure. Even the relatively large NGOs, with a wide geographical and the activity coverage (e.g. Promo Femmes) have very few persons on their permanent pay roll, and seem to depend as much as possible on volunteers. The NGOs have also ingeniously adopted the traditional Groupementt concept, thus using as rallying points the social structures already in place. This enables them to use the real beneficiaries of their programmes also as agents of change. It also makes participatory management possible. The ‘Groupement’ is also the basis for organizing women into ‘co-operatives’ for the management of their own development projects. Outreach capacity The NGOs studied target the social classes that are in greatest need, women in general, but more particularly poor urban and rural women, the handicapped, widows, the unskilled, the unemployed. A second angle to the outreach capacity of the NGOs N GOs lies in the wide range of activities they are engaged in: promoting literacy, developing women’s organizations, improving skills for income generation, health promotion, food security, nature and water conservation, etc. Emphasis on the social, political and economic empowerment of girls and women The wide range of activities carried out by Burkinabé NGOs in favour of women is geared towards the goal of education for self-development and empowerment, in all its ramifications. Thus, there is emphasis on human rights,

52

Burkina Bu B ki ki F Faso

the financial independence of women, and the acquisition acquisit of knowledge and skills.

Close link with local communities and their cultural mi milieu The Groupement concept is utilized to its fullest. IIt is the nucleus for the establishment of groups. It is also the major determinant of the activities carried out in specifi spec c locations. It also determines the choice of facilitators for specific activities, and the methodology for the cond conduct of such activities. Peasants are also experts in their own right.

Moreover, training programmes are carried out in traditr tional structures (homesteads, fields, traditional assembly assem points, etc.), while the calendar of activities is made to fit into women’s traditional free time.

Direct access with decentralized structures and with donors don The larger international NGOs (e.g. Catholic Relief Servi Services, Oeuvre Suisse d’Entraide Ouvrière, Promo Femmes)) do receive direct subventions from their external sponsors, spons even though they also raise funds from other sources. The interesting point here is that the smaller NG NGOs are also able to enlist the support of the in-country m missions of donor agencies: ILO, FAO, UNDP, UNESCO, UNIC UNICEF, women and church groups in industrialized countr countries, and various diplomatic missions. There are, in fact, examex ples of NGOs serving as executing agencies for etern eternally funded girls education projects. A good case here is Promo Femmess which, in 2002, 20 successfully made a bid for the management of a cou couple of schools built for the state with World Bank ass assistance. Promo Femmess also had an interesting co-operation co-operat

53

Burkina B Bu rki rk kina na Fa F as a s Faso

arrangement with ILO, which involved: (a) schooling for 100 orphaned young girls from very poor families; and (b) non-formal education (literacy, gardening, poultry, other income-generating skills) for 100 over-aged, but not yet income-generating marriageable girls. Whatever the size, the functions, and the level of competence of these NGOs, they have been able to enlist the suptence port of persons and institutions responsible for governance at the local level. These include traditional and religious leaders, public servants, and elected representatives. A culture sensitive approach to the gender question Family values are considered very important, and most NGO women education and empowerment programmes preach the gospel of ‘Peace in the family’. The men folk are made to accept the fact that an educated woman in an asset to the family, and the women who become economically empowered are encouraged to use their resources to support their families. A development-oriented view of literacy and education The NGOs studied promote the development, the emancipation, and the full empowerment of women. However, literacy and education are seen (correctly) as the foundation and the bedrock of it all. This view has informed the hierarchy of women’s learning needs that most of the NGOs have tried to promote, namely:
Basic literacy in the mother tongue, for the rapid acquisition of reading–writing–calculation in the language of the women’s daily life.
Basic literacy in French, for exposure to the official language of government business in the country.
Functional literacy: reading–writing–calculation

54

Burkina B Bu a Fa F as a s Faso

for parent–teacher associations to ensure that 40–60 per cent of pupils are girls. In addition, these schools are provided with separate toilet facilities for boys and girls. Catholic Relief Services: Its Education Support Programme (Programme de Soutien à l’Éducation - ESP) aims at raising the rate of school enrolment, encourage school attendance (particularly by girls), reducing dropout rate, raising the level of success in primary education, out and sensitive parents to their role in ensuring the education of their children). In 2001, the organization intervened in the following areas:
School feeding. To encourage school attendance and to improve performance of both boys and girls. Working in collaboration with the Ministry of Basic Education and Literacy (MEBA), the organization distributed 16,000 tonnes of foodstuff to 400,000 children in 2,344 primary schools.
School health and nutrition. The distribution of micro-nutrients, basic medicines to primary school children, and the promotion of heath/ nutrition education, and the supply of medicine kits to schools.
School infrastructure. Mobilizing local communities through a ‘food for work’ arrangement. Twenty primary schools were thus constructed in 2001.
‘Take Away’ Ration. At the end of every month, Girls who attain 90 per cent school attendance are given 10 kg of wheat flour, intended to help the family in periods of food scarcity and to raise self-confidence in girls as being useful to the family. 4,000 girls, drawn from 135 schools, benefited from this bonus in 2001.

56

Burkina B Bu kin ina na Fa F s Faso

Conclusions and major lessons

T

here is certainly a high level of awareness of the need to bridge the wide gender gap in basic educattion ion in Burkina Faso. This awareness is captured in the government’s ten-year strategic plan for the development government’s of education. It is also taken as an area of concern by the numerous NGOs operating in the country. NGOs are helping to extend the scope of coverage of basic education activities, and are complementing the work of government in a number of ways. They seem to have a very strong potential for reaching the ’unreached’. They also seem to have acquired experience in linking basic education to overall human development activities, using traditional organizational structures and collaborating with both local authorities and external support agencies. They have, above all, approached the gender question in a culture-sensitive manner, and they seem to be winning, for as most of them said in the course of interviews, ‘the men are also involved’. At the same time, to enhance the sustainability and the positive impact of the interesting activities currently going on, attention would have to be paid to a number of major challenges:
Geographical coverage is still a problem. All actors attest to the fact that some parts of the country (among them areas in dire need) are not covered by NGOs, while some other areas (among them regions that are better off in terms of access to basic education) experience an over-concentration of NGO activities.
There is a general feeling that co-ordination and

58

Burkina Faso B Bu as a s

The work to be done in Burkina Faso, to attain the goals of EFA (and more particularly, the gender equity–gender equality goal – goal number V), is enormous. It requires that all hands must be fully on deck. The EFA master planthat ning process is a wonderful opportunity to make this happen, in an impactful manner.

60

Ethiopia S waziland Swaziland wa w azil n Mo Mozambique oz zamb u Burkina B Burkin urkina Faso s General conclusions o

E

ven though each of the four studies focus focused on a specific angle to the enormous task inv involved in promoting the education ducation of women and girls, there is a common thread hread running through them. The following elements of this hi constitute the major lessons to be learned from the on ongoing experiences. 1. The education of w women and girls are really part and parcel off a nation’s educational and overall social development elo issues. This holistic view places every m micro-experiment in a wider national developmental men context. 2. The existence of a broader ro policy framework (such as a national constitution st making appropriate provisions for women’s me issues, a national policy on women-in-development, op a strategic education development plan that th targets the real concerns of women and girls in education) helps to provide a clearer focus for th the development and management of girls’ education at programmes. 3. A data and research-generated ch knowledge base is essential to ensure ur that programmes address

61

Ethiopia Sw Swaziland wa aziland Mozambique M oz o zam mb biiiq b qu ue Burkina Burkin urkina Faso Fa aso sso 4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

62

the real issues, ues, and that they are relevant to the needs of specifi ecific groups of girls and women in society. Promoting the he education of girls and women is a multi-sectoral toral undertaking. Work done in all other development opment sectors help to reinforce the work done in n the education sector, since they all work towards ds the common gaol of mainstreaming women and gender issues in development. Promoting the education of women and girls is also a multi-agency, multi-interest-group affair. The challenge hallenge here is to design appropriate strategies es for harnessing the potentials of every stakeholder. ho The primary y beneficiaries – women and girls – are the number ber one determinants of the orientation and content ntent of programmes. The more they – and their immediate mmediate communities – are treated as ‘experts in n their own rights’, the better. Mainstreaming ing gender in education is likely to be more e successful when ‘men are also involved’, since ince the promotion of women is the promotion of both sexes. In the African an context, poverty is a stark reality, and all efforts to promote the education of women and girls must take poverty in its stride. Communication ation is a major problem. It inhibits communication tion and collaboration among stakeholders and d between African Member States. Since there are a lot of opportunities for interlearning on n ongoing activities, the area of communication tion and networking deserves very special attention. nt

In spite of the many ongoing ng activities in the region, a great deal still has to be done ne to attain gender equity in primary education by 2005, and a gender equality in secondary education by 2015, as s rrecommended by the Dakar EFA Forum of April, 2000.

General conclusion

Ethiopia Swaziland wa w aziland Mozambique oz o zamb biiiq qu ue Burkina B Burkin rkina Faso Fa aso s 10. Age-old habits and at attitudes die hard. Sensitizing the populace (and the d this includes women and persons who have b benefited from modern education) has not bee been an easy task. A major challenge for the fu future is evolving innovative strategies for social al mobilization in favour of the education of wo women and girls. 11. Education (and most os especially education for women and girls) is seen to be beneficial when it directly and positively sit impacts on the quality of life for the direct beneficiaries, as well as to their families and immediate communities. Thus, another major or challenge for the immediate future is the search for innovative strategies for linking education ducation with poverty reduction, alleviation and nd overall human well-being programmes.

There is, however, an opportunity o that the Africa region should not allow to slip ip by. This is the ongoing EFA master planning process thatt should be used to develop appropriate national strategies es for moving the education of girls and women to its desired sir destination.

63

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Educational Management Information Systems – EMIS. 2000. Education Statistics Annual Abstracts: 2000–2001.

ET H I O P I A . Ministry of Water Resources. Women’s Affairs Department 1998. Women’s Participation for Sustainable Water Supply and Sanitation Development. (Brochure.) ET H I O P I A . Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare, Women’s Affairs Department. 1999. Women’s Profiles (Some Basic Statistical Data on Women in Ethiopia). Oromia Education Bureau 2001. Gender Analysis of Primary School Textbooks in Oromia. —

2002. Education Statistics Annual Abstracts, 2000/2001.

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Rose, P. et. al. 1997. Gender and Primary Schooling in Ethiopia. (IDS Research Report, 31.) Transitional Government of Ethiopia. Office of the Prime Minister. 1993. National Policy on Ethiopian Women.

Swaziland Central Statistical Office. Mbabane. 1998. Report on the 1997 Swaziland Population and Housing Census. 3 vols. Forum for African Women Educationalists – Swaziland – FAWESWA. 2001. The Participation and Performance of Girls in Science and Mathematics and Technical Subjects in Primary and Secondary Schools in Swaziland. —

1999. Female Education in Mathematics and Science.

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2000. Needs Assessment Report on Teenage Young Mothers.

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n.d. Parent’s Guide on Effective Communication with Children.

Kingdom of Swaziland. Ministry of Education. 1999. National Policy Statement on Education. Macwele, M 2002. The Promotion of the Education of Girls and Women in Swaziland. (Unpublished manuscript.)

Mozambique Governo Da Provincia De Safala. Direccáo Provincial De Educacão. 2002. Informacáo. —

2002. Educacão Da Rapariga.

Republic of Mozambique. Ministry of Education. 2001. Educational Statistics, Annual Survey – 2001. —

Council of Ministers. 1995. National Education Policy and Strategies

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Ministry of Education. 1998. Education Sector Strategic Plan: 1999

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1997. Género, Desenvolvimento e Educação: Manual do Formador.

for Implementation.

– 2003 (Reviving Schools and Expanding Opportunities).

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2000. Estratégia do Subsector de Alfabetização e Educação de Adultos/Educação Não-Formal, 2001 – 2005.

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Burkina Faso A.P.E.E. 2002. Amélioration des Conditions d’Insertion des Enfants Déficients Intellectuels au Burkina Faso. Association Duddal Leydi Men. 2002. Projet d’Alphabétisation de Base et de Formations Techniques Spécifiques. BU R K I N A F A S O . Ministère de l’Économie et des Finances. n.d. Répertoire Synoptiques des ONG. —

Ministère de l’Enseignement de base et de l’Alphabétisation / Ministère des Enseignements Secondaire, Supérieur et de la Recherche Scientifique (1997), Plan Stratégique Décennal 1997–2006 de l’Éducation.

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2000, 2001. Statistiques Scolaires 1999/2000 and 2000/2001.

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Ministère des Enseignements Secondaire, Supérieur et de la Recherche Scientifique (n.d.), Données Globales sur les Enseignements Secondaire et Supérieur (Année Scolaire 2001–2002).

Catholic Relief Services. Programme du Burkina Faso, Rapport Annuel d’Activités. 2001. International Centre for Girls’ and Women’s Education. 2000. General Report of the Meeting of the Committee of Experts, Ouagadougou, 12–14 July 2000. Ouedraogo Salimata. 2002. Communication sur l’Égalité des Sexes dans l’Éducation de Base, UNESCO, Réunion Régionale des Pays de la CEDEAO, Accra, 18–20 février 2002. Tamboura Adama. 2001. Rapport sur les Structures, Politiques, Programmes Spécialement Conçus pour l’Éducation des Filles et des Femmes.

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Appendix: Persons interviewed and organizations/ institutions visited

Ethiopia Hon. Gifti Abasiyya, State Minister, Women Sub-sector, Prime Minister’s Office. Nuria Ahmed, Department of Women’s Affairs, Oromia Education Bureau. Bogalech Alemu, Head, Women and Development (WAD), Ministry of Agriculture. Konjit Alula, Head, Women’s Affairs Department, Ministry of Health. Rahel Bekele, Head, Policy, Advocacy and Family, CCRDA. Kassaw Checkole, Co-ordinator, Basic Education Network (BEN). Kassech Demissie, Women’s Affairs Department, Ministry of Education. Lakesh Haile, Head, Women’s Affairs Department, Ministry of Water Resources. Martha Mangesha, Deputy Secretary-General, National Agency for UNESCO and in her capacity as executive member of FAWE (Ethiopia Chapter). Allemayeu Minas, Secretary-General, National Agency for UNESCO. Mexia Mohammed, Women Sub-sector, Prime Minister’s Office. Enebet Mulugeta, Director, CERTWID, Addis Ababa University.

68

Mergerssa

Negasa,

Women’s

Affairs

Department,

Addis

Ababa

University. Musie Tamir, Team Leader, Factory Women in the Industrial Sector, Ministry of Industries. Fananesh Tilahun, Women’s Affairs Department, Ministry of Education. Almaz Witensaye, Addis Ababa Women’s Affairs Officer. Yelfign Worku, Chair, Women Education Association of Ethiopia (FAWE Ethiopia Chapter). Aster Zewde, Head, Women’s Affairs Department, Ministry of Youth, Sports and Culture.

Swaziland Atticia Dladla, Acting Director, National Curriculum Centre. Thulsile Dladla, Chief Executive Officer, SEBENTA National Institute. Bernard Dlamini, Chief Inspector (Tertiary). Peterson Dlamini, Principal, Ngwane Teachers’ College. Zweli Gamedze, Assistant Registrar (Computer), Exams Council of Swaziland. Faith Khumalo, Inspector of Schools (Examinations), Exams Council of Swaziland. J-G Kunene, Principal Secretary, Ministry of Education. Dorothy Littler, Secretary-General, National Commission for UNESCO. Musa Macwele, Assistant Chief Inspector (Adult Education). Thembinkosi Mamba, Directorate of Industrial and Vocational Training. Jane Maseko, Head of Department of Agriculture, Ngwane Teachers’ College. Christobel Mkhonta, Chief Inspector (Secondary). Sibusiso Mkhonta, Director of Education, Ministry of Education. Della Nsibande, Guidance and Counselling Unit, Ministry of Education. Bongie Potsoa, University of Swaziland. Martha Shongwe, Senior Inspector, Ministry of Education. Israel Similane, Chief Inspector (Primary). Nomcebo Similane, University of Swaziland.

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Dr. Sukati, University of Swaziland. Hebron Sukati, Principal, Swaziland College of Technology (SCOT). Lineo Vilakazi, Guidance and Counselling Unit, Ministry of Education. Nomsa Zindela, University of Swaziland.

Mozambique Eninelinda Adelino, Deputy Head of the Maputo Provincial Department of Education. Raul Salomad Benzane, Head Teacher, Escola Primaria Centro Educacional, Maraccueme. Susana Betrossi, Head Teacher, EP2 do Estoril, Beira. Alvos Manuel Cagana, Chief of Pedagogical Department, Safala Provincial Education Department. Adelino Castigo David, Head Teacher, EPC de 25 de Juanho, Tica, Safala Province. Paula Encstina, Head, Centro de Desenvolvimento Commnitaria de Machanote, Dondo District, Safala Province. Soaguina Yosé de Higueino, Gender Co-ordinator, Dondo District Education Office. Virgilio Juvane, Director, Planning Department, Ministry of Education. Manuel Francisco Lobo, Adviser to the Hon. Minister of Education. Chota Marulino Maisne, Dondo District Education Office. Herminio Malate, Gender Unit, Ministry of Education. Mouzere Alberto Manuel, Programme Officer, Beira City Education Department. Martins Jaoa Mateus, Adjointo Pedagogico, EP1 (Dondo District Education Office). Francisco Itai Mecque, Director, Safala Provincial Education Department. Qestattina Francisco Moiene, Gender Unit, Ministry of Education. Francisco Eugenio Mutambe, Head of School Support Unit, Marracuene District Education Department. Januario Mutaquiha, Secretary-General, UNESCO National Commission. Mario Nhabaga, Adjointo Pedagogico, EPC, Muda-Mafa.

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Felisberto de Jesus Antonio Nhapulo, Director, Basic Education, Ministry of Education. Teresa Paulino Mafage Nhoana, Co-ordinator (Gender Unit), Safala Provincial Education Department. Naissone Pedro Nogueira, Adjointo Pedagogico EP2 (Dondo District Education Office). Augusto Nunes, Programme Officer for Sciences, UNESCO National Commission. Henriqueta Anibal Oveamaz, Co-ordinator (Gender Unit), Marracuene District Department of Education. Anastasia Quitane, Co-ordinator (Gender, Reproductive Health, and HIV/ AIDS Prevention Education), Maputo Provincial Department of Education. Da Gracia E Sambine, Gender Unit, Ministry of Education. Anthónio Tacarinda, District Education Director, Nhamatanda. Fernando Tembe, Department of Literacy, Adult and Non-Formal Education, Ministry of Education. David Uamusse, Basic Education Department, Ministry of Education. Domingos Ushavu, Head of Planning Maputo Provincial Department of Education. Fernanda Wachave, Gender Unit, Ministry of Education.

Burkina Faso Emile Bambara, Association Pag-La-Yiri. Fatoumata Bambara, FAWE–Burkina. Rasmata Barry, Focus group discussion with Association Duddal Leydi Men. Sidiki Belem. Rita Campaore (Treasurer), Focus Group Discussion (Association Féminine pour l’Entraide au Développement Durable). Sibry Conde. Marguerite Coulidiaty, FAWE–Burkina. Korotouma Gariko, Focus Group Discussion with Association Duddal Leydi Men.

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Emiliene Ido, FAWE–Burkina. Olga Ilbuodo, International Centre for Girls’ and Women’s Education in Africa, Ouagadougou. Valentin Konsianbo, Association des Parents et Amis des Enfants Encephalopathes, Ouagadougou. Kadiatou Kosarga, Directrice de la Promotion de l’Éducation des Filles, Ministère de l’Éducation de Base et de l’Alphabétisation. Maria Leugue, Association Pag-La-Yiri. Anatole Niameogo, Technical Adviser on Education, Catholic Relief Services. San Ouattara, Education Department, UNESCO National Commission. Clementine Ouedraogo, Director of Programmes, Promo Femmes. Emmanuel Ouedraogo, President and Founder, Vivre le Berger. Germaine Ouedraogo, International Centre for Girls’ and Women’s education in Africa, Ouagadougou. Jean Ouedraogo, Association des Parents et Amis des Enfants Encephalopathes, Ouagadougou. Salimata Sanou, EFA Focal Point, Ministry of Education. Issiatou Sawadogo, Legal Affairs Officer, Promo Femmes. Lassina Sessouma. Kadidia Sidibe, Secrétaire Permanent de la Commission Nationale pour l’Education des Filles. Abdoulaye Soulgane, Association des Parents et Amis des Enfants Encephalopathes, Ouagadougou. Cecile Thiombiago, President, Focus Group Discussion (Association Féminine pour l’Entraide au Développement Durable). Marie-Magdalene Toure, President, Comite National des Femmes Aveugles. Blaise Toubré, Co-ordinator, Association Generation Montante, Ziniare. Susanne Ware, Association Pag-La-Yiri. Isabelle Yameogo, Association des Parents et Amis des Enfants Encephalopathes, Ouagadougou. Bernard Yonli, Secretary-General, UNESCO National Commission. Patricia Zagré, UNESCO National Commission.

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