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The English Teacher's Handbook, A to Z Book · January 2009
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The English Teacher’s Handbook A to Z edited by
Jacqueline Manuel & Don Carter
The English Teacher’s Handbook A to Z First published in Australia in 2009 Phoenix Education Pty Ltd PO Box 3141, Putney NSW 2112, Australia Phone 02 9809 3579 Fax 02 9808 1430 Email [email protected] Web www.phoenixeduc.com Copyright © Jacqueline Manuel and Don Carter All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 (for example a fair dealing for the purpose of study, research, criticism or review), no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written permission. Copyright owners may take legal action against a person or organisation who infringes their copyright through unauthorised copying. All inquiries should be directed to the publisher at the address above.
ISBN 978 1 921085 94 9 Cover design by Kate Stewart Printed in Australia by Five Senses Education
Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Paul Brock for extensive proof-reading and editorial advice throughout the duration of the book’s development; Colleen Cook for meticulous editing and proof-reading during the final stages; Ken Watson for ongoing editorial advice; Paul Manuel for permission to print photographs; and Tommy Murphy for permission to print photographs. We also gratefully acknowledge Paramount Studios for permission to use the copyright movie poster of Babel and Classical Comics for permission to reprint an excerpt from the Romeo and Juliet education guide. We have endeavoured to seek permission to use any material which may be in copyright. In some cases we have been unable to trace sources, or have not received replies to requests for permissions. We welcome any information which would enable us to acknowledge these sources.
CONTENTS
Introduction
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A to Z
3
Appendices Notes on the Editors and Contributors Film and Visual Media Terms Professional Associations
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310 313 319
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Dedication We dedicate this book to Tony Adams (1933-2008), John Dixon and Ken Watson. Superb teachers, scholars, researchers, writers, pathfinders, and lifelong advocates for English teaching and learning of the highest quality.
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Introduction This book represents an attempt to capture a sense of the profound richness, scope and depth of English in education. It is not our intention to provide an exhaustive list of pedagogical strategies or literary terms, nor to cover in extensive detail the expansive range of theoretical principles and conceptual frameworks that have contributed to the evolution and development of English in education. Rather, the book offers teachers an accessible compilation of the major concepts, research, ideas, pedagogical approaches, historical movements, theories and debates that have informed and continue to inform teaching and learning in subject English. The entries selected are not intended to advocate any one particular point of view, theory, model or position. It is anticipated that the entries in this book will act as a springboard for teachers to investigate specific areas of interest more fully. This book is being published at a time when English, as an academic discipline and as a schoolbased subject, is once again the focus of public scrutiny: the work of teachers and the experiences of students are regularly misrepresented or partially reported in the public domain. It is not uncommon, for example, for English to be reduced to a set of basic literacy skills or knowledge about a canon of literature. We believe it is therefore important to re-emphasise the intellectual, pedagogical and historical underpinnings and scope of the subject, and to identify the corpus of knowledge, concepts, processes and practices which will not only be helpful to pre-service and practising teachers, but will also reassert what is central to the subject and to teaching and learning in the subject in the 21st century. We have deliberately included entries on the historical influences on the development of English in education. This is based on our firm belief that all practising teachers need to know and understand the roots of their professionalism and the accumulated wisdom that continues to shape their craft. As Reid observes, “Ours is a forgetful era, often oblivious to ways in which past cultural practices have shaped the foundations of much that we think and do.” (Reid, 2004: ix) It is not enough to be ‘up to date’ with the latest classroom pedagogical strategy or the latest commercially produced resource. It is vital, as a profession, to understand where the ‘latest trend’ or school of thought is situated in the evolution of the subject. It is our belief that effective practice relies on a deep knowledge of the history of English in education; an ability to identify and articulate clearly the beliefs about English teaching which underpin classroom practice; an understanding of how learning occurs in diverse classrooms and other settings; and how these beliefs reflect (or do not reflect) the major principles and theories of the subject. Subject English draws theoretically and pedagogically on other disciplines such as, for example, drama, visual art, music, film and media studies. Thus, a number of the entries and practical strategies highlight the continuities between English and these other fields. We believe that English is the “palace for thinking, imagining, creating, feeling, knowing and expressing” (de Bono, 1996:44). At its core is the commitment to students’ affective, creative, imaginative, intellectual, social and embodied learning and development. As teachers, we seek to begin where students are at, moving them forward to explore new horizons that are made possible and understood through authentic engagement with, enjoyment of and critical attention to language, literature and other texts. We believe that students are not merely ‘spectators’ but also ‘participants’ (Britton, 1975): actively ‘making and doing’; creating and critiquing; discovering and synthesising; and weighing up and evaluating the experience of others, and representations of this experience, in the light of students’ own growing and deepening understanding of themselves and the increasingly complex world they inhabit English is far more than a set of skills that can be transmitted or a body of knowledge that can be packaged and delivered in a one-size-fits-all model of curriculum. English does not merely educate students about the ‘what’ of knowledge, understanding, values and skills. Importantly, it strives to equip students with the ‘how’ of thinking and knowing, the ability to use language accurately and appropriately in a range of contexts and to reflect on and critique this language use. Such holistic The English Teacher’s Handbook
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teaching and learning cannot be atomised into discrete elements, for every encounter with language – our own and others’ – draws on the senses, the intellect, the emotions and the spirit. Such endeavours support, inform and encourage students’ curiosity and their thirst for and right to meaningful learning. Such endeavours aim to develop in all students the desire and ability to engage with and understand the ways language works to shape the personal, imaginative, creative, intellectual, ethical, social, cultural and critical dimensions of human experience. It is through sustained immersion in language, literature and other texts that English attends to the greater questions of values, meaning and purpose in human experience. Through enlightened teaching, English education, as “the meeting point of experience, language and society" (Dixon, 1967) may build resilience, empathy, increased social awareness and a sense that attention to the inner life is at least as compelling and primal as attention to the outer life. As with other well-established subjects, the specialised discourse/s of English in education reflects its complexity, uniqueness and intellectual, scholarly depth, as well as its ability to shift with corresponding developments in theory, research and pedagogy. This complexity and uniqueness can partially account for why English, as a discipline and school-based subject, is often misunderstood by the wider community and non-specialist commentators. Developments in the pedagogical practices of English teachers reflect advances in research and our understanding of how optimal learning occurs. But these developments may also at times reinforce the distance between what we do as educators and what the community understands about our work. In publishing this book, we have drawn on the expertise, knowledge and scholarship of English teachers, researchers, other educators and specialists in the fields of drama, film and media. The entries contributed by these experts are identified throughout the book by way of initials at the end of the entry. It is impossible to complete a publication such as this without reference to and recognition of seminal works with a similar purpose: in particular, Wayne Sawyer, Ken Watson and Anthony Adams’ English Teaching from A to Z (1989); JA Cuddon’s Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory (1991); MH Abram’s A Glossary of Literary Terms (5th edn, 1985); C Hugh Holman’s A Handbook to Literature (1976); and Wayne Sawyer and Eva Gold’s Re-viewing English in the 21st century (2004). We are indebted to the scholarship evident in these books and acknowledge their importance in the development of this publication. As editors, we have aimed for an informed eclecticism in the decisions about what to include and to omit in terms of theory and pedagogy. These decisions have been partly pragmatic due to the limitations of space, and partly based on the recognition from research evidence that this informed eclecticism distinguishes effective teaching and learning in English. For this reason, the range of practical strategies included here should be considered contextually, as part of the integrated approach to teaching, learning and progression in English 7-12 that is advocated in this book. We have sought to reflect the integrated nature of the subject by indicating related entries and further reading where appropriate. It should also be noted that the length of an individual entry is not intended to indicate the importance of that entry in relation to other entries. Our purpose in publishing this book is to contribute to the continued professional development of teachers. It can be utilised as a reference; a resource; a stimulus for further reading and research; and a useful companion in day-to-day teaching. It is almost inevitable, given the contested nature of English education, that aspects of this book may fuel further debate about what constitutes teaching and learning in secondary English. As editors, we welcome such informed, collegial debates and consider them as the lifeblood of informed professionalism. Jacqueline Manuel and Don Carter April, 2009 References: de Bono, E. (1996) Serious Creativity, NY: Harper Collins Publishers. Dixon, J. (1967) Growth Through English, Huddersfield: OUP and NATE. Reid, I. (2004) Wordsworth and the formation of English Studies, Surrey: Ashgate Publishing.
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A Abridgement (abridged version)
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Refers to an adapted work that has been reduced and/or condensed from its original form. Novels are often abridged for production as audio texts. Novels written for an adult audience are regularly abridged for children and young adults. Mao’s Last Dancer by Li Cunxin (2005), for instance, has been abridged for younger readers under the title The Peasant Prince (2007). William Shakespeare’s (1564-1616) plays are abridged in a great range of other forms from comic strips to narratives. Tales from Shakespeare by Charles and Mary Lamb, illustrated by George Soper (London: Tiger Books, 1990) is an example of an abridged version of a number of Shakespeare’s plays. JM Utilise abridged versions of texts as a pre-reading or pre-viewing engagement activity. For example, use the graphic novel, Macbeth (Classical Comics, 2008). Remove the dialogue and/or speech bubbles from the visual text. Students work in small groups or pairs to interpret the graphic sequences and provide a succinct overview in prose of the storyline and descriptions of the main characters and key events. And/or, have students add brief captions and speech bubbles to the visual text. Comic versions of Romeo and Juliet, for example, are available with speech bubble text or no text (downloadable for classroom use at: www.classicalcomics.com/education/N_RJ_2009.pdf See sample page below, reproduced with permission). After sharing responses, provide the original images/comic strips to compare with students’ versions. This is a previewing/pre-reading activity that can clarify the plot and dialogue to enable access to the full Shakespearean text
Abstract A succinct overview of a longer piece of writing (e.g. a thesis, article, or conference presentation). An abstract usually precedes the full text of a paper. Its purpose is to provide the reader with a succinct overview of the key focus, methodology and findings which are detailed in the full text. An abstract may typically range between 100 and 500 words and is used to index articles for research databases such as, for example ERIC (Education Resources Information Centre). Abstract (as an adjective) is also used to refer to language, experiences, ideas and concepts: for example, love, death, joy, sorrow, compassion and empathy. See also Language. JM
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A Accent The stress placed on a syllable within a word or a word within a phrase. Stress patterns contribute to the rhythm of a text, particularly the rhythm of poetry and the sound of spoken language. Reading out aloud is the most effective way of building an awareness of the stress patterns in a text. Accent is also used to refer to the distinctive varieties of pronunciation that have developed over time according to geographical location, social conditions and contexts. Most places where English is spoken, for example, have accents that are particular to that country or geographical location (e.g. Australia, America, New Zealand, Ireland, England, Scotland). Within these broad country-based categories, there can be many variations on the ‘standard’ accent. In the simplest sense, all speakers have an accent when their spoken language is compared to that of someone from another context or place. For example, an English accent can be further defined according to the district or region: Cockney (East London); Geordie (North Eastern England); Liverpudlian (Liverpool); or Mancurian (Manchester). Accents are not only associated with geographical regions: accents may also be associated with hierarchical judgements about socioeconomic status, education, class, ethnicity and identity. Variations in accent can also be attributed to the speaker’s conscious (or otherwise) adaptation to the context in which they are communicating.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
When an accent operates in conjunction with distinctive grammatical patterns, sayings and word choice, it is referred to as a dialect. See also Dialect, Metre, Register, Rhythm, Stress. JM Students can learn about stress, rhythm and sound, and the ways these operate in language to create mood, tone and meaning, by engaging in drama and oral performance. Select a poem or song that has a strong rhythm (for example, folk ballads, rap music). Students use their bodies and voices (feet, hands, clapping, pitch and loudness of voice etc) and if appropriate, musical instruments, to read/perform the poem/song with a focus on making the stress and rhythm prominent. Students may also transpose the original text into prose form, comparing the prose version with the original version. This activity can lead to an analysis of the effect of stress patterns on the meaning of a text. Students work in pairs to collate a data bank of common acronyms used in digital and online communication (e.g. SMS, email, MSN), analysing when, where, how, why and by whom such acronyms are employed. JW
Acronym An abbreviation made up of the first letters of a group of words. For example: ACT (Australian Capital Territory) and STELLA (Standards for Teachers of English Language and Literacy). Acronyms are employed for the purposes of brevity in written and oral language. In specialist disciplines and other contexts, such as, for example, science, education, business, technology and medicine, acronyms are part of the discourse. Understanding and using these acronyms require the specialist knowledge of the discipline or context and can therefore function as both an aid and an impediment to effective communication. Acronyms are increasingly common in popular culture and everyday communication through media and digital technologies. Corporate advertising, for example, often relies on the use of an acronym in conjunction with a logo to ‘brand’ their products (for example, ‘KFC’/Kentucky Fried Chicken; ‘IGA’/Independent Grocers Alliance). Digital communication abounds with acronyms that are both adopted and created by users. The language of Short Message Service (SMS), email, and other online communications heavily depends on and is shaped by an abundance of acronyms. This enables users to communicate effectively with brevity and also enables groups of users to create and shape their own particular language. JM
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A Acrostic poem A poem that is structured by using successive letters of a word to begin successive lines of a poem. The poem does not have to rhyme. An interactive tool which provides students with guided activities to compose and learn about acrostic poetry is available at:
Act
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
A structural unit within a play. Within an act, there may be further divisions into scenes. An act usually contains action that is distinctive and thereby structured as a unit within the play, through the thematic focus, time sequences or character development. Scenes and acts are often marked by the exits and entrances of characters, changes in the set, lighting and mood, or the use of a device for closure such as a curtain. Some dramatists during the Elizabethan period adopted the five-act structure of the classical Greeks and Romans. From the 20th century on, experiments with form and structure have seen the conventional five-act play give way to three-act plays and plays that do not necessarily adhere to traditional divisions into acts and scenes. JH, JM Students develop an understanding of the structure of a play by engaging in the following activities:
∼
Complete a character grid that indicates when each character is present. The grid should contain spaces for each act and scene. Different coloured pens/ pencils can be used for each character. This enables students to readily see which characters dominate particular acts and scenes.
∼ Applying Freytag’s pyramid, students can diagrammatically map the action of the play, deciding on which acts and scenes are the climactic points, and so on.
Example of a Character Grid for Hamlet Character
Act 1 Scenes
Act 2 Scenes
Act 3 Scenes
Act 4 Scenes
Act 5 Scenes
Hamlet Ophelia Gertrude Claudius Polonius Rosencrantz Guildenstern The Ghost Laertes Horatio Marcellus Barnado Francisco
Action and Adventure A genre of fiction, film and computer gaming that includes a range of sub-genres: for example, disaster, espionage, crime, thriller, survival, superhero, adventure comedy, swashbuckler, and military. In action and adventure texts, there is an emphasis on plot with fast-paced, continuously unfolding action. With the rise of the novel in the 19th century, adventure fiction became increasingly popular, and drew on the genre of the Medieval Romance. Typically, the story is set in a realistic environment with the action taking place across a number of locations.
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A
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
The characters are often strong male heroes with exceptional physical, intellectual or other abilities that equip them to overcome adversity and confront life-threatening situations. The hero frequently meets a woman and there is a turn in the plot that separates them. The remainder of the adventure involves a movement towards their eventual reunion. There is often an emphasis on plot over intense character development in both action and adventure. These texts frequently include violence (sometimes graphic violence); intrigue; suspense; female love interests; cars; weapons; high technology devices; and military apparatus. Action and adventure films are extremely common and enduring in their popularity: many blockbuster Hollywood films of recent decades attest to the continuing appeal of this genre. Computer games and interactive fiction regularly draw on the conventions of action and adventure. See also Fiction, Film, Genre. JM Visit the Internet Movie Database (www.imdb.com). Students survey the movies in the “Top Movies” list, identifying how many of these are action and adventure films. Compare the popularity of these films with films in other genres. Students select one or more action and adventure films that they are familiar with. In small groups, students write and submit a review to the IMDB site, using the models of online reviews provided on the site.
Action research Research that is initiated and conducted by a teacher/s that focuses on improving pedagogy and educational outcomes for students. It is a powerful tool for self-evaluation and is an important component of reflective practice. It enables teachers to engage in problem-solving through identifying an issue and undertaking research within the classroom setting. Action research relies on a cyclical model of identifying a problem or issue to be researched, hypothesising, moment-to-moment data gathering, usually in a classroom or group of classrooms, interpretation of data, theorising and the application of findings in ‘active curriculum’ contexts. While the results of this method of research are not generalisable, the outcomes may significantly contribute to improved teaching practice and learning outcomes for students. Since action research is a teacher-driven activity, it is regarded as an effective professional development tool and problem-solving strategy. JM
Active and passive voice When the subject of a sentence controls or performs the action identified by the verb, this is the active voice. For example: At the conference Professor Smith will present her research on climate change. The subject (Professor Smith), performs the action identified by the verb (will present). The subject is active. When the passive voice is employed, the subject is acted upon. For example: Research on climate change will be presented at the conference. The active voice is the more naturalised mode for oral language and is promoted in writing that seeks to persuade, entertain and engage an audience through the use of a distinctive voice. In scientific writing, the passive voice is more common: the removal of active subjects (I, we, they) from the writing is designed to convey the impression that the information or conclusions presented are ‘objective’ rather than based on personal beliefs, attitudes or bias. The passive voice may also be adopted for rhetorical and persuasive purposes, where the composer deliberately seeks to understate or neutralise a subjective point of view for the purpose of making generalisable (and thereby apparently more authoritative) statements. Conversely, the passive voice may also be used to camouflage the import of a statement. A writer can decide to use the passive voice in order to evade identifying specifically who or what should carry out the action. This can occur in, for example, bureaucratic and legal texts such as reports, policies and legislation. Language written and spoken in the active voice is generally more engaging and often more concise than that written in the passive voice. PB, JM 6
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PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Select:
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
a newspaper editorial letters to the Editor an excerpt from a medical or scientific paper a set of directions or instructions.
Students read the texts, preferably out aloud, and comment on and compare the tone, point of view and ‘voice’ communicated by the texts. What are the language devices employed by texts that present a personal or direct point of view? Is it possible to detect an individual or distinctive voice in the piece? Who is the intended audience? What are the language devices of texts that present information without an explicit individual point of view? Is there a mix of active and passive voice in the piece? What is the effect of this on the reader? Why? Students evaluate the effectiveness of each text, considering the use of the active and passive voice in terms of purpose, audience and meaning.
Adage
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
A concise, memorable saying that contains a recognisable ‘truth’ or observation about the nature of human experience. It is similar to an aphorism, proverb, truism or maxim. For example: “A rolling stone gathers no moss”; “A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.” JM Students keep a record of all the sayings they encounter in conversation and through the media for one week.
∼ Collate these as a class and identify the most frequently occurring examples. ∼ Explore the reasons why these may be more evident in conversations or in the media.
∼ What is the purpose of adages? ∼ Research and discuss the contextual/historical nature of common adages, and the significance of these in terms of registers and dialects.
Adaptation A reworked or altered version of a novel, play or other text. Adaptation refers to a process involving the shift from one genre to another: novel into film; drama into film; drama into musical; the dramatisation of prose fiction; or more rarely, a novel adapted from a film. A poem can be adapted: for example, the poem by Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844-1889), “The Leaden Echo and the Golden Echo” has been adapted to music in a chorus and orchestra ensemble by Elizabeth Maconchy (1978). It is not only texts that are considered classics or canonical which are adapted: contemporary works too can be adapted. Alice Walker’s The Colour Purple (Spielberg, 1985) and Toni Morrison’s Beloved (Demme, 1998) are two examples of contemporary adaptations. “Adaptations are a synergy between the desire for sameness and reproduction on the one hand, and, on the other, the acknowledgement of difference” (Hayward, 2001: 6). The word ‘adaptation’ comes from a Latin word meaning to fit to a new context, and this “recontextualisation is an important aspect of the process that leads, for example, to rewrites of Othello by black writers and women writers” (Fischlin and Fortier, 2000: 3). Deborah Cartmell (in Sanders, 2006: 20) posits three broad categories of adaptation: transpositional; commentary; and analogue. Transpositional adaptation is characterised by layers of change. For example, Baz Luhrmann’s 1996 Romeo + Juliet adapts Shakespeare’s play not only generically (through the medium of film), but also temporally, geographically and culturally. Adaptation in terms of commentary includes adaptations that comment on the politics of the original text. Patricia Rozema’s 2000 film version of Jane Austen’s Mansfield Park makes explicit reference to British colonialism and the use of slaves in The English Teacher’s Handbook
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A Antigua: details which are only implied in Austen’s novel. Finally, the category of adaptation known as analogue involves recontextualisation. For example, the film Apocalypse Now, directed by Francis Ford Coppola (1979), recontextualises Joseph Conrad’s 19th century novel Heart of Darkness from its late 19th century African setting to a Vietnam War setting in the latter half of the 20th century. MP, JM Other examples of adaptations: Novel/story to film: Emma (Clueless) Schindler’s Ark (Schindler’s List) Once Were Warriors Whale Rider The Namesake Romulus, My Father Love in the Time of Cholera Atonement Harry Potter series
Stage/drama to Film: Romeo and Juliet Billy Elliot Death of a Salesman My Fair Lady/Pygmalion Twelve Angry Men Cabaret West Side Story
When studying a text as an adaptation, it is necessary that students are familiar with the original text. This enables students to consider the relationship between the original text and the adaptation, rather than studying the adaptation as a text in its own right (which is always appropriate as a close study). In exploring the process of adaptation, students may consider the broader questions such as, for example:
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ What are the similarities and differences between film and print literature or film and drama/stage?
∼ Discuss how each medium represents: storyline, plot, point of view, tone, mood, sequence of events, narrative structure and character.
∼ What are the features of the medium of production that present challenges to adapting a text to another medium?
∼ In the adaptation of a novel to a film, to what extent does a film have to be faithful to the original literary work (in terms of plot, theme, character, setting, tone and point of view)?
∼ When studying a novel or short story, students work in pairs to storyboard a scene or scenes from the text to adapt to the film medium.
∼ When studying a novel or short story, students can create ‘casting profiles’ for each character, describing the physical features of the character and possible actors to fill the roles.
∼ Students brainstorm titles of novels or other texts that they would like to adapt, preparing a one page proposal for the movie, including a synopsis, casting, suggestions for setting, a soundtrack, the intended audience, the opening sequence and the appealing aspects of the proposed film. Students may then present this proposal orally to the class in role – imagining they are trying to ‘sell’ the idea to prospective producers. References: Fischlin, D. & Fortier M. (eds) (2000) Adaptations of ShakespeareAn Anthology of Plays from the 17th Century to the Present, London: Routledge. Sanders, J. (2006) Adaptation and Appropriation (The New Critical Idiom), London: Routledge
Advertising See Media
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A Aesthetic and efferent reading In The Reader, the Text, the Poem (1978), Louise Rosenblatt (1904-2005) articulated an important distinction between two kinds of reading: what she termed ‘aesthetic’ and ‘efferent’ readings. She used the latter term, ‘efferent’ to describe the process whereby the reader seeks to ‘comprehend’ or ‘carry away’ what the text is saying. This is an information-seeking exercise: what the reader brings to the text, by way of their own past experience, is of minimal importance. When responding to the text in the ‘aesthetic’ mode, however, the reader’s past experience, the associations he or she makes with other previously read texts, along with personal thoughts and feelings, plays a significant role in the reader’s transaction with the text and the resulting ‘meaning’ that the reader comes to. Rosenblatt argued that “in aesthetic reading, the reader’s attention is centred directly on what he [sic] is living through during his [sic] relationship with that particular text” (Rosenblatt, 1978: 25). At the same time, she recognised that in reading any particular text the reader may shift along a continuum between the efferent and aesthetic experience. See also Reader-response criticism. PB References: Rosenblatt, L. (1938 republished 1968) Literature as Exploration, New York: Noble. Rosenblatt, L. (1978) The Reader, the Text, the Poem: the transactional theory of the literary work, Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.
Aesthetic/s (Greek: ‘things perceptible by the senses’) Denotes a mode of experience and knowing that relies on the relationship between the senses and emotion: “one of those distinct categories of understanding and achievement – the aesthetic and creative – is exemplified by the arts: music, drama, literature, poetry, dance, sculpture and the graphic arts.” (Abbs, 1991: 245). The aesthetic experience is not merely one of ‘response’ to a work: it is also deeply bound up in the process of creativity and judgement. As John Dewey argued: The product of art is not the work of art. The work takes place when a human being cooperates with the product so that the outcome is an experience that is enjoyed because of its liberating and orderly properties. (Dewey, 1934: 72) Abbs locates this argument in teaching and learning contexts by asserting that: Responses to art, as art, are sensuous, physical, dramatic, bodily, preverbal. For this reason the often-heard casual remark “Well what’s it do for you?” is aesthetically much sounder that the intellectual question “What is it saying?” or “What did the artist intend?” Premature answers to these latter questions take us quickly out of the aesthetic realm into the documentary and discursive. Too much theory, too much knowledge, in isolation from the aesthetic experience, can block and impede the immediate bodily response, the imaginative indwelling of mind in the pattern of sensation. (Abbs, 1991: 252) The implications of this approach is the need for teachers to encourage aesthetic response to texts prior to the intellectual, descriptive or evaluative acts of engagement that form an essential part of English teaching and learning. Attempts to define art and the concept of beauty have always figured to a greater or lesser degree in philosophy. Plato (c. 428-348 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC) were both concerned with the question of art’s ability to convey truth and knowledge, although the term ‘aesthetics’ did not appear until AG Baumgarten (1714-1762) introduced the term in Aesthetica (1750). For Baumgarten, the term defined the specialised activities of the artist: art is generated from mental representations that are bound up with feelings and the sensuous and as such, ‘beauty’ as an artistic quality and as an abstraction, is a complex concept. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) regarded aesthetic consciousness as an important and unitary element in human experience. Kant believed that aesthetic judgment is unlike theoretical (cognitive) judgment or practical (moral) judgment because it is enacted through individual subjective means. In his Critique of Judgment (1790) Kant argued that the integration of the cognitive and moral aspects of our nature is realised through aesthetic judgement. The English Teacher’s Handbook
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A During the Industrial Revolution in England, a shift in the meanings of the words ‘art’ and ‘artist’ took place. The traditional meaning of ‘art’ referred to any type of ‘skill’, while ‘artist’ meant ‘skilled person’, synonymous with ‘artisan’. The term ‘art’ shifted in meaning to refer to a particular group of skills associated directly with the imaginative or creative arts. The term ‘Art’ with a capital ‘A’ became associated with the representation of a unique category of truth: a truth represented imaginatively through art by the artist. This capacity to represent a truth imaginatively rendered the artist an ‘aesthete’. A distinction was therefore created between an ‘artist’ and ‘artisan’ (or ‘craftsman’). This shift in etymology also reflected a shift in the meaning of ‘genius’: previously the term referred to ‘a characteristic disposition’ but came to mean ‘exalted ability’. A new term – ‘aesthetic’ - thus emerged, embodying the concept of the artist, artistic value and artistic achievement. Literature, theatre, sculpture, painting and music were regarded as part of a single continuum of artistic endeavour, with one form of art linked to another by similar attributes that rendered them distinct from other types of skilled ‘craft’. DC, JM References: Abbs, P. (1991) “Defining the Aesthetic Field” in Aesthetics and Arts Education, eds. R.W. Alexander, A. Simpson & Getty Centre for Education in the Arts, Ithaca: Illinois University Press. Dewey, J. (1938) Art as Experience, New York: Minton Balch.
Aestheticism Refers to a literary movement of the late 19th century which held that art is an end in itself and should not be driven by didactic, political, utilitarian, moral or propagandist purposes. The ‘Arts for art’s sake’ movement embodied a view which stemmed largely from the German Romantics and, specifically, from Théophile Gautier’s preface in Mademoiselle de Maupin (1836). Oscar Wilde (1854-1900), for example, argued for the separation of art and morality. Around the same time, the English Parnassians – Ernest Dowson, Lionel Johnson, Andrew Lang and Edmund Gosse - were involved in this movement but were largely concerned with issues of form rather than with theorising the separation of art and morality. In the late 20th century, philosophical debates about the aesthetic, ethics and morality in art have been advanced by the School of Ethical Criticism and through the work of literary critics such as, for example, Wayne Booth and Martha Nussbaum. DC References: Cuddon, J.A. (1991) Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, London: Penguin Books. Flew, A. (ed.) (1979) A Dictionary of Philosophy, London, Pan Books. Holman, C. H. (1976) A Handbook to Literature, 3rd edn. Indianapolis: The Odyssey Press. Watson, P. (2005) Ideas – A History from Fire to Freud, London, Weidenfeld & Nicholson. Williams, R. (1977) Culture and Society 1780-1950, Great Britain: Penguin Books.
Affective criticism Literary criticism that evaluates the worth of a text on the basis of the feelings or emotions it provokes in the reader/viewer – the text’s ‘affect’. Affective criticism, common prior to the 1930s, was rejected by the New Critics who held that such an approach was flawed due to its over-reliance on the subjectivity of the individual responder. Advocates of Reception theory and Reader-response criticism argue that the reader’s/viewer’s engagement with and response to a text is inevitably influenced by the affective or emotional experience that such an engagement engenders in the responder. See also Affective fallacy, Affective learning, Interpretation, Literary criticism, New Criticism, Reader-response criticism, Reception theory. JM
Affective Fallacy A term coined by the American literary critics WK Wimsatt and MC Beardsley (The Verbal Icon, 1954) to describe what they considered to be the flawed approach to reading in which the reader seeks to apprehend the meaning or judge the value of a work predominantly on the basis of its emotional impact on the individual reader. Wimsatt and Beardsley asserted that “the Affective Fallacy is a confusion between the poem and its results (what it is and what it does)” (1954). They rejected the subjectivity of this impressionistic approach to literary criticism, arguing that subjective responses to texts are not reliable or refutable. Instead, New Critics maintained the ‘iconic’ status of 10
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A the text as a self-contained entity that could be analysed and judged by focusing wholly on the quality of its language and ideas (which, they proposed, transcended the variability of individual emotional response). Later schools of literary criticism exposed the contradictions inherent in the Affective Fallacy, highlighting the ways in which all responses to language (and texts) are necessarily shaped by subjectivity. See also Affective criticism, New Criticism, Reader-response criticism. JM Reference: Wimsatt, W.K. & Beardsley, M.C. (1954) The Verbal Icon: Studies in the Meaning of Poetry, Kentucky: University of Kentucky Press.
Affective learning Learning that legitimates and promotes affective or emotional engagement with language. Affective learning values the knowledge and understanding that emerge from an individual’s personal, felt engagement with texts. Such learning promotes the importance of asking ‘what does this text do for/ to me?’ as part of engagement, creativity and response. Most contemporary theoretical and pedagogical approaches to English education foreground the significance of affective learning in human development; cognition; communication; and response to language and literature. In the 1950s, the American psychologist Benjamin Bloom (1913-1999) developed taxonomies of learning in education and classified three primary overlapping domains: cognitive (knowing); psychomotor (doing); and affective (feeling). The cognitive taxonomy has been the most widely applied (Bloom’s Taxonomy). Affective learning involves feelings, emotions, attitudes, beliefs, values, responsiveness, engagement, enjoyment, intra-subjective capacities and the ability to demonstrate these in a variety of ways. The work of Elliot W Eisner (1933-) advances the centrality of affective learning and the affective domain in education. He defines affective learning in terms of its relationship to cognitive and psychomotor development. The affective domain is harnessed, according to Eisner, through students’ holistic engagement with the arts (through making, doing, knowing, feeling and appreciation). More recently, Terri Lagan has developed a taxonomy of affective learning which includes a hierarchy of affective experience: Bloom’s Taxonomy for Affective Learning and Teaching,
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Books. Eisner, E. W. (2005) Re-imagining schools: The selected works of Elliot W. Eisner. London: Taylor & Francis. LeDoux, J. (1992) “Emotion and the amygdala” in The Amygdala: Neurobiological Aspects of Emotion, Memory and Emotional Dysfunction, ed. A.P. Agglington, New York: Wiley-Liss. LeDoux, J. E. (1998) The Emotional Brain: The Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional Life, New York: Simon & Schuster.
When engaging with a text, teachers and students can ask the following kinds of questions:
∼ Are there incidents, characters, places or dialogue in this text remind you of something you have experienced?
∼ What sorts of feelings does this text (or aspects of this text) provoke in you? ∼ Is there anything in this text that surprises or shocks you? ∼ Have your responses to this text changed after considering the text over time? If so, how and what do you think could account for this change?
∼ How are your responses to this text (or aspects of this text) similar to or different from others’?
Age of Reason A philosophical movement of the late 17th century generated and informed by the work of René Descartes (1596-1650) who has been described as the ‘father of modern philosophy’. Often the Age of Reason is also referred to as the Restoration and Augustan periods, and may be considered as part of the broader movement know as The Enlightenment. The main tenet of this philosophical movement was the insistence on the primacy of reason as the source of all human knowledge and understanding. Learning requires deductive reasoning and should not rely on the validity of knowledge gained through the senses. This period promoted the principles of order, reason, proportion, harmony, correctness, balance, attention to the study of ‘man’ and moderation in all things. The works of John Dryden (1631-1700), Jonathan Swift (1667-1745) Alexander Pope (1688-1744) and Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) exemplify the ways of thinking during this period. The period is also referred to in the study of literary history as the Neoclassical period (c. 16601780) since the writers of the time revered the work of Classical authors and promoted the need for a strict adherence to the rules of form and literary genres. It was during this period that the heroic couplet was extensively utilised in poetry as an ideal form for the expression of Neoclassical principles. Importantly, the role of art was considered didactic, with a moral and instructive purpose in addition to an aesthetic one. The prominence of satire during this period highlights the prevailing belief that literature was a powerful tool for correcting the imbalances of society and the excesses of individuals. See also (The) Enlightenment, Heroic couplet, Neoclassical period, Satire. JM
Aleatory/Aleatoric A term used to describe the creative process that relies on a degree of randomness, accident and chance in the production of a work of art (for example: writing, visual art and music). Aleatoric composition can be regarded as an experimental technique, characterised by the desire to construct a work of art from a random gathering of words, letters, images, sounds, phrases, ideas, or other components. The works of William S Burroughs (1914-1997) are examples of how this technique has been employed to produce art. JM
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A ∼ Using a magazine or newspaper, students work in pairs to select headlines, evocative phrases and emotive words. These are gathered together to form another text. The selection process involves discussion of sequencing; the relationship of the part to the whole; form; conventions; point of view; tone; voice and perspective.
∼ There are a number of commercially available resources that allow students to create aleatoric and other kinds of writing. One example is the ‘fridge magnet’ poetry resource, with hundreds of words printed on individual magnetic backing strips. These can be used by students to create poems, and students can also design and produce their own such resources.
Alienation effect Also known as “Verfremdungseffekt” (V-effekt). A term invented by the playwright Bertolt Brecht (1898-1956). Brecht espoused the need for ‘distancing effects’: devices to discourage the audience from empathising with or identifying with the characters. According to Brecht, the audience’s ‘willing suspension of disbelief’ rendered their response too dependent on feelings and emotions, thereby hindering the potential for detached reflection. The alienation effect formed part of Brecht’s politically driven concept of ‘epic theatre’: theatre that deliberately draws attention to the artifice of events and characters, with the action designed to separate and alienate the audience from the events occurring on stage. Brecht argued that in order for the audience to critically respond to, judge and learn from the thematic material and political imperatives of the play, they needed to be more detached from the characters and action and be reminded that they were watching a constructed performance. Many of the characters in Brecht’s plays are flawed and unappealing thus reducing the potential for the audience’s uncritical empathy. The alienation effect is intended to remind audiences that the play is a representation of past events: to reinforce the notion that meaning is contingent upon a range of fluid variables. If the audience could be distanced from an immediate emotional identification with particular characters, Brecht argued that the audience would be more likely to apprehend and understand the significance of the play’s ideas, conflicts and injustices and hence be emboldened to enact change in their own lives and in the world around them. See also Drama. JM
Allegory (Greek: ‘other’, ‘speaking otherwise’) An allegory is similar to a metaphor, in that one subject, idea, experience, character, concept or event is represented in terms of another. While metaphors are generally concise, an allegory is sustained throughout a novel, play, poem or other text. An allegory can be regarded as a symbolic representation: it has both a literal, surface meaning and also symbolic meanings. Often these meaning have an ethical or moral dimension. George Orwell’s Animal Farm (1945), for example, is an allegory of the politics and history of Stalinist Russia. The animal characters in the novel are representative of historical political figures. Through the fictional storyline and the use of satire, this novella exposes the themes of corruption, power, class and the manipulation of ideologies for personal gain. Allegories often also depict characters as embodiments of abstract concepts, such as, for example, vice, virtue, greed, ignorance, love, hate, envy, and hope. Allegories are commonly employed in literature, music and in the visual arts, such as painting and sculpture. They are generally understood as rhetorical: as a form of rhetoric, they seek to persuade their audience to adopt a particular point of view, political stance or moral perspective by appealing in the first instance to the imagination. While fables and parables generally contain a single moral ‘lesson’, allegories are more complex and detailed in their metaphorical representation of human experience. Some classic allegories include: Plato’s “Allegory of the Cave” in The Republic (c. 380 BC); Edmund Spenser’s The Faerie Queene (1590); John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress (1678); George Orwell’s The English Teacher’s Handbook
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Animal Farm (1945); C.S. Lewis’ The Lion the Witch and the Wardrobe (1950); William Golding’s Lord of The Flies (1954); and Philip Pullman’s His Dark Materials (1995). Allegorical films include: Stanley Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968); Olivera’s Una Sombra Ya Pronto Seras (A Shadow You Soon Will Be) (1995); Wachowskis’ The Matrix (1999); and Udi Aloni’s Forgiveness (2006). Examples of allegorical art include: Sandro Botticelli’s La Primavera (Allegory of Spring) (1482); Artemisia Gentileschi’s Self-Portrait as the Allegory of Painting (1622) and Allegory of Inclination (1613-1616); Theodore Gericault’s The Raft of the Medusa (1918); and Pablo Picasso’s Guernica (1937). JM Students explore a visual allegory such as Gericault’s The Raft of the Medusa. Describe in detail the scene being portrayed. Identify the allegorical themes of, for example, the descent into the Underworld. Read the fairy story The Pied Piper of Hamlin. Compare the representations of ‘good and evil’, ‘retribution and punishment’ in both texts, noting the ways in which each text communicates a moral or ethical position.
Alliteration Refers to the repetition of consonants in neighbouring words, particularly at the beginning of words, or stressed syllables. Alliteration is a common language device used for special effect in poetry (for example, Sylvia Plath’s “Daddy”), speech, advertising (for example, ‘Red Rooster’ and ‘Pumpkin Patch’) and occasionally in prose. Alliteration is best understood by reading alliterative language out aloud. Alliteration is a favourite technique used by the media in attention-grabbing headlines: for example, ‘Bureaucratic Bungling’ and ‘Big Bucks’. When alliteration is employed as a structural device in conjunction with stress patterns, it is referred to as ‘front rhyme’. An example of its use in poetry occurs in Gerard Manley Hopkins’ (1844-1889) Spring: What is all this juice and all this joy? A strain of earth’s sweet being in the beginning Eden garden. – Have, get, before it cloy, Before it cloud, Christ, Lord, and sour with sinning, Innocent mind and Mayday in girl and boy, Most, O maid’s child, thy choice and worthy the winning. See also Language. DC
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Students conduct an audit of media and their everyday environment, identifying examples of alliteration in advertising, business names, names of characters in television shows and names of celebrities.
∼ In groups, students analyse the effectiveness of the language by substituting one of the words in the alliterative phrase for another non-alliterative word.
∼ Discuss the impact of this change. ∼ Students create their own business name, pseudonym or character name using alliterative words or phrases.
Allusion Any deliberate reference in a text to a well-known object, person, phenomenon, myth, legend, event, biographical or autobiographical detail or other text. The most common allusions are to other texts, classical myths and historical events. Allusion requires and assumes that there is a common ground (in terms of shared knowledge of cultural codes and cultural experience) between the text and the reader/viewer. Without such common ground, the allusion is rendered ineffective - it will not be recognised by the responder. Some texts include explanatory notes for the allusions made in the text. TS Eliot’s The Wasteland (1922) is a well-known example. 14
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A John Milton’s Paradise Lost (1831) relies heavily on allusions to Biblical stories. Allusions to other literary works, art, music, historical events and people are common in literature. More recently, the use of allusions has become a feature of many films including, for example, Shrek I, II and III (2001, 2004, 2007). The humour, plotlines and characters in these films depend on the audience’s recognition of popular nursery rhymes, fairy tales and other fictional characters beyond the world of the film. Integrating allusions into a text has a range of purposes. It may: ∼ signal the composer’s deliberate attempt to integrate his/her text into a particular established tradition, school of thought or epistemological movement, thereby investing that text with the added significance and meaning that comes with historical, cultural and artistic ‘heritages’; ∼ indicate the composer’s deliberate attempt to break with or critique established traditions by employing allusions in ways that challenge such traditions; ∼ deepen the appeal of the text by employing allusions that call on the responder’s knowledge of intertextuality; and ∼ imbue the text with nuances and layers of subtlety through allusion, rather than through explicit description, reference or explication.
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See also Anxiety of influence, Intertextuality. JM View Shrek I or Shrek II. Students identify allusions to fairy tales, nursery rhymes, myths and popular culture. What is the purpose of using allusions? What particular knowledge and understanding do we require to engage with and recognise the allusions in film? How are allusions employed to deepen the meaning? Is the humour and the meaning dependent upon a knowledge of the allusions? Would this film have been as effective in its use of allusions if it were not an animation?
Alternate rhyme A rhyme scheme in poetry that follows a common pattern of end-rhyme in lines 1 and 3, and a different end-rhyme in lines 2 and 4. In a stanza, this rhyme scheme can be described as an abab rhyme scheme. William Blake’s “The Clod and the Pebble” (1794) employs alternate rhyme: “Love seeketh not Itself to please, Nor for itself hath any care; But for another gives its ease And builds a Heaven in Hells despair.”
JM
Alternative reading: A reading and subsequent interpretation of a text that differs from a dominant, orthodox or received interpretation. Alternative readings seek to generate new perspectives on the text by questioning the validity of the generally accepted meaning of a text. Alternative readings take into account, for example, the context of the production of the text; the cultural assumptions and experience of the reader; the binary oppositions at work in the text; gender and power relations prominent in the text; and the gaps and silences in the text. Alternative readings tend not to challenge a dominant reading but instead, exist alongside a dominant reading. Alternative readings can take the form of alternative re-writings of traditional or well-known texts in order to critique or comment upon the original. One way of introducing this form of alternative reading (and intertextuality and transformation) is to read a fairy tale, such as, for example, “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs”. Then, read alternative versions of this such as Roald Dahl’s rewriting of it in Revolting Rhymes (1982) or Angela Carter’s “The Snow Child”. Students can explore the versions in terms of their representations of gender, romantic love, marriage, ‘happy endings’, and social codes. and can also decide whether these versions constitute alternative or resistant readings of the original story. See also Dominant reading, Interpretation, Literary criticism, Values. JM The English Teacher’s Handbook
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A Reading as ‘other’:
∼ Generate a list of types of people (may be stereotypes: e.g. rock star; homeless person; doctor; newly-arrived immigrant; unemployed person; pensioner; sculptor; sailor). Have these types on role cards.
∼ Students adopt a role, create a brief profile of the role (name, age, likes, dislikes etc).
∼ In pairs, students interview each other in role and then work in pairs to read a text (e.g. poem, short story, fairy tale) in role.
∼ Compare readings. ∼ This activity promotes an understanding of dominant and alternative readings, point of view, persona, and the potential for a range of interpretations of a single text.
Ambiguity A word, symbol, sign, tone, phrase, language or text that has indefinite, multiple, uncertain or alternative meanings. Ambiguities can be accidental or deliberately constructed for effect. Ambiguity is often used to create irony and depth in a text, especially in poetry. Ambiguity is always dependent on context. The English poet and critic William Empson (1906-1984) theorised ambiguity and explained it as “any verbal nuance, however slight, that gives room to alternative reactions to the same piece of language.” (Seven Types of Ambiguity, 1930). Through Empson’s close reading of Gerard Manley Hopkins’ “The Windhover” and George Herbert’s “The Sacrifice”, he “legitimised ambiguity as a positive quality of literary texts.” (Day, 2007). Empson distinguished seven main types of ambiguity: (1) details of language which are effective simultaneously in several ways; (2) a variety of meanings that are resolved by the author into one; (3) two apparently disassociated meanings that are provided in the one word (4) a variety of meanings which act in unison to reveal a complicated state of mind in the author; (5) during the writing process, the author ‘discovers’ his/her idea; (6) when a statement which appears contradictory and requires the reader to undertake his/her own interpretation; (7) a fundamentally contradictory statement which shows that the writer is unclear about what is being said. Jokes, puns and riddles, along with other humorous texts, usually rely on ambiguity. DC Reference: Day, F. (2007) The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism <www.press.jhu.edu/ books/Hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/>
Amplification A language device used to emphasise, highlight and magnify for effect. It may involve the repetition of particular words, images or ideas to attain impact on the audience. Anaphora and epiphora are terms that describe the deliberate repetition of words at the beginning and the end of clauses, respectively, to draw attention to an idea or image and thereby amplify it. “And Death Shall Have No Dominion” (1936) by Dylan Thomas (1914-1953) is an example of how this technique is employed in verse. Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s (1809-1892) “The Splendour Falls” (1850) also uses repetition for effect in the final two lines of each stanza: Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying, Blow, bugle, blow; answer echoes, dying, dying, dying. See also Language, Poetry. JM
Anachronism (Greek: ‘against time’) Any idea, habit, theory, language, custom, artefact, object or perspective that typically is associated with an earlier time and does not suit the context in which it occurs. Something is said to be anachronistic when it is regarded as odd and incongruous because it is out of date. For example: ‘cabriolet’ for ‘cab’; ‘thy’ for ‘your’; ‘thee’ for ‘you’. DC 16
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A Anachrony A technique often employed in narrative and film whereby there is a deliberate distortion of the expected chronological sequence of events. The term analepsis describes the technique of flashback, while the term prolepsis describes the technique of briefly anticipating events, scenes or people that will be more fully explored later in the story. The French Lieutenant’s Woman (1981); Snow Falling on Cedars (1999); Memento (2001); and Atonement (2006), are films that rely on this technique. Examples of print texts that employ anachrony include AS Byatt’s Possession (1990) and Steven Carroll’s The Art of the Engine Driver (2001). JM
Anagnorisis (Greek: ‘discovery’, ‘recognition’) A term coined by Aristotle (384-322 BC) to describe an astonishing discovery by a character or the audience. The term was originally used in the context of Greek tragedy. Aristotle defined anagnorisis as movement from ignorance to knowledge and takes place when the hero/heroine undergoes great struggle and hardship. Anagnorisis can occur, for example, when a character reaches a moment of great insight into his/her true past or identity, or the true past or identity of another character. King Lear experiences anagnorisis in Act III, scene iv when he is on the heath with the Fool, and again in the closing scene when he is confronted with the death of Cordelia. In this way, the experience of anagnorisis is similar to an epiphany. Although this term was initially applied to Greek tragedy, it can apply to a range of other texts in addition to drama texts. Crime fiction and film, for example, generally involve anagnorisis when one or more of the characters discover the ‘truth’. JH, JM
Anagram
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
A phrase/word that has its words/letters jumbled to make another phrase or word. For example: Mary/Army; Shimmer Spoon/Homer Simpson. JM ∼ Students use their own names to create anagrams. ∼ Select well-known business names, celebrity names and names of other public and historical figures. Students create anagrams, aiming to produce anagrams that are ironic, witty or comic.
∼ Students share anagrams, with one or two clues, and others in the group try to decode these.
∼ Visit http://wordsmith.org/anagram/ Students to enter a word, phrase or name and the site provides a list of anagrams.
Analogy A comparison between two things that share a similarity but are otherwise different. It is a figurative device common in poetry. An analogy relies on comparison in order to establish, highlight or infer a relationship between two things and thereby shed light on one or both things more fully (the subject and the analog). In this way, an analogy is a simple form of metaphor or simile. The poem “Nothing Gold Can Stay” by Robert Frost (1874-1963) relies on analogy to explore the concept of change and transience. It draws an analogy between aspects of the natural world, human life and death. Nature's first green is gold, Her hardest hue to hold. Her early leaf's a flower; But only so an hour. Then leaf subsides to leaf. So Eden sank to grief, So dawn goes down to day. Nothing gold can stay. See also Comparison, Language, Metaphor, Simile. DC, JM The English Teacher’s Handbook
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A Analysing a performance A critical response to a play must reflect the fact that the script is only a blueprint for a live performance. The realisation of such an event will require the creative input of a range of talents. The performing arts involve enactments that bond audiences and performers in a shared set of experiences to which both make differing contributions; hence each performance of the same written text is unique. The following is a performance checklist to use when analysing a performance. For each of these areas a description is needed and an analysis of the meanings conveyed. JH Checklist for analysing a performance The space of the performance: the venue
• •
What messages does the theatre itself send to the audience? Look at the architecture? Does it convey the connotation of a formal or an informal audience experience?
The audience
• • • •
What is the audience demographic? How are they dressed? How are they behaving? What is the audiences’ relationship and contract with the performers? Is the audience acknowledged as being there? Is there an expectation that the audience will actively involve themselves or are the spectators only? How is the audience situated re lights? Are they in the dark or are they visible?
Dramatic devices: scenography
• • • • • • •
How is space organised? What is the significance of the set? What is shown and what is suggested? What is the relationship between onstage and offstage? Are the scenes indoors or outdoors? How is this created on stage? Are there any symbolic meanings conveyed by the set? How does the lighting on stage create and send meaning?
The characters/actors in • the play • • • • •
Who are the characters? What do we know about the characters? What is their relationship with one another? How do we know? What sort of language do they use? How to the actors bodies relate to the space and to each other?
Focus
•
How and when do the director/actors focus the audience on an actor or group of actors? Look at lighting, actor movement or set change for example.
The plot
• • • • • • • •
What is revealed on stage? What is the story? In which genre is the play? Where are the turning points? What themes and issues are explored? What are the ambiguities and what points are explained? Are there sub plots? If so how do they intersect with the main plot? Are there any dominant symbols, images and/or motifs occurring?
The plot
• • • • • • • •
What is revealed on stage? What is the story? In which genre is the play? Where are the turning points? What themes and issues are explored? What are the ambiguities and what points are explained? Are there sub plots? If so how do they intersect with the main plot? Are there any dominant symbols, images and/or motifs occurring?
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A Music and sound effects • (FX) • •
What music and sound effects are used, and when are they introduced? What is the meaning conveyed by music and sound effects? Are dialogue and music integrated? If so, how and to what effect?
Stage props
• • • • •
What types of props are being used? What is the function of the props? What is the props’ relationship to the space. What is the props’ relationship to the actors’ bodies? Are the props symbolic?
Costumes
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What is the relationship between the costumes and the actors’ real bodies? Do they convey status or time? What is the effect of colour and material? Are they symbolic?
Pace of performance
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The overall pace of the play: is it steady or broken? When does the tempo change?
Cultural aspects
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What cultural aspects did you find new and/or confusing? Look at the socio-cultural context and issues. What is the historical context? Are there gender issues. Is there an explicit ideological position presented?
Analysis The process of exploring and interpreting a text that requires particular skills, knowledge and understanding of textual features and conventions and reading practices. An analysis of a text may examine in close detail the integration of ideas and form in order to arrive at meaning. Analysis implies a careful investigation of the parts or components of a text in order to more fully understand the whole. A critical analysis seeks not only to describe, explain and illuminate the meaning and effect of the text, but also to evaluate the worth of a text. The term analysis is common in the lexicon of English education and research. Discourse analysis, document analysis, historical analysis, source analysis, comparative analysis and textual analysis are just some examples of the wide range of types of analysis that are possible when engaging with texts and language. See also Close reading, Interpretation, Literary criticism. JM Some strategies for analysing a poem through a close study of language and ideas.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
First of all, look at the title of the poem. Without formulating too many pre-conceptions about the poem, an initial, deliberate reference to the title may often aid you in your entry into the work. Read the poem aloud at least twice. This can be done individually or with a number of voices. Listen to your voice as you read and try to decide upon the tone of the poem. Does your reading sound urgent and assertive, serious or playful? Does your voice sound measured, formal, conversational, oratory, intimate, gentle or satiric? A great deal of insight into a poem can be gained by noticing the features of your oral reading. How do you feel as you or someone else reads the poem? Do you feel curious, empathic, stunned, embarrassed, bored, confused, amused? Write down your responses using any words that come to your mind. mind Even if your reactions seem to be different from those of others, they are very important in the overall working through and expression of your interpretation of a poem.
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A Having gained some ideas on the tone of the poem, look more closely at the speaker.
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
Is there a single speaker? Are there multiple speakers? Is the speaker addressing a known audience, or the general 'reader'? The poem may be directed at an abstraction like ‘death’ or a season. The speaker may be a voice pondering or meditating. After asking these questions of the poem, inquire about the nature of the speaker and of the person/thing/ experience/audience being addressed.
∼ Is the speaker telling a story, or describing events? ∼ Is the speaker, persona or voice in the text inviting you to adopt particular points of view, sympathies or attitudes?
∼ Perhaps it is offering fresh insights about common, every-day things or experiences, or maybe the poem opens up the new and unusual? Does the poem ask you direct questions or require you to call up your own similar experiences? Is there a setting for the poem?
∼ If so, what information are we given about this, and what bearing does it have on
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
the tone, mood and ideas of the poem? A ballad, for example will usually have a
∼ ∼ setting, while a lyric or short, reflective poem may not. ∼ As you read the poem, notice your initial reactions to the structure. Does the poem consist of one stanza or unit? Or are there several sections? Is each stanza made up of the same number of lines, or does the poem present uneven stanzas? In itself, analyzing the mechanics of structure is of little use unless this can add to our insights about the poem’s meaning.
∼ Alexander Pope, for example, uses the heroic couplet which consists of two, wellbalanced and ordered lines of verse. This liking for a particular structure reflects this poet's thematic concern for propriety, precision and balance. His poetry is a clear example of form following function. You may find that a poem's ideas are presented in units which correspond to each stanza.
∼ Is there punctuation in the poem? If so, where and what is its purpose? ∼ The way in which something is expressed helps to determine your interpretation of what is being expressed. Language
∼ Is the language colloquial or of everyday speech; formal; or a combination? ∼ Are there any words or phrases that strike you as unusual or unfamiliar or that stand out when reading the poem?
∼ Does a study of the imagery, metaphor, symbolism contribute to your understanding of a poem?
∼ Don't be led astray by heavy concentration upon poetic features, such as imagery, rhyme, or personification in isolation from the ideas at work in the poem itself. Remember, features such as imagery and rhythm should be considered not as detachable qualities but as contributing to the whole.
∼ Always try to articulate, either orally or in writing, your responses to a poem on your initial and subsequent readings.
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A Anastrophe A figure of speech that inverts the expected or regular order of words. This technique is employed in poetry to draw attention to an idea, image or action. For instance, TS Eliot (1888-1965) writes of "arms that wrap about a shawl" rather than "shawls that wrap about an arm" in "The Love Song of J Alfred Prufrock" (1917). Similarly, Dylan Thomas’ poem “With the man in the wind and the west moon” employs anastrophe. In ST Coleridge’s “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” anastrophe is evident in the final line of this stanza: He holds him with his skinny hand, "There was a ship," quoth he. "Hold off! unhand me, grey-beard loon!" Eftsoons his hand dropt he. The English poet, Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844-1889) experimented with and exploited anastrophe in many of his poems. JM
Anecdote (Greek: ‘unpublished’) An informal, generally unpublished story that is often an amusing account of an incident or episode, particularly one directly experienced or observed by the story-teller. Anecdotes are generally conveyed in colloquial language by the person who experiences the event or episode, and commonly occur as part of informal conversation and everyday communication. Anecdotes occur in written prose and verse, as well as in film as part of characters’ dialogue. In addition to everyday oral communication, letters, articles, biographies and autobiographies may also include anecdotes to invest the text with colour, interest and ‘personality’. An anecdote differs from a short story in that it communicates a single episode. The term has a long history: C Hugh Holman (1976) cites early examples such as Deipnosophistae of Athenaeus, the Lives of Plutarch, the Anecdotes of Percy and the Anecdota of Procopius. DC References: Cuddon, J.A. (1991) Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, 3rd edn. London: Penguin Books. Holman, C. H. (1976) A Handbook to Literature, 3rd edn. Indianapolis: The Odyssey Press.
Anime The term broadly refers to the shortened Japanese interpretation of the word ‘animation’ referring to animated moving-image films. More specifically Anime (which itself draws heavily on the Japanese printed comic tradition known as Manga) refers to a very specific style of Japanese cartoon-like animation. Anime emphasises particular visual stylistic accents, predominantly in relation to the representation of human characters. See also Manga. KS
Antagonist (Greek: ‘rival’, ‘opponent’) A character or group of characters opposed to the protagonist (main character) in a play. It is often assumed that an antagonist is synonymous with a villain. This need not be the case: just as the protagonist is not always the hero or heroine who prevails in the face of opposition, an antagonist is not always the anti-hero. The antagonist may be a character who confronts and challenges the predominant point of view or action within a text or provides the conflict within the text. Iago, in Othello (Shakespeare, c. 1603) is a straightforward example of an antagonist. Heathcliff, in Wuthering Heights (Emily Bronte, 1847) however, can be seen as both an antagonist and a protagonist. He is both a Byronic hero, driven by passions, and also a protagonist who contributes to the action of the plot through his tumultuous relationship with Catherine. See also Hero/Heroine, Protagonist. JH, JM
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A Anthology
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
(Greek: ‘garland’) A collection of different texts or works that are collated to form a single work, usually created on the basis of an organising principle which may be based on the genre (for example: an anthology of poetry, which was the original kind of anthology; an anthology of short stories; an anthology of letters; or other forms, including musical compositions); a particular historical period, regional location, geographic features or countries (for example: an anthology of Victorian poetry; and anthology of Australian short stories; an anthology of nursery rhymes; an anthology of desert stories; and an anthology of Italian sonnets); gender or ethnicity (for example: an anthology of women’s poetry of protest); themes, experiences or life stages (for example: an anthology of stories of childhood; an anthology of letters from the First World War); or a combination of one or more of the above. JM Students in English can produce an anthology of their own texts, or an anthology of texts created by the class: for example, anthologies of favourite poems with accompanying visual texts; anthologies of short stories written by students; anthologies of writing and representations from students’ portfolios. This is an effective way of developing understanding of purpose, composing for audiences other than the teacher, and publication conventions. Students can create the layout, cover, artwork, introduction and so on. Anthologies can also be published digitally.
Anthropomorphism (Greek: ‘in human form’) The technique of ascribing human qualities (for example: imagination, sentience, speech, physical form or features etc) to animals, inanimate objects or abstractions. Fables often use this technique. Ted Hughes’ (1930-1998) poetry also provides many examples of animals and abstractions being given human qualities: for example, “Wind” and “Hawk Roosting”. This technique is similar to personification and the use of the ‘pathetic fallacy’. See also Pathetic fallacy, Personification. JM
Anticlimax (Greek: ‘down ladder’) An anticlimax occurs when an expected resolution, moment of suspense or other high point of a text or experience is not achieved, falls flat, is disappointingly resolved, or is deliberately avoided or undercut by the composer to dash the responder’s expectations. Narrative, for example, generally follows conventions which include rising action, a turning point/s, a climax in the plot and the resolution of a conflict of problem. The Booker Prize winning novel (and later film), The Remains of the Day (1989) by Kazuo Ishiguro, is an example of a text that deliberately avoids the orthodox sequence of climax and dénouement. See also Climax, Conventions, Dénouement, Narrative. JM
Antithesis A device that relies on a counter statement or opposed position. The terms thesis, antithesis and synthesis are often used in conjunction with one another to describe an original proposition (thesis), its opposite (antithesis), and the resolution of the conflict between thesis and antithesis through some means which enable the formation of a new or modified position (synthesis). The synthesis somehow retains some common idea or element that can be found in the thesis and antithesis. Basic examples of thesis and antithesis include: mortal/immortal; peace/war and freedom/imprisonment. See also Binary opposition, Dialectic, Synthesis, Thesis. DC, JM
Anxiety of influence In 1973, the American critic, Harold Bloom published a book with this title which explored the phenomenon of literary inheritance, legacy and influence, and the impact of this on the writer. Bloom argued that the enormous pressure on writers that emanates from a recognition and knowledge of 22
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A all that has preceded them, leads to an ‘anxiety of influence’. Bloom’s thesis was based on a study of poetry and literary criticism of poetry. The theory posits that poets are so aware of the great history of literature (of which that they are seeking to become a part) that they may be plagued by an anxiety which manifests as uncertainty about what and how they can add to such a ‘tradition’. The anxiety arises when the writer considers how they may appropriate, transform or stand alongside the ‘great’ works of the past. Bloom also argues that literary criticism is itself is caught up in this anxiety in its own practice of comparing poets across time and place. JM
Aphorism (Greek: ‘definition’) A concise, sometimes terse statement of a principle that contains a ‘truth’ or insightful observation about aspects of human experience. For example: “Everything is relative”; “Those who live by the sword, die by the sword.” An aphorism is similar to a maxim, cliché, proverb, adage, dictum or saying. JM
Apostrophe (Greek: ‘turning away’) A punctuation mark that indicates the possessive case. For example: This is Betty’s lunch. The apostrophe is placed before the ‘s’ to denote the singular subject (Betty). The apostrophe is placed after the ‘s’ when the subject is plural as in, for example, Adam attends a boys’ high school. The apostrophe is also used to indicate the omission of letters when one or two words have been abbreviated to form a shorter word or another word, as in can’t (cannot), wasn’t (was not), isn’t (is not). The apostrophe is positioned at the point where the letters from the original word/s have been omitted. An apostrophe is also a figure of speech or literary device whereby there is a direct address to an absent person, an object, idea or abstract entity. John Donne’s poem “Death, Be Not Proud” (1633) is an example of an apostrophe since it directly addresses the abstraction of death. JM
Applied Theatre: Applied Theatre is a portmanteau term for social interventions and policy directions informed by drama theory and theatre methodologies. The field features theoretical and practical approaches informed by social work, sociology, juvenile justice, prisons and medicine (especially mental health). According to Ackroyd (2000) Applied Theatre practitioners share a belief in the power of the theatre form to address something beyond the form itself. A group may use theatre in order to promote positive social processes within a particular community, whilst others employ it in order to promote an understanding of human resource issues among corporate employees. The range of applications is cast, including theatre for education, for community development, and for health promotion. JH Reference: Ackroyd, J. (2000) “Applied Theatre: Problems and Possibilities”, Applied Theatre Researcher, 1,
Appreciation: An understanding and valuing of the qualities of a text, experience or phenomenon. The term has particular relevance to the theory and practice of English education and is central to Elliot W Eisner’s (1933-) concept of educational connoisseurship and criticism. Eisner advocates the importance of art and artistic modes of thinking in education, promoting the crucial need not only for ‘knowing’ but also for ‘feeling’. Howard Gardner’s (1943-) theory of Multiple Intelligences similarly addresses the need for education to attend to the range of ways human beings learn, understand and grow. Against a backdrop of educational practice that has too often foregrounded the technical, behaviourist and formulaic, Eisner’s work re-centres the concept of artistry, appreciation, aesthetic judgement and critical acumen as fundamental to what he calls ‘the basics’ of education. He defines connoisseurship as:
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A the art of appreciation. It can be displayed in any realm in which character, import, or value of objects, situations, and performances is distributed and variable, including educational practice. (Eisner, 1998: 63) To become connoisseurs, students draw upon a wide range of experiences, information, situations and ideas, contextualising these and making connections with the world around and within. Eisner argues that education is not only about connoisseurship, but also about criticism: If connoisseurship is the art of appreciation, criticism is the art of disclosure. Criticism, as Dewey pointed out in Arts as Experience, has at its end the re-education of perception…The task of the critic is to help us see…Connoisseurship is private, but criticism is public. Connoisseurs simply need to appreciate what they encounter. Critics, however, must render these qualities vivid by the artful use of critical disclosure. (Eisner, 1985: 92) In English, students should be immersed in a wide range of language and texts, in meaningful contexts, and engaged in the kind of experiential, imaginative, creative and critical activity espoused in Eisner’s model of arts education. JM References: Eisner, E. W. (1998) The kind of schools we need: personal essays. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Eisner, E. W. (1985) The art of educational evaluation: a personal view. London: Falmer Press. Eisner, E. W. (2005) Re-imagining schools: The selected works of Elliot W. Eisner. London: Taylor & Francis.
Appropriation Involves a process whereby aspects of an original source text are used to shape a new text. Whereas an adaptation may involve a heavy reliance on a source text and requires an explicit relationship with that source text, an appropriation decisively extends aspects of the original text and may involve a cultural shift both in terms of end product and subject. Appropriation may not necessarily involve a generic shift. For example, Tom Stoppard’s 1966 play Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead, is an appropriation of Shakespeare’s Hamlet. Stoppard’s play is an absurdist, existentialist examination of the meaning of life from the perspective of two minor characters from Hamlet, whose commentary on Hamlet’s behaviour renders Hamlet a comic figure and their own absurd position laughable but tragic. According to Sanders (2006: 57) “Seeing things from marginal, or even offstage, characters’ points of view is a common drive in many adaptations and appropriations.” See also Adaptation. MP, JM Reference: Sanders, J. (2006) Adaptation and Appropriation (The New Critical Idiom), London: Routledge.
Archaism (Greek: ‘old-fashioned’) Language (words, phrases, sayings) that is no longer in widespread use. For example, in Australia, the term ‘cove’ referred to the owner or boss of a sheep station and was current from 1870-1910. DC Reference: Partridge, E. (1972) A Dictionary of Historical Slang, Victoria: Penguin Books.
Archetype (Greek: ‘first, original model’) A common term used to refer to an idealised, ‘universally’ recognised, mythologised, abstracted or generic person; stock character; personality; image; symbol; model; phenomenon; or common human experience. Archetypes embody universally recognisable characteristics or attributes and are pervasive throughout the literature and art of diverse cultures and historical periods. Archetypes have been traced back to early forms of visual representation and over time, have been appropriated into print, other texts and popular culture. Some common archetypes are the universal Mother; the villain; the hero/heroine; the goddess; the witch; the seer; the pilgrim; the rose; the Holy Grail; the eagle; the tree; water; initiation rituals; the serpent; transformation; the journey or quest; immortality; colours; mandalas; the Garden of Eden; Paradise; and the Underworld. 24
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A Archetypal themes are common in literature, film and other texts and include the individual on a quest or journey of discovery; creation; birth and death; sibling rivalry; rituals of marriage and burial; and ‘the Fall’. Carl Jung (1875-1961) developed a theory of psychoanalysis based on personality archetypes. Jung’s theory was appropriated and advanced by the work of the literary critics such as Northrop Frye in Anatomy of Criticism (1957). This approach to the study of literature became known as Archetypal (or the related Myth) Criticism. Joseph Campbell (1904-1987), the anthropologist, also identified a whole range of myths and associated archetypes across cultures and investigated the reasons for their enduring prominence. See also Archetypal and Myth criticism, Epic, Hero/Heroine. JM Textual analysis: When reading/viewing and analysing a text in terms of an archetypal model, students may ask the following questions as part of their exploration:
∼ Are there strong images or symbols in the text that are related to archetypes – for example: water, the sea, journeys, the sun, the moon, colours, circles, snakes, gardens, tree of life, desert, paradise, maternal or paternal figures?
∼ Can I identify any archetypal characters or situations in this text? ∼ Does the text allude to or explicitly refer to any well-known myths: for example,
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
creation, immortality, heroic quests, journeys and initiations?
∼ Can I trace symbolic patterns in this text and if so, are they connected to my experience and knowledge of the world today?
∼ What is the purpose and effect of employing archetypes and myths in this text? ∼ Are the myths and archetypes specific to particular cultural contexts? ∼ Do the characters and events in this text remind you of other texts or experiences? Picture Books:
∼ Use books such as The Wretched Stone (Chris Van Allsburg); Cat, You Better Come Home (Garrison Keillor, S Johnson and L Fancher); Tjarany Roughtail: The Dreaming of the Roughtail Lizard and other stories told by the Kakatja (Gracie Greene, Joe Tramacchi and Lucille Gill); The Rabbits (Shaun Tan). Also use Aesop’s Fables. ∼ Read the books by focusing only on the visual images in the first instance. Students identify strong images or symbols from the pictures and discuss the associations, meanings and cultural significance of these. Examine the sequence of the pictures, the composition of each, the visual narrative structure and the tone and mood of the visuals (colour, depth, balance of light and dark etc).
∼ If the book has words, read the story and explore how effectively the visual images represent or support the ideas in the written story. Can the two ‘modes’ (words and image) exist independently?
∼ Explore the representation of cultural myths and archetypes such as, for instance, the journey myth, the quest, the hero. Compare with poems and other stories that contain myths and archetypes (for example: “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner”) References: Campbell, J. (1988) The Power of Myth, New York: Doubleday. Frye, N. (1957) Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays, Princeton: Princeton University Press. Gold, E. (ed.) (1997) Timeless Truths: Exploring Creation Myths and Dreamtime Stories in Years 7-10, Sydney: Phoenix Education.
Archetypal and Myth Criticism A type of literary criticism that examines the archetypes, myths, archetypal themes, symbols, patterns and paradigms in individual texts and groups of texts. This form of criticism has its roots in the philosophy of Plato (c. 428-348 BC) and that of succeeding philosophers who explored the recurrence of ideas, characters and events within and across time and through texts. This approach assumes the connectedness of texts and language throughout history and seeks to identify the continuities between texts in terms of their use and appropriation of archetypes and archetypal The English Teacher’s Handbook
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A themes. Archetypal criticism seeks to explain why certain universal types, symbols, motifs, situations and so on occur in literature, myth, folktales, art and religion across diverse cultures, historical periods and contexts. Carl Jung (1875-1961) proposed that the recurrence of archetypes and archetypal themes can be attributed to a ‘collective unconscious’ of humanity that finds expression in art and other contexts, throughout history. When types and experiences are repeatedly represented and normalised, they become archetypal. Identifying the archetypes in texts can, according to archetypal literary critics, yield meaningful insights into the universal human condition and patterns of human behaviour and psychology that resonate with readers/viewers across time. Notable archetypal literary critics include JG Frazer (The Golden Bough, 1890-1915); Maud Bodkin (Archetypal Patterns in Poetry, 1934) and Northrop Frye (Anatomy of Criticism, 1957). Archetypal criticism gained widespread appeal between the 1960s and 1980s. See also Archetype. JM References: Frye, N. (1957) Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays, Princeton: Princeton University Press. The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism
Argument (Latin: ‘proving’) This term has several applications in English education. Commonly, an argument is a text - written, oral, aural, dramatic or visual - that presents a case or a thesis and provides evidence to substantiate this. The purpose of an argument is to persuade or convince the audience of a particular point of view. An argument is structured in terms of a thesis or overarching position statement and proceeds on the basis of logically supporting this position through careful selection and shaping of evidence. In literature, an argument refers to an explanation that may precede a work, although this version of an argument is uncommon in contemporary literature. An argument also refers to the dialectic within a text whereby the composer sets out a position and proceeds to argue this through the form and content of the work itself. An example of an argument in a literary work is Andrew Marvell’s “To His Coy Mistress” (1650-52) in which the male persona presents a thesis about love and throughout the poem, argues the case in order to convince and compel the subject of the poem to embrace this argument and thereby become his mistress. See also Essay, Rhetoric. DC, JM
Aristotle’s Unities A term coined by the French critic Nicolas Boileau-Despreaux (1636-1711) in Art Poetique (1674) and was based on his interpretation of the writings of Aristotle (384-322 BC). Aristotle was a Greek philosopher, scientist and theatre critic. His Poetics describes tragedy (and unfortunately his work on comedy has been lost). It is important to note that Aristotle was describing great tragedy of his time, especially Sophocles’ work, and not prescribing as the later European neo-classists claimed. According to Boileau-Despreaux, Aristotle proposed that a great play has three unities: ∼ Time: a play should cover no more than 24 hours. ∼ Action: a play should have one predominant stream of action, with few subplots. ∼ Place: a play should not be set in many or diverse physical spaces. In fact, Aristotle only commented on the Unity of Action; he mentioned the Unity of Time but did not refer at all to the Unity of Place. Many great Ancient Greek playwrights (for example, Euripides) did not follow these conventions, and nor did Shakespeare. JH
Article A nonfiction text that may include descriptive, analytical and evaluative material. A feature article is a piece of writing, often in a magazine, newspaper or on a website, which explores in some depth a person, event, situation, theme or idea, following certain generic conventions. A feature article is usually distinguished from a news story by its ‘human interest’ focus. They may be written to inform, entertain, persuade or explore in some detail a person, event, issue or idea. Feature articles are 26
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A usually written using the first person, active voice and draw on anecdote, quotations and interpretations of the subject being featured. They sometimes include visual images. DC, JM
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Select one or more feature articles from different kinds of media (for example: newspapers, magazines, websites).
∼ Read and analyse the articles, comparing the structure, language, tone, mood, images, layout, voice and perspective.
∼ Research other representations of the person, event, issue or idea presented in the feature articles.
∼ Students brainstorm in small groups a series of topical issues, events or people. ∼ Students select one person, event, issue or idea and use this as the basis for their own feature article. They may choose a known person or family member.
∼ Completed feature articles can be published as an anthology, in hard copy or digitally. Visual images may be included and attention should be given to layout and style.
Aside and soliloquy Techniques in drama whereby a character speaks directly to the audience, or speaks in such a way that other characters on stage are not aware of what is being said. It is assumed by the audience that when a character is speaking an aside or a soliloquy, all or most of the other characters on stage are oblivious to it The main difference between an aside and a soliloquy is the duration: an aside is usually brief, whereas a soliloquy is an extended piece. Both asides and soliloquies enable a direct address by the character to the audience. They reveal the 'true' motives, thoughts and feelings of a character: they afford the audience the opportunity to glimpse the inner life of the figure on stage. We share the secrets of which other members of the cast are unaware. Asides and soliloquies also function to position the audience as the confidants with access to privileged information that is vital to a full understanding of the character, action and events.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Asides and soliloquies are often indicated in the stage directions in the script of a play. They were very common in drama until the 20th century, when the emergence of more naturalistic and experimental forms of theatre dispensed with the perceived artifice of this technique. In addition, the forward thrust stage used during the time Shakespeare was writing provided a degree of intimacy and physical proximity between actors and audience, allowing the frequent use of asides and soliloquies. The proscenium arch stage, however, does not provide the same degree of actoraudience proximity so plays written for this form of stage tend not to include frequent asides and soliloquies. The convention is particularly common in farce and melodrama where the aside is an important dramatic device for heightening the comedy, satire or irony. Asides also occur in everyday communication contexts such as conversations. The equivalent of the aside and soliloquy in film occurs when voice-over techniques reveal the thoughts and feelings of a character. See also Alienation effect, Drama. JM, JH ∼ After viewing, engaging with, performing and reading a play, select one scene in which a soliloquy occurs. (Hamlet, Macbeth and Julius Caesar are good examples.) ∼ Note where the soliloquy occurs in the cycle of action. ∼ Does this character speak soliloquies and asides frequently or infrequently? ∼ What is the purpose of the soliloquy at this point? ∼ What does it reveal to the audience about the inner thoughts and feelings of the character?
∼ Remove the soliloquy from the scene. ∼ How does the absence of the soliloquy influence the meaning and the development of character and action?
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A Assessment The process of judging student achievement in relation to the aims, objectives and outcomes of a syllabus. Assessment requires the gathering of evidence about what students know and can do. Assessment is an integral component of every teaching and learning phase. It should be devised at the time of program and unit planning and regularly reviewed in the light of student learning. The purpose of assessment is to improve student learning; provide accurate information about student development and achievement; utilise this information to build upon, tailor and refine learning opportunities; assist in further planning and programming; and provide detailed reports to students, parents and others about the achievement of individual students. Effective assessment: ∼ is underpinned by beliefs and understanding about how students learn ∼ should be an integral process of course design and not ‘added on’ ∼ requires clarity of purpose, goals, standards and criteria ∼ requires a variety of measures, feedback and reflection, and ∼ is linked to real-world contexts. There is a range of types of assessment, each serving a different purpose, although there is obvious overlap between these. These can be summarised as follows. See also Evaluation, Learning-centred English, Learning styles, Student-centred learning. JM Type of Assessment Formative
Description and Purpose • •
Ongoing assessment during teaching and learning. Provides students with feedback on their progress and assists in shaping and enhancing future learning.
Practical Strategies • • • • • • •
Summative
• •
Assessment that occurs at the conclusion of a unit of work. Designed to assess students’ culminating achievements.
• •
• • • • • •
Diagnostic
•
•
Designed to gather information to identify where students are ‘at’ in their learning. Assists in shaping future learning and individualising pedagogy.
• • •
•
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Write portfolios (use of drafts and works in progress). Participate in discussions. Reading and viewing logs. Use self-evaluations and reflections. Provide abundant opportunities for workshops, discussions, group work, and regular feedback. Ensure students are immersed in a variety of engaging and purposeful activities and thinking. Provide models, facilitate research, encourage portfolio development and self and peer evaluation. Provide clear and transparent information about assessment items. Provide criteria sheets, descriptors, performance indicators and marking guidelines and ensure students are aware of how and why they are being assessed. Allow plenty of time for discussion and drafting prior to submission of summative tasks. Provide a balance in creative and critical responses. Include products of student writing, representations, reading, viewing, talking and listening. Facilitate presentations. Encourage performances Set examinations. Maintain detailed records of individual student progress, participation, attitude and behaviour. Methods of recording development can include: anecdotal records – notes on student work habits, contributions to discussions, interpersonal skills, incidents, notable experiences; criteria sheets with performance descriptors; surveys, interviews.
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A Type of Assessment
Description and Purpose
Practical Strategies
Negotiated
•
Assessment designed in collaboration with students. Teacher’s goals and students’ goals are shared and a meaningful program is devised synthesising the shared learning goals of both.
Assessment for learning
•
Teachers utilise formative assessment to See Formative assessment inform their practice. A critical concept that assumes assessment is a means to learning rather than merely an end-point of learning.
Assessment as learning
•
Students and teachers reflect on the process of their learning as it is occurring, monitoring and refining learning goals. Involves metacognition.
Journals • Provide models and plenty of opportunities for discussion, reflection and group work. • Emphasise the importance of students taking responsibility for learning and development through reflective practice. • Discussions • Reading and viewing logs
•
• •
Portfolios Contracts: Individually, in small groups or as a whole class
Assessment of learning
•
Teachers gather evidence about what students know and can do.
See Summative assessment
Self assessment
•
Students monitor and judge their progress and learning using criteria designed by the students (often in collaboration with the teacher).
• • • • •
Reflective journals Contracts Surveys Logs Metacognitive organisers
Peer assessment
•
Students assess each other according to agreed criteria.
• • • •
Oral presentations Performances Productions Writing
Portfolio assessment •
Students select exemplars from their collated work. Not all work is included. Students select evidence that demonstrates achievement against known criteria (for example: demonstrates progress; addresses outcomes).
• • • • •
Writing portfolios Reading portfolios Digital portfolios Viewing portfolios Representing portfolios
Descriptive assessment
An essential component of effective teaching and learning. Teachers respond to students with descriptive statements and feedback about the student’s strengths and areas in need of development.
• • • • •
Learning journals Double entry journals Conferencing Interviews Discussions
• •
Criterion-referenced assessment
•
•
Norm-referenced assessment
•
Students are assessed against a set of • criteria which describe the specific characteristics of the required task. Criteria are made explicit to students • prior to undertaking the assessment task. •
Utilise a set of criteria which provides students with an explanation of the knowledge, skills and understanding that need to be demonstrated. Portfolios Process and products
Assessment in which students are compared to each other as part of a cohort and ranked according to their relative achievement. The ‘bell-curve’ or normal distribution is a fundamental element of this type of assessment.
Grades and marks are awarded and students are ranked against their peers in the cohort Ineffective if it does not include explicit criteria and standards so students can identify what they have achieved and how they can improve
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A Type of Assessment
Description and Purpose
Practical Strategies
Standardsreferenced assessment
•
Students are assessed according to a set See Summative assessment of standards which describe what students know and can do. Students are not compared to one another, as in normreferences assessment.
Outcomes- based assessment
•
Students are assessed according to whether or not they have achieved explicit syllabus outcomes.
See Formative and Summative assessment
Formal assessment
•
An assessment task that is judged and often assigned a mark of a grade. It contributes to the overall achievement profile and assessment of the student.
• • • •
Examinations Written assignments Summative assessment tasks ‘Products’ that are required as part of the completion of a course of study
Informal assessment •
Assessment tasks which are not assigned marks or grades, but which contribute to the ongoing assessment process.
• • •
Discussions Interviews Observations
Internal assessment
•
Assessment that is designed and implemented by teachers within a class/ school context. Students usually receive detailed feedback along with a mark, grade, rank or score.
• • • • •
Portfolios Internal exams Oral presentations Performances Written and multimodal products
External assessment •
Assessment that is designed and managed by a body or organisation external to and independent of the school. Students may or may not receive descriptive feedback in addition to a mark, grade, rank or score.
• •
State and national literacy and numeracy tests External examinations
Reference:
Johnston, B. (1987) Assessing English, Milton Keynes: Open University Press. NSW Board of Studies, Assessment Resource Centre (ARC):
Atmosphere
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
The ambience or mood that is created by language, setting, dialogue, tone, description, images or sound or a combination of these. See also Depiction, Description, Mood, Setting, Tone. JM The following excerpt from Charles Dickens’ Bleak House (1853) describes London on a November winter’s day. After reading this passage, explore the ways in which the writer creates atmosphere through, for example: ∼ the use of descriptive language ∼ repetition ∼ variation in sentence structure ∼ imagery and metaphor ∼ reference to colour, light and the elements ∼ moving from the general to the particular ∼ precision in the depiction of place ∼ denotative and connotative language ∼ binary oppositions ∼ descriptions of the impact of the environment on people and animals ∼ sequencing of descriptions ∼ appeals to the senses (sight, sound, touch, smell, taste).
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Audience
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Excerpt from Bleak House by Charles Dickens, p. 41 (1853, 1979, Penguin) CHAPTER I— I—In Chancery London. Michaelmas term lately over, and the Lord Chancellor sitting in Lincoln’s Inn Hall. Implacable November weather. As much mud in the streets as if the waters had but newly retired from the face of the earth, and it would not be wonderful to meet a Megalosaurus, forty feet long or so, waddling like an elephantine lizard up Holborn Hill. Smoke lowering down from chimney–pots, making a soft black drizzle, with flakes of soot in it as big as full–grown snowflakes—gone into mourning, one might imagine, for the death of the sun. Dogs, undistinguishable in mire. Horses, scarcely better; splashed to their very blinkers. Foot passengers, jostling one another’s umbrellas in a general infection of ill temper, and losing their foot–hold at street–corners, where tens of thousands of other foot passengers have been slipping and sliding since the day broke (if this day ever broke), adding new deposits to the crust upon crust of mud, sticking at those points tenaciously to the pavement, and accumulating at compound interest. Fog everywhere. Fog up the river, where it flows among green aits and meadows; fog down the river, where it rolls deified among the tiers of shipping and the waterside pollutions of a great (and dirty) city. Fog on the Essex marshes, fog on the Kentish heights. Fog creeping into the cabooses of collier–brigs; fog lying out on the yards and hovering in the rigging of great ships; fog drooping on the gunwales of barges and small boats. Fog in the eyes and throats of ancient Greenwich pensioners, wheezing by the firesides of their wards; fog in the stem and bowl of the afternoon pipe of the wrathful skipper, down in his close cabin; fog cruelly pinching the toes and fingers of his shivering little ‘prentice boy on deck. Chance people on the bridges peeping over the parapets into a nether sky of fog, with fog all round them, as if they were up in a balloon and hanging in the misty clouds. Gas looming through the fog in divers places in the streets, much as the sun may, from the spongey fields, be seen to loom by husbandman and ploughboy. Most of the shops lighted two hours before their time—as the gas seems to know, for it has a haggard and unwilling look. The raw afternoon is rawest, and the dense fog is densest, and the muddy streets are muddiest near that leaden–headed old obstruction, appropriate ornament for the threshold of a leaden–headed old corporation, Temple Bar. And hard by Temple Bar, in Lincoln’s Inn Hall, at the very heart of the fog, sits the Lord High Chancellor in his High Court of Chancery.
Audience A group of people (or an individual) who read, listen to, and/or view a text. The writing of texts is shaped by purpose and an awareness of audience. The term ‘responder’ has been adopted in English education discourse to refer to the wide range of ways that we engage with texts, and encompasses the roles of reader, viewer and listener. A number of critical theories give prominence to the role of the responder in the act of interpretation (for example, Reader-response criticism). In composing texts, students require an understanding of the role of audience in influencing and shaping the form and content of the text. It is important when students are composing that they be aware that they are writing, representing, performing and creating for an imagined or an authentic audience. Teachers should help students to be explicit about their purpose and their intended audience as they craft their writing and provide extensive models of others’ writing to illuminate the role of audience in the crafting of language. James Britton (Britton, et al, 1975) developed a framework identifying the range of audiences that shape writing: One important dimension in the development of writing ability is the growth of a sense of audience, the growth of the ability to make adjustments and choices in writing which take account of the audience for whom the writing is intended. This accommodation may be course or fine, highly calculated or totally intuitive, diffused through the text or explicit at particular points. (Britton, et al, 1975: 58) The English Teacher’s Handbook
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A The relationship between the writer, language, audience and purpose is central to students’ movement from expressive through transactional to poetic writing (see also Writing). The role of audience in writing, according to this model, can be summarised as follows: Audience Self Teacher Wider (known audience) Unknown
Examples Journals, notes, logs, reflections Portfolios, writing, performance, reading, representations, oral and dramatic presentations, discussions, assessment tasks, examinations As above, for peers, group work and younger audiences Publication online, anthologies, discussion boards, published texts, letters to the editor, writing competitions etc.
See also Author, Implied author, Implied reader, Reader, Reading, Writing. DC, JM
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Reference: Britton, J. et al (1975) Development of Writing Abilities (11-18), London: Macmillan.
Select a range of types of texts and where appropriate use excerpts from these. If possible and practical, students should not be aware, initially, of the nature of the text (for example: take an excerpt from the novel, rather than use the actual book): ∼ Classic novel ∼ Picture book (such as Shaun Tan’s The Arrival) ∼ Young adult novel ∼ Popular magazine article ∼ Website Popular song Excerpt from a film Read, view, and listen to the examples. Students predict and discuss what audience – or implied reader/viewer - they think the text is appealing to and why? What features of language, style, structure, layout, tone, voice and content etc has informed this view? Compare and contrast the range of audiences; explore assumptions about audience (for example: in Tan’s book – which is aimed at an adult, as well as a younger, audience); and identify some of the techniques employed by each composer.
∼ ∼
Australian literature In the broadest sense, Australian literature encompasses imaginative and other texts created by an ‘Australian’ composer (including Indigenous, Australian-born, expatriate and immigrant); and/or with a thematic focus on, reference to, or interest in, aspects of Australian history, culture, identity, experience, landscape and society. According to Feingold, The Australian literary scene, and Australian literary production, changed considerably over the course of the 20th century. While in the earliest years of the century the Bush dominated both literary and artistic depictions of Australian life – a phenomenon that extended well into the 1950s by the Jindyworobak emphasis on a national culture dependent on the spirit of place – recent decades have seen a rapid broadening of literary expression concurrent with newer notions of what it might mean to be Australian. Women writers have challenged the hypermasculinity of the bushman ethos, and explored other ways of linking self with nation. The explosion of publications by Aboriginal authors has added new voices, new perspectives, even new genres to the literary canon. Australia no longer looks exclusively to Britain for its literary models, nor writes exclusively in reaction to them. (Feingold, 2007: 69) 32
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A The works of many Australian authors, poets, dramatists and filmmakers are regularly included in English K-12. Web resources for the teaching of Australian literature include: Australian Literature Resource site: Modern Australian Poetry: Australian Poetry Internet Resources Library: See also Literature. DC, JM Reference: Feingold, R. (2007) ‘From Empire to Nation’, in A Companion to Australian Literature Since 1900, eds. N. Birns & R. McNeer, New York: Camden House.
Author (Latin: ‘originator’) One who is regarded as the creator a text. Author has come to refer to the writer of a printed text. Over the last decade, the term ‘composer’ has entered the lexicon of English education, since it is a generic term that encompasses the range of ‘creators’ of the range of texts now studied in English. While author, poet, dramatist, speaker, film-maker, photographer, painter and so on, are terms specific to the person/people who create a particular type of text, the term composer covers all of these possibilities. Expressive literary theories, such as those prominent during the Romantic period of English literature, locate the source of meaning of a work in the author/artist rather than the reader, the context, the work itself or a combination of these. In the “Preface” to Lyrical Ballads (1798) William Wordsworth (1770-1850) argued that the poetry is “the spontaneous overflow of powerful feeling” The New Critics reacted against the tendency for criticism to draw on information about the author’s life and times or possible contextual influences to inform the analysis and interpretation of texts. Instead, the New Critics insisted on the autonomy of the text and the importance of a close reading of the text. While this critical approach did not advocate reference to any biographical, contextual material in the study of literature, it did identify a group of exemplary authors whose work was considered to be of such supreme value that it should be ‘canonised’. Importantly, however, FR Leavis (1895-1978), while insisting on the practice of close reading, also believed in the broader social, democratising role of literature in the cultural and moral life of society, albeit in ways that have been strenuously challenged since. Building on the New Critics’ rejection of the notion that meaning emerges from gathering information about the author, in the 1960s the French critics Roland Barthes (“The Death of the Author”, 1968) and Michel Foucault (“What is an Author?”, 1969) interrogated the notion of single authorship and ‘authority’ similarly arguing that it is inappropriate to consider the author as the supreme authority when it comes to meaning. They argued that the term ‘author’ has been valorised to imply a supreme, unitary creator. Removing any sense of the ‘author’ as an ultimate source of meaning opens the text up, according to Barthes and others, to a multiplicity of meanings and allows the reader to assume a more active role in interpreting and meaning-making. Foucault explored the contextual influences on the concept of authorship and emphasised the historically and culturally contingent nature of authorship and the idea of ‘originality’. The authority of the author has also been critiqued by those who argue that there is a hierarchy of discourses such that in any narrative, there is one or more narrative voices, characters and point/s of view, and controlling all of these, at one remove, is the author. The author, then, is seen to occupy a privileged position in the text-author-reader relationship. Recent theoretical approaches regard the concept of a single author as problematic since, it is argued, one person never acts outside the influence of the cultural contexts (and by extension, the codes and conventions of language and texts) within which they write. Reception and other poststructuralist theories reject the notion of an author as the absolute originator of meaning, arguing instead, that meaning is dependent on the reader as he/she engages with the ‘author’ in the process of reading. The English Teacher’s Handbook
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A One of the most effective ways of developing an understanding of ‘authorship’ and its significance in the creation of texts and meaning, is to equip students to ‘read as a writer and write as a reader’: that is, provide opportunities for students to create their own texts and recreate the texts of others, recognising the integral relationship between reading and writing, purpose and audience, originality and inheritance, and intention and meaning. In addition, the concept of authorship can be more fully explored and understood when students have the opportunity for genuinely collaborative writing and production. See also Hierarchy of discourses, Intentional Fallacy, Literary criticism, Literary theory, Reading, Writing. JM Reference: Pope, R. (2003) The English Studies Book: An Introduction to Language, Literature and Culture, 2nd edn. London: Routledge.
Autobiography (Greek: ‘self life-writing’) The life-story of an individual, usually composed predominantly by the individual him or herself. Autobiography, as distinct from biography, is a very common and popular type of nonfiction and can be published in the form of prose, including diaries, and less frequently, poetry. Autobiography is also known as life-writing. Conventionally, autobiography is written in the first-person (‘I’), while biography is written in the third-person (‘he’, ‘she’). This distinction is not fixed, however. The composer selects material and makes subjective decisions about how to represent people, places and experiences. In this sense, both types of text rely on the imagination and intellect of the composer, and both can be considered subjective literary forms. It is rare for an autobiography to focus exclusively on one individual’s life. Rather, the representation of this life depends on the representation of ‘other’s’ lives. It has been argued, then, that autobiography and biography should be considered co-extensive and interdependent forms (Pope, 1998: 179). The earliest versions of autobiography date back to antiquity, with a famous example from earlier centuries being St Augustine’s Confessions (397-399 AD). William Wordsworth’s The Prelude (1850) can be considered a poetic form of autobiography, since it involves a sustained exploration of the poet’s experiences, attitudes, values, beliefs and memories. In this respect, The Prelude legitimised the poetic use of material drawn from the particular individual’s personal, inner life and experience to explore questions of human existence, purpose and meaning. Contemporary autobiography is often very candid and revelatory, blurring the distinction between autobiography and confessional writing. Notable autobiographies include: Peter Abelard’s Historia Calamitatum (11th century); Benvenuto Cellini’s Vita (c. 1556); Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s Confessions (1782); John Henry Newman’s Apologia Pro Vita Sua (1864); David Niven’s The Moon’s a Balloon (1972); and Nelson Mandela’s Long Walk to Freedom (1995). Historically, and until recently, women’s autobiographies, and those by writers from minority groups, have not figured as prominently as they should in the public domain.
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Autobiographies are rich texts for the exploration of identity, social and cultural conditions, the relationship between individuals and society, and the process of constructing and representing personal history and reliable ‘realities’. See also Diary, Digital narrative, Memoir, Narrative, Nonfiction, Writing. JM
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1. Select excerpts from a range of autobiographies. Students read these, comparing and contrasting the style, tone and voice. Is the language formal, informal, colloquial, descriptive, expressive or a combination of these? What can we learn about the personality of the author from reading these excerpts? 2. Students research the best-seller lists of nonfiction in Australia and other countries. Identify what proportion of these are autobiography and identify what proportion of the authors are public figures (e.g. sporting figures, politicians, media celebrities). Compare front covers of the best-selling autobiographies of the last 2 years, noting any ‘conventions’ of covers for this genre. Explore titles of as many autobiographies as possible, analysing features of the titles that may indicate the autobiographical
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nature of the text. Read the back cover and blurb of these texts, noting any stylistic and language features that recur (e.g. the use of emotive language; references to journeys, overcoming adversity, challenge and triumph; a heart-warming story; an inspiring story etc). 3.
Read “My Life Story”, a poem by Sheila Greenwald (in Orange Moon, edited by Boomer and McFarlane, 1975). Students generate memories about events, places, episodes and experiences from key stages in their life, modelling the progression from childhood to adolescence used by Greenwald. This can be written as a poem, stream of consciousness or narrative.
4.
Using butchers’ paper and markers, students work in pairs. With the butchers’ paper on the wall, one student stands next to it, side-on, while their partner traces a silhouette of their profile onto the paper. Students then individually reflect on an event or experience from their past. They write every word that comes to mind for one minute about this (timed by the teacher so it simulates a game). After creating this ‘word cache’, students are then given 2 minutes to use the word cache to write non-stop in prose. This is a ‘writing derby’. Using this writing as a stimulus, students fill-in their drawn silhouette with either the words or a poem made up of the words or phrases from their writing, or prose, or a combination of these. Booklets of several pages can be made in the shape of the silhouette if students have more writing and visuals to add to their autobiography.
5.
Visit a digital story website and watch a range of stories, exploring the ways in which each presents aspects of the life of the composer. Are there similarities apart from those of structure, form and use of digital narrative conventions? What makes a story stand out as unique and original?
6.
Students can create their own digital stories. (See Digital narrative).
7.
Writing and representation that draws on each student’s experiences is fundamental to development in English, and is a key principle underpinning effective language pedagogy. (See also Language). Another strategy for engaging students in autobiographical writing is based on the poem “Where I’m From” by George Ella Lyon. The teaching strategies for this activity can be found at:
Reference: Pope, R. (2003) The English Studies Book: An Introduction to Language, Literature and Culture, 2nd edn. London: Routledge.
Automatic writing Writing that is undertaken with no deliberate effort to control or direct the flow of ideas. It is similar to stream of consciousness and aleatoric writing. WB Yeats’ (1865-1939) wife, Georgie Hyde-Lees (George) (1892-1968) engaged in automatic writing and Yeats considered this to be a powerful form of spiritual channelling that contributed to his own creative work and his philosophy as a writer. George’s writing and contributions to Yeats’ work have been under-valued and under-researched in accounts of the latter’s achievements. JM
Avant-garde (French: ‘advance guard’) Describes a movement or type of work that is deliberately experimental with the purpose of innovation in form and/or content. Avant-garde texts are often characterised by their evocative difference from the texts that have preceded them or exist alongside them. See also Modernism. JM
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B Ballad (French: ‘dancing song’) A narrative poem that tells a story, often set to music. It may be based on an event, personality, topical issue or political theme. It can be descriptive, celebratory, satiric, comic or subversive. Structurally, a ballad is often written in stanzas of four lines – a quatrain – with a pattern of rhyme. A common technique in ballads is the use of a refrain or repetition. The repetition of phrases or stanzas makes it easier to commit the ballad to memory and enables the plot or storyline to be apprehended more readily. As an oral form (and often set to music) the ballad has a very long history, with so-called Broadsheet ballads (also known as broadside ballads) widely published and sold in the streets of London in the 16th century. Popular ballads from this time that have descended to the present include “Mary Hamilton”, “Sir Patrick Spens”, “The Unquiet Grave” and “The Three Ravens”. During the Romantic period, ballads were popularised as a form, with their folkloric roots and simple structure appealing to the writers of the time. Wordsworth and Coleridge’s Lyrical Ballads (1798)are an example of the use of the form in the Romantic period.
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Literary ballads have remained current since, with many poets using the form to retell traditional stories or to take up issues of social justice and protest (for example, “Dust” by Nicki Rice). Many ballads have been set to music by classical composers such as Robert Schubert and Johannes Brahms, and have been included in operas by composers such as Giuseppe Verdi and Richard Wagner. Ballad is a term that also refers to a type of popular song, usually characterised by the ‘romantic’ quality of the music and focus of the lyrics. See also Poetry. JM ∼ Choose a ballad that is appropriate for the class. Read the ballad out aloud. ∼ In small groups, students are allocated sections of the ballad (based on one event or episode).
∼ Each group creates a visual representation of their allocated section to contribute to a frieze. If ICT is available, this can be done using the computer (digital frieze). Or the representations are presented to the whole class and discussed, focusing on sequencing of the story, key images, symbols, places and characters.
∼ Students explore how the visual narrative can be structured and sequenced to ensure continuity and meaning, by arranging these around the wall, or around the floor..
∼ Students can collate and present their representations as a PowerPoint. ∼ Alternatively, small groups can work on creating a two-minute digital story of the entire ballad, choosing images, voice-over of key phrases (refrains, repeated words etc), and music.
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B Bard (Welsh: ‘poet’) A poet, musician, storyteller or scholar, prominent during the 14th century and beyond in Britain and Ireland. The term comes from the Celtic language. Bards were important in recording oral history and creating and disseminating tales and accounts of historical events, famous people and battles. They were learned men who were well-versed in the traditions and events of the time and the history of their particular tribe, clan or region. By recording such experiences in song and rhyming poetry, the audience was able to more readily remember and learn the songs and poems, thereby acquiring knowledge about history, events and people. Since the 18th century, William Shakespeare (1564-1616) has come to be known as The Bard (of Stratford). The term ‘bardolatry’ was coined after George Bernard Shaw (1814-1855) referred with negative connotations to Shakespeare as the ‘Bardolator’. ‘Bardolatry’ has since been a term used to describe what some judge to be the over-exuberant ‘idolatry’ of Shakespeare - The Bard - and his works. JM
Basic skills This term is sometimes used in a variety of contexts and associated with a variety of meanings.. In general terms ‘basic skills’ are those expected of the vast majority of any complete cohort of students. While the acquisition of the basic skills of Literacy is of fundamental importance in the education of school students, it is axiomatic that developing basic skills is the responsibility of all teachers, not only teachers of English. In the development of their students’ reading skills, for example, teachers of English need to include a focus on such higher order skills as: the capacity to identify and distinguish between sophisticated nuances of meaning; wrestling with complex texts; understanding the subtleties of irony, sarcasm, wit, paradox; the ability to situate later 'meanings' within the contexts of earlier 'meanings'; the sophisticated and sometimes deliberately ambiguous language deployed in more challenging poetry; distinguishing 'points of view' operating within texts; noting and reflecting on differing, sometimes even competing, ' voices'; and so on. PB
Behaviourism Advanced by RF Skinner in the 1950s and based on the work of John B Watson (who is widely regarded as the originator of a branch of psychology called Behaviourism that emerged in the early part of the 20th century). Skinner proposed that children learn language by a process of stimulus-response-reinforcement. As children are immersed in oral language, they acquire their own language competence through this stimulus, and through the responses and reinforcement they receive in the act of communication. Behaviourism stressed the view of the child as ‘tabula rasa’ or a ‘blank slate’ who required behavioural stimulus and response in order to learn. Many of the decontextualised reading programs, such as, for example, Distar, were based on the theory of behaviourism. These are now rarely used in the light of more recent research into the importance of context and meaning in the teaching of reading. Opposing behaviourism was Noam Chomsky (1928-) who argued that human beings are born with an inbuilt linguistic instinct and capacity and are therefore ‘pre-programmed’ to learn language. Chomsky’s Nativist model proposed that all human beings are born with Language Acquisition Device (LAD). Later, MAK Halliday (1925-) was to develop the influential Transactional Model of language that emphasised the significance of social context and purpose in language acquisition and communication. See also Functional grammar, Language. JM
Bell Shakespeare Company An Australian theatre company, founded in 1990 by actor/director John Bell. As a national touring company, it specialises in the works of William Shakespeare and conducts an extensive education program for teachers and students. A number of scholarships have been established such as the Young Artists Endowment, which supports new and emerging actors of Shakespeare. Educational programs such as ‘Actors at Work’ involves visits to rural and remote area schools and communities. See. DC The English Teacher’s Handbook
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B Bias (Greek: ‘oblique’) To have or display a tendency to prejudice. Though generally used as a pejorative term, bias can embody positive connotations, depending on the stance of the individual. For example, in the novel Animal Farm George Orwell (1903-1950) conveys his bias against totalitarianism and in particular, communism, through the use of allegory involving animals and as such, has been a favourite in developed western countries since its publication in 1945. The rise of the periodical journal in Europe during the late 18th and 19th centuries demonstrated bias in favour of democratic ideals in the wake of the American and French revolutions. Notoriously, Adolf Hitler’s Mein Kampf (1923) shows his bias in favour of the Aryan race and his extreme bias against Jews. The job of the polemicist is to promote a particular point of view based primarily on opinion: such writing and commentary is often labelled as biased and can be found in blogs, talkback radio, newspaper opinion pieces, magazines and periodicals. More problematic is the detection of subtle political bias in texts generally and in advertising and news reporting in particular, with accusations of bias made routinely against journalists. More serious examples of bias can be found in totalitarian regimes where the use of propaganda forcibly promotes the biased messages of the State. See also Polemic, Propaganda, Rhetoric, Writing. DC
Bibliography An ordered list of all works cited within a book, thesis or other extended piece of writing that has drawn on other sources. A bibliography includes other books, journal articles, creative works, websites, other articles, and any other source cited or used as a reference to create the original work. Bibliographies are generally organised alphabetically, although subsections of a bibliography may stand as discrete sections within a larger bibliography. A bibliographic work or database is a separate work or digital work that contains a list of references relevant to, for example, a particular topic, theme, subject or author. There are a number of bibliographic styles which set out the format for citations and bibliographies. Two of the more common of these are the Harvard system and the APA system (American Psychological Association). JM
Bildungsroman (German:‘formation novel’) A novel that charts the development of a protagonist from childhood to maturity. Usually portraying a male hero, though not exclusively, these fictional works depict the individual’s struggles, rites of passage and in general, their triumph over adversity. Well-known examples are Charles Dickens’ David Copperfield (1849-50) and Samuel Butler’s The Way of All Flesh (1903). DC
Binary opposition In its simplest form, a binary opposition is a pair of opposed or contrasting concepts, objects, abstractions, phenomena, experiences or ideas. The term gained currency within the context of structuralist approaches to language and the study of texts. Both structuralist linguistics and poststructuralist philosophy were interested in binary oppositions, suggesting that Western thought is based on polarities and bifurcations. We know black is black, for example, because white makes black look black. Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) suggested that much of how Western thought makes sense of itself is through binary oppositions, the primary one being the ‘signifier’ and the ‘signified’. He argued that the binary opposition is the “means by which the units of language have value or meaning; each unit is defined against what it is not”. While de Saussure tended to operate on the pretext that binary oppositions were naturally occurring phenomena, or at least that human beings had a natural propensity to make sense of the world through the rubric of binary oppositions, poststructuralist thought – particularly that of Jacques Derrida (1930-2004) in his first book Of Grammatology – suggested that binary oppositions were not what Derrida calls a “vis-à-vis” or an equal partnership, but a socially and linguistically constructed hierarchy of domination (1978: 41). 38
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B Some of the binary oppositions that poststructuralists have worked with and continue to work with are: ∼ Woman/man ∼ Alive/dead ∼ Black/white ∼ Reader/writer ∼ Inside/outside ∼ Reason/emotion ∼ Theory/practice ∼ Nature/culture ∼ Master/servant ∼ Civilised/primitive ∼ Speech/the written word ∼ Sound/silence This way of knowing aligns with the ‘metaphysics of presence’ – a set of theories that proposes there is a validating reality behind language that gives it meaning. Such theories, most notably those of Plato (Ideas), attempt to find a stable and unchanging place to stand outside or above ‘reality’ in order to survey the landscape from a solid, unchanging footing: to find an ‘essence’ that exists outside the movement of difference and surmounts, transcends and conquers it. The metaphysics of presence privileges one thing over another through binary oppositions that are, in turn, interpreted as hierarchical oppositions. Some of the ramifications of exploring the concept of binary oppositions in the English classroom include (Davis, 2001): ∼ Encouraging us to identify and then think beyond the binary opposition, and to question the
ways in which the binary opposition has been constructed. In a binary opposition, is there a hierarchical opposition at play, and what ideological assumptions support that hierarchy? ∼ Once we begin asking these kinds of questions, the way in which we read encourages
different interpretations. If our understanding of texts is governed by a binary opposition that can be challenged, then by challenging the opposition, we unleash other sets of governing principles which may generate new meanings. See also Postmodernism, Poststructuralism, Structuralism. SGS, JM ∼ A pedagogical strategy that assists in understanding the ways in which some texts
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and responses are influenced by binary oppositions is the ‘Yes, No, But’ activity (see grid below)
∼ A list of ‘black-and-white’ qualities or characteristics can be applied to a text or a character or a person.
∼ The task of deciding which of the oppositions applies more fully to the character leads students to explore the nuances and complexities of reading in terms of binary oppositions, the limitations of this and the subtleties of characterisation and representation. Use the grid below, or create your own. Small groups can focus on different characters, or the whole class can explore the same character at the same time.
∼ As students work through the list, discussing each set of oppositions in relation to a particular character, they can also refer back to the text to find examples and quotes to support their interpretations.
∼ Picture books are an excellent resource for developing students’ understanding of the ways in which binary oppositions may operate to shape meaning and response. Picture books are particularly powerful in that they often rely on both print and visual media. Simple analyses of the colours, shapes, characters and setting of such
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B texts can assist students in recognising the pervasiveness of binary oppositions. This knowledge and understanding can then be applied to other texts such as prose fiction, poetry, drama and film.
∼ When exploring stereotypes in texts and the media, use the template of binary oppositions to highlight the ways in which stereotyping often depends on ‘either-or’ or black-and-white representations.
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This character is:
Yes, No, But…
Assertive
Passive
Generous
Selfish
Extroverted
Introverted
Talkative
Shy
Trusting
Suspicious
Thoughtful
Impulsive
Adventurous
Cautious
Rich
Poor
Honest
Dishonest
Articulate
Illiterate
Good
Bad
Loyal
Disloyal
Industrious
Lazy
Energetic
Placid
Loud
Quiet
Dominating
Deferential
Central
Marginal
Compliant
Rebellious
Happy
Melancholy
Positive
Negative
Optimistic
Pessimistic
Sociable
Aloof
(Adapted from Hayhoe, M. (1988) Creative work ideas for Macbeth. Sydney: Phoenix Education)
References: Davis, W. (2001) “Morning Glory”, The Literary Encyclopaedia.
. Derrida, J. (1971) Spurs: Nietzsche’s Styles, trans. B. Harlow, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. Derrida, J. (1978) “Positions,” in Positions, trans. A. Bass, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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B Biography (Greek: ‘life-writing’) A biography tells the story of an individual’s life and is written or created by another person. Biographies are often published as books and films (often also referred to as ‘biopics’), although biographical material may occur in other textual forms (such as, for example, the work of confessional poets). Since a biography draws on the experiences and events of an individual’s life, it is generally classed as nonfiction but may contain fictional elements. Biographies are generally written in the third-person (‘he’, ‘she’), with the purpose of underplaying the significance of the narrative voice in favour of the portrayal of the subject’s life, personality and character. As is the case with all acts of representation, the composer makes choices about the ‘what’ and the ‘how’ of the text, rendering biography as a partial and subjective artistic form. See also Autobiography, Faction, Nonfiction, Writing. JM
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∼ Students select a subject such as a relative, or a fictional character. Conducting
∼ ∼
∼ ∼
∼
research, students develop a profile of the person or character, beginning with descriptions of physical characteristics, age, environment, etc. Students then move on to identify important and interesting experiences, events or situations in that person’s/character’s life. Choosing one or more of these, students create a brief biography of this person/character, for a selected audience. In the role of biographer, students explore the conventions of the form and some of the ethical and other issues involved in biographical writing and representation. Make video recordings, sound recording and take still images, if appropriate. Create a digital narrative based on this research. Construct a timeline of the life of the person/character, selecting significant events and experiences. Use this as the basis for a representation of the life of the subject by using images, imaginative journal entries (based on what the subject may have written), lists of “Top 10 likes and dislikes” or “Favourite Food/Movies/Books/Places/ Hobbies etc” Construct a digital album for the subject, including material from strategies 1 and 2, music, voice-over, hyperlinks, and a reflection statement. Prepare a book proposal for submission to a publisher, detailing the focus of the proposed biography, the purpose, audience, structure, significance, and research required for the completion of the book. Create an oral biography or a video biography.
Black comedy A drama or other kind of text in which potentially tragic events or situations are the subject of wry, dark, laconic or cynical humour. A well-known example of a black comedy is Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot (1953). The characters and situation in this play are so bleak and absurd that the characters themselves derive amusement from the utter hopelessness and pointlessness of their existence. Black comedies are more common in the 20th and 21st centuries in the works of dramatists such as Beckett, Albee and Pinter. Black comedy films include Waking Ned Devine (Jones, 1998); The Rules of Attraction (Avery, 2002) and In Bruges (McDonagh, 2008). See also Comedy, Theatre of the Absurd, Tragedy. JH Black Humour Humour derived from a focus on death, the macabre, absurd, grisly or ghoulish. This kind of humour is often employed alongside satire to expose cruelty, hypocrisy, futility or paradox. Examples include: the film, Dr Strangelove (Stanley Kubrick, 1964) and the novels of Kurt Vonnegut (1922-2007), Joseph Heller (1923-1999) and Tom Wolfe (1931-). The 18th century Irish writer Jonathan Swift’s “A Modest Proposal” (1729) relies on black humour: he proposes, with plenty of satire and irony, that the poverty and hardship of the Irish people at the time could be alleviated if they ate their children. See also Comedy. DC The English Teacher’s Handbook
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B Blank verse: Verse that has rhythm but no obvious pattern of rhyme. Blank verse is also known as iambic pentameter. It was the common verse form for English dramatic poetry and was employed regularly by Shakespeare in his plays. In Shakespeare’s plays blank verse works in contrast to prose. It was often thought that the characters in the main plot spoke in blank verse, while the characters in the subplot spoke in prose. A closer study of the plays, however, reveals the fluidity of blank verse and prose within and across the plot and subplot. See also Metre. JM ∼ Focus on the extract below from Shakespeare’s Richard III. ∼ The extract is an example of blank verse, with most of the punctuation removed. ∼ In pairs, students read the extract out aloud, noticing the cadences of the lines, the pauses, caesura and rhythm.
∼ After reading the extract a number of times, students work in pairs, adding punctuation.
∼ Students compare their version to the original version, noting similarities and differences.
∼ Discuss the effect of punctuation on the performance and meaning of the text. Excerpt from Richard III
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ACT 1, SCENE 1. 1 [London. A street.] [Enter GLOUCESTER, solus]
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GLOUCESTER
Now is the winter of our discontent Made glorious summer by this sun of York And all the clouds that lour'd upon our house In the deep bosom of the ocean buried Now are our brows bound with victorious wreaths Our bruised arms hung up for monuments Our stern alarums changed to merry meetings Our dreadful marches to delightful measures Grim-visaged war hath smooth'd his wrinkled front And now instead of mounting barded steeds To fright the souls of fearful adversaries He capers nimbly in a lady's chamber To the lascivious pleasing of a lute But I that am not shaped for sportive tricks Nor made to court an amorous looking-glass I that am rudely stamp'd, and want love's majesty To strut before a wanton ambling nymph I that am curtail'd of this fair proportion Cheated of feature by dissembling nature Deformed unfinish'd sent before my time Into this breathing world scarce half made up And that so lamely and unfashionable That dogs bark at me as I halt by them Why I in this weak piping time of peace Have no delight to pass away the time Unless to spy my shadow in the sun And descant on mine own deformity And therefore since I cannot prove a lover To entertain these fair well-spoken days I am determined to prove a villain
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And hate the idle pleasures of these days Plots have I laid inductions dangerous By drunken prophecies libels and dreams To set my brother Clarence and the king In deadly hate the one against the other And if King Edward be as true and just As I am subtle false and treacherous This day should Clarence closely be mew'd up About a prophecy which says that 'G' Of Edward's heirs the murderer shall be Dive thoughts down to my soul here Clarence comes
Bloomsbury Group A group of writers, artists and other professionals who met and socialised in the Bloomsbury part of London in the early 1900s. The most famous member of the group was Virginia Woolf (1882-1941). The group also included Woolf’s sister, Vanessa Stephen (1879-1961), husband, Leonard Woolf (1880-1969), and the novelist EM Forster (1879-1970). They met regularly at Woolf’s home and as part of the social activities, explored literature, art, aesthetics and politics. The Bloomsbury Group, through its writing and dissemination of ideas, exerted a significant influence on the literary, philosophical and artistic landscape of the time and well beyond. JM
Bloom’s Taxonomy A hierarchical schema that is used to classify, measure and evaluate student learning objectives and achievement. Benjamin Bloom (1913-1999), an American educational psychologist, developed this taxonomy in the 1950s. It has since enjoyed widespread application across the curriculum. The developmental nature of the model assumes that students move from one cognitive domain to another in an ever-increasing process of higher-order, incrementally abstract thinking. The model does not include the affective and motor domains, although Bloom did begin to develop these. The diagram below conceptualises the hierarchy of cognitive skills within Bloom’s Taxonomy. See also Affective learning, Developmental model of responding to literature. JM
Applying Bloom’s Taxonomy to Goldilocks and the Three Bears Cognitive Objective
Skill required
Teaching Implications
Knowledge
To recall factual information
What are some of the things that Goldilocks did in the house? • Predictions • Timelines • Character grids • Emotion charts • Maps • Mind maps • Character and plot webs
Comprehension
To demonstrate an understanding of information and ideas
Why do you think the Three Bears left their house unlocked? • Predictions • Ghost writing • Character games • Interviews • Role-play • Translating into another medium
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B Application
To use some previously learned knowledge, skills, or understanding in a new situation/ context
If Goldilocks had gone to your home, what would she have done? • Imaginative recreations • Rewriting (e.g. as a news story, recipe, script) • Translating • Drama, role-play
Analysis
To explore parts of the whole to develop understanding of hermeneutics
What parts of the story are ‘missing’? For example, are there scenes that could be added to the story – what were the bears doing while Goldilocks was in their home? Retell the story from each of the bear’s point of view? Does this change the story?
Synthesis
To bring together ideas How might the story have been different if Goldilocks had met in a new way or dethree horses? How would this story be represented in another velop a new product medium? Use the learning from this story to create another text.
Evaluation
To judge the value of material and ideas
Do you think this text is effective? Why/why not? What sort of audience would this text appeal to and why?
Blurb A short, pithy statement that accompanies and/or describes in précis the content of a fuller text. A blurb usually draws attention to the appealing aspects of the text in order to encourage the potential reader/viewer/listener to explore the described work in more detail. Blurbs are frequently found on book covers, DVD covers, front pages of websites and in promotional materials for creative works, exhibitions and displays. JM
Bricolage (French ‘odd jobbery’) A term that gained currency with structuralist critics and was employed to describe the amalgam and exchange of ideas, concepts and materials to create a new work or develop new ways of thinking and understanding. A bricolage is a work that draws on whatever resources, inspiration and materials are at hand. Roland Barthes (1915-1980), building on the work of Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908 –), describes bricolage as the creative re-combining of components of existing language, culture and texts “with purposes that make sense to users, not just providers.” (Pope, 2008: 13) JM Reference: Pope, R. (2008) Creativity: Theory, History, Practice, 3rd edn. Abington: Routledge.
Broadside Also known as broadsheet, originally a large sheet of paper printed on one side with a ballad or other topical material and sold on the streets. Broadsides were often used to disseminate news of public occasions and controversial and sensational events such as executions, scandals and crimes. A broadside is also a term referring to a lampoon, strident criticism or attack. Broadside ballads were popular in the Britain from the 16th century. A sheet of paper was printed with a ballad, and distributed on the streets. Often the ballads had a social protest theme as in, for example, “The Poore Man Payes for All” (18th century). See also Media. DC
Brochure A printed leaflet or a small booklet that advertises and promotes a product, place, event or service. Brochures are similar to pamphlets in that they seek to convey information in a succinct and appealing manner, usually through the use of printed text and visual images. Effective brochures attend to design elements of layout, colour and balance between visual and printed material. Along with pamphlets, brochures are similar in purpose to a leaflet or a handout but tend to be of higher quality than these other types of texts. Students can experiment with digital brochure templates and compose brochures in response to, for example, issues, themes and texts being studied in class, or compose brochures to promote events. See also Representing. JM 44
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B Bullock Report The Bullock Report (A language for life - Report of the Committee of Enquiry appointed by the Secretary of State for Education and Science under the Chairmanship of Sir Alan Bullock FBA, 1975) was one of the most influential reports on the teaching and learning of English in the 20th century. It was based on a large-scale survey of 2000 schools in England. The report investigated trends and attitudes to English language learning and teaching including oral language, written language, language across the curriculum, the reading process, children with reading difficulties and adult literacy. The Report concluded that “Language competence grows incrementally, through an interaction of writing, talk, reading, and experience, and the best teaching deliberately influences the nature and quality of this growth” (1.10) and “Literature brings the child into an encounter with language in its most complex and varied forms and is a valuable source of imaginative insight. It should be recognised as a powerful force in English teaching at all levels” (9.2). The report remains an important landmark in English education. See also Models of English. PB Reference: Bullock, A. (1975) A language for life - Report of the Committee of Inquiry appointed by the Secretary of State for Education and Science, London: HMSO.
Burlesque (Italian:‘jest’, ‘ridicule’) In drama, it refers to a form of variety theatre that was generally comic, parodic and musical, although some burlesque does not include music. This form of theatre originated in the mid 19th century and was a subversive form of entertainment that satirised, often through bawdy or sexually suggestive comedy, the social mores of the Victorian era. Typically, burlesque featured short pieces with women in dancing choruses, singers, male comedians and female strippers. “Without question, however, burlesque's principal legacy as a cultural form was its establishment of patterns of gender representation that forever changed the role of the woman on the American stage and later influenced her role on the screen…The very sight of a female body not covered by the accepted costume of bourgeois respectability forcefully if playfully called attention to the entire question of the ‘place of woman in American society.” (Allen, 1991: 258-259). In literary criticism, the term burlesque refers to any work that imitates another work, but does so in a satirical or parodic manner in order to produce humour. High-burlesque describes the use of a formal style or genre to represent comic or trivial matters. The incongruity between form and content that results is a mark of the work’s burlesque qualities. The mock-epic takes a seemingly trivial subject and frames it within the conventions of a classic or serious genre. Alexander Pope’s “The Rape of the Lock” (1715) is an example of this form. See also Comedy, Drama. JM Reference: Allen, R. G. (1991) Horrible Prettiness: Burlesque and American Culture, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
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C Caesura (Latin: ‘cutting’) A pause in a line of verse, often occurring in the middle of the line at an unexpected place. This technique is designed to draw attention to the pause, to highlight the ideas or action before or immediately after the pause, and to add texture and interest to the expected rhythm of the verse. JM
Cambourne’s 8 Conditions for Language Learning Brian Cambourne’s model identifies the 8 conditions for optimal learning, where language in context in use is at the core of the meaning-making process: 1. Immersion: we learn to talk, for example, because we are immersed in oral language from the time of birth. 2. Engagement: a productive classroom engages learners in meaningful and relevant learning activities that are connected to and extensions of the ‘real’ world of the students. 3. Expectation: a key condition for learning is to always maintain high expectations of students’ capacities. 4. Demonstration: we need the chance to watch and learn, just like small children watch and learn when they are surrounded by constant demonstrations of language in use. 5. Use: to become successful at something, we have to do it, and do it a lot. Knowing the rules of a game, for example, doesn’t make you a great player. 6. Responsibility: as teachers we need to take responsibility for the sequencing of learning through careful planning and programming. 7. Approximation: this is a crucial condition for learning, but one which is often undervalued by schooling. Often the teacher’s reaction to students’ approximations (‘almost correct’) can be limiting. 8. Response: meaningful responses appropriate to the student’s needs and stage of learning are vital. See also Language, Literacy, Reading, Writing. JM Reference: Adapted from Cambourne, B. (1988) The Whole Story: Natural Learning and the Acquisition of Literacy in the Classroom. Auckland: Ashton Scholastic.
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C Canon (Greek: ‘measuring rod’) In literary studies, a term to denote a group of texts selected for their perceived artistic significance, enduring appeal and cultural value. (Originally, it denoted a criterion, a standard of judgment or the authorised list of the Bible.) These texts are generally considered to hold a privileged status in a particular cultural context. The traditional English literary canon includes a body of texts that have acquired the status of ‘classics’; writers such as William Shakespeare (1564-1616), John Milton (1608-1674), Jane Austen (1775-1817), Charles Dickens (1812-1870) and the Brontë sisters (Charlotte, 1816-1855; Emily, 1814-1848; and Anne, 18201849), among many others. Historically, the English canon began to achieve its definitive state in the mid 18th century as it became more of a form of literary history, with the publication of Samuel Johnson’s Lives of English Poets (1779-81). The canon has become inextricably linked with notions of nationalism, culture and values since the selection of certain texts over and above others suggests a preference for the values that these texts promote. The traditional canon and notions of canonicity have been critiqued from four main quarters: philosophical conceptions of language (post-structuralism); feminism; cultural materialism; and post-colonialism. Not surprisingly, each of these quarters protests against the ways in which a traditional white, male-dominated canon denies the interests of the philosophical ‘other’, the female ‘other’, the ‘other’ bound by class and birth, and the ethnically diverse ‘other’. With the rise of cultural studies and semiotics in recent decades, the traditional English canon has been seen to reify a type of elitism and privilege and as such, can carry a pejorative connotation for a range of literary critics and others. Whether we accept or interrogate these historical choices – and, indeed, whether the traditional choices are in fact representative of the white male – continues to fuel debate. These questions in turn prompt larger questions as to which values we give preference to in order to drive the formation of any canon per se, and the ultimate function and purpose of a canon. The term ‘canon’ can also relate to the accepted works within the overall body of an author’s works such as The Prelude (1850) as part of William Wordsworth’s ‘canon of work’ or oeuvre. See also Evaluation, Literature, Literary criticism, Postmodernism, Structuralism, Values. SGS, DC, JM Critiquing the process of assigning value to texts:
∼ Students work in pairs or small groups to collate a list of all books, poems, digital texts, and films they have read/viewed in English and in contexts beyond school.
∼ Students rank these texts according to their impact on and value to them person-
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ally.
∼ Student then place these texts in one or more of the following categories: • • • • • • • • •
Literary classic Popular classic Popular Multicultural Women’s Young Adult Digital Best-seller Children’s
∼ Once students have collated and categorised, they discuss which texts have been predominantly part of their school and beyond school experience, and why. This can lead to a discussion about individual texts that have been assigned value and the possible reasons for this.
∼ Which texts from their lists do students value most highly and why? ∼ Which texts would they consider important texts for study in English and why? The English Teacher’s Handbook
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C Caption A succinct piece of writing (often no more than one or two sentences, and as brief as one or two words) that accompanies, comments on and/or adds to the meaning of a visual image. The caption may illuminate or clarify one or more aspects of the visual image, or it may be an ironic, satirical or comic interpretation of the image. Captions, like headlines and breakout sections of a text, are designed to draw attention to the key features of a larger text and do not exist as independent texts. See also Representing. JM
Caricature An exaggerated representation of an actual person or a character in literature, art, film and other texts. Caricatures are usually associated with cartoons and drawings and are used to create humour or satire. In order to stress some individual feature or quality of the character, the caricaturist grossly embellishes that feature or quality. Authors such as Charles Dickens (1812-1870) have also created ‘pen portraits’ of characters that serve as caricatures for their readers. In film, a close-up, low angle or undershot can be used to distort and exaggerate the appearance of a character on screen and create a caricature effect for the viewers. See also Character/Characterisation. KS
Catharsis (Greek: ‘cleansing’, ‘purging’, ‘purification’) A term from Aristotle’s Poetics (c. 335 BC) describing a strong audience reaction to a climactic moment of extreme emotion. The experience of emotional cleansing or release took place when an audience witnessed the dénouement of tragedy. Tragedy enabled individuals to identify with characters and to vicariously experience their torments and the outcomes of their actions and decisions without ever suffering these things directly. Aristotle argued that great tragedy was therefore beneficial because in evoking strong emotions and the subsequent release of these, individuals were ‘purified’ and thereby better able to conduct a virtuous and ‘examined’ life. Catharsis is a term that has been applied to the process of writing. Expressive writing may provide the opportunity for the writer to examine and articulate a concern and seek to solve a problem. Arnold identifies the cathartic value of writing when she observes that “What keeps the writing process going is the writer’s recognition that there is something in it for him or her…This can be establishing a discourse with one’s self and/or another or solving a problem by writing it out.” (Arnold, 1982). JH, JM Reference: Arnold, R. (1982) “Writers, learners and self-esteem”, English in Australia, 62.
Censorship The deliberate suppression, removal or destruction of any material that prevents open access to and public distribution of that material, usually for political, moral and ideological purposes. Debates around censorship are integral to concepts of ‘freedom of the press’, ‘freedom of expression’, democratic freedom and civil liberties. Censorship is often a source of controversy in English (as it is in broader social contexts) and centres on the appropriateness and content of material for use with students. There have been a number of occasions when special interest groups have succeeded in having texts removed from English reading lists on the basis of moral, religious and political objections. Among the list of books most frequently challenged between 1990 and 2000 are the following. Students may review this list and for books with which they are familiar, speculate on why these may have been censored. Scary Stories (Series) by Alvin Schwartz I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings by Maya Angelou The Chocolate War by Robert Cormier 48
The Stupids (Series) by Harry Allard The Witches by Roald Dahl Blubber by Judy Blume We All Fall Down by Robert Cormier The English Teacher’s Handbook
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The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck Harry Potter (Series) by JK Rowling Forever by Judy Blume Bridge to Terabithia by Katherine Paterson James and the Giant Peach by Roald Dahl The Catcher in the Rye by JD Salinger The Color Purple by Alice Walker Go Ask Alice by Anonymous
The Handmaid's Tale by Margaret Atwood The Bluest Eye by Toni Morrison To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee Beloved by Toni Morrison The Outsiders by SE Hinton Flowers for Algernon by Daniel Keyes Brave New World by Aldous Huxley Sleeping Beauty Trilogy by AN Roquelaure (Anne Rice) The Great Gilly Hopkins by Katherine Paterson
Particularly topical in the digital age is the issue of censorship on the Internet. More resources and information about censorship can be found at the “Censorship Pages”:
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
. JM Select a topical issue (e.g. controversial advertisements; junk food advertisements during children’s television viewing times) or a controversial advertisement (e.g. Benetton ad campaigns; and the Italian “No Anorexia” poster). Students explore all the ‘pros and cons’ of the issue and decide whether or not ads should be screened /published. Create a ‘for and against censorship’ table listing the arguments. Students decide which ‘side’ they will argue for. Debate the issue or students use this exploration as the basis for argumentative writing (e.g. an essay on censorship), or a debate in the roles of politicians debating the issue in parliament.
Character / Characterisation (Greek: ‘instrument for making’, ‘distinctive’) At the simplest level, characters are people or other beings created in a text by a composer. Characters may be wholly imagined, or they may be based to a greater or lesser extent on actual people. For example, the English poets Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon appear as characters in the first novel in Pat Barker’s Regeneration trilogy (1990). Similarly, Napoleon Bonaparte appears as a character in Leo Tolstoy’s novel War and Peace (1869). Characters spark and sustain the dynamism of the plot, engender empathy or antagonism in the responder, and enact and embody recognisable human qualities and experiences. Literary critic MH Abrams stated “the characters are the people, endowed with specific moral and dispositional qualities, who carry on the action…the sphere of ‘character’ can be progressively widened to include even the thought and speeches in which it manifests itself, as well as the physical actions which are motivated by a person’s character.” (Abrams, 1958: 69). Character may refer to the person who participates in, drives and experiences the action of the text, or to a persona or narrative identity in the text. Indeed, a character in a text may be an object, landscape or entity that is imbued with human qualities. The process of employing techniques to portray and represent a character is referred to as ‘characterisation’.
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C Aristotle (384-322 BC) emphasised the significance of action in developing characters, rather than the significance of the person initiating the action – the agent (pratton). The action is distinct from the ethos of the character which, in the Aristotelian sense, is added later. The actions of the agent reveal the trait/s of that agent as either ‘noble’ or ‘base’. EM Forster (1879-1970) coined the terms ‘flat’ and ‘round’ characters. A ‘flat’ or static character is one who does not change throughout the course of a narrative and a ‘round’ or dynamic character is one who changes or is even transformed through his or her involvement with the events of the plot. Many protagonists are ‘dynamic’ in that they meet and overcome the external and internal struggles and challenges of the plot. An important consideration in characterisation is the narrative point of view. A first person narrator, such as Holden Caulfield in JD Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye (1951) allows the reader to assemble a picture of Holden and his qualities, idiosyncrasies and flaws through his quirky adolescent voice. Holden’s actions, descriptions and accounts of interactions with other characters also clearly establish the social and historical context of the novel. The third person narration in Patrick White’s The Tree of Man (1955) allows the narrator to establish and develop characters through information about the background of the central characters, Stan and Amy. Contemporary theory has argued that a character in a text is constructed to embody, promote, represent or challenge sets of norms, beliefs, values and worldviews. If characters are considered in this way, the responder can be alert to the ways in which characters engender empathy or trigger resistance. The reader/viewer can question why they respond to a character in a particular way (‘do I like/dislike, feel antipathy/sympathy for this character and why?’) and what aspects of the reader’s/viewer’s own values, beliefs, assumptions, cultural context, gender, race, and so on may be significant in shaping this response. Characters are often categorised as protagonists; antagonists; and main, central, minor or supporting characters. See also Drama, Fiction, Flat and round characters, Narrative, Reading, Writing. DC, JM References: Abrams, M.H. (1958) A Glossary of Literary Terms, New York: Chatman. Cuddon, J.A. (1991) Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, 3rd edn. London: Penguin Books.
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Holman, C. H. (1976) A Handbook to Literature, 3rd edn. Indianapolis: The Odyssey Press.
∼ Select an excerpt from a text that rich in its description of a character (e.g. Emma in Jane Austen’s Emma; Tess in Thomas Hardy’s Tess of the D’Urbervilles; Celie in Alice Walker’s The Color Purple). Explore the ways in which these characters are portrayed (techniques of description, dialogue etc). Compare the representations. Students explore what aspects of these characters appeal to them and why? What aspects of the representations are unusual, surprising or unexpected? How is this character different from/similar to familiar people in everyday life?
∼ Provide students with the first few lines of texts that provide a description of, or introduce, a character. Students work on fleshing out the description, comparing their versions with the original.
∼ View films such as, for example, Forest Gump, The Hours, Harry Potter, Faces in the Mob. Explore the ways in which character is constructed through filmic techniques (including voice-over and narration) and how the representations work to elicit certain responses from the viewer.
Chick-lit/Chick-flick Refers to fiction and film, respectively, written, produced and marketed for adolescent and young adult women. The term ‘chick-lit’ was coined by Cris Mazza and Jeffrey DeShell as part of the title of their 1995 anthology, Chick Lit: Postfeminist Fiction. The terms were originally employed ironically and now carry pejorative connotations, highlighting the categorising of this kind of fiction and film as popularist and therefore marginal to more seriously regarded literary works. It is akin to the term 50
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‘poetess’ used in previous centuries to demarcate male poets from female poets, with the latter considered to be less worthy of critical attention. The sub-genre of fiction and film burgeoned in the 1990s with the widespread popularity of texts such as Helen Fielding’s Bridget Jones’s Diary (book, 1996 and film, 2001), Anne Brashares’ The Sisterhood of the Travelling Pants (book, 2001 and films, 2005, 2008), Meg Cabot’s The Princess Diaries (book, 2000 and films, 2001, 2004) and more recently, Lauren Weisberger’s The Devil Wears Prada (book, 2003 and film, 2006). Since the 1990s there has been a flurry of bestselling novels, films and television series targetting a young female audience, exploring the love-life, friendships, material and emotional aspirations and career experiences of mainly white middle-class urban protagonists. See also Fiction, Film, Gender. JM
Children’s Literature Literature that is composed for, selected and read by children and includes a range of genres such as picture books, stories, fairy tales, poetry and drama. It is distinguished from young adult and adult literature by its language, themes, subject matter and style. Children’s literature, especially picture books, fairy tales and nursery rhymes, are increasingly incorporated in secondary English as valuable resources, stimulus texts and texts in their own right. The first children’s book to be written and published in Australia was Charlotte Barton’s A mother's offering to her children (1841). (This book is available as an eBook at http://purl.library.usyd.edu.au/setis/id/barmoth). In 1945 the Children's Book Council of NSW was established, with the national equivalent formed 1959. The establishment of the Children's Book of the Year awards did a great deal to stimulate publication and interest in Australian children’s literature, with a concomitant rise in the literary and critical scholarship in the field. Nancy Anderson has categorised children’s literature as follows: 1.
Early childhood picture books: ∼ Concept books (alphabet, counting, general) ∼ Pattern books ∼ Wordless books
2.
Traditional literature: Myths Fables Ballads and folk songs Legends Tall tales Fairy tales Traditional rhymes Fiction: ∼ Fantasy ∼ Contemporary realistic fiction ∼ Historical realistic fiction Biography and autobiography Informational books Poetry and verse. ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
3.
4. 5. 6.
See also Fairy tales, Literature, Picture books. JM Reference: Anderson, Nancy (2006). Elementary Children's Literature, Boston: Pearson Education.
Chronology In literature, film and other types of texts and communication, the chronology refers to the organisation and sequence of events and actions that constitute the plot. Constructing a timeline of the action of a text assists students in understanding the role of chronology and sequencing and the ways in which these may be disrupted, inverted or otherwise manipulated for a particular purpose and effect. See also Anachrony, Plot. JM The English Teacher’s Handbook
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C Cinéma vérité Roughly translates from Russian to ‘cinema of truth’ referring to a candid style of documentary filmmaking that attempts to convey realism. It includes actual people (not actors) in everyday unrehearsed situations, using authentic dialogue (not a script), natural action and locations, with the minimal amount of crew, equipment and camera work (often hand-held) and is produced on a small budget. Instead of shooting sound and pictures together, the actual conversations and interviews are recorded, the best sound grabs selected with visuals then shot to fit the sound. These elements are later assembled the editing suite. Examples of Cinéma vérité include: West 47th Street (Lichtenstein and Peoples, 2003) and Dont Look Back [sic] (Pennebaker, 1967). The recent bio-pic I’m Not There (Haynes, 2007) can be compared to Dont Look Back [sic] – both films explore the life of Bob Dylan. See also Film. KH, JM
Cinematography Refers to the overall control and design of the camera work that gives a film its particular aesthetic appeal and appearance. The cinematographer governs the operation of the cameras and the control of the shots and characters to create the visual design of the film. See also Film. KS
Cinquain A poem of five lines whose invention is attributed to the American poet, Adelaide Crampsey (18781914). Line 1 has 2 syllables (a subject or noun); line 2 has 4 syllables using a word/s that describe the subject or noun in line 1 (adjectives); line 3 has 6 syllables using words that are verbs relevant to the subject or noun in line 1; line 4 has 8 syllables using words (expressing feelings or a judgement about line 1); and line 5 has 2 syllables using a word/s which can be a synonym for the subject in line 1, or an appropriate word that draws the poem together. An example of a cinquain, by Adelaide Crampsey, is “How Frail”: How frail Above the bulk Of crashing water hangs, Autumnal, evanescent, wan, The moon. There are many types of cinquains including mirror cinquains (a cinquain followed by another cinquain with reversed syllabic form); a reverse cinquain (syllable pattern of 2, 8, 6, 4, 2); and a garland cinquain, which consists of 6 cinquains unified by a common subject or theme. Due the their simple structure and brevity, cinquains offer an accessible form for creative writing in English. In this sense, they are similar to haiku. See also Haiku, Poetry, Writing. JM
Classic Originally referred to the literature and other writing of the Ancient Greeks and Romans, since this writing was judged in succeeding centuries to be exemplary. The more common usage in English education pertains to the identification of particular texts as ‘classic’. The categorisation of texts as classic, contemporary or popular requires value-judgements about the quality and importance of such texts. Like the concept of the traditional English canon of literature, the notion of a classic text is contestable and dependent on personal, cultural, economic, historical, political and other factors. Texts that achieve prominence as classic texts often reflect and embody the values of the predominant culture of the time and arguably continue to appeal to audiences across time and place. It is helpful for students to explore the reasons why some texts have been deemed ‘classic’ during certain historical periods; if, how and why notions of canonicity evolve over time; and the implications of these processes and judgements. One way of considering the differences between texts is articulated in the following broad definitions:
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C Classic: Texts that have been recognised over time as exemplars of their type are referred to as classic texts. The historical perspectives offered by these texts enable students to evaluate the extent to which the values, beliefs and perspectives represented in such texts have shifted, or continue to have currency in their own cultural context. The reasons why some texts continue to be valued – issues of universality, relevance, cultural influences, and gender, for example – can be explored by students as part of their critical engagement with such texts. Contemporary: Texts that are valued in the contemporary context and are considered to be texts which “deal with complex ideas in complex ways”. (A Statement on English for Australian Schools, 1994: 3) These texts are typically composed in language and media that may be more readily accessible to students. They may be compared to classic and popular texts in order for students to evaluate their worth. Popular: Texts whose “main aim is to entertain…and which do not attempt to explore issues and ideas in a complex way.” (A Statement on English for Australian Schools, 1994: 4). Many popular texts may be considered less enduring in their value and appeal than classic or contemporary texts. These broad definitions may function as starting points for a consideration of notions of canonicity, the reasons why some texts are deemed ‘classic’ and the processes of assigning value to texts in a hierarchal manner. Students may also be alerted to the alternative, less freighted use of the term ‘classic’ to denote any texts or experiences in popular culture that has acquired prominent status and widespread appeal. See Canon, Evaluation, Interpretation, Values, Young Adult Literature. JM Reference: Australian Education Council (1994) A Statement on English for Australian Schools. Melbourne: Curriculum Corporation.
Classicism An approach to art that values and promotes the Ancient Greek and Roman models of literature (for example: the epic) and champions the qualities of reason, balance, moderation and proportion in art and in life. The Neoclassical period in literature spanned a century and a half, from the mid 1600s to around 1800. Classicism is often defined in opposition to the principles, philosophy and values embraced by artists and thinkers during the Romantic period. See also Age of Reason, (The) Enlightenment, Epic. JM
Claymation A style of stop motion animation in which characters are constructed from clay or plasticine. The clay characters are then arranged on the set. A film frame is taken then moved slightly again by hand. The next frame taken and so on until the characters appear to be moving by themselves once all the frames are sequenced together and rapidly played back. Chicken Run (Park and Crew, 2000) and the Wallace and Gromit series (Park, 1989 ff.) are examples of claymation films. See also Film. KH
Cliché A saying, image, idea or other aspect of language that has become too familiar, predictable and tired due to its over-use. The term usually carries negative connotations that suggest the saying, image or idea is lacking in originality, unappealing or worn-out. It can be argued that before a saying becomes a cliché it contains an insight or ‘truth’ that is so often quoted that it becomes a cliché. Examples of clichés include: ‘Live and learn’; ‘The devil’s in the detail’; ‘Over the moon’; ‘Great minds think alike’; ‘Bring it on’; ‘That takes the cake’; ‘As sick as a dog’; ‘Go like hot cakes’; ‘At the end of the day’; ‘The fact of the matter is’; ‘Make every post a winner’; ‘All’s well that ends well’; ‘The whole box and dice’; ‘Opening a can of worms’; ‘A storm in a teacup’. See also Adage, Language. DC, JM
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PRACTICAL STRATEGY
C Over the course of a week, students keep a running record of all the clichés they hear in their daily lives. Collate these in class and discuss the prevalence of clichés, the most frequently recurring clichés, and the use of clichés in media and everyday communication. Explore the reasons why clichés proliferate and their purpose in oral communication. Visit the following website which lists all of the sayings coined by Shakespeare. Identify which of these have become clichés.
Climax The culminating point in the action, plot or sequence of events in a novel, short story, poem, drama or film. The climax is often regarded as the high point of the story, where events and experiences come to a head. This may involve a dramatic incident, a turning point, a revelation or discovery, or the full exposure and resolution of a conflict, problem or event. The action and movement of the story preceding the climax generally lead towards the climax, although this may not always be the case. Some narratives and films are structured such that the climax may occur at the beginning of the story, with the subsequent focus being a retrospective chronicling of what has lead to the climax. Alternatively, the events and actions that follow the climax may be the predominant focus of the text. The climax can occur at the beginning, middle or end of a story or play, or at any other points in the continuum of the narrative or drama. The climax is part of the convention and structure of many types of drama. In Greek and Shakespearean drama, for example, Freytag has identified five ‘sections’: exposition; rising action; climax (or turning point); falling action; and dénouement. It is usually in Act III of a Shakespearean play that the turning point in the action occurs. See also Anticlimax, Drama, Freytag’s pyramid, Narrative, Plot. JM
Close reading A process of close analysis and interpretation of a text, without recourse to information about or critical approaches that rely on details of the author’s life, or social, cultural or historical contexts. Close reading was the pedagogy of New Criticism and entailed a fine-grained study of the form and content of the text, attending to its structural features, its ‘organic unity’ and its impact on the reader. Close reading promoted a ‘personal’ engagement with the text, an alertness to the text’s use of paradox, irony, metaphor and ambiguity in order to develop in the reader the critical skills to interpret and evaluate texts as autonomous artefacts. While the approach required this ‘personal’ engagement, the relationship between the reader and the text, and the reader and the received body of critical opinion about the text, was significantly different to what we now associate with ‘personal’ engagement and ‘personal’ response. See also Analysis, Interpretation, New Criticism. JM
Closure Refers to the resolution and/or completion of the action, plot and conflict in a narrative, poem, film, play or other text. The ending of a text may or may not be satisfying to the reader/viewer/listener. Not all texts (for example, stories) reach closure. Indeed, some contemporary texts deliberately disrupt the expectation of closure (or resolution) and deliberately subvert the traditional conventions of narrative in order to more powerfully represent an idea, perspective or philosophical position. See also Dénouement. JM
Code A set of rules or conventions informing and shaping communication, behaviour, language and texts. Within a particular community, there is a shared recognition and understanding of a code that enables individuals to communicate and make meaning. Codes are dependent upon social and cultural contexts and may vary accordingly. For example, some cultures have codes of behaviour that assume eye contact between people engaged in a conversation is appropriate and signals interest 54
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C and engagement. Other cultures may require different practices when it comes to eye contact in conversation and may interpret direct eye contact as a sign of aggression or disrespect. Textual codes refer to the sets of rules that govern the production and reception of particular types of texts. Film, for example, has a set of rules that are encoded in the text to enable the audience to recognise the text as a film. In responding to the film, we are ‘decoding’ the text according to our understanding of and expectations about the common features and conventions of the form. The French narratologist, Roland Barthes (1915-1980), argued that narrative texts are defined by their use of five interwoven narrative codes: sets of conventions and techniques that engage us in a narrative; that maintain our interest to continue reading or viewing; that we subconsciously recognise; and that enable us to be active in interpreting meaning. His theory set out to define the system by which narratives are created. ∼
Hermeneutic code: the revelation of answers to the questions that the story sets up. As the narrative proceeds, the mysteries or ‘enigmas’ of the story are resolved and the reader can bring together the threads of the narrative to make meaning.
∼ Proairecic code: the unfolding of the action in the narrative whereby one action or event relies
and builds upon another for its meaning. This code, along with the hermeneutic code, relies on the shared assumption that the reader will move sequentially through the text from beginning to end, assimilating the sequenced content and thereby interpreting it to come to meaning. ∼ Semic or Character code: the set of conventions used by the composer to construct a character
through descriptions, speeches and dialogue. ∼ Symbolic code: the structural principles that rely on the use of opposites (or binary
oppositions). The text is structured around these ‘theses and antitheses’, such as, for example, day/night; man/woman; good/evil; reason/emotion. ∼ Cultural code: the shared knowledge and understanding of the way that a particular type of
text works; assumptions about the way the world works; and the recognition of shared values and beliefs that are evident in the text. Barthes describes these five codes functioning together like a ‘weaving of voices.’ He refers to this as the ‘multivalence of the text’ enabling the reader to interpret a text not just as a single narrative or storyline, but as a cluster of potential meanings: “The grouping of codes, as they enter into the work, into the movement of the reading, constitute a braid (text, fabric, braid: the same thing); each thread, each code, is a voice; these braided—or braiding—voices form the writing.” (Barthes, 1974) See also Conventions, Dialogic, Fiction, Heteroglossia, Narrative, Narratology. JM Reference: Barthes, R. (1974) S/Z. Trans. Richard Miller. New York: Noonday Publishers.
Collage (French: ‘pasting things on’) A popular type of text for representing in English. It is based on the artistic technique of drawing together fragments into a single visual work. Students create a collage to express responses to and interpretations of other texts or ideas through visual representation. The collage may be made up of visuals, print and material objects and is generally a stand-alone work. A collage may also be created digitally. In literature, collage refers to the technique of piecing together often disparate fragments or ideas that are apparently unified in a single work. Modernist poetry experiments with this technique in order to explore and question the concept of unity, order and cohesion. The drawing together of fragments through the single medium of production reflects the poet’s attempts to make sense of or comment on the perceived fragmentary nature of human experience. An example of this kind of poetry is found in Ezra Pound’s Cantos (1922 ff.). Other examples of collage poems include: Laurence Lerner’s “Wrong Number” and William Plomber’s “Headline History”. See also Representing. JM
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PRACTICAL STRATEGY
C ∼ Students create a collage poem using headlines from newspapers, magazines and advertising (based on a topic, concept, theme or idea relevant to the unit of work being taught).
∼ The collage poem can be an amalgam of print and visual text/s. ∼ ICT can be utilised to create and publish students’ products.
Comedy (Greek: ‘village festival’, ‘revel, merrymaking’, ‘to sing’) A wide-ranging term, encompassing but not limited to: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
comedy of manners comedy of morals realistic comedy high comedy and low comedy tragi-comedy courtly comedy comedy of humours comedy of ideas comedy of intrigue comedy of menace romantic comedy sentimental comedy musical comedy domestic comedy satirical comedy farce burlesque slapstick and black comedy.
Although comedy encompasses the sub-categories identified above, many of these are not distinct categories and in fact share a range of techniques to achieve their intentions. The primary purpose of comedy is to entertain audiences. Comedy opens up a comic world that delights in the resilience of human beings in their triumph over adversity, whether potential or actual. It celebrates the human ability to overcome, even if momentarily, the conflict, disunity and strife that is so often inscribed in ordinary life. Comedy artificially manipulates the world to manageable proportions - what could be threatening is reduced through laughter, and the failings and foibles that are common to us all are subsumed by a heartening vision of the potentialities of the individual in society. The comic world usually offers a second chance or a means of redeeming mistakes. This is in contrast to a tragic universe in which human error usually exacts a heavy price. Comedies celebrate, to a greater or lesser extent, the growth of the major protagonists from a state of initial ignorance, imbalance or folly, to a more balanced and educated state. In fact, the idea of balance and harmony is often central to comedy. Comedy differs from tragedy in that it is a lighter form of drama; it relies on dialogue that is of greater substance than farce or burlesque; and generally involves a ‘happy’ ending. In the main, comedy will utilise wit and humour which can centre on a number of elements such as the exaggerated physical and/or personality traits of characters; witticisms conveyed through the speech or dialogue of character in which the character’s deficiencies are made apparent; satirical comments by characters about each other; and social issues or the disparity between a pretence and reality. Comedy appears in each of the literary forms, particularly drama, as well as poetry, prose 56
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C and to a degree, non-fiction. Greek comedy was originally associated with fertility rites and the worship of Dionysus. Aristophanes (c.448-c.380) wrote a series of comedies which combined the elements of social commentary, slapstick, lyric verse, dance, far-fetched plots and extraordinary characters. The Romans devised comedies with stock situations and characters which provided a prototype for the comedies of the Middle Ages, which was basically a poem with a happy conclusion. Both Plautus (c. 254-184 BC) and Terence (190-159 BC) wrote a number of comedies centred on love such as Cistellaria, Pseudolus and Andria and Phormio, respectively. During the Renaissance Latin comedy was rediscovered with an effort to apply the rules of classical criticism to drama and a prevailing view that comedy functioned as a corrective mode, as outlined by critics such as Sir Philip Sidney and George Puttenham. Ben Jonson used comedy to expose the recklessness and corruption of society as in Every Man in His Humour (1598) and Every Man out of His Humour (1599). Shakespeare’s comedies - The Comedy of Errors, The Taming of the Shrew, Two Gentlemen of Verona, and Love’s Labour’s lost - can be described as romantic comedies. Much Ado About Nothing, which may be classified as a comedy of manners, signals an important moment in the development of comedy in that most of this play is written in prose which later became the medium of choice in the 17th century. European influences on English comedy can be identified in Restoration comedy: French influences are evident in Restoration comedy, while Italian influences are evident in Jacobean pastoral drama. Although it is difficult to categorise comedy definitively, early Elizabethan comedy was largely Romantic; Jacobean and Restoration, realistic; and sentimental comedy was dominant in the 18th century due to the revival of the Comedy of Manners that occurred later in that century. Much of the effectiveness of comedy relies on the background knowledge and intellectual adroitness of the reader/viewer in order to appreciate the humour. With the rise of the electronic media in the 20th century, new forms of entertainment such as the sitcom and reality television has seen the development of specific structures/formulae that rely upon comedic elements. The difference between comedy and tragedy is not as easy to define as one might think. There is a saying in the theatre, attributed to Mel Brooks: “Tragedy is when I cut my finger, comedy is when YOU fall into an open sewer and die”. Samuel Beckett (1906-1989) in his play Endgame has Nell declare that ‘Nothing is funnier than unhappiness…’ There is certainly some truth in this observation, especially if we think of slapstick comedy or funniest home movie shows on television. See also Conventions, Drama, Fiction, Film, Media. DC, JM, JH
Comics A popular form of visual text with sequential pictures with or without accompanying text. The visual images are sequenced to provide a ‘comic’ narrative and often include word balloons with speech and dialogue, captions or ironic comments on the content of the visuals. As a medium, the comic was popularised in the 20th century, especially in the form of serialised publication in newspapers. As a graphic, multimodal text, the comic and comic strip, rely on humour and sometimes satire and appeal to a wide range of audiences. Superheroes and superheroines often feature in comics, and there continues to be a crossover between comics, animated film and television. In recent years, the webcomic has emerged as a popular form. Comics can be an accessible and entertaining pathway text for developing readers and can stimulate interest in a range of related texts and types of texts. See also Anime, Graphic novel, Manga, Visual text. JM
Commedia Dell’Arte Commedia Dell’Arte is popular, amusing, improvised theatre that developed in Italy in the 16th century. Each actor had a character, played in a particular mask. Characters included:
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C ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
Arlecchino (Harlequin) - a clown Il Capitano - a cavalier Colombina - a female servant (often paired with Arlecchino) Il Dottore – an old doctor Pantalone – often an old miser Pedrolino - a loyal servant Pulcinella – often is deformed but he could be clever Scaramouche- a rogue and often a coward Tartaglia – often a short-sighted old man with a stutter.
A highlight of Commedia Dell’ Arte was the Lazzi: pieces of comic and/or skilful byplay. JH
Communication The process of sending, receiving, transmitting, interpreting, encoding and decoding information. Communication requires an often complex interaction between the sender, the message, the receiver and the medium through which the information is communicated. If communication is regarded as a simple act of ‘transmitting’ a fixed and unproblematic message to a receiver, who will accept and understand it in the same way that the sender does, then we discount the importance of active interpretation on the part of the receiver and the theories of language and knowledge that argue that meaning is dependent on the capacity of the receiver/reader to make sense of the messages. Douglas Barnes (1976) describes two models of communication: the first is based on the simple concept of transmitting or transferring a package of information, analogous to sending information ‘down a tube’ to the receiver. The second model – the interpretive model - relies on theories of language and knowledge that assume communication is a complex social process requiring a transaction between the sender and receiver where a receiver assigns meaning to what the sender conveys. Effective communication occurs when sender and receiver share a set of understandings about language. Meaning in this model depends on a range of semiotic, contextual, personal and social factors. Communication can occur interpersonally: verbally (talking, writing), non-verbally (through body language, observation, listening, touching, signing); and intra-personally (self-to-self in, for example, diaries, and some forms of art). All language and texts constitute acts of communication. In English, students examine the ways in which the modes of communication operate to make (or mask) meaning. Such examination requires the developing understanding of the codes and conventions of communication as it occurs in an endless array of contexts and for an endless array of purposes. See also Language, Meaning, Talking and listening, Reading, Representing, Viewing, Writing. DC, JM Reference: Barnes, D. (1976) From Communication to Curriculum. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Comparison A technique whereby the composer compares (and possibly contrasts) two things. Often the contrast is made between an abstract experience, feeling or phenomenon and a concrete object. A comparison is similar to but less forceful than an analogy. Shakespeare’s Sonnet number 18, “Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer’s Day” is a good example of the use of the technique of comparison in poetry. See also Metaphor, Simile, JM
Comparative Literature Comparative literature is an approach to literary criticism, where instead of investigating a discrete text for its discrete meaning, critics draw parallels and identify differences between two texts. Historically, there have been two major movements within comparative literature; what are loosely termed the ‘French school’ and the ‘American school’. The French school of comparative literature tended to be more interested in formal comparisons, and is characterised by an empiricist approach to the text. The American school were more interested in using the comparison to identify similar and differing interests and values in the text, to determine what common view of humanity held two 58
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C cultures together or whether indeed a common humanity exists at all. For the American school, which has largely permeated Australian study, the two texts will often come from different cultures or even languages, and so the ensuing investigation is one that deals with different traditions and different perspectives on nationalism. Critics investigate the ways in which the text speaks from and to its culture, and thus the idea of the inherent quality of one culture’s literature over and above another is called into question. Comparatists are also interested in the assumptions according to which comparisons are made: how do we decide what aspect of a text we will compare, and what does that reveal about our own cultural understanding of a literary text? Apart from studying texts from different linguistic contexts and different nations, some forms of comparative literature study can examine two or more texts from different genres, particularly genres that are not equally valued as ‘literary’. A novel may be compared, for example, with a film from popular culture, and thus the same destabilising effect is achieved. In addition, comparative literary study can also be undertaken across different historical periods, with texts composed in the same national and linguistic context. In this case, the interest would be in the morphing of values across time, and the critic’s interaction with the assumptions of both texts. See also Interpretation, Literary criticism. SGS Reference: The American Comparative Literature Association:
Composer (Latin: ‘to put in place’) In addition to its more conventional use with regard to music, it is often used in subject English as a collective noun to include novelists, poets, playwrights, screen and speechwriters, film directors and so on. Here is a word bank to assist students when exploring and articulating what it is that a composer may do in a text. When they are composing their own texts, students can use this word bank as a starting point for reflecting on and evaluating their own and their peers’ compositions. A composer, through a text, may: Demonstrate
Present
Reflect
Reveal
Illuminate
Indicate
Consider
Expose
Explore
Manifest
Contemplate
Explain
Portray
Communicate
Clarify
Display
Capture
Refine
Explicate
Create
Uncover
Critique
Express
Delineate
Enlarge
Amplify
Discern
Apply
Entertain
Stimulate
Inform
Transform
Represent
Compare
Contrast
Suggest
See also Author, Composing, Implied author. DC, JM
Composing The process of creating a written, spoken, visual or other text. In addition to engaging with texts composed by others, students themselves are consistently engaged in composing a wide range of texts in English. This activity of composing is central to the underpinning assumption that English involves students in both responding and making and doing. Students are at once readers and writers, viewers and creators, critics and artists. Ian Reid’s seminal book, The Making of Literature: Texts, Contexts and Classroom Practice (1984) sets out an integrated model of English that argues for a ‘workshop’ approach where students are actively engaged with language and texts. This The English Teacher’s Handbook
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C model is in contrast to what he defines as the ‘gallery’ model which positions students as more passive responders to the texts produced by others. The texts composed by students are considered as part of the continuum of textual practice, contributing to the history and evolution of literary, linguistic and cultural experience. The concept of students engaging in a continuum of making and doing has been embedded in English syllabus documents since the paradigmatic shift in the subject that took place post-Dartmouth. Elliot W Eisner (1933-) similarly argues that students must not only engage in the process of appreciating, but equally, in the process of creating: “the most complex and subtle forms of thinking take place when students have an opportunity either to work meaningfully on the creation of images – whether visual, choreographic, musical, literary or poetic – or to scrutinize them appreciatively… To be able to create a form of experience that can be regarded as aesthetic requires a mind that animates our imaginative capacities and that promotes our ability to undergo emotionally pervaded experience.” (Eisner, 2002: xiii). See also Audience, Co-operative learning, Personal Growth model, Reading, Student-centred learning, Representing, Talking and listening, Viewing, Writing. DC, JM References: Eisner, E. W. (2002) Arts and the Creation of Mind, Yale: Yale University Press. Reid, I. (1984) The Making of Literature: Texts, Contexts and Classroom Practice, Norwood: AATE.
Composition Refers in English education to both a process and a product. Students compose texts in a wide range of forms, media and modes. Composition has traditionally referred to written composition, with English classes being organised around units often titled and dedicated to ‘composition’. Historically, composition has also been predominantly associated with creative writing, although it is now more broadly defined as any act of creating and the text or artefact that results from that process. Composition has a particular meaning in relation to visual texts. See also Film, Representing, Visual text, Writing. JM
Comprehension The ability to decode grapho-phonic, semantic and syntactic cues in a text in order to make meaning. The ability to ‘read’ a text at the basic linguistic level is not an indicator of comprehension: we may be able to read a text fluently but not understand its meaning. Comprehension is a central part of all communication and occurs in a myriad of contexts every day. The capacity to comprehend is influenced by a range of variables including the language competence of the ‘sender’ and ‘receiver’ in the communicative act; the relationship between them; the context in which the communication takes place; the value system of the ‘text’ and the responder; and the responder’s knowledge of the conventions and codes of communicative texts. There are many strategies to assist students in engaging with and comprehending what they read/ view/hear. Traditional approaches to comprehension have involved low-level thinking and questioning that require students to simply recall, retell or summarise information. These types of comprehension exercises often atomise a text into discrete parts and do not address the need for students to read holistically and synthesise the parts with the whole as they interpret what they read. There are many more effective approaches to assessing comprehension that rely on higher-order thinking, interpretation, synthesis and deep understanding. A range of practical strategies for building students’ comprehension skills is described in the entry on Reading. PB, JM Reference: Hamlin, M. & Jackson, D. (1984) Making Sense of Comprehension, London: Macmillan.
Computer graphics In film, computer graphics refers to images (or parts of images on the screen) that have been created electronically (or digitally) on a computer. They are often used for special effects, to manipulate photographic images, or to integrate animated and real images. See also Film. KS 60
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C Conceit (Italian ‘concetto’) A figurative language device that sets out to compare two apparently incongruous ideas, objects or experiences. The creative act of melding in thought and language two diverse things often results in a surprisingly clever and unusual perspective. Conceits are a feature of Petrarch’s love poetry. Conceits were developed by and very common in the poetry of the Metaphysical poets who delighted in displaying the intellectual virtuosity and playfulness of comparing highly unlikely things to produce an often startling and convincing case. John Donne’s poetry provides a wealth of examples of conceit. Two well-known conceits are those in the poems: “A Valediction, Forbidding Mourning” (1633) and “The Flea” (1633). In “A Valediction”, Donne devises an ingenious comparison between the experience of love and a pair of mathematical compasses. The conceit reaches a high point in the final four stanzas of the poem. The argument ‘forbidding mourning’ is served by the extended metaphor of the metaphysical inseparability of the speaker and the subject: Our two souls therefore, which are one, Though I must go, endure not yet A breach, but an expansion, Like gold to aery thinness beat. If they be two, they are two so As stiff twin compasses are two ; Thy soul, the fix'd foot, makes no show To move, but doth, if th' other do. And though it in the centre sit, Yet, when the other far doth roam, It leans, and hearkens after it, And grows erect, as that comes home. Such wilt thou be to me, who must, Like th' other foot, obliquely run; Thy firmness makes my circle just, And makes me end where I begun. The conceit is clearly evident in the final two stanzas where Donne brings the compasses image to its climax. JM
Concrete Poetry Also known as shape poetry or poetry that forms a particular structural pattern that is relevant to the content, title or theme of the poem. See also Poetry. JM
Confessional Poetry A form of poetry that emerged in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s. It is a kind of ‘lifewriting’ that is deliberately inclusive of the private, often gritty, confronting and highly personal thoughts, feelings and experiences of the poet. Confessional poetry absorbs some of the features of diary writing in that it is explores subject matter that had hitherto been considered taboo for expression in poetry. Critics have argued that the ‘unmasking’ of the poet and the removal of the cloak of ‘persona’ or ‘speaker’ has been a powerful rebuttal of the prevailing view at the time that ‘good’ poetry required the effacement of the personality of the poet. TS Eliot’s (1888-1965) concept of ‘impersonality’ in poetry has been directly challenged by the work of the confessional poets. These poets included John Berryman (1914-1972), Robert Lowell (1917-1977), Allen Ginsberg (1926-1997), Anne Sexton (1928-1974), and later, Adrienne Rich (1929-), Sylvia Plath (1932-1963), and Sharon Olds (1942-). See Author, Autobiography, Diary, Poetry, Writing. JM
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C Connotation The meanings of a word, phrase, other text or image that are implied or hinted at but not stated directly. The connotation of a word is a secondary or associative meaning that is additional to its denotative or literal meaning. For example, the word ‘sea’ denotes a body of water. The connotations of the word, however, may include: vastness, discovery, tranquillity, restlessness, fury, etc. Connotative language is highly significant in the shaping of a reader’s or a viewer’s response to a text. Careful selection of language by the writer, for example, can trigger a range of associations for the reader, well beyond the literal meaning of the text. The connotations that are stimulated by words and images are dependent upon the responder’s experience of the world, an awareness of the associations that have been built up around that word as part of the social use of language, and of the context within which they are responding. Connotations are to a certain extent unstable and contingent on multiple variables. A word or text may therefore evoke a range of associations and these may in fact be conflicting. Poetry relies heavily on connotation through the use of figurative language since poetry aims to evoke responses with an economy of words, so the secondary or implied meanings of those words become crucial. Take for example, the opening stanza of “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” (1798) by S.T. Coleridge: It is an ancient Mariner And he stoppeth one of three. - ‘By thy long grey beard and glittering eye, Now wherefore stopp’st thou me?’ If we substitute some of the connotative words in this stanza with less connotative words, the evocative power of the stanza is diminished: He is an old sailor And he stoppeth one of three. - ‘By your facial hair and unusual eye Now how come you are blocking me? See also Language, Reader-response criticism. JM
Constructivism A philosophical framework that conceptualises the: ∼ nature of learning ∼ processes, conditions and pedagogies that facilitate the acquisition of knowledge, skills and
understandings ∼ nature of the learner as an active agent in constructing meaning from incoming information ∼ the process of the learner making connections with prior understandings and knowledge, and ∼ the testing of the new learning by applying it to real-world contexts and situations.
Constructivism – as theory and practice - gained widespread appeal in education in the 20th century. It was influenced and developed by figures as diverse as Giambattista Vico (1668-1744), John Dewey (1859-1952), Jean Piaget (1896-1980), Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934), and Jerome Bruner (1915-), with the latter three figures generally attributed with the development of the theory in educational settings. In English, John Dixon argued that “…at the level of language…we make for ourselves a representational world…making it afresh, reshaping it, and bringing into new relationships all the old elements” (Dixon, 1967: 9). The following table provides an admittedly simplified overview of the key components and principles of constructivism.
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C The Learner
• • • • •
The Teacher
• • •
• •
The learning process
• • • •
• • •
Individual background, language, experience and needs are central to learning Social and cultural interaction, context and experience are central to the shaping and acquisition of knowledge and understanding Learning is an active process with the learner assuming increasing responsibility for learning and their own processes of learning Motivation and confidence emerges from increasing challenge and achievement (intrinsic motivation) Learning tasks should be designed so that they are appropriate and challenging for the needs, interests and capacities of the individual student, building on Vygotsky’s theory of the ‘zone of proximal development’ (1978) Facilitates and guides the learner, designing purposeful learning opportunities for active meaning-making and skills development Understands and applies knowledge of learning styles and individual needs Values and promotes the role of discussion, inquiry, questioning, hypothesising, discovering, speculating, testing and creating new knowledge, and applying this to new situations and contexts Learning activities should promote active engagement, choice and cater for increasing learner independence Learning is scaffolded so that students are supported and guided in activities Learning is an active process of synthesising and making sense of information and experience by connecting it to established knowledge structures and patterns Learning is a social process that depends on the learner’s engagement and interaction with others in purposeful real-life contexts Effective learning environments contextualise learning Learning occurs when there is a balance between structured learning experience and the flexibility to enable the teacher to take advantage of the ‘teachable moment’ when it arises Learning occurs when students are engaged and challenged in appropriate ways with appropriate levels of guidance, scaffolding, information and support Collaboration and cooperation can build knowledge and understanding and occurs in small group learning situations, problem-solving tasks and reciprocal teaching Learning depends on language and according to Vygotsky, optimal learning occurs when talking, making and doing converge (Vygotsky, 1978)
If we view learning in this way, classrooms become places for students to be active and productive (‘making and doing’), rather than merely receiving and regurgitating information. In such classrooms, students are engaged in a reflexive and recursive process that makes explicit the purpose and the nature of the learning activity. Effective teachers of English are discerningly eclectic in their pedagogy, drawing on a repertoire of strategies to cater for their students’ needs, interests and abilities. Such teachers strive for balance between a range of approaches and recognise the need to be both an interpretive and transmission teacher (Barnes, 1976). For example, Nancie Atwell’s writing workshop model exemplifies a constructivist approach to learning that also stresses the need to transmit content by intervening at the point of need. This is achieved through what she describes as the ‘mini-lesson’ – a phase of direct instruction to teach students required skills, knowledge or concepts to enable them to grow and develop as writers. See also Group work, Student-centred learning, Zone of proximal development. JM References: Atwell, N. (1998) In the Middle: New understandings about writing, reading and learning, NJ: Boynton/Cook. Barnes, D. (1976) From Communication to Curriculum, Harmondsworth: Penguin. Bruner, J. (1990) Acts of meaning, Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. Dixon, J. (1967) Growth Through English. Huddersfield: OUP/NATE. Lee, C. & Smagorinsky, P. (2000) Vygotskian Perspective on Literacy Research: constructing meaning through collaborative inquiry, New York: Cambridge University Press. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978) Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
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C Context The web of influences, variables and background conditions which exist outside the text, but which can be argued to have influenced the composer, the process of production of the text, the distribution of the text, and the audience’s reception of the text. Contexts that shape and influence human communication and the meanings of a text include: personal, social, historical, economic, political, cultural, situational, geographical and material contexts of the communicator/receiver or composer/responder. Context may refer to the learning context and the language context. Some literary critical methods and approaches to the study of texts have foregrounded the importance of considering the role of context in the production of the text and in the responses to it. Historical criticism, for example, emphasises the significance of the study of the historical context of the composer and text in order to more fully understand and make meaning from the text. Similarly, Biographical criticism relied on details of the composer’s life and experiences to inform the study of a text. Cultural Studies and Critical Literacy both emphasise the social constructedness of language, knowledge and thought and consider social and other contexts to be highly significant in the shaping of meaning. The concept of context is not unproblematic. Firstly, context is a highly malleable and contested concept reliant upon historical accounts or other mediated records of the time that are in turn dependent on the historian’s purpose, position and perspective. The context of a text’s production is not a single, stable or unified phenomenon: it will always be constituted by a host of differing and even competing perspectives, values, norms and beliefs. Arguably, an authoritative, definitive knowledge of a context is eternally elusive. The context in which Thomas Hardy wrote Tess of the D’Urbervilles (1891), for example, can be researched to more fully understand the moral imperatives and the social, cultural and other conditions of the time that may have influenced the writing of the text. We can speculate on the nature and significance of contextual factors such as, for instance, the social mores and expectations of the time that may have influenced the ideas, style, plot, characterisation, representations of gender and power relationships and dénouement in a novel such as Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice (1813). We can also gather general historical evidence about, for example, the political and economic conditions of the time. But this understanding will be necessarily partial, perhaps contradictory and open to question. Secondly, it is often impossible to gather valid and reliable evidence about the personal context of the composer when he/she created the text. When considering context in the study of texts, it is therefore important to ask the question ‘whose context and whose interpretation of the context are we relying on?’ Thirdly, alongside the context of the text is the context of the reader/viewer: a number recent contemporary critical approaches consider this context be vital in the process of engaging with the text and coming to meaning/s. Context also refers to the context established or shaped within a text. See also Intentional Fallacy, Interpretation, Literary criticism, Reader-response criticism. JM
Contract in English A pedagogical tool that reflects a valuing of: ∼ a level of student-initiated and directed learning ∼ experiential learning ∼ a co-operative relationship between student and teacher ∼ a negotiated curriculum ∼ and negotiated assessment. Contracts in English can range from straightforward agreements between a teacher and a student about a wide-reading program, to more detailed contracts that establish the content and process of student learning. Contracts signal to the student that they are expected to take responsibility for their own learning, fulfil the agreement to achieve or complete the tasks set out in the contract, and 64
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C move towards increasing independence and autonomy in their learning. Contracts also contribute to the development of metacognition skills. See also Constructivism, Student-centred learning. JM
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Contracts can take a number of forms, including:
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
Wide Reading contracts Reading and response contracts Writing contracts Portfolio contracts Contracts for composing and representing and the use of digital technology.
What to include in a contract:
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
Name Title/s and publication details of book/s to be read Reading tactics (see MyRead.org): Pre-reading, during reading, after reading tasks Timeline for reading Possible response tasks Outcomes to be achieved Signatures of teacher and student.
Contrast A technique that seeks to draw attention to the differences between two or more ideas, concepts, situations, events, people, things or qualities. Contrast is frequently used to deepen an understanding of and throw into sharp relief the differences between two contrasting things. Conversely, it can be used to explore the ways in which differences can be harmonised or unified within the context of an overarching idea or theme. An example of this technique is found in Robert Browning’s poems “Meeting at Night” and “Parting at Morning” (1845). JM ‘Meeting at Night’ The grey sea and the long black land; And the yellow half-moon large and low And the startled little waves that leap In fiery ringlets from their sleep, As I gain the cove with pushing prow, And quench its speed i' the slushy sand. Then a mile of warm sea-scented beach; Three fields to cross till a farm appears; A tap at the pane, the quick sharp scratch And blue spurt of a lighted match, And a voice less loud, through its joys and fears, Than the two hearts beating each to each! ‘Parting at Morning’ Round the cape of a sudden came the sea, And the sun looked over the mountain's rim: And straight was a path of gold for him, And the need of a world of men for me.
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PRACTICAL STRATEGY
C To increase students’ skills and understanding in using the language of contrast, have them brainstorm a list of contrasting objects or experiences. Using this list, students create succinct descriptions of each pair, aiming to capture in precise language the essential differences between them. For example:
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
sand/stone summer/Winter velvet/pumice silence/a city street
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
sunrise/sunset bitter/sweet orange/broccoli ocean/mountain
Convention A technique, device, distinguishing feature, structure, method of characterisation, subject matter or elements of literature and other texts that are accepted by both composer and responder as specific or traditional to a particular genre or type of text. Conventions are recurring features of a form that are recognisable by the audience and are appropriated, modified or subverted by the composer. The traditional Shakespearean sonnet, for example, has a set of conventions: 14 lines of verse, an iambic pentameter metre, a rhyme scheme and a thematic focus on love. (See Stephen Spender’s “15 Line Sonnet in Four Parts” for an example of how conventions are deliberately questioned and subverted). The epic requires a questing hero or heroine and a stock of standard phases of the journey. The canonic elegy is characterised by a number of conventions such as the pathetic fallacy; the use of images, myths and symbols such as, for example, flowers, processions and paeans; the valorisation of the deceased; and the metaphorical movement from grief to consolation. (See poems such as Amy Clampitt’s “Procession at Candlemas”, Marge Piercy’s “Burying Blues for Janice” and Anne Sexton’s “Sylvia’s Death: For Sylvia Plath” for examples of how the conventions of the canonic elegy are subverted and redefined.) Although the conventions of a form may not be strictly adhered to, they provide a set of parameters for composing and responding to the text, and for working against the tradition that such texts represent. All texts operate according to a set of conventions shaped by the literary, historical, social, cultural and other contexts within which and from out of which the texts are generated and read. These may be described as textual or generic conventions. These conventions are particularly important in dramatic texts where the audience accepts the dramatic conventions such as, for example, the convention that the audience are ‘spectators’; that they willingly suspend disbelief so that the setting, characters and timeline of the play are accepted as part of the illusion of the drama; that elements of the play such as, for instance, a soliloquy, is a speech that cannot be heard by other characters on stage, and so on. Without these conventions, the process of engaging with a text would be rendered difficult and complex as would the task of composing which usually relies heavily on a knowledge of the inherited conventions of a particular form. See also Code, Drama, Fiction, Film, Genre. JM
Common conventions in Shakespeare’s comedies Convention (dramatic device) Masks and disguise
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Purpose and examples The use of masks and disguise by the characters is part of the artifice of comedy, and although the audience realises the improbability of many scenes relying on disguise, this device enables the characters to manipulate situations and to buy time. It also affords the individual the opportunity to participate at one remove from 'reality'. The masked or disguised protagonist is often able to execute plans more freely than would their 'true' unmasked character. Further, the device of disguise forces questions about the nature of appearance and reality, deception and self-deception. In Twelfth Night, for example, Viola disguises herself as the man, Cesario. The English Teacher’s Handbook
C Convention (dramatic device)
Purpose and examples
Eavesdropping, games/ There are numerous examples of the way in which eavesdropping enables the fighting and the play-within- spread of information in a plot, whilst contributing to or maintaining the elea-play ment of intrigue. Antics like wrestling and sword-fighting are also not uncommon - (Viola/Cesario - Andrew episode in Twelfth Night). The play-within-aplay is a device that calls attention to the whole notion of acting and performance. Often, the interior play will take up and examine a pressing issue of the macro-drama. The most immediate example of this occurs in The Tempest when Prospero directs the masque. Tokens and rewards
In comedy there will often be a token such as a ring, an emblem or a birthmark, that functions either as a symbol of achieved unity and harmony and/or a 'reward' for a character who has overcome ordeals. In Twelfth Night the ring assumes this token-like significance.
Music and song
Music, together with song and poetry, is indeed central to comedy. In addition to their obvious entertainment value, these elements may be seen as thematic correlatives. Music, in particular, is the embodiment of the ideal of harmony and order. Poetry too is a heightened use of language that relies on precision and balance. Both song and verse function to interrupt the dialogue, thus drawing attention to themselves, and also encapsulating a thematic concern in a concise, aesthetically-pleasing and enjoyable way. The Tempest relies to quite a degree on music and song. JM
Cooperative learning: An approach to teaching and learning and problem-solving in English that values the role of collaboration, interaction and intra-subjectivity. Cooperative learning is a key pedagogical strategy in student and learning-centred models of English, since it promotes active student participation; the role of talking, listening, (discussion); a community of readers, viewers and writers; an interpretive community; and the importance of shared endeavour. Cooperative learning also prepares students for beyond-school contexts, such as the workplace, where collaboration and team-work are mainstream practices. Moffett and Wagner (1992) remind us that the “art of conversing is at once a profound social and cognitive activity based on real respect, not etiquette.” Teaching and learning in English assumes and requires an abundance of opportunities for students to engage in collaborative learning situations that are structured, managed and facilitated, but not exclusively controlled, by the teacher. The ‘talking space’ of the classroom is thereby opened up and distributed more equitably than would be the case if the teacher occupied the central role in all learning experiences. There are a number of considerations in establishing and facilitating cooperative learning, and these include managing small and larger groups; ensuring students take responsibility for their role in a group task; the quality of the questions generated and asked during discussion; and the opportunity for teacher and peer-evaluation of the outcomes and effectiveness of cooperative learning experiences. See also Constructivism, Group work, Literature Circles. JM Reference: Moffett, J. & Wagner, B.J. (1992) Student-Centred Language Arts, New Jersey: Boynton Cook
Couplet Paired lines of verse that generally rhyme, have the same metre and are composed as a single unit. There is a range of kinds of couplets that are distinguished by their metre or their place within a poem. The heroic couplet, for example, is a pair of lines of verse written in iambic pentameter. Rhyming couplets are extremely common in poetry and in the language of many cultures. An epigram is a type of text written in a couplet. Following are examples of the couplet: So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see, So long lives this, and this gives life to thee. (From Sonnet 18, “Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer’s Day”, William Shakespeare) The English Teacher’s Handbook
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C In silent night when rest I took For sorrow near I did not look I wakened was with thund’ring noise And piteous shrieks of dreadful voice. (Anne Bradstreet, “Here Follows Some Verses upon the Burning of Our House July 10th, 1666”, 1678) All things human are subject to decay, And when fate summons, monarchs must obey. (John Dryden, “Mac Flecknoe”, 1681) See also Poetry, Writing. JM
Course Prescriptions Refers to a mandated text list set as part of a course of study. Such lists, often referred to as ‘prescriptions’, are found in courses such as English, Drama, Languages and Dance and are usually issued by a curriculum authority. In the past, a prescribed list of texts set for study in English would include poetry, prose fiction and drama texts. More recently, prescribed lists for English have also included film, media, nonfiction and multimedia texts, reflecting changing attitudes to what is considered as a ‘text’ and worthy of study. Proponents of such inclusions cite the popularity of film, media, nonfiction and multimedia texts and a corresponding need to for students to develop knowledge, skills and understanding through engagement with, composition of and response to these texts. The process for developing a prescribed text list generally involves wide consultation with teachers, key groups and the community, following which recommendations are presented to the curriculum authority for final approval. DC
Cox’s Models of English In 1989, British Professor Brian Cox published a report on the teaching of English: English for Ages 5-16, which came to be known as the Cox Report. Drawing on the work of John Dixon (1975), who identified three views of English (Cultural Heritage, Skills and Personal Growth), and The Bullock Report (1975) which added to Cultural Heritage and Skills a further view of English as “an instrument of social change” (DES, 1975), the Cox Report defined five interrelated approaches (or models) that constitute English. The influential Report has since been critiqued and contested (see Marshall, 2000, for a full analysis). The five models are as follows: 1. Personal growth 2. Cross-curricular 3. Adult needs 4. Cultural heritage 5. Cultural analysis See also Models of English. JM Reference: Marshall, B. (2000) English Teachers: The Unofficial Guide. Researching the Philosophy of English Teachers. London: RoutledgeFalmer.
Creatives The collective noun ‘Creatives’ refers to all the participants in a production whose job it is to help realise the play text from the page through to performance. ‘Creatives’ includes the director, the designer, the actors and may also include the writer, if the work is continuing to be developed through the rehearsal process. Depending on the budget there may be many designers - wardrobe, set, sound and lighting - and there may also be original music scored for the production, which would involve yet another ‘creative’: a composer. The term implicitly acknowledges the imaginative and visionary aspects of the different kinds of contributions made by those mentioned above, as generally any production attempts to create a unique interpretation of ultimately a fixed text. JH 68
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C Creativity The process of initiating, developing and/or producing new ideas, concepts, ways of thinking and feeling, knowledge and products. It is a concept that has applicability across the range of cognate and artistic disciplines, and in everyday contexts. Creativity in English refers to the creative ‘process’ of using language to think, feel, interpret, synthesise ideas and compose creative ‘products’ (in print, oral, visual, or multimodal forms). In ancient cultures, and to an extent during the Romantic period, creativity was considered to be a result of metaphysical inspiration or the ‘muse’. More recent scientific research, however, has illuminated the complex ways in which creativity – the creative – is activated, applied and understood in human experience and its integral relationship to the ‘critical’. Pope draws attention to the fact that “the first recorded use of the abstract noun ‘creativity’ is as recent as 1875…Certainly cognate forms such as ‘creation’, ‘creator’ and ‘create’ were around much earlier first with religious and then with artistic senses.” (Pope, 2003: 1). While some periods of history have envisioned creativity as the province individual genius or divine inspiration, more recent theorising has examined its socially-contingent nature, its range of manifestations (including ‘recreation’), and its reliance on a dynamic process of moving from the ‘known’ to the ‘unknown’ (Pope, 2003: 11) A number of educational and psychological theories have also emphasised the relational nature of creativity and the role of creativity in learning, problem-solving, innovation and invention. Strategies such as, for example, brainstorming, representing through collage, creating bricolage, the use of de Bono’s ‘6 thinking hats’, imaginative re-creation, creative resourcefulness, and the use of extensive stimulus to trigger new ways of thinking and knowing have been widely adopted in English pedagogy. While there is a tendency to demarcate the ‘critical’ and the ‘creative’ in English, the distinction between the two is a false one, since any act that requires the use of language to imagine, express, shape or produce something ‘new’, relies on creativity and often, on collaboration. As Carter argues, “linguistic creativity is not simply a property of exceptional people but an exceptional property of all people” (Carter, 2004: 13). Ken Robinson in his address – “Do Schools Kill Creativity?” – makes a compelling case for the crucial role of creativity across the breadth of educational experiences. It is available as a podcast (on the TED – Technology, Education, Design site) at: The ‘Creativity in Education’ site provides a range of resources and research on creativity across the curriculum: . See also Bricolage, Collage, Composing, Constructivism, Experiential learning, Group work, Imagination, Representing, Writing. JM References: Pope, R. (2008) Creativity: Theory, History, Practice, 3rd edn. Abington: Routledge. Williams, R. (1977) Marxism and Literature, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Carter, R. (2004) Language and Creativity: The Art of Common Talk, London: Routledge.
Crime/detective fiction and film A genre of fiction that includes murder mystery, ‘whodunit’, thriller, spy, suspense, ‘locked room’, ‘hard-boiled’, criminal and forensic fiction and courtroom drama. Like other genres of fiction, there is considerable overlap between the sub-genres of crime and detective fiction, but the common elements are: ∼ criminal activity including murder, conspiracy, fraud and corruption ∼ intrigue, subterfuge, mystery and deceit ∼ danger, conflict and a clash of value systems ∼ the discovery of motives and evidence ∼ the resolution of the criminal case ∼ retribution, punishment or redemption.
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C It is generally agreed that crime fiction emerged as a popular genre in the early 1900s. The rise of the mass media during the 20th century saw the widespread practice of serialised publication of fiction, with many of the early forms of crime fiction popularised through radio, film, and television. The early work of Edgar Allen Poe (1809-1849) is considered to be a landmark in the development of the genre, with stories such as “The Murders in the Rue Morgue” (1841) and “The Purloined Letter” (1844) being among the most popular at the time. The iconic Sherlock Holmes mysteries (Arthur Conan Doyle, 1887), also originally published in serialised form, stands as a model for later writing within the genre. Around this time, a set of conventions emerged which have since been appropriated and developed by 20th and 21st century writers and filmmakers. Agatha Christie was, and remains, one of the most popular, indeed prolific, 20th century writers of crime fiction whose work has also enjoyed ‘translation’ into film and television. Among her most popular novels are The Murder of Roger Ackroyd (1926), Murder on the Orient Express (1934) and And Then There Were None (1939): the characters of Poirot and Miss Maple enjoy iconic status in crime fiction. Lynda La Plante, similarly popular and prolific, is a contemporary exponent of this genre. Many of her numerous works were written specifically for television. Her novels include Bella Mafia (1991), Civvies (1992), Entwined (1992), Framed (1992), Seekers (1993), The Governor (1995), Sleeping Cruelty (2000) and Royal Flush (2002). There is a vast range of crime and detective fiction and film that can be accessed at the Crime Fiction Database:. PB, JM
Criteria (Greek: ‘to judge or decide’) In English education the term ‘criteria’ is often deployed in the context of establishing standards, defining qualities or characteristics that are used to assess and/or evaluate the quality or effectiveness of a text, performance or other forms of process and product. Criteria are commonly employed to assess student responses and are based on the learning objectives and outcomes that have shaped the nature of the particular task. Marking criteria or marking guidelines set out and describe the cognitive and affective knowledge, understandings and skills that are to be demonstrated. Students should be aware of the assessment criteria prior to undertaking the particular assessment task. See also Assessment, Evaluation. DC, JM
Critical blueprint A model designed by the Australian author Aiden Chambers (1934-) to assist young readers in engaging with responding to literature. This model may be adapted for viewing activities. 1. What happened to me as I read? 2. What influenced my responses? ∼ the book as object ∼ my personal history ∼ my history as a reader ∼ the text alone (how the author tells the story and what the author tells) 3. What does this book ask of readers? (what reader is the author writing for?) 4. Why is this book worth the reader's time? (the qualities of the book itself and the needs of young readers) 5. Background of the book (context, personal history of the author, etc.) See also Reading, Viewing. JM Reference: Adapted from Chambers, A. (1983) Introducing Books to Children, 2nd edition, Boston: The Hornbook.
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C Critical Literacy A form of pedagogy, among many others, that is used within English teaching and learning – although it has also had application in the visual, musical and dramatic arts. Critical Literacy places a focus on the importance of the reader exercising critical judgement, and of being prepared to adopt a healthy scepticism when engaging with texts. It emphasises the importance of becoming aware of and critiquing such factors as the culture within which the text has been written and is being read; any purpose that the author might be pursuing in writing the text; and, in general, enabling the reader to be more informed about the contexts within which reading and writing can take place. Some of the fierce opponents of Critical Literacy, while acknowledging the value of retaining a critical perspective when engaging with a text, nevertheless claim that an ideologically driven ‘critical literacy’ approach can lead to distortion of engagement with and response to imaginative literature. That encouraging the reader to be ‘resistant’ to the text invalidly presumes that the text is there to be resisted. That such an approach undervalues responses such as just enjoying what has been written. Delighting in the content and form of the text. Inhabiting the text. Playing around with ideas and emotions evoked by the text. Advocates of Critical Literacy emphasise what is best described as a political dimension to the acts of communication: arguing for the need for students to recognise dominant, oppressive structures, and then to be able to articulate and work for a better, more inclusive world. Critical Literacy developed from the ideas of educator Paulo Freire (1921-1997) who lived and worked in Central and South America. He sought to raise the consciousness of those he taught to become critical of the ways in which they were immured and trapped in a culture that was essentially oppressing them (Freire, 1985). Freire’s thought influenced many educators, particularly in Australia: among them Peter Freebody, Allan Luke, Wendy Morgan and Ray Misson, who articulated a critical literacy appropriate to the Australian context. For well over a decade the term Critical Literacy has assumed a significant role in the definition of some English curricula. The American critic Robert Scholes published the influential Textual Power in 1985, setting forth the tenets of a critical pedagogy and arguing for the importance of students’ lived experiences and social understanding of the self and the world as pivotal parts of the dynamic of teaching and learning. He argued that: In my view the literature classroom should be the most exciting and productive in the whole school – not because it is a shrine for great works but because it is a place where students experience their own productive possibilities, the place of entry, for them, into the cultural web of textuality: the place where they can see the textual apparatus from the inside and learn how to pull the strings themselves. To make this possibility a reality in our classrooms, we must begin by doing one big simple thing. We must accept as the centre of our enterprise they study of all the forms of sign and symbol that seek power over us or offer us pleasure. (1985: 37) A critically literate reader understands that any one particular text may be open to a variety of meanings; and considers not only what is included in a text, but what has not been included, when exploring and responding to the meaning or meanings of a text. While critical literacy encourages the reader to ‘resist’ what it sees as the intention of the composer to manipulate/position the reader to adopt particular meanings, the concept of the Intentional Fallacy, posited by the New Critics, problematises this approach. The New Critics argued that it is impossible to ascertain with any degree of authority what the composer ‘intended’ to do, unless the artistic work is accompanied by the composer’s explanation (which itself can be subject to critique). In addition, recent debates about the pedagogy of Critical Literacy have focused on the need for a more inclusive view of the reading process and its relationship to the other language modes. The impact of Critical Literacy pedagogy on the aesthetic dimensions of engagement with texts has also been the subject of recent scholarship (Misson and Morgan, 2006). See also Interpretation, Language, Models of English. SGS, PB, JM The English Teacher’s Handbook
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C References: Freire, P. (1985) The Politics of Education: Culture, Power and Liberation, Trans. Donaldo Macedo. London: Macmillan. Misson, R. & Morgan, W. (2006) Critical Literacy and the Aesthetic. Illinois: NCTE. Morgan, W. (1997) Critical Literacy in the Classroom: The Art of the Possible, London and New York: Routledge. Morgan, W. (2004) “Critical Literacy”, in Reviewing English in the 21st Century eds. W. Sawyer & Gold, Melbourne: Phoenix Education. Scholes, R. (1985) Textual Power: Literary Theory and the Teaching of English. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Criticism (Greek: ‘to judge’) Refers to the systematic activity of responding to a text, usually in written form. A critic generally approaches and interprets a text in terms of one or more traditions of criticism, each of which values different methods of and assumptions about criticism, texts, readers and contexts. Recent theoretical criticism has suggested that criticism itself creates texts, and so there is little difference between writing a creative text and writing criticism. See also Analysis, Critique/ Critiquing, Interpretation, Literary Criticism. SGS
Critique/Critiquing (Greek: ‘judgement’) In English, students critique language and texts through discerning and exploring the ideas, language techniques, medium of production, contextual factors and the impact of the text, in order to arrive at an informed critical view and interpretation of that text. In the more formal sense of the term, critiquing a text usually requires a set of critical tools or practices, based on one or more critical frameworks, theories or approaches. The work of New Critics such as, for example, IA Richards and FR Leavis, developed a critical model for the study of literature which sought to validate literary criticism as a disciplined, theorised practice and thereby redeem it from the preceding impressionistic, historical and biographical approaches that had characterised so much of the scholarly discourse prior to the establishment of English as a discrete subject in universities and the school curriculum. Since the mid 20th century, a range of evolving and at times competing literary critical approaches and theories have occupied a central place in the discourses of English education. See also Analysis, Close reading, Evaluation, Interpretation, Literary criticism, Reading, Representing, Viewing, Values, Writing. JM
Cultural Literacy The knowledge and understanding of the ways in which cultural, historical, political, social and personal contexts, values and assumptions are shaped and communicated. In English, students are encouraged to consider the implications of such contextual factors, values and assumptions as they engage with and interpret language and texts and create their own. Cultural Literacy was the title of an influential book published by ED Hirsch in 1987. The book advocated a return to the study of the classics, a shared discourse and common ‘culture’. The appendix to this book listed 5000 dates, events, names, places, terms, concepts and other ‘facts’ that the author considered essential for every American student to know. This view of cultural literacy – which fuelled the standards movement in the USA – is distinct from the view of cultural literacy which is embedded in many English syllabus documents. The latter assume pluralism, the critiquing of culture and an understanding of the ways in which culture is maintained, manifested, influenced and transmitted. JM
Cultural materialism A school of literary criticism that emerged in Britain 1980s, sharing some of the principles of the less politically driven American New Historicism. Cultural materialism is associated with the work of Raymond Williams and is a form of Marxist literary and cultural critique that sets out to resist and subvert orthodox readings of texts for a wider social and cultural purpose. Two prominent Cultural materialists define the approach to texts as one which attends to the historical context; a theoretical method; political commitment; and textual analysis. The term ‘cultural materialism’ refers to the emphasis on ‘culture’ as a shaping force in the creation of texts (in opposition to the view of texts as 72
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C transcendent, autonomous literary artefacts) and ‘materialism’ as the opposite of ‘idealism’ or an idealised view of the text as a naturally occurring reflection of fixed, universal truths. In this way, Cultural materialism represents a rejection of many of the tenets of New Criticism: for example the self-contained, iconic status of the text. JM
Cultural Studies Cultural Studies developed into a discipline – although one that rejected the notion of ‘a discrete discipline’ as valid – in the 1960s and 1970s. Taking its cues from Marxism and Marxist literary theory, Cultural Studies also upholds the notion that texts and the study of texts grow from the hierarchical culture in which they are produced and received. Adopting a Marxist view of the class system, Cultural Studies is deeply suspicious of traditional notions of literature per se, arguing that the orthodox canon protects the interests of the bourgeoisie and the upper class, and that the latter’s emphasis on aesthetic study of magisterial texts acts as a ruse to maintain the status quo. Cultural Studies takes the view that literature is a cultural artefact; far from being an essential piece of art, to be viewed only with aesthetic lenses and to be viewed with awe and respect, Cultural Studies suggested that cultural norms could be protected and espoused through the text. Cultural Studies suggest that texts are gateways to a variety of rituals and systems that make up the hierarchical class system of a particular society, and as such can be interrogated for the ways in which they either uphold or challenge this system. There are, broadly speaking, two positions taken within Cultural Studies as it relates to literary criticism. There are those critics who assume that capitalist forces create and sustain pop culture, such that the working class imbibe messages and values that keep them oblivious to their own incarceration in a system that oppresses them (Theodor Adorno, 1903-1969 and Max Horkheimer, 1895-1973, are among proponents of this view). Alternatively, British Cultural Studies has tended to see mass culture as an example of the ways in which the working class answers back to the mainstream canon through alternative media. As such, ‘pop’ texts become important cultural artefacts to be valued for the ways in which they launch legitimate protest against domination by the bourgeoisie. Thinkers like Richard Hoggart (1918-), Raymond Williams (1921-1988) and EP Thompson (1924-1993) took this view. To further this line of inquiry, the work of Stuart Hall, through the Centre for Contemporary Culture, has examined the ways in which youth in the UK reacted against a media controlled by capitalism and the ruling classes with alternative expressions of self; through dress, music, and dance. In a sense, Stuart Hall takes account of both positions in that he suggests that the working class can subvert the very institutions that oppress them, and thus gain emancipation. Critically, because it interrogates the institution of the traditional literary canon, Cultural Studies challenges the value of the ‘literary’ text over and against the ‘popular’ text. Cultural Studies would maintain that there is no intrinsic merit to the literary text, over and above what the dominant class attributes to it. Because the working class have as much claim to expression and protest, their texts become as culturally important as any other. Thus, for Cultural Studies, the literary canon is a construct to be deconstructed and interrogated for its complicity in maintaining and promoting particular world-views; and there can be no aesthetic distinction between a literary and non-literary text. See also Canon, Culture, Interpretation, Literary criticism. SGS, JM References: Inglis, F. (1995) Cultural Studies, Oxford, UK & Cambridge, USA: Blackwell Publishers. Peel, R. (2004) “The ‘Cultural Studies’ model of English, in Reviewing English in the 21st Century eds. W. Sawyer & Gold, Melbourne: Phoenix Education. Rivkin, J. & Ryan, M. (2005) Literary Theory: An Anthology, 2nd edn. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.
Culture The meaning of the term ‘culture’, like many words in the English language, has changed over time. At the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century, the word culture shifted in meaning as a response to social and political changes. It had meant a ‘general state or habit of the mind’ and was closely allied to the idea of human perfection. It came to mean the general state of The English Teacher’s Handbook
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C intellectual development in a society as a whole. Further, the term became associated with ‘the general body of the arts’ and ‘a whole way of life’ (Williams, 1977: 16-17). Thus, the term now has several meanings, depending on the context in which it is used. It refers to the values, norms, beliefs, ideologies, processes, and products that influence and are influenced by individuals and groups within a given social setting. Culture is created, maintained and shaped by the communicative and relational experiences of human beings (that is, through language), so that patterns of behaviour, ways of thinking and ways of living come to be naturalised (regarded as natural rather than as constructed by the values, beliefs and practices of individuals and groups). Culture is not a single, fixed phenomenon: it is protean, complex and contingent on, for instance, the social practices, power relations and dominant discourses operating within and beyond the group. In English education, the term culture refers to the beliefs, values, ways of living and perspectives that are represented by a text and embodied in the responder. Texts play a significant role in the shaping and evolution of culture, as well as in representing aspects of a particular culture through language and ideas. Culture may also refer to ‘high culture’ which carries with it the assumption that some works of art and experiences are more valuable and worthy of attention and acclaim. ‘Popular culture’ is a term used to refer to any activity, experience or product that is associated with mass entertainment. The Cultural Studies movement has suggested that the term ‘culture’ has become much broader to mean any expression of a particular culture: the whole gamut of signs and systems, procedures and rituals that govern human life in communities (Rivkin and Ryan, 2005). In this sense, texts are cultural artefacts that give us some sense of how and why culture is being re-produced. The term ‘culture’ within the discipline of Cultural Studies, carries with it the sense that a culture is loaded with the hierarchical structures that permit or sanction particular activities, for different segments of that culture. In that sense, the proper focus for the Cultural Studies’ literary critic is not so much the text, but the culture it represents, challenges and speaks to. See also Cultural Studies, Literary Criticism. SGS, DC References: Rivkin, J. & Ryan, M. (2005) ‘Introduction: The Politics of Culture’, in Literary Theory: An Anthology, 2nd edn. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1233-1234. Williams, R. (1977) Culture and Society 1780-1950, Great Britain: Penguin Books.
Curriculum / Curricula (Latin: ‘racecourse’) The term used to describe both a student’s formal courses set for study, and the student’s experience of those courses. The term ‘curriculum’ can refer to both the declared ‘official’ written curriculum – what Goodson refers to as the “preactive curriculum” (Goodson, 1992) – and the “interactive curriculum” (Goodson, 1992). The former is the document created by a formal, centralised body and the latter is what actually takes place as the document is enacted in classrooms. The hallmarks of an effective curriculum are its consistency, continuity and flexibility. Consistency refers to the way in which the learning goals, content, theory and assessment are conceptualised and aligned within and across the various strands that constitute the curriculum. Continuity refers to the need for scope and sequencing in learning experiences. Flexibility assumes the potential to reshape and rework parts of the curriculum in response to student needs and diverse contexts, without the requirement to redesign the entire curriculum. The curriculum as a generic term may also refer to particular subject strands within the broad curriculum. For example: the English curriculum sets out the broad framework for teaching and learning in subject English. Any curriculum embodies and reflects, and can indeed be regarded as a crucible for what is considered to be of value in a particular society and culture. It is informed by views about: what knowledge, skills, understanding, values and attitudes are worthwhile; the learner and the nature of learning; the purpose of formal education; the nature of knowledge; and the desired goals or outcomes of formal education. In this sense, the curriculum is an ideal vision of the kinds of learning, development, skills, understanding, knowledge, dispositions and values that students should experience. Curriculum as a concept and a process, however, is not unproblematic or value-neutral. 74
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C Michael W Apple’s seminal work on curriculum – Ideology and Curriculum (1979, 2004) – explores the relationships between schooling, education, knowledge and power, situating education as part of a society’s broader structures, and political, economic and value systems. In constructing a curriculum, the following questions are among those that typically drive the design process: ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
How will the curriculum be developed (what development model will be adopted and why)? What are the rationale, goals and expectations? Who is this curriculum being designed for? Who will be included in the development process? What will be included in the curriculum and why, and who will decide this? How will the curriculum be structured (e.g. according to learning areas, knowledge, skills)? How will the components of the curriculum be assessed and evaluated? How will the curriculum, assessment, evaluation and pedagogy be aligned? What are the ethical implications of these decisions? How will it be implemented and what strategies can be employed to determine if and how well it is being taught?
Decisions about how the curriculum will be structured and manifested in terms of disciplines is similarly contingent upon what a given society considers worthy and important for the development of an educated citizenry. Plato’s Republic and Aristotle’s Politics set out the writers’ visions of an appropriate curriculum for an ideal state at a time when education became democratised in Ancient Greece (around the 5th century BC). The curriculum established in Medieval universities consisted of the Trivium (‘three roads’): logic, grammar and rhetoric. Logic is the art of thinking; grammar, the art of inventing symbols and combining them to express thought; and rhetoric, the art of communicating thought from one mind to another, the adaptation of language to circumstance. (Joseph, 2002) This was followed by the Quadrivium (‘four roads’): arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy. This could in turn be followed by the study of philosophy and theology. The structure of contemporary Australian curriculum documents, for example, are similarly characterised by divisions into discrete subjects or learning areas. The prominence and relative weighting of each of these in the curriculum reflects what is considered to be of most value in a particular society. JM References: Apple, M.W. (2004) Ideology and Curriculum. NY: RoutledgeFalmer. 3rd edition. Goodson, I. (1992) History, Context and Qualitative Methods in the Study of Education, University of Western Ontaria: Division of Curriculum Studies, Faculty of Education. Joseph, Sister Miriam (2002)The Trivium: The Liberal Arts of Logic, Grammar, and Rhetoric. New York: Paul Dry Books Inc.
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D Dactyl (Greek: ‘finger joints’) A metrical foot in verse. It is defined by a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables (hence the association with a finger joint which has one longer bone and two shorter bones). This metre is the opposite of anapaest metre. Dactylic metre is not common in verse, although it was used by poets such as Lord Byron (1788-1824), Alfred Tennyson (1809-1892), Robert Browning (1812-1889) and Thomas Hardy (1840-1928). Thomas Hardy’s poem “The Voice” (1914) is an example of the use of the use of dactylic meter: Woman much missed, how you call to me, call to me, Saying that now you are not as you were When you had changed from the one who was all to me, But as at first, when our day was fair. See also Metre. JM
Dartmouth Seminar This event, held at Dartmouth College, New Hampshire, USA, between 20 August and 16 September 1966, was the catalyst for a resurgence and reframing of English/Language Arts teaching and learning which sustained its vitality well into at least the late 1980s. Conceived as the first AngloAmerican dialogue or confrontation of ideas on the teaching of English (or Language Arts, as the subject is described in North America) the conference brought together fifty teachers, scholars and researchers. Representatives came from the USA’s National Council for the Teaching of English (NCTE) and the Modern Language Association (MLA); the National Association for the Teaching of English (NATE) in England and Wales; one observer from Canada, and two from Australia. The conference provided the opportunity for serious and collegial contestation of ideas and practices. Some of the most significant developments emerged from the small groups into which participants were placed or placed themselves. One of the most enduring outcomes of the conference was John Dixon’s Growth Through English (1967). In it Dixon described three models of English teaching: ‘cultural heritage’, ‘skills’ and ‘personal growth’. Growth Through English proceeded to explore the theoretical and practical dimensions of the third model, based on Dixon’s synthesis and development of the major themes that were developed at the Dartmouth Conference. Another significant and enduring product of the conference was the establishment of an international English teaching professional body. Initially this was the International Steering Committee (ISC). Eventually this led to the formation of the International Federation for the Teaching of English (IFTE). See also Models of English, Personal Growth model. PB 76
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D DEAR The acronym for ‘Drop Everything and Read’, a reading program that occurs in schools which allocates class time to independent, silent reading. Students bring to class self-selected reading material. The teacher may provide guidelines for the type of reading that can take place in DEAR time. DEAR may occur once a day, once a week, or more or less frequently. The goal of this reading program is to encourage and support students’ development in sustained, engaged reading for pleasure and enjoyment. Reading undertaken during DEAR time is not generally linked to class assessment – an important principle for ensuring the reading in managed and owned by the students themselves. See also Literature Circles, Reading, Wide reading program. JM
Debate (Old French: ‘to discuss, argue’) A formal discussion in which opposing arguments are presented. This may involve a specific motion which is discussed, followed by a vote. In school debates, two teams of four people are assembled to debate a specific proposition. Each team has three speakers and a non-speaking fourth member. One team is designated as the Affirmative and speaks in favour of the proposition while the Negative team speaks against the proposition. An important element of this type of debate is engagement with the arguments and claims of the opposing team in order to refute those claims. See also Argument, Rhetoric. DC
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Debating topics:
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
That teenagers spend too much time on the Internet That school uniforms are worthwhile for all students That education is the key to success That imprisonment leads to more crime That global warming is a beat-up That spectator sports are a waste of time That fast food is killing us That advertising is the opiate of the masses That small is beautiful That cricket is based on a bat and boredom That there will never be equality in society That the car has had its day That rock music is dead That contact sports promote violent behaviour
Deconstruction A term used in literary criticism, philosophy and a range of disciplines in the social sciences. It is best described as a strategy for or a practice of working with language and texts. Deconstruction seeks to destabilise the structures and assumptions on which a text is based, bringing about a ‘trembling’ that shows the internal contradictions in a text, resulting in what Jacques Derrida (1930-2004), called ‘aporia’ – an impasse in meaning, or puzzlement. Deconstruction is best known through the work of the philosopher Derrida and became popular during the 1960s. However, deconstruction (or deconstructive practices) is not monolithic; even within Derrida’s work and across his career, deconstruction shifts with different iterations and interpretations of its practice. Apart from Derrida, other philosophers and literary critics who could be called deconstructionists (although Derrida himself abhorred the idea of deconstruction having a discrete definition or a set of practitioners) are: Paul de Man (1919-1983), J Hillis Miller (1928-), Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (1942-), the Yale School (USA), Julia Kristeva (1941-) and Geoffrey Bennington (1956-). The English Teacher’s Handbook
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D Deconstruction is essentially a philosophy of language, and has been adopted by disciplines across universities; philosophy, literary criticism, architecture, sociology, linguistics, and cultural studies, among others. It is, as Derrida maintains, essentially an ethical posture: ‘deconstruction is always concerned with the ‘other’ of language’ (Kearney, 1984: 123). ‘The other’, according to deconstruction, is the philosophical entity that is suppressed and oppressed by the dominant philosophical reality. For example, in the man/woman dichotomy, the woman is ‘the other’; in the speech/writing dichotomy, writing is ‘the other’ and so on. Deconstruction works to show the ways in which the dominant power structures within a text and within language itself – what Derrida termed the ‘transcendental signified’ and ‘metaphysics’ - in fact need the dominated entity to exist (see Binary opposition). Deconstruction claims to free ‘the other’ from the dominator through its textual practice. Deconstruction suggests that the literary critic’s job is not to find the one true, discrete and immutable meaning in a text, but to destabilise the text so that these hierarchies become obvious. As Derrida explains, “[Deconstruction] does contribute something to literature ... by exposing the philosophical and theoretical presuppositions that are at work in every critical methodology, be it Formalism, New Criticism, Socialist Realism or an historical critique. Deconstruction asks why we read a literary text in this particular manner rather than another”(1984: 124). Jonathan Culler posited that “to deconstruct a discourse is to show how it undermines the philosophy as it asserts, or the hierarchical oppositions on which it relies” (1982: 86). As an approach to texts and language, deconstruction requires the close reading advocated by the New Critics, but with a far sharper recognition of the contextual and ideological forces that shape meaning and a diversity of (possibly competing) interpretations. Critics have levelled at least two key charges at deconstruction that are somewhat contradictory. Some critics argue that deconstruction is relativist, allowing no meaning to be ascribed to anything; while others have asserted that deconstruction is totalitarian in its view that all texts yield ‘aporia’ and in its inbuilt suspicion of power structures. Still more critics have suggested that the two criticisms are interrelated (Valentine Cunningham, MH Abrams, H-G Gadamer, Denis Donoghue, the later Terry Eagleton). See also Interpretation, Literary criticism, Postmodernism, Poststructuralism. SGS
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
When reading/viewing a text you may ask:
∼ What are the values and belief systems in this text and are these promoted, challenged or questioned by characters or other aspects of this text?
∼ Can you see any binary oppositions working in this text – e.g. black/white, male/ female, mind/body, fire/water, physical/spiritual etc.?
∼ How are these oppositions treated in the text? Is one more prominent than the other?
∼ What are the ‘gaps’ in this text? What is missing? (e.g. minor characters’ views, scenes, attitudes, perspectives?)
∼ Whose voice/s or perspective/s dominates this text and why? ∼ If you were to recast this text from another point of view, in what ways would this differ from or align with the original text?
References: Culler, J. (1982) On deconstruction: theory and criticism after structuralism, Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Kearney, R. (1984) ‘Dialogue with Jacques Derrida,’ Dialogues with Contemporary Continental Thinkers, Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Decode The practice and process of obtaining meaning from a language code. Such codes may be linguistic, visual and non-verbal. Decoding language, images and non-verbal communication requires an ability to recognise, understand, interpret and translate the signs and symbols of the particular language code into meaningful expression and communication. Decoding is only one step in the 78
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D process of comprehending and understanding the meaning of language, images and non-verbal communication. It is possible, for example, to decode a particular text at the grapho-phonic and syntactic levels, but not to comprehend its meaning (on a semantic level). Part of the process of analysing a text requires the capacity to decode the generic codes and conventions of the text: for example, the generic codes and conventions of crime fiction or the Shakespearean sonnet. See also Code, Comprehension, Reading. JM
Dénouement (French: ‘an untying’) The unravelling of a plot’s complications at, or towards, the end of a story, film or play. It refers to the final outcomes, solution, finale, conclusion, termination or end. It may be the event or events following the major climax of the plot. See also Anticlimax, Climax. JM
Depiction A particular kind of representation, often associated with visual images such as, for example, paintings and sculpture. A depiction in words is a vivid, evocative and graphic portrayal of a person, place, experience, object or entity. A depiction is not only descriptive, but also generally metaphorical since it aims to capture more than merely the mirror image of something: it requires a degree of imaginative interpretation on the part of the composer. See also Atmosphere, Character, Description. DC, JM ∼ Read out aloud the excerpt below from Leo Tolstoy’s War and Peace. ∼ Students draw their interpretation of the depictions portrayed in the excerpt (the bee, the range of people and places mentioned, the notable objects and actions).
∼ Students in groups then compare their visual representations, discussing how different interpretations have been shaped by the language and imagery of the text.
∼ Discuss how Tolstoy uses language to evoke, expand and deepen the reader’s perception of the bee.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Explore the written text in detail, examining how these language features, tone, mood and the use of metaphor combine to the add depth and uniqueness to what would otherwise be a descriptive passage about a bee. Leo Tolstoy, War and Peace (2007 edn: 1269) A bee settling on a flower has stung a child. And the child is afraid of bees and declares that bees exist to sting people. A poet admires the bee sucking from the chalice of a flower and says it exists to suck the fragrance of flowers. A beekeeper, seeing the bee collect pollen from flowers and carry it to the hive, says that it exists to gather honey. Another beekeeper who has studied the life of the hive more closely says that the bee gathers pollen dust to feed the young bees and rear a queen, and that it exists to perpetuate its race. A botanist notices that the bee flying with the pollen of a male flower to a pistil fertilizes the latter, and sees in this the purpose of the bee's existence. Another, observing the migration of plants, notices that the bee helps in this work, and may say that in this lies the purpose of the bee. But the ultimate purpose of the bee is not exhausted by the first, the second, or any of the processes the human mind can discern. The higher the human intellect rises in the discovery of these purposes, the more obvious it becomes, that the ultimate purpose is beyond our comprehension. Reference: Tolstoy, L. (1868-69, 2007 edn.) War and Peace, Penguin Classics, London: Penguin Books
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D Description (Latin: ‘to copy off, to write out’) In literature, a representation in words, often using figures of speech such as metaphor, simile, contrast, concrete language and alliteration. Descriptive language assists the composer in setting a scene and creating atmosphere, tone and mood. Effective description often relies on precise attention to detail, often appeals to the senses and seeks to evoke in the responder the capacity to imagine the appearance and demeanour of a character, the features of a landscape or setting and the ambience of the scene. See also Atmosphere, Character, Depiction, Narrative. DC
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Describe one of the people in a play, novel, or poem you are reading. Would you like to meet them? Why/why not?
∼ Describe a person who is a bully, a liar, or a cheat. ∼ Describe someone obsessed with sharks, birds, money, combs, chips, ants, stamps, chocolate.
∼ Describe a city street. Speak for it. ∼ Invent a planet. Describe the scenery. ∼ Describe a hospital ward, an airport, a car park, a theatre, a playground, an internet café, concentrating on familiar and/or unique qualities of these places.
∼ Find a rock. Describe it as precisely as you can to distinguish it from other rocks. ∼ Do the same for a shell, or a leaf, or a feather. ∼ Describe a snail, a bookshelf, a wet dog, an egg, a letterbox, or an empty house.
Descriptive criticism A critical approach to the analysis of texts that sets out to describe in detail the distinguishing features of an individual text. Such an approach seeks to avoid reference to broader literary, cultural or social theories. Instead, descriptive criticism focuses wholly on the particular text, delineating its distinctive qualities and features. See also Interpretation, Literary criticism. JM
Deus ex machina Means literally ‘god from a machine’. The term refers to a crane used in ancient Greek theatre to lower an actor playing a god to the performance area in order to solve difficult plot problems in a play. The term now refers to an imposed, and often improbable, solution used to resolve a plot problem. See also Conventions, Drama. JH
Developmental model of reading literature The Australian educator and researcher Jack Thomson (1987) established a model of reading that identifies the processes involved in and the kinds of ‘satisfactions’ experienced by students when they engage with literature. The model is developmental in that it describes the stages of engagement, interpretation and response that students move through as they read. The model is recursive in that students can move back and forth between each stage as they become more immersed in the process of making meaning. The model provides a valuable way of identifying students’ stage of engagement and enables teachers to assist students in moving towards informed and meaningful response to literature. See also Literature, Reader-response criticism, Reading, Wide reading program. JM
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D Thomson’s model (1987: 360-361) Process Stage: Process Strategies: Kinds of satisfaction (requirements for satisfaction at all stages: enjoyment and elementary understanding) 1. Unreflective interest in action
•
Rudimentary mental images (stereotypes from film and television) Predicting what might happen next in the short term
2. Empathising
• •
Mental images of affect Expectations about characters
3. Analogising
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Drawing on the repertoire of personal experiences, making connections between characters and one’s own life
4. Reflecting on the significance of events (time) and behaviour (distanced evaluation of characters)
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Generating expectations about alternative possible long-term outcomes Interrogating the text, filling the gaps Formulating puzzles, enigmas, accepting hermeneutic challenges
5. Reviewing the whole work as the author’s creation
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Drawing on literary and cultural repertoires Interrogating the text to match the author’s representation with one’s own
6. Consciously considered relationship with the author, recognition of textual ideology, and understanding of self (identified theme) and of one’s own reading processes
• •
Recognition of implied author Recognition of implied reader in the text, and the relationship between implied author and implied reader Reflexiveness, leading to understanding of textual ideology, personal identity and one’s own reading processes
•
• •
•
Reference: Thomson, Jack, (1987) Understanding Teenagers’ Reading: Reading processes and the teaching of literature, 1992 edn. Norwood: AATE.
Dialect (Greek: ‘way of speaking’, ‘language of a place’) A distinctive variation in oral language that is specific to a particular region, social group or historical period. A dialect is recognisable through the patterns of vocabulary, accent, pronunciation and syntax that differentiate it from other dialects or the so-called ‘standard’ language. Often, a dialect is maintained through oral communication and may not be evident in written texts. If the language in use is particular only in terms of the pronunciation of words, then it is more appropriately referred to as an accent rather than a dialect. Popular television soap operas, such as, for example, Neighbours, Home and Away and a number of British serials, often incorporate dialect and ‘non-standard’ language, although it can be argued that such ‘non-standard’ language use is indeed ‘standard’ for many people. These programs provide students with a sense of variations in language use and encourage them to become more sensitive to the nuances of dialect and register. Imaginative texts can also incorporate dialect and non-standard usage. For example: Charles Dickens’ Hard Times (1854); a number of Thomas Hardy’s Wessex novels; Henry Lawson’s short stories; Dylan Thomas’ Under Milk Wood (1972); Toni Morrison’s Beloved (1987); and Peter Carey’s True History of the Kelly Gang (2001). The inclusion of dialect in imaginative texts invests the story with an authenticity of characterisation that serves to highlight characters’ distinctive social, cultural, economic, regional or political position. Such distinctiveness is generally central to the plot, ideas and purpose of the text. Post-Dartmouth developments in English have stressed the centrality of valuing the language each student brings to the classroom, since language is integral to identity, learning and relationships. The English Teacher’s Handbook
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D Importantly, non-standard dialect, like, for example, non-standard Australian English, should not be judged as sub-standard or deficient. Indeed, The non-standard social dialects are just as effective types of language for their own environments as the standard dialect is for its environment, All dialects have rules and are properly constructed: it is that the rules may be expressed differently. We have sub-standard language when the rules of a particular dialect – non-standard or standard – are not adhered to. It is not the unsuccessful or erroneous use of dialect. (Eagleson, et al, 1982: 12) Drama as a learning medium is a very effective pedagogical tool for enabling students to actively experiment with embodied language in a range of different roles, contexts and registers. See also Language, Standard Australian English. JM ∼ Below is an extract from Chapter 1 of DH Lawrence’s novel, Sons and Lovers (1913). The scene occurs when two of the characters – Gertrude and Walter – meet at a dance. It exemplifies Lawrence’s use of dialect to represent character.
∼ Students, in pairs or small groups, read the extract out aloud. Or the extract may be read by the teacher.
∼ During reading, students listen for variations in language (dialect). ∼ Identify any unfamiliar words or expressions. ∼ Discuss the meanings of these words and expressions and their relationship to any words or expressions that are familiar to students.
∼ Look closely at the dialogue. ∼ Consider the differences between the language of the characters, Gertrude and Walter, and notice any differences between the characters’ language and that of the narrator.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ From their conversation, language, and the narrative descriptions, what images or perceptions of the characters are evoked? What do we learn about the characters from their conversation and distinctive use of language?
∼ Students may replace the unfamiliar or distinctive language with familiar language. Read the revised passage out loud and compare this to the original, considering how the differences in language shape response to the characters and scene. What is lost and/or gained by replacing the dialect with ‘standard’ English? Extract from Sons and Lovers (2003 edition:13-14) He came and bowed above her. A warmth radiated through her as if she had drunk wine. “Now do come and have this one wi' me,” he said caressively. “It's easy, you know. I'm pining to see you dance.” She had told him before she could not dance. She glanced at his humility and smiled. Her smile was very beautiful. It moved the man so that he forgot everything. “No, I won't dance,” she said softly. Her words came clean and ringing. Not knowing what he was doing--he often did the right thing by instinct--he sat beside her, inclining reverentially. “But you mustn't miss your dance,” she reproved. “Nay, I don't want to dance that--it's not one as I care about.” “Yet you invited me to it.” He laughed very heartily at this. “I never thought o' that. Tha'rt not long in taking the curl out of me.” It was her turn to laugh quickly.
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D “You don't look as if you'd come much uncurled,” she said. “I'm like a pig's tail, I curl because I canna help it,” he laughed, rather boisterously. “And you are a miner!” she exclaimed in surprise. “Yes. I went down when I was ten.”
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
She looked at him in wondering dismay. “When you were ten! And wasn't it very hard?” she asked. “You soon get used to it. You live like th' mice, an' you pop out at night to see what's going on.” “It makes me feel blind,” she frowned. “Like a moudiwarp!” he laughed. “Yi, an' there's some chaps as does go round like moudiwarps.” He thrust his face forward in the blind, snout-like way of a mole, seeming to sniff and peer for direction. “They dun though!” he protested naively. “Tha niver seed such a way they get in. But tha mun let me ta'e thee down some time, an' tha can see for thysen.” She looked at him, startled. This was a new tract of life suddenly opened before her. She realised the life of the miners, hundreds of them toiling below earth and coming up at evening. He seemed to her noble. He risked his life daily, and with gaiety. She looked at him, with a touch of appeal in her pure humility. “Shouldn't ter like it?” he asked tenderly. ‘'Appen not, it 'ud dirty thee.” She had never been ‘thee'd’ and ‘thou'd’ before. The next Christmas they were married, and for three months she was perfectly happy: for six months she was very happy.
References: Eagleson, R. D. et al (1982) English and the Aboriginal Child, Canberra: Curriculum Development Centre. Lawrence, D. H. (1913 republished 2003) Sons and Lovers, Barnes and Noble Classic series, Spark Educational Publishing. Pope, R. (2003) The English Studies Book: An Introduction to Language, Literature and Culture, 2nd edn. London: Routledge.
Dialectic (Greek: ‘art of discourse’) The systematic discussion and examination of an idea orpoint of view. Dialectic is characterised by disputation and logical argument. Socrates (c. 469-399 BC) was famous for his exploration of philosophical concepts through dialectical inquiry. Dialectic assumes that there will be a progression from an initial position to a final position of ‘truth’, based on the gathering of evidence ‘for and against’ and the rejection of opposed ideas. Dialectic also assumes a thesis, antithesis and final synthesis. The German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (17901831) proposed that all human history is defined by a dialectic whereby new knowledge, understanding and ‘truths’ are arrived at by the existence of a thesis, which is challenged by its antithesis. This, in turn, gives rise to a synthesis or new thesis. ST Coleridge’s Biographia Literaria (1817) is an example of a form of dialectic which involves a sustained argument explicated throughout an entire work. See also Antithesis, Argument, Synthesis, Thesis. JM
Dialogue (Greek: ‘to converse’) Paulo Freire (1921-1997) described dialogue as ‘the encounter between men [sic] mediated by the world, in order to name the world’. Common in fiction, drama, scripts, film, short stories, media and everyday contexts, dialogue refers to the communication between two or more people. Dialogue can perform a number of functions. It can: aid in constructing characters and reinforcing aspects of their identities and personalities; accentuate the dynamism of a story by revealing or concealing details integral to the narrative; add authenticity to characters who have The English Teacher’s Handbook
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D been situated within a specific social, cultural and historical context in the narrative; establish and develop relationships between individuals; and highlight the interplay of ideas central to the aim of the composer. Dialogue is a term also used to describe a genre of philosophical, rhetorical or expository writing exemplified by Plato’s Dialogues (4th century BC) and Thomas More’s (1478-1535) Utopia (1516). As part of a communicative mode, dialogue is critical to a number of educational theories, particularly constructivist and experiential approaches, both of which emphasise the centrality of the dialogic process in learning. In the context of education, and particularly pedagogy, the function and purpose of dialogue has been theorised by thinkers such as Paulo Freire (1921-1997), HansGeorge Gadamer (1900-2002), Jürgen Habermas (1929-) and Martin Buber (1878-1965). David Bohm (1917-1992) regarded dialogue as distinct from discussion, with the former being a ‘process of awakening’ to new ideas, solutions and creativity: Dialogue…is a way of exploring the roots of the many crises that face humanity today. It enables inquiry into, and understanding of, the sorts of processes that fragment and interfere with real communication between individuals, nations and even different parts of the same organization. In our modern culture men and women are able to interact with one another in many ways: they can sing dance or play together with little difficulty but their ability to talk together about subjects that matter deeply to them seems invariably to lead to dispute, division and often to violence. (Bohm, Factor & Garrett, 1991) ∼ Students are given or select a character – using visual stimulus (postcards, images of people from magazines etc).
∼ Each student briefly prepares their character profile (name, age, where they live, what era/culture, family, etc).
∼ Students then work in pairs, engaging in a dialogue in role. Use a scenario to guide students in this activity (can be drawn from a text being studied).
∼ After engaging in a oral dialogue, students can work together to shape their
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
conversation into a written script.
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
Possible scenarios: Caught in a lift together Meeting online in a chatroom Sitting next to each other on the train/bus/plane. Dialogue scripts can be performed. Take an excerpt from a play that provides a good example of the effective use of dialogue (e.g. Waiting for Godot; The History Boys).
∼ Explore the features of this excerpt to identify the ways in which the text works to shape character, meaning and response.
∼ Construct a brief dialogue between each of the two characters using the scenarios below. Use the setting and the characters’ personal qualities as a basis for the interaction: Setting
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Character 1
Character 2
Scenario 1 Busy shopping mall a few days before Christmas
Middle–aged male; impatient and confident
Teenage male shop assistant; quietly spoken, unassuming
Scenario 2 Crowded peak hour train. Young female listening to iPod
Young female; single-minded and articulate
Young male; outgoing and careless
Scenario 3 Veterinarian practice – an old couple bring in their sick pet
Young male vet; quietly confident and compassionate
Old man; short tempered and volatile
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D When characters converse, the author enhances the reader’s understanding of the conversation by including what is called a ‘tag’. The example: “’Go away!’ Harry shouted” signals ‘shouted’ as the tag and lets the reader know how Harry uttered this sentence. Varying the tags in writing helps to paint a picture of the incident and clarifies the characters’ intentions. The following are some possible tags to use in constructing dialogue. Add to this list: DC, JM asked
said
retorted
replied
snarled
requested
rebuked
snapped
responded
declared
sniggered
sneered
complained
pondered
wondered
exclaimed
offered
cried
enthused
enquired
suggested
called
screamed
yelled
shrieked
Reference: Bohm, D., Factor, D. & Garrett, P. (1991) ‘Dialogue –
Dialogic A term employed by the Russian critic Mikhail Bakhtin (1895-1975) who categorised texts as dialogic or monologic. Dialogic texts present a range of voices and points of view, disrupting the authority of a single, sustained or unitary voice. Bakhtin argued that Dostoyevsky’s novels are dialogic in that they allow a plurality of ‘unmerged’, independent voices to flourish, without the ‘constraining’ control of the author. He posited that the novel as a form is essentially dialogic since it allows for a multiplicity of points of view through characterisation and dialogue. Others argue that the role of the composer as ‘omnipotent’ remains a complex and central one in the creation and interpretation of texts. See also Author, Implied author, Narratology, Narrative, Point of view. JM
Diary (Latin: ‘daily’, ‘daily allowance’) A personal, private written record of the daily experiences of an individual (thoughts, reflections or musings on events, people, places, and so on). Diary is a form of nonfiction, and a type of autobiography. The diary relies on expressive language of the self, with an audience of the self. Diary writing is characterised by its qualities of inner speech, stream of consciousness and an unmediated recording of the flow of daily experience. There is rarely an effort to deliberately select, order and shape such writing. Instead, the diary captures the unedited, direct and unfolding experience of quotidian life. There are several famous examples of diaries (including the diary of Samuel Pepys, 1633-1703) that stand as valuable historical documents, illuminating not only the events, values, beliefs and perspectives of a particular cultural context, but also the idiosyncratic dimensions of the individual interpreting these experiences. Although the well-known diaries are those authored by men, the diary has been a distinctively female form. Women throughout the ages have kept diaries, as records of family and domestic life, and also as spaces for exploring and shaping individual identity. Traditionally, diaries, and especially women’s diaries, have remained on the peripheries of publicly acclaimed and canonised literature. Recent research and scholarship, however, has seen a burgeoning of interest in the diary as a form and a process, (particularly the diaries of women throughout history) and as a manifestation of increasingly popular ‘life-writing’. Features of the diary have been appropriated in fictional texts. John Marsden’s So Much to Tell You (1987) is an example of the fictional use of the diary form. Diaries, and versions of these are now proliferating in digital, multimodal forms. Blogs and networking sites (such as, for example, MySpace and Facebook) can be regarded as versions of the traditional diary. What distinguishes these forms, however, is the broader audience and the medium, the various conventions and codes that shape the writing (and representation, through, for instance, the use of visual and moving images), and the immediacy of the communication of information to a range of audiences. What they share with the The English Teacher’s Handbook
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D diary form is the focus on recording the flow of daily personal experience, the externalising of inner speech and ideas, the construction and often reconstruction of identity and the reliance on expressive language. See also Author, Autobiography, Nonfiction, Writing. JM
∼ Diary entries are an accessible way for students to engage with the inner life and the experiences of a fictional character. Students can ‘write in role’ for a character/s, moving from expressive to poetic writing.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Analyse a series of personal blogs – identifying the form and features of this form of online diary writing. What are the main differences between this form of diary and the traditional print forms? Does the medium influence the substance of and response to the diary? Explore the differences between a diary that catalogues and chronicles ‘external events’ and a diary that focuses more on the inner life and experiences of the writer.
∼ Select an extract from a well-known diary such as the diary of Samuel Peyps (see http://www.pepysdiary.com/about/ for background information and extracts). Examine the content, language, intended audience and voice of the extract. Compare this to a more contemporary diary, such as, for instance, the diaries of Sylvia Plath.
∼ Compare nonfiction diaries with the use of diary conventions in fictional texts. What are the key differences and similarities? What do composers choose to shape texts, or aspects of texts, as diary entries?
∼ Debate the ethical issues involved in publishing diaries. For example, is it ethical to publish the diary of a deceased person? What are the reasons for the publication of such diaries?
Diction The distinctive vocabulary (choice of words and style of expression) selected in an act of oral communication or in composing a text. Diction may be formal, colloquial, abstract, concrete, figurative, literary, demotic, descriptive, poetic or elaborate. Diction contributes to the overall style and tone of the work or the communication and the consequent effect on the audience. Particular types of texts are distinguished by conventions that may include expectations about the kind of diction that is appropriate. A formal piece of writing, such as, for example, an application for a job, would generally not include colloquial, literary or poetic diction. See also Accent, Dialect, Language, Register, Talking and listening, Writing. JM
Didacticism (Greek: ‘skilled in teaching’) Used to describe a work which is intended to instruct through the communication of an explicit moral, ethical, religious or political message. Didactic poetry for example, has a long history from Ancient Greek poetry such as Hesiod’s Works and Days, through to works from the Middle Ages such as Gower’s Confession Amantis (1318). John Oldham’s literary collection Poems and Translations (1694) and Alexander Pope’s “The Rape of the Lock” (1712-14) are examples of didactic poetry. Samuel Johnson’s (1709-1784) didactic romance Rasselas (1759) was written in one week after his mother’s death to defray the expenses of her illness and funeral. It is not only texts for adult audiences that may didactic: fairy tales, parables and other types of children’s literature can also be didactic in their intent. DC
Diegesis Refers to the direct narrative and the created, fictional world of the text that includes all of the characters, setting, action and events. In drama and film, diegesis is the music, sound-effects, voiceovers or any narrative comment on the action. It is the opposite of mimesis. Diegesis is the reporting of any element of the primary narrative. It is about ‘telling’ and reporting rather than about ‘showing’ and ‘representing’. See also Drama, Fiction, Film, Mimesis, Narrative, Narrator. JH, JM 86
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D Difference/Différance Jacques Derrida (1930-2004) coined the neologism ‘différance’ to refer to the movement of meaning in language. Drawing on Ferdinand de Saussure’s (1857-1913) structuralist linguistics, which suggested that words do not refer to meaning so much as to other words (for instance, we know ‘cat’ not because it immutably refers to the four legged creature that is a cat but because it is not ‘mat’). Derrida suggested that meaning never ‘touches down’, so to speak. In this sense, différance is in direct contrast to traditional notions of the way a word or a text means, in that it suggests that words do not neatly refer to a thing or idea, but to other words. Différance merges the two meanings of the French word différer: to differ and to defer. In other words, meaning is difference (in space) and is always deferred (in time). Derrida himself describes différance like this: The play of differences supposes, in effect, syntheses and referrals which forbid at any moment, or in any sense, that a simple element can function as a sign without referring to another element which itself is not present...Nothing, neither among the elements nor within the system, is anywhere ever simply present or absent. There are only, everywhere, differences and traces of traces. (Derrida, 1981: 26). He advances the notion that meaning incessantly moves from one word to another to describe the movement of meaning in entire texts, traditions and across time. This has radical implications for what can be understood as a ‘text’. If différance suggests that meaning never settles, then it also means that a single text never has a single meaning. Derrida asserts that “a ‘text’ is henceforth no longer a finished corpus of writing, some content enclosed in a book or its margins, but a differential network, a fabric of traces referring endlessly to something other than itself, to other differential traces” (Derrida, 1979: 84). According to Derrida, meaning is always ‘to come’ and the task of readers and critics, then, is not so much to secure meaning for a given text, but to ‘trace (the) traces’ of the ‘web’ left behind by the movement of différance. Derrida would see contrary attempts to ‘freeze’ meaning into fixed elements as an act of violence against the delicate movement of difference and he would see this tendency to snuff out the free play of différance as emblematic of traditional philosophy, and by extension, traditional literary criticism. SGS References: Derrida, J. (1979) ‘Living On,’ trans. James Hulbert, in ed. H. Bloom, Deconstruction and Criticism, New York: Seabury. Derrida, J. (1981) ‘Semiology and Grammatology: Interview with Julia Kristeva’, in Positions, trans. Alan Bass, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Differentiation: An approach to pedagogy and learning that has been a hallmark of effective teaching in English. It is driven by a recognition and understanding of individual learning styles, abilities and the need to address outcomes and learning goals according to the diversity of the students in a class. Differentiation is based on theories of how students best engage and learn in English. Differentiated teaching and learning involves: ∼ knowledge of the abilities and capacities of all students and recognising individual ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
differences; configuring and facilitating learning in a range of ways (individual, pairs, small group, whole class); catering for a range of learning styles (such as for instance, those described in Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences model); allowing choice in learning activities and assessment in order to provide an authentic range of ways for students to demonstrate what they know and can do; and devising and implementing learning activities that have purpose and meaning for all students and can be connected to students’ lives.
See also Assessment, Group work, Learning styles. JM
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D Digital narrative Also known as a digital story. A brief, personal multimedia story or narrative produced through digital media. Digital narratives are generally written and told in the first person, in 250 words, with around 12 photos, and run for approximately 2 minutes. Daniel Meadows characterises the digital story as “multimedia sonnets of the people. Digital Stories are best made in workshops where participants come together to share skills and benefit from the assistance of facilitators. A workshop gives its participants courage, for making a Digital Story isn't easy. It can, though, be remarkably empowering and, when imagined as a tool of democratised media, it has, I believe, the potential to change the way we engage in our communities.” (http://www.photobus.co.uk/). For examples, visit Daniel Meadows’ site, Photobus, and The Centre for Digital Storytelling (http:// www.storycenter.org/). Both sites contain examples and resources for creating digital stories. See also Multimedia. JM
Digital texts Any text that is produced, disseminated and/or located and/or stored in a digital form such as, for example, websites, blogs, music, podcasts, vodcasts, other audio files, visual images, film, and email. Digital texts are an integral part of English and are both created and critiqued by students. Digital technology allows for the application of pedagogical strategies that build on and develop students’ capacities to ‘read’, interpret, be discriminating and evaluate the complex discourses and shifting conventions of the digital world in which so many are immersed. See also Multimedia. JM ∼ Students research their use of digital technology. ∼ Keep a log of the types of digital texts they engage with and produce over the course on one week.
∼ Identify the type of digital text; the time spent reading/viewing/writing digital forms; differences in language, conventions and dissemination of various types of texts; considerations of form and content, and the immediacy of communication made possible by these digital forms; ethical practice; censorship; access and equity issues; time spent on online social networking; the major purpose and audience of the writing done by the student in a digital medium.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Students prepare a report on their use and production of digital texts using the familiar ‘star’ organiser: what, when, who, where, how, why.
∼ Students reflect on the outcomes of their research and share these findings with the class.
∼ One particular form of digital text may be further researched by small groups of students.
∼ In exploring issues of cultural expression, students look at the following together with film extracts from A Knight’s Tale and The Cup and the opening sequence of The Guru. ∼ and ∼ ∼ View the opening of film, The Guru (note Coca-Cola advertising - Coke banned in India until 1990s). Then view the Pepsi advertisement made for India on the CDROM Voices and Visions of India.) KS
∼ Students explore examples of poor website design: ∼ has a ‘daily sucker’ and links to past ‘winners’ of the sucker award. An important site as people who nominate a ‘sucker’ have to give reasons why. Good to help students’ own evaluations.
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D ∼ - a website for graphic designers. Note the home page design that provides the ‘written text’ for designers to work with. Then follow links to the designs other people have been created using same written text. Good for compare/contrast and evaluation:
∼ - an example of poor design. Too much white space. Ordinary font. Looks like nothing happens until you pass over the car grid on the left – then it comes alive. KS
Discourse Refers to the linguistic, cultural and institutional parameters that invest communication with meaning. A discourse is a system that an individual lives within and oftentimes individuals are unaware of the way that a particular discourse structures what we say and think. Drawn from the work of Michel Foucault (1926-1984), the term ‘discourse’ can also refer to the way in which one discourse may be set up in opposition to another. Similar to the term ‘ideology’, a discourse operates outside of individual will, yet operates on an individual. In order to become emancipated into other discourses, one must become aware of the particular discourse one operates within and in so doing expose the assumptions of that discourse. A discourse can be regarded as a kind of specialist language: there is the discourse of the medical profession, the legal profession, discourses of religion and the discourses of literary criticism. These discourses operate in particular ways to define the nature of knowledge and communication within the discipline, control power relations, and can work to include or exclude participation. Discourses that embody the prevailing values, attitudes and worldview of a society or culture are often referred to as dominant or privileged discourses since the language operates to maintain and serve the interests of particular groups. SGS, JM Reference: Mills, S. (2005) ‘Discourse’. The Literary Encyclopedia. <www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php? rec=true&UID=1261>
Discussion An exchange (usually oral) of ideas, perspectives and points of view about any topic. Discussion is a central component of learning in English, since students require the opportunity to verbally hypothesise, test out ideas, share responses and explore new knowledge through oral language. Discussions may take place in pairs, small groups or whole class configurations. The smaller the group, the more opportunity there is for individual students to utilise the limited ‘talking space’ available in the classroom. Often, such discussions will enable the student to begin the writing process with heightened confidence, focus and purpose. Discussion, then, is an important pre-writing strategy, although it is also an important experience in and for itself in the development of language. Discussion also refers to a particular type of written text that sets forth points for and against an argument, issue, topic or question. See also Communication, Group work, Talking and listening, Writing. DC
Distance In his essay “The Function of Criticism at the Present Time” (1864), Matthew Arnold argued for the importance of a degree of distance or detachment on the part of the responder in order to effectively evaluate and appreciate a text. The concept of critical distance has since become a tenet of a number of literary critical approaches that insist on an ‘objective’ analysis and judgement of a work (e.g. New Criticism). Other approaches to texts contend that affective, subjective and personal response is necessary and indeed unavoidable in any process of engaging with and evaluating a text (e.g. Reader-response criticism). See also Alienation effect, Interpretation. JM
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D Docudrama A fictional theatre, film or television production based on real events and real people. It often focuses contemporary events or well-known figures such as politicians. An example is the TV series America's Most Wanted. See also Drama terms. JH
Documentary A text that draws on and seeks to ‘document’ real-life events, people and situations to create an historically and factually accurate portrayal or reconstruction. A documentary is frequently presented through film, television or other visual media and is intended to inform and educate the audience and/or expose evidence about an event, person or situation. Although a documentary relies on actual historical evidence and is not an imaginative text, it is nevertheless, like all texts, shaped by the composer’s purpose, particular point of view, subjectivity, context, medium of production and choice and arrangement of material. Mike Moore’s Farenheit 9/11 (2004) and Bowling for Columbine (2002) are examples of documentaries that have a strong political agenda. David Attenborough’s Living Planet: A Portrait of the Earth (from 1984) series is another example of a documentary that is less explicitly political but is also designed to educate and persuade the audience to embrace a particular point of view about the environmental issues that are at the centre of the documentary. See also Film, Nonfiction, Representing. JM
Dominant reading Texts can be read in different ways, depending on the personal perspective, beliefs, values and context of the reader and the reading practices and critical lens that the reader employs to make meaning. Different readings of the same text may produce different interpretations and meanings. It is argued that a dominant reading is the particular reading and consequent interpretation which the text and cultural context seem to invite or promote or which has been received as the orthodox and authorised reading. Gunther Kress referred to the reading position as the particular version of reality that the text invites us to adopt. See also Alternative reading, Critical Literacy, Interpretation, Literary criticism, Reader, Resistant reading. JM
Double entendre A figure of speech marked by word/s, phrase/s or other texts that have a double meaning. The literal meaning may be quite distinct from the other suggested or implied meaning. Often, the second meaning of a double entendre is of an indelicate or sexual nature. Like the device of innuendo, a double entendre conveys implied meanings over and above the literal ones and is often a clever or ironic play on words. See also Pun. DC
Double plot Elizabethan and Jacobean plays often include a main plot and a double plot (generally referred to as a subplot). The main plot dramatises the action of a group of characters, often from a particular social class or context. The subplot mirrors the action, relationships and thematic focus of the main plot and dramatises the action of a group of characters who resemble those of the main plot, but who are distinctive in key ways. The subplot often serves to throw light on or contrast with the action of the main plot, thereby enriching and deepening the interest of the play as a whole. Shakespeare’s plays provide abundant examples of double plots. In Henry IV, Part 1, for example, the main plot includes the royal or courtly characters, while the subplot contains scenes and characters from the ‘working class’ world, with many scenes taking place in the tavern. It is rare for a character in the subplot to enter into the main plot, although it is usually the case that at least one of the characters from the main plot will appear in the subplot. Prince Hal, for instance, is part of the main plot and the subplot of Henry IV, Part 1. See also Drama, Plot. JM
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D Drama At the core of drama is the experience of an imagined existence, which may or may not have happened. The portrayal of this experience can range from absorbing imaginative child’s play to complex multi-art theatrical productions. In drama participants enact and audiences experience bodies in space, or as Peter Brook the great director put it, drama is filling up the empty space: ‘I can take any empty space and call it a bare stage. A man walks across this empty space whilst someone else is watching him, and this is all I need for an act of theatre to be engaged’ (Brook, 1968: 1). In schools, drama has three main purposes: the exploration of drama as an art form; drama as a learning medium; and drama for personal development. Drama therapy also exists as a discipline but usually in specialist counselling settings. Also, drama is an engaging form of entertainment. Most drama syllabuses define the following as the key elements, or building blocks, of drama: ∼ Focus - the frame that directs attention to what is most significant and intensifies the dramatic ∼ ∼
∼ ∼ ∼
meaning. Tension - the force that engages the performers and audience in the dramatic action. Space - the personal and general space used by the actors. It focuses on the meaning of the size and shape of distances between actor and actor, actor and objects (props and sets) and actor and audience. Mood - the atmosphere created. Mood concentrates the dramatic action and moves the audience in emotionally appropriate directions. Contrast - the use of difference to create dramatic meaning. Symbol - the use of objects, gestures or persons to represent meaning beyond the literal.
See also Drama as a learning medium, Drama terms, Embodied knowledge. JH Reference: Brook, P. (1968) The Empty Space London: MacGibbon & Kee. DET Curriculum Support for teaching in Creative Arts 7-12 Vol 5 No 1 2000)
Drama as a learning medium in English It is well understood that drama invites students to bring a text to life, not merely through ‘acting it out’, but through more sophisticated means of engagement. It allows students to be physically active, disrupting an otherwise predominantly static physical environment of the classroom, especially when the experience of reading fiction is so often construed as a physically isolated, private, still, individual act of transaction between reader and text. Drama encourages students to ‘gain authority as readers and interpreters of literature’ (O’Neill & Rogers, 1994: 47) through embodying ideas and by dealing directly with such ideas, events, characters and action in, for instance, interactive, social and collaborative ways. Somers argues that drama as a pedagogy can be seen as a democratic endeavour that offers the potential for meaning to be ‘socially negotiated’ (Somers, 2005: 6). At the simplest level of dramatising aspects of a fictional text, students gain direct experience of the: ∼ deliberate processes involved in the crafting and construction of that text ∼ artistic, often contested interpretation and representation of characters: their actions, motives,
values, beliefs and relationships ∼ shaping of tensions and dénouement, catharsis and anagnorisis ∼ concept of viewpoint(s), time and sequence ∼ world through the prism of ‘other’ ∼ ways in which drama and fiction differ in these crucial areas. The English Teacher’s Handbook
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Drama as a learning medium promotes a heightened awareness and understanding of audience and the art and craft of selecting materials, and experimenting with and shaping ideas and experiences through language by becoming the composer, the character or ‘the expert’ (Hughes, 1992; Moffett & Wagner, 1992). Such approaches offer meaningful insights into the structures and conventions that constitute any piece of writing. It epitomises what Ian Reid saw as the essential difference between the ‘gallery’ and the ‘workshop’ approach to English (Reid, 1984). In short, “whereas narrative (as fiction) summarises drama, drama elaborates narrative” (Moffett, 1968: 62). See also Drama, Drama terms, Embodied knowledge, Engagement, Fiction. JM Stages of engagement
Strategies
Whole class, small group, pairs,
Before reading: Getting ready for the text
Enactment of a parallel story, situation or event Identify a key concern, idea, issue or episode of the text. Students generate scenarios set in a contemporary context to build interest in the idea and explore its significance in their own and others’ lives. Alternatively, the teacher can construct the scenario and have students explore this in a range of ways that involves enactment, staging, roleplay and discussion.
SG, P
Visual, aural, tactile stimulus and Mystery Box WC, SG Introduce visual, aural and/or other stimulus connected to the people, places or events in the text. Students hypothesise about the ‘who, when, where, how, and why’ of such items, building a sense of anticipation for the text. For a Mystery Box, collect items relevant to the text in a box, chest or bag. The teacher can describe these items, asking students to draw what they think each item is, before revealing them. Or, students can work in pairs, with one student in each pair taking one item from the box, without the partner knowing what it is (partner can be facing away). Student describes the item, and partner draws it. All items are then returned by each student to the box, while the class watches, in silence, emphasising the dramatic elements of ritual and ownership. Ensuing discussion could focus on the items, their significance and their CSI or Scotland Yard inquiry SG, preIn small groups, students are provided with a descriptive character role sented to WC card, a map and/or visual stimulus, and a brief list of key incidents (based on the actions or events that occur at the beginning of the story of the text). In role (as a group of detectives), students develop possible scenarios for the outcome of the actions and events. Whole-class discussion to follow. Emphasise speculating, inquiring, problem-solving and hypothesising. Sculpting emotions, freeze-frame or tableaux P, SG, preIdentify one or some of the key human emotions explored in the text. In sented to small groups, students are offered one or more of these (on cards, for WC example), and are then required to use their bodies, as a group and/ or individually to represent the emotion. Examples may include: anger, vengeance, wonder, curiosity, confusion, happiness, sorrow, fear, joy. Small groups then present their representation, without words, to the ‘audience’ of the class for comment, reflection and discussion. Each group can represent the same emotion (for comparison), or different emotions, depending on the aim of the task.
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D Stages of engagement
Strategies
Whole class, small group, pairs, individual
Talk show SG or WC Create a talk show theme that is relevant to a key idea or ideas explored in the text. Students take on the roles of host(s), guests, audience and ‘experts’. This can be done as a class, or with two groups. Students are encouraged to create characters in role and perspectives on the theme or issue, thereby experiencing a sense of the other, as well as point of view. Can also be employed during the after-reading, ‘response’ stage.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Parallel texts SG, P, preSelect a short poem that explores a key idea of the text. Students can sented to WC then dramatise the poem, with or without props and music. Alternatively, students may translate the text into a simple playscript, depending on the nature of the poem.
During reading: Immersion in the text
Sequencing and narrative Using the opening scenes or events of the text, divide the narrative into sections. Alternatively, use a single extract from the opening. In small groups, students are given this extract (or one of these excerpts) to explore how this may be staged (setting, characters, lighting, dialogue) for a contemporary audience. What aspects of the text would be selected, shaped and reworked? Ensuing discussion could focus on the conventions of narrative, sequencing of action, the role of time and plot, point of view and narrative voice.
SG, P, followed by WC discussion
Director’s log As the students read the text, they are encouraged to keep a running director’s log (as a variation on a reading log). As they read, students include in their log idea - for instance, for casting characters, setting, costuming and music if they were to make a movie or produce a play of the text. Sections of the text that may be emphasised, deleted or reworked would be included. Ideas will develop and be modified as students continue to read.
I
Drawing, mapping, character trees, character grids, timelines I Encourage students to include in their log drawings, maps, character trees (showing connections between characters), character grids (indicating who is on and off centre stage during each chapter or section) and evolving timelines as they read the text. This encourages an awareness of theatrical devices and staging techniques. It also draws attention to the differences between the dramatic and narrative fiction forms. P, I Ghost scenes, conversations, dialogue and perspectives During reading, students draw attention to missing scenes, action, dialogue and perspectives. They may hypothesise about and speculate on why certain points of view are presented and not others. The notion of voice and point of view could be explored during reading with an eye to if, how and why these shift, evolve or remain static, and the implications of this for the reader or potential audience. Students may also predict dialogue, conversations and narrative voice.
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D Stages of engagement
After reading: Responding to the text
Strategies
Whole class, small group, pairs, individual
Sculpting the characters and themes SG, P Select one or more excerpts from the text (preferably studentgenerated selection) that capture a key moment of incident for one or more of the characters. As one student from the group reads the excerpt, one or more students ‘sculpt’ the character or characters into the scene (or sculpt the theme) and freeze as the text is read as voice over narration.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Scripting SG, P Students in small groups select a significant episode from the text. The episode forms the basis of a script for performance. Emphasis should be on staging, with a focus on character, setting, space, dialogue and dynamics. Many variations on this basic task can be employed for a variety of purposes. Hot spot and hot-seating Students (in role, if appropriate) interview other students in role. Central characters and minor characters can be the focus. Questions should be carefully generated to enable a productive explication of ideas and perspectives.
WC, SM, P
SG And Why game In small groups, students are given two decks of cards, turned face down. One deck of cards consist of Character cards, and each has the name of a character on it (on the face downside). The other deck of cards is the And Why cards, which have a series of questions on them, such as: ‘When your character first appears, what is she thinking, and why?’; ‘Who are the other characters with whom your character is in conflict, and why?’; and ‘What is the key moment in your character’s experience, and why?’ Students, in turn, take one Character card from the deck, and one And Why card from the other deck. They must then respond to the And Why question either in role or out of role. Writing can follow. (Mike Hayhoe, 1988, Creative work ideas for Macbeth. Sydney: Phoenix Education) Interviews and investigations SG In small groups, some students take on the role of, for example, a detective, lawyer, oral historian or journalist. In role, they interview or interrogate the character(s) with a focus on issues such as conflict, motive, action, events and turning points in the narrative. Students can then swap roles. Writing tasks, such as feature articles, journal entries, reports, stories and expressive writing, can follow. Conscience corridor WC Select a key episode from the text that involves a character making a decision, experiencing a crisis or facing a dilemma. One student takes on the role of a character in the text. The class is divided into two groups. Each group forms two parallel lines to create a ‘corridor’. The character walks slowly down the corridor, with the other students verbally seeking to influence the character in making his or her decision. The character must have made his or her decision by the time of reaching the end of the corridor. There is an emphasis on exploring thoughts, feelings and actions of characters.
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Stages of engagement
Strategies
Transformations In pairs, students (or the teacher) should select a significant episode from the text. Students then generate ideas about how this episode could be transformed into another medium specifically for performance, such as a poem, speech or soliloquy.
Whole class, small group, pairs, individual P
Representing without words SG, P Students in small groups select an episode from the text that highlights some aspect of human relationships. The small group then experiments with representing this episode by using body and space. Students are encouraged to think symbolically and metaphorically about character, relationships and feelings. After response: Beyond the boundaries I, P Going beyond the Students, individually or in pairs, create a scene that takes up the text story from where the text ends. Students may develop a short script, or another form of writing that emphasises audience and experiments with time and context. TV interview or documentary SG, P In pairs, students can set up a TV interview with the author of the text, exploring the other texts written by this author. Alternatively, students can create a documentary that explores the genre of the text, such as adventure, fantasy or crime, using digital technology for production and publication.
References: Manuel, J. (2007) “Drama and the Teaching of Fiction”, in Drama and the Teaching of English, eds. M. Anderson, J. Hughes & J. Manuel, Melbourne: Oxford University Press. Hughes, J. (1992) “Enactment of the Expert: Drama and Reading Comprehension”, NADIE Journal, Autumn. Iser, W. (1980) “Interaction Between Text and Reader”, in The Reader in Texts, eds. S. Suleiman & I. Crosman, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Moffett, J. (1968). Teaching the Universe of Discourse. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Moffett, J. & Wagner, B.J. (1992) Student-Centred Language Arts, New Jersey: Boynton Cook. Rosenblatt, L. (1978) The Reader, The Text, The Poem: The Transactional Theory of the Literary Work, Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. Somers, J. (2005) Drama as Alternative Pedagogy, Aims, Learning and Curriculum Series, Discussion Paper 10, Exeter: Nuffield Review of 14–19 Education and Training.
Drama terms The table sets out a list of commonly used drama terms and should be considered in conjunction with the range of practical strategies used in the English classroom. See also Drama, Drama as a learning medium. JH Terms
Definition
Affective space; affective dimension
In drama Improvisation work, this is the safe and supportive atmosphere within the drama space, created by the facilitator that allows students to feel sufficiently confident to take risks.
Alter ego
A rehearsal technique whereby two actors play each character, one of whom represents the stage action and the other the character's hidden thoughts.
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A strategy by which a fictional situation is selected and enacted without addressing the subject directly.
Boundary setting
The process of setting up rules for trust and engagement within groups. Protocols for emotional and physical safety are also negotiated within the group.
Blocking
This is what the director does when she or he plots the movement of the actors, scenery, props etc of each scene in a performance. Note it has a different meaning in improvisation. See also Improvisation.
Bump in
A theatre term for the process of setting up backstage and the stage for the opening of a production. The lighting, the sets, the costumes etc are all put in place. ‘Bump out’ is the process of removing the production from the theatre.
Conscience alley
A form of thought-tracking employing very high tension. The participants face each other in two lines, while the character under scrutiny walks slowly between them, running the gauntlet of their comments.
Debriefing
The encouragement of students to articulate the feelings and observations that have arisen from the drama work, during which process the teacher becomes an accepting and attuned listener who can ask for appropriate elaboration should a student have difficulties with verbalisation.
Director's log
A journal of the directorial decisions taken by the director as part of the production process.
Double intention
An improvisation technique for concealing the real motives of any interaction, used to provide students with character complexity and subtext within improvised drama or video.
Dramaturge
A person who works with a director and/or writer to develop, help refine and/or stage on a play. The dramaturge is often the researcher in the writing of a play or the production of an historical play.
Flats
This is a shortened term for Scenery Flats or scenery on stage, often painted to provide the image of a background.
Fly system
This is the way scenery and other theatrical devices descend or are elevated to or from the stage. Hence to ‘fly in’ a set. They are operated by the stage technical crew and often involve ropes and pulleys.
Freeze-frame
Within a freeze-frame, sometimes known as a 'tableau' or 'still image', actors are arranged in a posture or series of postures representing a particular moment, or moment in a play or improvised drama, and remain immobile for observation or reflection by an audience.
Frozen effigy
A useful technique that starts with a prepared freeze-frame, which is slowly brought to life, one character at a time, allowing the watchers to reflect on or interrogate the details of the situation as they slowly emerge.
Gossip mill
A dramatic method during which students in role mill together in a space and, on a signal from the teacher, stop and instantly share one piece of information or gossip with one other person. This sequence is repeated a number of times.
Green room
This is the room, back stage, where the actors congregate when not on stage. Ironically, green is considered, by many theatre people, to be an unlucky colour so it is almost never painted green.
Hot-seating
The interrogation of a character in a drama or other form of literature, whereby one person takes the 'hot seat', speaking as that character, to provide information, background or advice to the other participants.
Improvised video
Scenario-based rather than script-based improvised dramatic performances recorded on video.
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Still images, simple props and set that are used to create dioramas of events. As the audience observes a particular image, the participants (or a participant) briefly 'come to life' and speak aloud key information.
Masque
A form of theatre for the private entertainment of the aristocracy especially in the 16th century. It often included songs and dance.
Meeting in role
A convention by which students participate in role in a formal meeting. The expectation is that the class will maintain the roles for the duration of the meeting and interact according to the characteristics of those roles.
Monologue
An extensive speech by a solo performer. If it is a revelation of personal thoughts said out loud it is known as an aside or soliloquy (e.g. “To be or not to be…” in Hamlet).
Morality play
Popular religious drama in Europe in the 15th and early 16th centuries. They were dramatic allegories that extolled, usually, Christian virtues. The purpose of such plays was to provide moral instruction to the audience about how to live a virtuous life and save their souls from eternal damnation. One of the most famous morality plays is Everyman (late 13th century, author unknown).
Out of role
Discussion or planning related to shaping or modifying dramatic action. Once the next stage or dramatic event is decided, the students continue the drama in role.
Pageant
(L. ‘scene of a play’) In Ancient Greece, this term originally referred to the portable stage on which plays were performed. The more common usage refers to a dramatic presentation, tableaux, exhibition or scene which is extravagant in costuming and often props. There is generally little or no dialogue in a pageant.
Parallel role -play
Parallel role-plays engage students (and actors in rehearsal) in role activities which parallel a text to be explored. For example, students studying Romeo and Juliet might role-play teenagers from contemporary, rival ethnic gangs, two of whom, from opposing sides, fall in love.
Passion plays
Performances which dramatise significant events in the life of Jesus Christ, based on texts from the Bible, often set outdoors. A famous example is the Oberammergau Passion Play, begun in 1633 and still regularly presented.
Playbuilding
A process of using active, collaborative techniques to create group or self-devised works. A variety of approaches are used including attention to setting, theme, narrative, character, issues and personal experiences. Students use the elements of drama such as tension, moment or symbol to create narrative structures to convey dramatic meaning through the development of various plot structures. Students experience ways to develop different styles of group devised plays by drawing on community sources such as local identities, Indigenous communities, media, government bodies and institutions, libraries or the internet.
Pre-text
In process drama, this is the identified symbol, artefact, image or piece of text that sets up the drama and provides the stimulus for the drama that evolves. A pre-text should define the dramatic world that will be explored and imply the roles for the participants. Reference: O’Neill, C. (1995) Drama worlds, USA: Heinemann.
Process drama
An improvised drama form for active participants with no performance or external audience. It comprises structured role-play techniques, including experiential role-play, combined with other theatrical conventions and rehearsal exercises. JH Reference: O’Neill, C. (1995) Drama Worlds, USA: Heinemann.
Prompt copy
The script of the play that includes all the instructions the director wishes to convey to the actors.
Readers' theatre
The type of theatre where student actors read directly from script. During the performance, the actors stand in front of the audience and do not look directly at each other, even when exchanging comments. Instead, each actor focuses on a fixed point in the audience to suggest this interaction.
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D Resonance
Existing film or video that either thematically or stylistically shares the concerns of the proposed or performed improvisational work.
Role-based scenario
Drama based on improvised performance in a given situation.
Role-card
A card or other document providing key characteristics of the role that a student is to play. It may include contextualised information about the situation, details of events or facts that will be shared while in role.
Role-play
The projection of participants into a fictitious situation and the assumption of attitudes that are not necessarily their own. The role-players accept that they are working in an imaginary context and agree to believe in that context for the purpose of working through a dilemma or issue.
Role protection
The dramatic distance provided by the assumption of a persona, allowing for an authentic emotional response.
Semiotics
The complex systems of visual, aural, physical and gestural languages and other signifiers that are present in live performance. Focusing on a semiotic reading of a play or a performance would draw attention to the effects of such things as light, colour, sound and movement and examine the audience's, actor's, designer's and director's contributions to the theatrical event.
Spect-actors
A term coined by Augusto Boal to referrer to participants in an improvisation who are sometime acting and other time observing others performances. Often switching roles quite frequently.
Still image
A convention by which members of a group use their bodies to make an unmoving image or tableau, capturing an idea or moment in time.
Teacher-in-role
The taking part of teachers in process drama or role-play themselves, as characters within the situation, in order to advance the action, provide a source of tension pose a problem or challenge or control the action from inside without stopping the drama.
Thought-tracking
A dramatic convention by which a character in role can be frozen and asked by the teacher or other students to express what is going on in his or her mind at the particular moment. It can be used within a freeze-frame or frozen effigy. Sometimes called Tapping in.
Verbatim theatre
A playwright interviews people who have usually been part of some heightened or charged experience and from their direct quotes creates a performance. For example, Alana Valentine’s Parramatta Girls. See also Docudrama.
Veridical representation
‘Veridical’ means truthful so a veridical representation is representation of social reality in drama.
Writing-in-role
The students write from the point of view of a character they are developing or playing. Writing-in-role is a rich virtual dramatic experience, by which students play out and negotiate some of their own experiences.
JH
Dramatic irony A technique employed in plays that allows the audience to be privy to more information and knowledge about the plot and action than some or all of the characters on stage. A most powerful example of this occurs in Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex (430 BC). The audience is aware of the fact that after killing his father, Oedipus marries his mother. Oedipus himself is not aware of this truth until the final, tragic dénouement. JH
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D Dramatic monologue A poem in which a single persona speaks. There are several important aspects of this type of poetry that distinguish it from other forms of verse. Firstly, the monologue occurs at a moment of conflict, anxiety or crisis. Secondly, there is always an implied audience: the persona speaks to another person (or people) and the literal thrust of the monologue is that of explanation, direction, deception, self-justification or persuasion. Thirdly, a dramatic monologue presents a character who, in the act of self-expression, unintentionally reveals aspects of his/her character. There is always a discrepancy between the image of self that the persona thinks he/she is projecting and the image that they actually do project. The effect of this is to produce irony. Robert Browning’s (1812-1889) dramatic monologues demonstrate a masterful and innovative handling of the form. With Browning's fascination for the naturalistic impulses of human nature, the subtleties of individual temperament and the relationship between our use of language and our communicated meaning, the dramatic monologue is a particularly appropriate form. It affords the poet the opportunity to create and manipulate characters, personae and masks, while maintaining the immediacy of direct speech. Through the dramatic monologue Browning is able to explore both the complexities of the human psyche and the dynamics of human interaction in a concentrated, focused and intense manner. In addition, the setting or the life-situation exposed in the monologue is of crucial importance to an understanding of the poem. Often the character will be reflecting on a past event. Frequently, the dramatic monologue portrays a human being in the process of seeking to control, dominate or gain ascendency over another. The two poems “My Last Duchess” and “Porphyria's Lover” are particularly striking examples of the form. See also Persona, Poetry. JM
Dreamtime Aboriginal stories of spirituality and creation. “The expression 'Dreamtime' is most often used to refer to the 'time before time', or 'the time of the creation of all things', while 'Dreaming' is often used to refer to an individual's or group's set of beliefs or spirituality” (Australian Museum, 2004). The Indigenous Australia webpages at the Australian Museum site have many stories of the dreaming, available in audio-format:. See also Myths, Legends. JM Reference: Gold, E. (ed) (1997) Timeless Truths: Sydney: Phoenix Education.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Select one or more stories from the Australian Museum site, or other sources. Select a range of picture books or visual images that focus on similar Dreamtime stories.
∼ Read the stories out aloud to the class. Discuss the ideas and images evoked by the story. Discuss connections between the Dreamtime story and myths specific to other cultures and places.
∼ Listen to the music of Garramul Yunupingu: ∼ ∼ Students in groups select a story and/or a song, and research this, exploring its origins, versions, language, imagery and connection to place.
∼ Students work in groups to create a digital representation of a story or song, using visual images and selected words or excerpts from the chosen text. Students write a reflection statement to accompany their creative work.
Dystopia The representation of an imaginary world that is unappealing, indeed repellent, usually combining threatening and dehumanising perspectives and experiences. Texts that portray a dystopian world often combine elements of fantasy, science fiction, thriller or apocalyptic literature, or an amalgam
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D of these. Such texts present a disturbingly bleak vision of human existence and human relationships in which violence, suffering, misery, fear and hopelessness are the dominant characteristics of society. George Orwell’s novel 1984 (1949) and Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World (1932) are well-known examples of fictional dystopian universes. Ridley Scott’s film, Blade Runner (1982) and George Miller’s Mad Max (1979), are similarly powerful representations of a dystopian realm. The purpose of dystopian texts is to confront and challenge the audience with extreme visions of humanity, thereby encouraging thinking about values, power relations, ways of organising social and personal relationships and the nature of individual experience. Representations of dystopia are in stark contrast to those that portray an earthly paradise or utopia. See also Eschatology. JM
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E Edwardian period Considered to be the period when Edward VII reigned in England, from 1901 (the death of Queen Victoria) to 1910. This period, immediately preceding the First World War, saw an abundance of writing from novelists such as, for example, Joseph Conrad, Rudyard Kipling and Henry James. Thomas Hardy and W B Yeats were also publishing a wealth of poetry during this time. Critics have commented that the literature and drama of this period addressed wider issues of social change, dislocation and a fracturing of the received values and ways of thinking that characterised the Victorian period. With the advent of the War, the Edwardian period is considered with some nostalgia, since the War (1914-1918) had such a dramatic impact on all aspects of social and personal life. JM
Ekphrastic literature Literary texts that are inspired by an actual or notional artwork or artistic representation. Essentially, in both its focus and form, ekphrastic literature is ‘art about art’. The Oxford Classical Dictionary defines ekphrasis as ‘the rhetorical description of a work of art’ while James A. W. Heffernan refers to it as “the literary representation of visual art”. (See http://www.people.virginia.edu/~djr4r/anth_ekphrasis.html) Art about art has a long tradition. During the Renaissance poems described paintings and scenes from nature in order to debate the claims of art and nature and celebrate the triumph of art over nature. Romanticism was also concerned with ideas and questions about art and life and this is reflected in texts such as John Keats’ (1795-1821) “Ode on a Grecian Urn” and William Wordsworth’s (1770-1850) “Elegiac Stanzas Suggested by a Picture of Peele Castle in a Storm, painted by Sir George Beaumont”. Traditionally, ekphrastic texts describe and represent specific artworks but they can do so in a number of ways. Classic paintings such as Jan Vermeer’s (1632-1675) “Girl with a Pearl Earring” and Pieter Brueghel’s (1525-1569) “Icarus” may represent the core of the subject matter of a text, as in Tracy Chevalier’s novel Girl With a Pearl Earring (2001) and WH Auden’s (1907-1973) poem “Musée des Beaux Arts”. Alternatively, real-world artefacts, places or objects may inspire the imagination and literary responses of writers as is the case in Keats’ “Ode on a Grecian Urn”. In some cases the artwork or scene inspiring the text may be a figment of the writer’s imagination, as in ST Coleridge’s (1772-1834) poem “Kubla Khan”. During the 20th century the ekphrastic genre evolved further as art about art began to be combined with the theme of the portrait of the artist. Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891) and James Joyce’s A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916) are part of this tradition and contemporary films such as Il Postino (1994), Pandaemonium (2000), Dead Poets’ Society (1989) and The English Teacher’s Handbook
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Amadeus (1984) are examples that extend the genre further in focus and form. Other possibilities within the ekphrastic genre are reflected in literary texts that comment on their own nature as an aesthetic object or encourage meditations on the aesthetics of writing. An example of this latter form is Italo Calvino’s (1923-1985) If on a Winter’s Night a Traveller (1981). The study of ekphrastic texts is usually geared towards understanding the relationship between visual art and the literature that describes and represents it. A comparative study of art-inspired literature and other texts that explore ‘art’ worlds, ‘art’ movements, ‘art’ works and ‘artists’ can provide us with a heightened understanding of the aesthetic appeal of texts and aesthetic theory as well as insights into ekphrastic literature and possible developments in this genre. Michael and Peter Benton's books Double Vision (Hodder & Stoughton 1990), the companion volume Painting with Words (Hodder & Stoughton,1995) and Picture Poems (Hodder & Stoughton, 1997) all explore the interplay of poems and paintings, with visual reproductions of the art. Ken Watson and Paul Richardson’s Postcards from Planet Earth: an anthology of international poetry (Oxford University Press, 1990) also includes excellent resources for the study of poems and matching paintings. For links to a range of online ekphrastic poems and their paintings see
See also Aesthetics, Intertextuality. KS, JM Resources: Resources
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ WH Auden’s poem “Musee de Beaux Arts” ∼ Three paintings by Brueghel: The Masscare of the Innocents; Landscape with the Fall of Icarus; Numbering at Bethlehem. Procedure:
∼ In pairs of small groups, students explore and analyse the visual texts (see Image for strategies). Compare the images, focusing on the mood, perspective, colours, people, events and layout. Explore common features and move towards a discussion of the ideas and ‘story’ being represented.
∼ As a class, share interpretations from each group, identifying key points and features of the texts.
∼ Read Auden’s poem out aloud to the class. ∼ Explore the poem, focusing on the way the speaker alludes to, appropriates and connects the ideas from the paintings, and the relationship between the themes of the poem and the themes of the paintings.
∼ Reflect on the way composers use memory, experience, observation and other stimulus as a source of inspiration for their work.
∼ Students explore other art works that have been the source of inspiration for literature.
Elegy (Greek: ‘lament’) A type of lyric poem of mourning on the death of an individual. It may also be a reflective poem on the concept of death and grief. Elegy is one of the oldest poetic genres, originating with the laments of the Greek poets Theocritus (3rd century BC), Bion (3rd century BC) and Moschus (c. 150 BC). Its conventions are based on ancient rituals of mourning and burial. From the work of these Greek poets, it is possible to trace a process of the accretion of meaning and conventions in elegy whereby the death of a shepherd-poet, Daphnis, was poeticised in terms of the death of the dying spirit of nature, Adonis; the poet-shepherd-hero was associated with Daphnis through the use of the pastoral form. Not only was Daphnis the idealised vegetation god, but also the epitome of the artist - the celebrant of the idyllic world of Arcadia. It is this mythic figure who is the precursor of almost every elegised subject in canonised elegies in 102
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E English, providing the fundamental trope by which poets construct versions of immortality. By identifying the deceased with the returning, regenerative capacities of nature ‘he’ is absorbed into a mythology that ensures his – the poet’s - eternality. Typically, canonic elegies require a male poet mourning the death of and deifying a male poet. Despite the fact that the Sappho (c. 630BC) was writing poetry of grief and mourning, invoking goddesses like Aphrodite in her lamentations several centuries before Theocritus, the latter is credited as the ‘father’ of the pastoral elegy. The prominence of goddesses like Aphrodite in the earliest rituals of mourning is indisputable from evidence contained in fragments of writing by women poets of antiquity. But the place and role of these female deities undergo significant transformations within the history of the formal elegiac canon in English; that is, the goddesses that preside over the ceremonies of mourning in poetry like that written by Sappho, have been relocated in peripheral rather than central roles by male elegists throughout the history of the western elegiac genre. Well-known canonic elegies include: John Milton’s “Lycidas” (1637); Percy Bysshe Shelley’s “Adonais” (1821); and WH Auden’s “In Memory of WB Yeats” (1940). Elegies by women poets include: Judith Wright’s “Remembering an Aunt”; May Sarton’s “Letter from Chicago”; Muriel Rukeyser’s “Käthe Kollwitz”; Alta’s “The Vow”; Adrienne Rich’s “A Woman Dead in Her Forties”; Elizabeth Jennings’ “After a Time”; Lucille Clifton’s “harriet/if i be you”; Marge Piercy’s, “Burying Blues for Janice”; Maxine Kumin’s “On Being Asked to Write a Poem in Memory of Anne Sexton”; and Robyn Rowland’s, “The Final Voyage (for Virginia Woolf, 1882-1941)”. See also Dirge, Encomium, Eulogy. JM
Elizabethan age Refers to the period of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603). This period is often regarded as a Golden age which saw the flourishing of literature and the arts – particularly drama – discovery and science. The Elizabethan age occurred at the height of the Renaissance and is often described as a time of harmony, peace and political stability. Theatre thrived and developed during this period under the influence of the great dramatists – William Shakespeare (1564-1616), Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593) and Ben Jonson (1573-1637). Although this period is perceived as a time of harmony, stability and growing prosperity, a great majority of the population in England were still of the working class or poor – and Shakespeare’s plays were written for performance to entertain people from a wide spectrum of society. The majority of the audience for his plays at The Globe Theatre, for instance, were known as ‘penny-stinkers’ or ‘groundlings’– the people who paid one penny to stand in the open area in front of the stage where space was at a premium and rubbish and effluent from the audience was commonplace. The seating was reserved for the wealthier classes and the aristocracy. The theatre of this time was very much part of popular culture, created primarily to entertain audiences. See also (The) Globe Theatre, Shakespeare. JM
Ellipsis A device used in poetry to ensure the economical use of language. Words that may usually be included in a line may be omitted in order to make the line or poem succinct. An example would be, ‘Some lads are wise; some otherwise.’ The words ‘lads are’ have been omitted without changing the meaning of the line. JM
Emblem An image or badge used to represent an individual, family, nation, idea or abstract concept. Examples of emblems include a red cross on a white background for humanitarianism (and this is the symbol the Red Cross); scales as an emblem of the law or justice; and a dove as an emblem of peace. Emblems are common in imaginative texts, and in the media. Emblems are similar to symbols in that they carry strong associations. Symbols, however, are distinguished from emblems in that they are so closely associated with the individual, object or idea that long-standing shared meanings are usually recognisable to a very wide range of audiences. An emblem may operate in a more limited context for a more specific purpose. Flowers – such as the Waratah and Sturt Desert Pea, for The English Teacher’s Handbook
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example – are used as emblems of Australian states and territories. See also Archetype, Logo, Representing, Symbol. JM ∼ Create emblems for characters in texts being studied. ∼ For example: a coat of arms for the Capulet and Montague families in Romeo and Juliet. (Note the use of emblems and symbols in Lurhmann’s film adaptation) a car number plate for a character an image accompanied by a caption a profile for MySpace that contains an emblem or symbol representing the character/s.
∼ Students can also research the pervasiveness of emblems in the media and everyday contexts as well as the origins and meaning of emblems associated with nations.
Embodied knowledge Knowledge and understanding that is derived from lived experience through the senses. In English, drama as a medium for learning is a powerful means of enabling students to explore ideas and concepts through embodied experience. Students may, for example, dramatise a poem using only body language and actions. If students are provided with abundant opportunities for active, creative ‘making and doing’ they are more able to embody and apply new knowledge and skills that may otherwise remain abstract. See also Drama, Drama as a learning medium, Experiential learning, Group work, Learning styles. JM
Empathic intelligence A concept formulated by Arnold (2005) to describe a sustained system of psychic, cognitive, affective, social functioning. Empathic intelligence is a way of using various intelligences and sensitivities to engage effectively with others. Such engagement involves, in part, creating a dynamic between thinking and feeling within a climate perceived as caring and affirming. Empathic intelligence is derived from the ability to: ∼ differentiate self-states (both thoughts and feelings) from others’ states through self-
awareness, reflection and applied imagination ∼ engage in reflective and analogic processing to understand human dynamics ∼ mobilise a dynamic between thinking and feeling in self and others to enhance learning ∼ demonstrate enthusiasm, expertise and the effective engagement of others in meaningful tasks ∼ work creatively, guided by observation, attunement and adaptive capacity ∼ demonstrate intelligent caring ∼ use mirroring and affirmation effectively ∼ commit to the well-being and development of self and others.
Empathic intelligence is essentially concerned with the dynamic between thinking and feeling and the ways in which each contributes to the making of meaning. The word dynamic is important because it highlights the psychic energy generated when one mobilises both thought and feeling in creating and understanding experience. When there is intensity of feeling matched with intensity of thought, transforming learning experiences may occur. See Affective learning, Experiential learning. RA Reference: Adapted from Arnold, R (2005) Empathic Intelligence: Teaching, Learning, Relating, Sydney: UNSW Press.
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E Empathic model (Writing) An empathic model of writing recognises that writers’ internalised experiences of self-as-writer can have a very significant effect upon their confidence as writers. Writing teachers can build upon such experiences by affirming positive aspects of the writer’s text, while guiding writers to various models of writing which they might emulate for different audiences and purposes. Likewise, writers’ internalized experiences as readers and observers can provide rich resources for writing and reflection. An empathic model of writing recognizes that to write effectively for different audiences and purposes writers have to be able to imagine how potential readers will respond to their writing and then shape their writing accordingly. The empathic ability to understand one’s own thoughts and feelings, and those of others is a basic tenet of an empathic model of writing. See also Writing. RA
Empiricism (Greek: ‘concerned with experience’) A theory of knowledge that posits that the only way to know anything is true is to experience the world through the senses, as opposed to relying on intuition, reason or logic. In this way, empirical truth is truth that is arrived at through observing the natural world and detailing quantifiable, observable results. Empiricism in the Western tradition began with John Locke (1632-1704), who proposed that the mind was a tabula rasa – a white tablet – and that knowledge is acquired through sense experience and not through anything inherent or innate. The tenets of Empiricism have exerted a significant influence on English and Drama education, since both rely on holistic student engagement and promote experiential, embodied learning. See also Affective learning, Constructivism, Drama as a learning medium, Embodied knowledge. DC
Encomium (Greek: ‘celebration’, ‘praise’) A literary work, in prose or verse or a speech, that warmly and enthusiastically praises and pays high tribute to a person, idea or event. A famous example is “Encomium of Helen” (written in praise of Helen of Troy) by the Greek sophist Gorgias of Leontini (487–376 BC). Another example is Anne Bradstreet’s (1612-1672) elegiac poem, “In Memory of My Dear Grandchild Elizabeth Bradstreet, Who Deceased August, 1665, Being a Year and Half Old”. JM
End-rhyme A poetic device where the syllable/s or words at the end of two or more lines of verse rhyme. This is the most common form of rhyme in poetry. This example, with an end-rhyme scheme of aabb, is from William Blake’s (1757-1827) poem “The Tyger”: When the stars threw down their spears, And water’d the heaven with their tears, Did he smile his work to see? Did he who made the Lamb make thee? See also Poetry, Rhyme. JM
Enactment of the expert Enactment of the expert is a modified version of Mantle of the expert. It involves the students adopting a high-status role, such as professors: and exploring an issue. It is not as sustained or involved as Heathcote’s role activity (see Hughes, J. & Arnold R. (2008), “Drama and the teaching of poetry” in M. Anderson, J. Hughes & J. Manuel (eds) Drama and English teaching: Imagination, action and engagement, South Melbourne: Oxford University Press, pp 88-103). See also Drama, Drama as a learning medium, Embodied knowledge, Mantle of the Expert. JH
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E Engagement In an empathic intelligence model of pedagogy (Arnold 2005) engagement is an: ∼ ability to attract and hold students’ attention, directing it to centred, purposeful interactions with others and with learning materials ∼ ability to mirror the thoughts and feelings of others to enhance communication and commitment ∼ ability to channel teacher-power/authority/charisma for the benefit of students’ learning.
Engagement can be modelled by teachers through their focus on the learning needs of their students, and through their students’ perception of their being wholly present in the processes of teaching and learning. Teachers’ deep engagement in pedagogy is both a source of insight into effective practice and a model for students of a critical element in effective learning. See also Embodied knowledge, Student-centred learning. RA Reference: Arnold, R. (2005) Empathic Intelligence: Teaching, Learning, Relating, Sydney: UNSW Press.
Enlightenment (The) Also known as the Age of Reason, this historical period was characterised by progressive and liberal ideas that emerged in France in the 18th century. The ideas and ideals of The Enlightenment led to the French Revolution and became the core of Western intellectual and scientific thought. It stemmed from the 17th century Scientific Revolution and the ideas of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), John Locke (1632-1704) and Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727). Its basic tenet was the superiority of reason as a guide to all knowledge and human affairs. From this belief followed the idea of unfolding human progress and a challenging of traditional Christianity. Although difficult to pinpoint a starting date, the “Glorious Revolution” of 1688-89 in Britain is sometimes suggested as a trigger. The Enlightenment constituted a way of thinking as much as an historical period and was hugely influential on the cultural and intellectual life of European countries and Britain’s North American colonies. The Enlightenment gave rise to the development of naturalist, empiricist and materialist doctrines as well as strident opposition to the doctrines of the Church. It was not a uniform movement, as denoted by the materialism of the French ‘Encyclopedists’ such as Jean le Rond d’Alembert (1711-83), Denis Diderot (1713-84), Voltaire (1694-1788); the Scottish interest in political economy by figures such as David Hume (1711-76), Adam Smith (1723-90), Gilbert Stuart (1742-86); and the cultural concerns of the Germans, as reflected in the writing of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832), Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803), Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-81), and Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller (1759-1805). Two general principles of The Enlightenment were that virtue consists ultimately in knowledge and that all virtues are compatible with one another. The major ideas were published by Paul Henri d’Holbach (1723-1789) in the Système de la nature (1770) in which he asserts that nature is knowable through human experience and thought and not through the teachings of the Church. Reason was seen as the basis for moral systems. Berlin maintains that the principles of The Enlightenment were: 1. all genuine questions can be answered. If a question cannot be answered, then it is not a question 2. all genuine questions have knowable answers, discovered by methods that can be learnt and taught to others 3. all answers must be compatible with one another, otherwise chaos will ensue – one answer to a question cannot contradict another answer to another question. Therefore, one proposition cannot contradict another 4. deductive reasoning provided the method to obtain all answers. (Berlin, 2001: 21-24) Much of the writing, including poetry in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, imitated writing from 106
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E the period of the Roman Emperor Augustus (27 BS – 14 AD): Horace (65-8 BC), Virgil (70-19 BC), Homer (c. 8th century BC), Ovid (43 BC – 17 AD) and Tibullus (55-19 BC). Such imitation suggested a preference for an urbane and classical elegance in writing and the principles of harmony, decorum and proportion rather than a reliance on emotion and the imagination. See also Age of Reason, Neoclassical period. DC References: Berlin, I. (ed.) (2001),The Roots of Romanticism, The A.W. Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts. The National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Bollingen Series, xxxv: 45. Cuddon, J.A. 1991, Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, 3rd edn. London: Penguin Books Flew, A. (ed.) (1979) A Dictionary of Philosophy, London: Pan Books. Holman, C. H. (1976) A Handbook to Literature, 3rd edn. Indianapolis: The Odyssey Press. Watson, P. (2005) Ideas – A History from Fire to Freud, London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson. Williams, R. (1977) Culture and Society 1780-1950, Great Britain: Penguin Books.
English as a Second Language (ESL)/Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages Students whose native language is not English are commonly referred to as students from ‘language backgrounds other than English’ (LBOTE), students from ‘non-English speaking backgrounds’ (NESB) or ‘ESL students’. These students may be newly-arrived in the country and are beginning to learn English, or students who have been born in the country into a family from a non-English speaking background where English may not be spoken in the home – or at least not regularly spoken in the home. In schools, funding and the development of teaching/learning programs centre on developing English language skills and knowledge. Newly-arrived students may be enrolled in a specialised English centre and then move to mainstream school following intensive English language tuition. Schools often employ ESL teachers who have specialised knowledge and skills in addressing the needs of such students and use a variety of models to accommodate ESL students. These models may involve separate classes comprised solely of ESL students, ESL students integrated into mainstream classes in a team-teaching situation, or withdrawal of ESL students at strategic points of the teaching/learning cycle. Another name for the undertaking of teaching such learners is TESOL – ‘Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages’. DC
Epic (Greek: ‘speech’, ‘word’, ‘song’) An ancient genre of narrative verse. An epic is an extended poem that typically extols the virtues and triumphs of a hero. The hero undertakes a quest or journey, overcomes all adversity, and returns to his home as a transformed superhuman figure. The hero is celebrated as a model, archetype or exemplar of the qualities and moral virtues admired at the time. Originally an oral form, the epic was structured in smaller units or episodes to enable the story to be more easily memorised by the poet or performer and the audience. The earliest known exemplar of the genre is Gilgamesh, a Sumerian epic dating from circa 2700 BC. Other examples are Beowulf (c. 8th-11th century), Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey (9th-8th century BC), Virgil’s Aeneid (c. 30-20 BC), The Tale of Heike (14th century Japanese epic), John Milton’s Paradise Lost (1667), Dante’s Divine Comedy (c. 1304-21), and Ezra Pound’s Cantos (1915-1969). Epic poems (and other epic texts) usually contain six key elements: ∼ The epic hero is a well-known, superhuman figure. ∼ The hero journeys through adverse terrain and situations, often spanning many countries or the
entire universe. Virgil’s hero, Aeneas, journeys into the Underworld and this theme has been taken up by many later poets (for example: Dante, c.1265-1321), novelists, dramatists, filmmakers and artists. ∼ During the quest, the hero demonstrates exceptional courage and bravery to overcome all obstacles in his path and the victory is often marked by a wound or scar of some kind. The hero is often assisted by someone or something as he seeks to secure the prize for his efforts. The English Teacher’s Handbook
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E ∼ The hero encounters supernatural forces such as demons, angels and mythic figures. These may
assist the hero in his quest, or pose obstacles that are eventually defeated. The hero returns with the prize. ∼ The style is formal and elevated. ∼ The epic is told or performed in a formal manner. Epic poems are not common in contemporary literature, although the recognisable elements and archetypes of the epic are apparent in a wide range of types of texts, including novels (for example, Leo Tolstoy’s War and Peace, 1865-1869, and James Joyce’s Ulysses, 1922). Walt Whitman’s “Song of Myself” published in Leaves of Grass (1855) is an innovation of the traditional epic poem, in that the ‘self’ of this poem is not an elevated or heroic figure. The epic hero, along with the concept of the quest, is also very common in popular texts and media, especially in film and advertising, with many cultures and ages creating their own versions of the epic hero/heroine. Several episodes of The Simpsons appropriate, parody and satirise the hero’s journey: for example, the episode titled Homer's Odyssey (1990). The conceptual frame of the ancient epic and the idea of the hero’s quest are very common throughout the literature of many cultures. Students can compare and contrast representations, appropriations and allusions in a wide range of texts from print, film, media, multimedia and nonfiction. Picture books are also a rich source of stimulus for the exploration of themes related to the epic adventure. See also Hero/Heroine, Archetype. JM
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Take sections from The Odyssey (Book XI); The Aeneid (Book IV); and The Divine Comedy (Canto VI, lines 7-57). After comparing the hero’s journey in these texts, read Wilfred Owen’s “Strange Meeting” and identify the ways in which this poem appropriates and represents the idea of war as a journey into the Underworld. As visual stimulus, use the visionary English poet and artist, William Blake’s paintings (e.g. of Dante’s Inferno, Dante Running with the Three Beasts) and engravings representing and critiquing the work of the Ancient Greek poets. Students select compelling lines or sections of each printed text and interweave these to create a new ‘epic’. Visual representations may accompany this.
∼ There is a vast range of resource material online that covers themes of the epic hero and the hero’s journey.
∼ Students can participate in webquests that develop skills in writing, drawing analogies, representing, narrative structures and sequences that are non-linear; and the productive use of ICT. Participation also enhances understanding of myth, archetype, legend and epic.
∼ An interactive webquest that draws on elements of the epic is The Hero’s Journey:
∼ Students can create their own mythical adventures and stories on this and similar sites such as, for example: and .
∼ Virgil’s The Aeneid webquest allows students to explore gods and goddesses, create photo stories and write creatively:
Epic theatre A type of theatre developed by the playwrights Erwin Piscator (1893-1966) and Bertolt Brecht (1898-1956). The drama is structured after the ‘epic’ style, with a series of episodes, a narrator, songs, and other episodic fragments. Examples of epic theatre are Brecht’s Threepenny Opera (1928) and Mother Courage (1941). The effect of this kind of drama was to ensure the audience did not identify too strongly with the characters and to ensure they were consistently aware that they were watching a ‘constructed’ representation. See also Alienation effect. JH 108
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E Epigram (Greek: ‘to inscribe’) Originally an inscription, this term describes a short, pithy poem, often of a witty or humorous nature. It may also be satiric. Epigrams flourished in the Augustan Age. Hilaire Belloc’s (1870-1953) epigram is an example of the use of wit and irony: I'm tired of Love: I'm still more tired of Rhyme. But Money gives me pleasure all the time. S T Coleridge (1772-1834) cleverly defined the epigram in the following epigram: What is an Epigram? A dwarfish whole; Its body brevity, and wit its soul. See also Poetry. JM
Epigraph A brief inscription such as, for example, a quotation that occurs at the beginning of a longer text. The epigraph may provide a metaphorical perspective on the text’s thematic focus. The epigraph may be written by the composer of the longer text, or it may be a quotation or extract from another source. JM
Epilogue A final speech in a play that may reflect, comment on or sum up the preceding action. Epilogues also occur in prose as a concluding chapter, section or overview of the text. See also Drama, Drama terms. JM
Epiphany (Greek: ‘surprise’) A moment of great insight, awakening, understanding or realisation. An epiphany can occur unexpectedly and often dramatically alters or expands the individual’s perspective on some event, person or aspect of life. Characters in texts may have an epiphany. An example occurs in Patrick White’s The Tree of Man (1955) when Stan, towards the end of his life, “sees God in a glob of spittle”. See also Anagnorisis, Climax. JM
Episodic A technique in narrative in which a series of loosely connected episodes, incidents or events constitute the text, rather than a fully developed, continuous plot. The episodes may be discrete, stand-alone sections that may be connected by a character/s, setting or narrator. An example of an episodic novel is Henry Fielding’s The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling (1749). Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland (1865) can also be regarded as an episodic text. Picture books such as Shaun Tan’s The Arrival (2007) may be considered episodic texts since they do not work through a conventional narrative structure. Rather, they rely on unifying elements such as recurring visual images, page layout, tone and mood, colour and perspective. Any page of such a text can be read as a discrete visual text, but it takes on heightened significance in the context of the whole work. Episodic techniques have been adopted in some multimedia texts such as, for example, hypertext fiction. See also Graphic novel, Multimedia. JM
Epistolary A novel that is made up entirely of letters, usually the exchange of letters between characters in the novel. The epistolary novel was common in the 18th century, and two well-known examples are by the English writer Samuel Richardson: Pamela (1740) and Clarissa (1748). A more recent example is the Australian writer John Marsden’s Letters from the Inside (2001). See also Fiction, Nonfiction. JM The English Teacher’s Handbook
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E Epitaph (Greek: ‘upon a tomb’) A short piece of writing or inscription on a grave/tomb that articulates praise for the deceased. Sometimes writers compose their own epitaphs before their death, as was the case for WB Yeats: Cast a cold eye On life, on death. Horseman, pass me by! It is widely believed that Shakespeare also wrote his epitaph that is inscribed above his tomb: Good friend for Jesus sake forbeare, To dig the dust enclosed here. Blessed be the man that spares these stones, And cursed be he that moves my bones. The epitaph on the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier at the Australian War Memorial reads: An Unknown Australian Soldier Killed in the War of 1914-1918 Epitaphs can also be humorous. For example, the following humorous epitaph appears on the tombstone of the comedian Spike Milligan: I told you I was sick. JM
Epithalamion (Greek: ‘nuptial chamber’) An occasional poem written for a wedding, to honour and celebrate the newly-weds. It was sometimes sung outside the wedding chamber, or recited during the ceremony. It was a popular genre during the Renaissance. Examples of epithalamion include: Edmund Spenser’s “Epithalamion” (1595), WH Auden’s “Epithalamion” (1939) and Dannie Abse’s “Epithalamium” (1963). See also Occasional verse. JM
Epithet (Greek: ‘added’) The addition of an adjective or an adjectival phrase to a noun to qualify, embellish or enrich the description such that it becomes an established and even decorative phrase. Epithets were common in epic poems. Epithets from Homer’s epic poetry include: ‘rose-red fingers’; ‘glinting helmet’; ‘high-hearted’; ‘all-powerful’; and ‘silver-footed’. JM
Eponymous The term applied to a text in which the title includes a part or the whole of the central character’s name. There are abundant examples of eponymous texts (such as, for instance, novels, films, drama, poetry and television programs). For example, Jane Austen’s (1775-1817) Emma is an eponymous novel since the central character’s name is also the title of the novel. The eponymous film Frida (2002) traces the life of the Mexican artist Frida Khalo. JM
Eschatology (Greek: ‘study of the last’) The exploration and depiction of the end of the world. Eschatological texts focus on Death, Judgement, Heaven and Hell. Eschatology is prevalent in religious texts, particularly art works that portray interpretations of the end of the world. An example of an important text with an eschatological tenor is The Sermon of the Wolf to the English (c. 1014) by Wulfstan II (the Archbishop of York and Bishop of Worcester). Sections of Michelangelo’s (14751564) frescos in the Sistine Chapel depict scenes of The Last Judgement. Théodore Géricault’s (17911824) painting, The Raft of the Medusa (1818-1819) had an enormous impact at the time of its exhibition and signalled the beginning of the Romantic movement in art. The art of the Flemish painter Hieronymus Bosch (1450-1516) provides compelling representations of Heaven and Hell. Similarly, Francis Ford Coppola’s 1979 film Apocalypse Now is a powerful representation of eschatological themes. JM 110
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E Essay (Latin: ‘weigh’) A composition which may cover one or a number of topics and promotes one or a series of themes or arguments, usually in prose. Usually serious in purpose and tone, it stems from the Latin word ‘exagere’, which means to weigh, sift, winnow. The essay has a long history, from 3rd century BC with the Characters of Theophrastus, Seneca’s Epistle to Lucilius and Meditations by Marcus Aurelius. Michel Eyqem de Montaigne (1533-1592) is generally considered father of the essay and used the form as a means to offer his thoughts and ideas, discuss matters of experience and convey feelings using a personalised voice. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) generally labelled his works as essays or counsels and considered them as directions for people and are quite didactic and utilitarian in nature. The rise in popularity of the periodical essay in the 18th century through writers such as Richard Steele (1672-1729) and Joseph Addison (1672-1719) saw the circulation of a number of publications such as Defoe’s A Weekly Review of Affairs in France (1704); Female Tatler (1709-10); Tatler (1709-11); Spectator (1711-12; 1714); The Examiner (1710-14); and The Guardian (1713). Addison’s critical essays in Spectator fall into four categories. The first deals with ‘wit’ (April to December 1711); the second category is two essays on the ballad of ‘Chevy Chase’ (May 1711); then papers on John Milton’s Paradise Lost (January to May 1712) and finally, the series ‘On the pleasures of the imagination’ (June to July 1712). Dr Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) wrote a number of essays for periodicals such as Spectator, Rambler and Idler and one of his most famous essays, Life of Addison, provides the reader with insights into his style and preoccupations. Other famous essayists of this era include Charles Lamb (1775-1834), William Hazlitt (1778-1830), Thomas De Quincy (1785-1859) and Leigh Hunt (1784-1859). The popularity of the formal essay in the 19th century was largely due to the rise of the critical magazine such as the Edinburgh Review (1802), the Quarterly Review (1809) and the Westminster Review (1824). Book reviews written as long critical essays covered historical, biographical, scientific, educational, religious, ethical and contemporary events of the era. The formal essay, while varying in length, values unity, structure and insight. It is identical to factual or theoretical prose and literary effect is secondary to serious purpose. Its status in secondary and tertiary education remains prominent in both coursework and examinations. While there are different types of essays such as a discussion or a comparative literary analysis, a standard structure of an introduction, body and conclusion is often used. This structure allows the problem and the stance of the writer to be stated, with a foreshadowing of the major elements of the argument to be outlined in the introduction. The body of the essay requires a full explication of the arguments and ideas of the writer, fully supported by evidence in the form of quotations and relevant information and analysis, while the conclusion affirms the writer’s arguments and may include relevant quotations. Notable essayists include Mark Twain (1835-1910); Hilaire Belloc (1870-1953); Virginia Woolf (1882-1941); Kingsley Amis (1922-1995); Frank Kermode (1919); Susan Sontag (1933-2004); Germaine Greer (1939-); JM Coetzee (1940-); Umberto Eco (1932-); and John Ralston Saul (1947-). See also Analysis, Argument, Composing, Debate, Nonfiction, Rhetoric, Speech, Thesis. DC
Ethical criticism A critical approach that seeks to reveal the moral and ethical systems at work in a text. This approach not only explores the substance of a text: it also examines the ways in which the practice of interpretation and evaluation of literature and other art has ethical dimensions. A story, for example, has the potential to influence the ethical stance, perspective and behaviour of the reader and this potential needs to be made explicit. In this sense, ethical criticism has its roots in the work of Plato, Aristotle and other Greek philosophers, each of whom explored the capacity of art to shape the ethical and moral life – in short, the ways of thinking, feeling and being - of the audience. A story has the potential to produce in the audience moral changes – whether these be ‘good’ or The English Teacher’s Handbook
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E ‘bad’. The role of the ethical critic is to render transparent the ethical positions represented in and promoted through the text and implied by the author, and the ethical position of the reader in responding to the text. The prominent ethical critics of the later part of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century include Wayne C Booth (1921-2005) and Martha Nussbaum (1947-). See also Implied author, Implied reader, Rhetorical criticism. See also Interpretation, Literary criticism. JM
Ethos (Greek: ‘character’) A term to describe the prevailing mood, tone and attitudes generated and conveyed by a text or associated with a character. It was one of the terms developed by Aristotle (384-322 BC) to explicate the conventions of the classic genres, along with: ∼ Mimesis imitation or representation ∼ Catharsis purification or purgation ∼ Peripeteia reversal in the plot or the fortunes of the protagonist ∼ Anagnorisis recognition and revelation ∼ Hamartia a miscalculation or tragic mistake or flaw ∼ Mythos the plot ∼ Dianoia the theme ∼ Lexis the diction or speech ∼ Melos melody ∼ Opsis spectacle See also Conventions, Drama, Drama terms, Mood. DC
Etymology (Greek: ‘study of’, ‘true sense’) The study of the sources and development of words and morphemes. Etymology as an analysis of the structure of language centres on a study of special varieties of language, particularly scientific and administrative language and the language of expository prose. Etymology as the history of words helps to define these same styles by defining an area of English vocabulary that derived from classical languages. DC
Eulogy (Greek: ‘praise’) A formal speech or written work paying tribute to a person or thing. It is usually associated with funeral rituals and is written in praise of the deceased. See also Elegy, Encomium, Obituary, Occasional verse. JM
Euphemism (Greek: ‘fortunate speech’) A word or phrase that is considered as a mild or dignified substitute for another word or phrase that has offensive, uncomfortable, embarrassing or undignified connotations. Widespread in contemporary society, examples of euphemisms include: ‘senior citizen’, for ‘old-age pensioner’; ‘rest room’ for ‘toilet’ or ‘lavatory’; ‘retrenchment’ for ‘sacking’; ‘passed away’ for ‘died’; ‘collateral damage’ for ‘civilian deaths’; ‘anti-personnel weapon’ for ‘a weapon which kills civilians’. Euphemisms are coined and maintain their currency depending on the mores and acceptable language codes of a particular time and place (and age-group). In the Victorian era, for example, it was impolite to refer to the legs on a table or chair, since the word ‘legs’ was a covered part of a woman’s body. The most common euphemisms are those associated with death and sex. See also Language. JM
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E Evaluation (French: ‘to evaluate’) A term with two meanings in the context of English education. 1. The process of engaging with and interpreting texts requires not only description, explanation and analysis, but also a judgement about the effectiveness and value of the text. In this sense, evaluation requires an informed judgement about the worth of the text, based on an informed understanding of the meaning, purpose and form of the text. An approach to texts that moves students from a descriptive and explanatory response through to an evaluative response is based on the questions: ∼ what is being said (not said)? ∼ where is it being said? ∼ who is saying it? ∼ how is it being said? ∼ why is it being said?; and ∼ what is the worth of what is being said? Every act of literary criticism requires value judgements as does every act of engaging with and responding to language and texts. Making explicit the basis of these judgements is central to the development of students’ evaluative skills. 2. In classroom pedagogical practice, evaluation refers to an appraisal of a teaching/learning program, unit of work or student achievement by the individual teacher and/or a colleague at the conclusion of the teaching/learning cycle. The criteria for such an appraisal usually include making a judgement on the effectiveness of the program/unit of work in light of: the specific abilities, interests and learning needs of the students; curriculum requirements as outlined in the relevant syllabus document; teaching and learning strategies; the resources used; the period of time allowed; and student achievement/performance, including the demonstration of knowledge, skills and understanding. An evaluation of a teaching/learning program or unit of work will also involve planning for future student learning based on the conclusions of the evaluation. Sources of evidence for evaluating can include: ∼ the teacher’s ongoing reflections ∼ anecdotal evidence from feedback from students ∼ surveys and interviews ∼ work samples ∼ feedback from other teachers and parents. See also Assessment, Interpretation, Program, Literary criticism, Values. DC, JM
Existentialism A philosophical movement made popular in the 20th century. The figures associated with existentialism were Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980), Simon de Beauvoir (1908-1986), Albert Camus (1913-1960), Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855), and Martin Heidegger (1889-1976). Existentialism claims that morality can never be defined outside the self, or imposed upon the self, but is made by the radically free self. Writers like Sartre emphasised the power of human beings to craft their own characters and destiny, rather than agreeing to an agenda and a set of morals dictated by a governing body. It is the particular attribute of the human being that we are free to be able to choose who we are and what we will do to create society. Sartre and de Beauvoir resisted the idea that morality and goodness were things that could be defined outside the self or institutionalised, and as a result, existentialism has been accused of being morally relativist. That is, if everyone satisfies themselves that they are ‘moral’, then it is possible that all individuals live without reference to one another and social mayhem results; there are no objective rules to follow to ensure society’s safety. On the other hand, Sartre claims that the truly The English Teacher’s Handbook
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E morally fulfilled individual accepts this individual challenge and becomes ‘authentic’. The human being who shirks the responsibility to craft their own character and to take responsibility for their own moral development lives in what Sartre termed ‘bad faith’ – that is, by accepting the moral maxims of an outside governing body and claiming ‘I have no choice’, such individuals are shirking the responsibility of becoming truly human. Therefore, in Sartre’s approximation, we become oriented toward one another the more ‘authentic’ we become. In literature, Sartre’s novel Nausea (1938), Franz Kafka’s novels, Simone de Beauvoir’s novels, and Albert Camus’ novels detail protagonists who are in varying states of responding to this imperative to become ‘authentic’. Some give in to the pressure to acquiesce to ‘Them’, or ‘the Public’ – that is, morality from governing forces and a set of rules – and some become close to the ‘authentic’ state that existentialists pursue. SGS Reference: Cooper, David E. (2002) ‘Existentialism’ The Literary Encyclopedia,.
Experiential learning This term carries two meanings. 1. It refers to a model of learning in which students are provided with opportunities to actively explore and inquire, apply knowledge, skills, understandings and values in contexts that are connected to their lives. Experiential learning involves, as Borzak states, ‘a direct encounter with the phenomena being studied rather than merely thinking about the encounter, or only considering the possibility of doing something about it.’ (Borzak, 1981, quoted in Brookfield, 1983). This learning takes place within structured settings such as classrooms and relies on activity-based, learner-centred and inquiry models of pedagogy. 2. The second type of experiential learning is the kind of real-world learning that occurs in everyone’s day-to-day life as part of their ordinary activities. Both types of experiential learning rely on the engagement of the senses and the opportunity to reflect on that experience in order to learn and understand. Experiential learning is based on the ideas of John Dewey (18591952) and emphasises the developmental nature of all learning. David A Kolb and Roger Fry (1984) developed a model of experiential learning based on four elements: 1. concrete experience 2. observation and reflection 3. formation of abstract concepts 4. testing in new situations. According to this model, learning is cyclical, spiralling and reflexive. The principles of experiential learning are embedded in contemporary English education, with its emphasis on students’ direct experience of language and texts; connecting learning to life; ‘making and doing’ as well as responding and appreciating; and the process of moving through stages of engagement to come to meaning and then synthesise new understandings through application to new situations and experiences. See also Affective learning, Cambourne’s 8 Conditions for Language Learning, Constructivism, Cooperative learning, Engagement, Group work. JM References: Brookfield, S.D. (1983) Adult Learning, Adult Education and the Community, Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Dewey, J. (1993) How We Think, NY: Heath. Kolb, D. A. (1984) Experiential Learning, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Explication (French: ‘explication of the text’) The process of explaining a text through a close and formal analysis of the form and content of the text. This method is perhaps best illustrated by Practical Criticism – A Study of Literary Judgement by IA Richards (1929) and Seven Types of Ambiguity by William Empson (1930). See also Analysis, Close reading, New Criticism. DC
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E Exposition: (Latin: ‘a setting forth’) 1. As envisaged by genre theory, an exposition is a factual type of text, constructed by a writer to expound or set forth information or a viewpoint. Its purpose is to persuade the audience with the sequential development of an argument and the use of relevant evidence to support this argument. According to genre theory, an exposition may have specific structural features such as a lead-in sentence to state the topic and capture interest; an introduction which signposts sentences to the issues to be raised; one paragraph per main idea; each paragraph starts with a topic sentence containing an assertion; arguments show logical progression; arguments are prioritised and sequenced; the conclusion summarises content and contains no new information. The language features often avoid the use of the first person; use strong modal verbs such as ‘must’, ‘should’, ‘will not’; and use words expressing certainty such as ‘definitely’, ‘ultimately’, ‘undoubtedly’, ‘unequivocally’. Linking words and phrases which express an accumulation of evidence to support the central argument such as ‘furthermore…’; ‘in addition…’; ‘moreover…’ are commo0n in an exposition.. 2. In Drama, exposition refers to the essential information a dramatist provides to the audience at the beginning of a play about the plot and forthcoming events. An audience needs to know who the characters are and what is happening in a play. It is rare for a character to walk on stage and say to the audience Hello, my name is Hamlet and I’m Prince of Denmark. A playwright needs to give the audience background information about the characters on stage and outline the events which have preceded the action. This is known as the exposition and provides essential information for the audience and for the progression of the plot or action. Such an exposition occurs in Shakespeare’s The Tempest, (1610-11) Act 1, Scene ii, where Prospero explains to Miranda the past events and experiences that have led to their present situation on the island. See also Analysis, Argument, Drama, Drama terms. DC, JM, JH
Expressive criticism An approach to the study and analysis of texts that considers the work of art as an expression of the composer’s personality, state of mind, emotions and imagination. New Critics rejected Expressive criticism as overly subjective and therefore flawed and unreliable as an approach to evaluating the worth and value of a text. The American New Critics, WK Wimsatt and MC Beardsley, coined the term Intentional Fallacy to describe the rejection of the assumption and the idea that the author can be a reliable source of meaning in the study of a text, since the reader can never definitively know the author’s ‘intention’ when the work was created. The Romantic critics, however, who preceded the New Critics, placed considerable emphasis on the composer’s feelings, imagination and emotional transparency in judging the effectiveness, quality and impact of a work. Wordsworth articulated this view when he said: …For all good poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: and though this be true, Poems to which any value can be attached were never produced on any variety of subjects but by a man who, being possessed of more than usual organic sensibility, had also thought long and deeply. (Preface to Lyrical Ballads, 1798) See also Intentional Fallacy, Interpretation, Literary criticism, New Criticism, Romanticism. JM Reference: Wimsatt, W.K. & Beardsley, M.C. (1954) The Verbal Icon: Studies in the Meaning of Poetry, Kentucky: University of Kentucky Press.
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F Faction A type of text that is based on actual historical events and/or people, but shapes these events imaginatively. Faction texts may also be known as historical or nonfiction novels (although the conjunction of ‘nonfiction’ and ‘novel’ is on the surface an apparent contradiction). Although prose fiction often draws on and imaginatively reshapes actual events, people, and places, a faction text relies more heavily on ‘fact’ in its rendering of the story. Examples of faction include: Jean Bedford’s Sister Kate (1982, based on the experiences of Kate, the sister of Dan and Ned Kelly); Thomas Keneally’s Schindler’s Ark (1982); Pat Barker’s Regeneration trilogy - Regeneration (1990), The Eye in the Door (1993) and The Ghost Road (1995) in which the experiences of the poets Siegfried Sassoon and Wilfred Owen and the psychiatrist WHR Rivers are fictionalised; Frank Moorehouse’s Grand Days (1993) and Dark Palace (2000); Peter Carey’s True History of the Kelly Gang (2000); Geraldine Brooks’ People of the Book (2008); and Nick Bleszynski’s Bloodlust (2008). See also Historical fiction. JM
Fairy tale A traditional story or folktale that deals with fairies, witches, dragons, princesses, trolls, goblins, giants, step-mothers, ogres, unicorns, elves, magic, the supernatural and imaginary worlds. Often, the fantastical fairy tale characters engage in some way with ordinary humans. Typically, fairy tales begin with the phrase ‘once upon a time’ signalling that the story will be set in an enchanted realm, far beyond the everyday, but connected to it in some way, even if metaphorically or allegorically. Many familiar fairy tales are remarkably universal in the sense that common elements of a fairy tale are evident across cultures and time. Some have argued that this universality can be explained by the tales’ focus on universal human experiences, myths and symbols. For example, a fairy tale such as Cinderella has been reworked in a variety of cultural and language contexts over the centuries. Visit for online versions of Cinderella from a great range of historical periods and cultures (e.g. English, French, German, Norwegian, Irish, Italian, Russian, Vietnamese). Students can read and compare these versions, exploring the influence of cultural and other contexts on the representation of aspects of the story such as, for example, gender, marriage, family, destiny, and fate. Fairy tales have not always been intended just for children – adults and children were the intended audience for fairy tales until around the 19th century, when they became identified as children’s literature. The Brothers Grimm (1785, 1786) reworked a number of their tales, removing sexual references and explicit violence, although violent punishments for the villains of some fairy tales along with violence and macabre events remain in many texts. Fairy tales typically carry a ‘lesson’ – a strong moral and a compelling message – and these are often based on the particular cultural or religious values and beliefs predominant at the time. The violence visited on the apparent wrong-doers in the tales was intended to enforce the fear of dire consequences for the audience if they were to behave in a similar way in their own lives. In this 116
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F sense, fairy tales, like fables and parables, may perform a role in social regulation whereby the story supports certain ways of being and thinking, especially when it comes to gender. The characters in the tales who break the accepted codes of behaviour are often punished or labelled as ‘wicked’ or ‘evil’. The tales often rely on archetypes and stereotypes (e.g. the princess in distress, the handsome prince, the wicked step-mother, the lost or abandoned child and so on). For this reason, fairy tales are a powerful stimulus for writers who rework the tales, breaking the conventions and assumptions of the original tale. Such transformations are known as fractured fairy tales. Fairy tales have been subjected to diverse analysis and interpretation within critical frameworks such as, for example, Psychoanalytic criticism, Archetypal criticism, Feminist criticism and Cultural Studies. They have also been adapted to and appropriated in many other types of texts. Disney has produced many animations of fairy tales, and the film Princess Mononoke (1997) is based on folkloric and fairy tale elements. The Shrek movies (2001, 2004, 2007) satirise and subvert the codes, conventions, characters and moral lessons of well-known fairy tales. The three Shrek movies are examples of fractured fairy tales: elements of the original fairy tale are replaced or transformed in order to draw attention to and critique the stereotyping, sexism, racism and assumptions in the original tale. It has become common to use the term ‘fairy tale’ to describe a happy, joyous event: e.g. ‘fairy tale wedding’; ‘fairy tale ending’. Such usage is ironic given the dark thematic focus and unhappy outcomes for many of the characters in traditional fairy tales. Well-known writers of traditional fairy tales include the Brothers Grimm, Giambattista Basile (15751632), Madame d’Aulnoy (1651-1705), Charles Perrault (1628-1703) and Hans Christian Andersen (1805-1875). See also Allegory, Archetype, Children’s literature, Film, Intertextuality, Fiction, Story, Representing, Writing. JM
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Fractured fairy tales:
∼ Select resources such as picture books (The Stinky Cheese Man and other Fairly Stupid Tales, J Scieszka; Cinder-Edna, E. Jackson; The Paper Bag Princess, R Munsch); Young Adult books (Once Upon a More Enlightened Time, JF Garner; The Prince of the Pond, D Napoli); Briar Rose, Jane Yolan, or an anthology of ‘fractured fairy tales’ (such as Jay William’s The Practical Princes and other Liberating Fairy Tales). ∼ Using one or more of these resources, explore the ways in which the composer has recast the fairy tale and the impact of this. Compare this to the original tale.
∼ Students choose one fairy tale from their own memory and re-tell this by changing one or more key elements (e.g. gender; time and setting; sequence; action; outcomes).
∼ Students compare and contrast their fractured fairy tales with the original, focusing on techniques of appropriation and transformation and on purpose and audience.
Fantasy (Greek: ‘to make visible’) Usually depicting a deliberate departure from reality, this term is sometimes equated with ‘fancy’. While there are many variations on the constitutive elements of a work of fantasy, it is not uncommon to find unreal or nonexistent pre-industrial settings in which magic and the supernatural, magical and evil creatures, fantastic artefacts and warring nations are central to the dynamism of the plot. Often based on or extending myths and legends, the characters in works of fantasy, sometimes themselves endowed with magical or supernatural powers, find themselves searching and struggling, battling or enlisting the forces of good or evil to fulfil their quest. In fantasy there are often events and experiences that are impossible or improbable in the ‘real’ world. Suspense, intrigue and mystery often carry the plot. Fantasy texts create a ‘fantasy world’ that contains fantastical elements (supernatural, magic, fantasylands, invented creatures, mystical experiences, myths, legends, monsters) and has a set of rules, laws and conventions for characters to adhere to. The setting, established at the outset, is internally consistent throughout the The English Teacher’s Handbook
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F text. Fantasy does not usually contain graphic horror elements (as in Horror) or a focus on technology (as in Science Fiction). Fantasy, as a genre, is extremely popular with adolescents. Fantasy texts are regularly published as a ‘series’ of novels. Examples of fantasy include: The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings (JRR Tolkien, 1937-1949); The Chronicles of Narnia (CS Lewis, 1949-1954); Peter Pan (J.M. Barrie, 1902); Alice in Wonderland (Lewis Carroll, 1865); Artemis Fowl series (Eoin Colfer, 2001-2008); Harry Potter series (J K Rowling, 1997-2007). In the fantasy film genre, Fritz Lang’s Metropolis (1927), Merian C Cooper’s King Kong (1933), It’s a Wonderful Life (1946) directed by Frank Capra (1897-1991), Star Wars (1977), directed by George Lucas (1944) and The Lord of the Rings trilogy directed by Peter Jackson (2001-2003) have all been influential. See also Fiction. DC
Feminist literary criticism Feminist literary criticism draws its impetus from the broader movement of feminism that protests for the rights of women to be equal to men. In the literary context, feminism takes many forms but is broadly drawn together by the effort to emancipate women from the dominant male rule in society that had ‘silenced women’s voices’ (Rivkin and Ryan, 1997: 184-5). The advent of feminist literary criticism is often placed in the 1960s and 1970s, emanating from the work of Germaine Greer (1939-), Kate Millett (1934-) and Adrienne Rich’s speech to the Modern Language Association in 1970 (Rivkin and Ryan1997: 184-185). However, the roots of this resistance can be traced as far back as Mary Wollstonecraft’s “Vindication of the Rights of Women” (1792) and Virginia Woolf’s A Room of One’s Own (1929) where women theorised about the difficulty of women writing, the way women are portrayed within texts, and how texts written by women are placed within or on the peripheries of a patriarchal canon. Generally speaking, feminism is united in an effort to protect and emancipate the female ‘other’ from the patriarchal reach of the traditional canon. As such, some of the efforts made by feminist literary theory are to expose that patriarchy, and to show the ways in which the patriarchy has either overtly or covertly silenced women’s voices. This done, feminist literary theory takes an essentially ethical posture for social justice in different directions: 1. Some have taken cues from deconstruction and sought to expose the ways in which the feminine ‘other’ has been oppressed within philosophy and within language. Some of these theorists are Julia Kristeva (1941-), Hélène Cixous (1937-), and Luce Irigaray (1932-), whose work is referred to as ‘French feminism’. This brand of feminism tends to assert that ‘the feminine’ is itself a construct and that what is radically other must remain, simply, ‘difference’. Not surprisingly, each of the French feminists (and others within the traditions) strenuously rejected the notion that they should be universally grouped together. 2. Others have taken issue with the canon itself, writing to expose the ways in which the literary canon has been formed to promote men and silence women. Of critical importance in this regard is Elaine Showalter’s work (1977, 2001), where Showalter seeks to resurrect neglected women authors who might have been included in a literary canon if the patriarchy had not been so oppressive. Consequent literary theory in this tradition examines the works of little known-women authors, often working in and around the margins of traditional male authors and their texts, and works to show the ways in which these female-authored texts have value. This type of feminism also works to show the ways in which critical sensibilities are conditioned and created to appreciate work written by men, so as to make the patriarchal canon ‘watertight’. This type of interrogation attempts to consequently invent and promote new feminine critical sensibilities so that we are able to see the literary merit of these neglected texts. 3. Still more feminists deal with the way the feminine is portrayed and depicted within the text itself. Susan Gubar and Sandra Gilbert’s book The Madwoman in the Attic (1979) was seminal in this regard, and helped to show the way in which women had been trapped in what Lacan might call the ‘male gaze’ – “those mythic masks male artists have fastened over 118
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F her human face both to lessen their dread of her ‘inconstancy’ and – by identifying her with the ‘eternal types’ they have themselves invented – to possess her more thoroughly” (Gilbert and Gubar, 2000: 16-17). This type of feminist literary criticism seeks to read these texts with resistance and consequently to show the ways in which men caricature and possess women through oppressive metaphor and image. 4. Other feminists have worked to expose which societal structures work against women, and can be loosely known as ‘material feminists’. One such example is the work of bell hooks, who seeks to expose the ways in which women are systematically shut out of rigid and hierarchical structures of power (1989). See also Gaze theory, Gender, Interpretation, Literary criticism. SGS, JM References: Gilbert, S. & Gubar S. (1979) The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth Century, New Haven and London: Yale University Press. hooks, b. (1989) Talking Back: Thinking Feminist, Thinking Black, Boston, MA: South End Press. Rivkin, J. & Ryan, M. (2004) Literary Theory: An Anthology. 2nd edn. London: Blackwell. Showalter, E. (1977) A Literature of Their Own: British Women Novelists from Brontë to Lessing, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Showalter, E. (2001) Inventing Herself, New York: Scribner.
1. When reading/viewing a text you may ask:
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ How is gender represented and constructed in this text? ∼ What are the text’s assumptions about gender? ∼ What characteristics, responsibilities, freedoms, and desires are attributed to or assigned to each gender in this text?
∼ How are men and women represented in this text? ∼ How do the male and female characters interact and relate to each other in this text?
∼ What are the female points of view, concerns, and values presented in this text? ∼ Would this text be different if the male and female roles were reversed? 2. Select a range of texts by male and female writers that can be paired and read together. Pairing of texts highlights the differences in approach, language, values, point of view and ways of thinking that may not be as evident if each text were to be considered individually. Examples of texts that can be paired are:
∼ Emily Dickinson “I’m Nobody!” / Walt Whitman “Song of Myself” ∼ Charlotte Perkins Gilman “The Yellow Wallpaper” / Edgar Allen Poe “The Black Cat”
∼ HD (Hilda Doolittle) ‘Trilogy’ (The Walls Do Not Fall) / TS Eliot The Wasteland
Fiction (L.atin: ‘create’ ‘to fashion’) Something imagined and invented. Fiction is a collective term for texts that tell a story, usually in narrative form. Fictional texts are distinguished from factual texts in that they ‘made-up’ and nonfiction is based on actual people, places and events. Fiction encompasses the main genres of novels, novellas, short stories, epics, other prose fiction and narrative fiction works as well as oral forms of imaginative storytelling. Although fiction relies on the imagination and creativity to construct imaginary worlds and people, it draws on, and to a greater or lesser extent relies on, elements of the ‘real’ world or cultural context of the composer and audience in representing that world through language. Imaginatively crafting these elements into a fictional form entails selecting, shaping, interpreting, ordering and representing ideas, people, places, events, experiences, and views/of the world. Decisions about the purpose, intended audience, form, structure and language are central to the creative process and involve the composer’s use of formal conventions and codes associated with a particular genre. The English Teacher’s Handbook
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F Fiction as an oral form is as old as story itself and is generally defined as an imaginative text that contains character/s, plot/s, setting/s, and theme/s that are in part or wholly imagined. While the genres of fiction are extensive, the features of one genre may overlap with other genres, and composers frequently experiment with the conventions and features of a particular genre to extend its purpose, form and subject matter. When exploring and studying fiction, it is important that students develop a knowledge and understanding of the ways in which fictional texts are constructed – that is, they ways in which they come to be as artefacts by drawing on a range of cultural, literary, historical and other materials. There is an abundance of resources to support teachers and students in engaging with, responding to and creating fiction. Resources such as Reading the World in Fiction series (eds. Berchervaise et al, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000) and Hayhoe and Parker’s Working with Fiction (1984) provide a wealth of practical strategies that can be integrated into units of work, writing programs and wide reading programs. For further practical strategies see also Author, Audience, Four phases of classroom experience, Literature, Narrative, Novel, Reading, Short story, Text. DC, JM References: Berchervaise, N. & Sneddon, H. (1995) Reading the world in fiction: ideas for teaching fiction, years 7-12, Sydney: Phoenix Education. Hayhoe, M. & Parker, S. (1984) Working with Fiction , London: Edward Arnold.
Film A multimodal media text that is studied and produced in subject English. In their recent book on teaching and making film, Anderson and Jefferson argue that Learning about and learning to make film is important because it raises our consciousness and awareness of life. The power of the lens is its ability to communicate detail, to convey the subtlety of nuances such as the power and meaning of a look. While all of these qualities have important ramifications for learning across the curriculum, we should not necessarily rely on pragmatic arguments. While we would argue that film can and does teach many things that are useful outside film learning itself (literacy, social skills, and so on), that should not be the sole raison d’être for teaching the screen. Film should be taught because it is intrinsically worthwhile as an area of schooling, and ultimately a way for us to understand others, our world and ourselves. The second ‘short answer’ is that we increasingly have no choice. Students are now born into a media-rich world where most of the time they are being recorded and often they are recording. Marc Prensky (2001) calls these students digital natives because they have not had to struggle like their digital immigrant elders to get used to the technology that is swirling around them. (Anderson and Jefferson, 2009: 2) Film as a mode of production and as a broad genre can be categorized, interpreted, understood and made according to a range of criteria: ∼ Sub-genre: for example, thriller, crime/detective, gothic, suspense, western, fantasy, science
fiction, chick-flick, comedy, romance, drama, action and adventure, spy, bio-pic, docudrama, documentary, art-house, film noir, B-grade, and children’s. ∼ Historical period, artistic movement or country: for example, French 1960s, Russian 1970s,
German 1920s, Hollywood 1950s, French realism, expressionism, and neorealism. ∼ Director, producer or studio: for example, Alfred Hitchcock, Steven Spielberg, Ingar Bergman,
Francis Ford Coppola, George Lucas, Jean Renoir, Paramount, Fox, Columbia, MGM, Warner Bros, and Disney. ∼ Technology and means of production: for example, silent movies, animation, celluloid,
computer-generated, low budget, and big budget. Since film is a form that depends on collaboration (between, for example, actors, directors, screenwriters, editors, cinematographers, set designers, costume designers, musicians, producer/s and 120
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E a host of other technical experts), it offers students a rich context for learning about the complex art, craft and aesthetic of film production. The study of film requires the developing knowledge and understanding of the great range of codes and conventions that cue the viewer into the genre, form or style of the film, building expectations about, for example, the film’s characters, plot, action and resolution. Through examining and analyzing the techniques employed, the detail of composition, sequencing, point of view, editing, the intended audience, thematic focus, and so on, students acquire a developing command of the distinctive features of films as media and as forms of culture with specific purposes: “A student who is literate and creative with film is better equipped to realise the potential of film’s capacity to influence as a pervasive and persuasive social medium of communication.” (Anderson and Jefferson, 2009: 58) Importantly, “as students make films, they must understand how to read images so they have the power to work vitally with the art form, and in doing so become more discriminating consumers of the medium...To read the images of film effectively, we believe it is necessary to learn and control the language of film.” (Anderson and Jefferson, 2009: 36) There is a wealth of resources, in print and on the web, to support teachers and students in the study of film, and in filmmaking. (See references below). The following tables provide simplified overviews of the history of film, a framework for analysing film, and practical strategies for teaching film. See Appendicies for a full table of film and visual literacy terms.
A brief history of film Year 1839
Inventor/Movement Louis Daguerre
Innovation Permanent images on metal plates, ‘Daguerrotypes’
Techniques / Characteristics • Images captured permanently • Development from the camera obscura
1888
Louis Le Prince
Strips of film
•
Images sequenced
1891
William KL Dickson (assistant of Recording of sequential Thomas Edison) photographs in a Kinetograph
• •
Peep show device Illusion of a fluid motion
1895
August and Louis Lumiere
• •
Recorded and projected motion pictures for a theatre audience Reality shots
Cinematographe
1902
Georges Melies
A Trip to the Moon (1902) The Palace of the Arabian Nights (1905)
• •
Special effects Fantasy elements
1903
Edwin S Porter
The Great Train Robbery
•
Sequencing and cutting between indoor and outdoor scenes
1908
DW Griffith
The Adventures of Dollie (1908) Intolerance (1916)
•
Innovations in close-ups, long shots, travelling shots, pans and crosscutting Mass audiences for American silent movies, post WWI
•
1920s
German filmmakers
Impressionism The Cabinet of Dr Caligari (1920)
•
Horror, psychological studies, social themes.
1930s
Major Studios, Warner Bros, Universal, MGM, Paramount, (Lasky, Goldwyn, Mayer, Zukor, Laemmle, Warner)
Genre films: gangsters, city life, musicals, comedies, Depression hero (Jimmy Cagney)
•
Genres became associated with different studios
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F Year
Inventor/Movement
Innovation
1930s
French directors – Jean Renoir Sound era
1940s
Capra, Ford, Orson Welles
Techniques / Characteristics
Citizen Kane (1941) The Maltese Falcon (1941)
• •
Skepticism, cynicism Innovations in photography and editing French poetic realism German expressionist imagery
•
Post WWII
Italian Directors (Rossellini, Castinelli)
Open City (1945)
• •
Camera out on the streets Neorealism
1950s
American mass production
Singin’ in the Rain (1952) South Pacific (1955) High Noon (1952)
• • • • •
Emergence of Westerns, and more musicals Science fiction a central concern Major studios lose power Rise of independent filmmakers Technicolour
1960
Stanley Kubrick Dennis Hopper
A Space Odyssey (1968) Easy Rider (1969)
• • • •
More sophisticated audiences Counter-culture voices 3Social protest Post-Vietnam
1970s
Disaster, horror and gangster films proliferate. Woody Allen Robert Altman Francis Ford Coppola Martin Scorsese George Lucas
Special effects: The Godfather (1972, 1974) The Exorcist (1973, 1977) Star Wars (1977)
•
Escapist fantasy, commercially driven African Americans and women filmmakers emerge in mainstream
Internationalism Ingar Bergman and many European, African and South American producers, Spielberg
Epics, disaster, violence, crime, comedy
•
1990s
•
Technology/special effects
A framework for analysing film There are many excellent resources in print and on the web that provide practical approaches to analysing film. (See references below). In practice, film analysis is generally guided by inquiry in three broad areas: Area of inquiry
Guiding questions and topics
Production and distribution
The ‘how’ of the film: 1 how was it produced 2 who were the producers 3 when was it produced and why 4 who was the intended audience and what was the purpose 5 what technology was employed 6 how was it distributed?
Representation and meaning
The ‘what’ of the film: 1 what are the predominant ideas and themes 2 how are these represented through moving images 3 is the film located within a particular genre 4 is characterisation effective 5 how do the setting, dialogue and music contribute to the impact of the film 6 what are the distinctive features of the film?
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E Area of inquiry Reception and evaluation
Guiding questions and topics The ‘worth’ of the film: 1 critical reception 2 popular reception 3 historical, cultural, political, economic, and social contextual influences.
Practical Strategies for Teaching Film Strategy
Pedagogy
Shot-by-shot analysis
Take one scene or scenes from a film and explore it very closely. Look at the shots, music, costumes, lighting, special effects, transitions and so on.
Behind the scenes
Research aspects of the production process of a film, from inception, through development, casting, filming, editing, post-production, soundtracks, etc.
Workshop approaches to scenes – the play – the film
Select a scene from one of the plays and have students prepare director’s notes etc. Compare versions with a film.
Characterisation
Cast characters – word cache, profiles, costumes, symbols.
Symbols
Find symbols for characters within films.
Plot and action sequences
Compare and contrast the play with the film version(s) interpretation of time, place and action.
Ghost scenes
Examine what the film has omitted. Examine what the film has added. Why?
Character games
‘And Why’ – for film and for text versions. Compare and contrast.
Binary oppositions – ‘Yes, But’ character analysis
Light/dark, passive/aggressive, shy/assertive, cold/warm, hero/villain, ambitious/cautious, impetuous/deliberative, victim/agent, good/evil.
Uninterrupted viewing of the film This can be followed by closer analysis of scenes, speeches, character, dialogue, comparing and contrasting play and film. Comparing versions
View several versions (or excerpts of versions) of the same play or film.
Technology in use
Use the internet to explore the ways in which filmmaking techniques can be adapted to amateur productions.
Sequences of productions
Watch several versions of a film in chronological order. Explore the development of cinematic techniques and styles over time. Students can plan the next version.
The language of film
Take one or more of the features of film (lighting, sound, setting, camera angles, lenses, editing, etc) and examine the ways in which this feature operates in a particular film or excerpt.
Heroes and villains
Examine the ways in which the tragic heroes and villains have been presented on film. Characterisation, language, plot, costumes etc.
Shakespeare’s women
Examine the ways in which women in Shakespeare have been represented/ interpreted through film, over time.
Set design
Take one or more films, and explore the set design and its effectiveness.
Culture and politics
Examine the influence of culture and politics (and other forces) on film.
Point of view
For a film, or excerpts, explore the ways in which point of view is used to manipulate audience and response.
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F Strategy
Pedagogy
Openings
Take one or more films and study the way they begin.
Closure
As for openings.
Special effects
Examine special effects to interpret their impact and purpose.
Popular culture
Examine the construction and maintenance of popular culture and the role of film in this.
Thematic focus
Identify a thematic focus – revenge, jealousy, adolescent love, ambition, gullibility, superstition, disguise, fantasy, betrayal etc. Explore how one or more films present this theme through cinematic effects, character, plot, setting and so on.
3 minute adaptation
After viewing a film, try to capture its essence in one, two or three key scenes or moments.
The lives of the directors
Research the great film directors of history. Link this research to the study of particular films and the innovations, techniques, point of view, interpretations of character etc that the director/producer presents.
Children and animals
Examine the role of children and animals in one or more films.
Masks, costumes, props and sym- For one or more characters, explore the way that the film represents idenbols tity and relationships. Turning points
In one or more films, look closely at the ways in which the film represents the turning point scene or scenes.
Church and State/ Public and Private
Study the ways in which these dimensions of life are represented in one or more films.
References: Anderson, M. & Jefferson, M. (2009) Teaching the Screen: Film Education for Generation Next, Sydney: Allen and Unwin. Beale, P. (2001) Films in Focus, Sydney: Phoenix Education Berchervaise, N. (ed.) (2003) Constructing Shakespeare on Screen, Melbourne: Phoenix Education. Howie, M. (ed.) (2003) Big Screen Small Screen, Sydney: Phoenix Education. Watson, K. (ed.) (2000) Film in English, Sydney: Phoenix Education.
Film noir Film noir refers to a particular category of film that is characterised by its dark quality of tone, mood and visual effects. Historically film noir has its roots in the 1940s and 1950s when many Americans were disillusioned with the world, their society and their placement in it and the films they produced at this time reflected this general feeling of despair. Film noir takes a harsh and uncomplimentary look at American life and questions social values and behaviours. When many of these films were released outside of America en masse after World War 2, common filming techniques, characters and thematic concerns were recognised by viewers. The French expressionists, identifying the disillusionment evident in these films, called them ‘film noir’ or black film. Later films, such as Blade Runner (Ridley Scott, 1982), also echo these sentiments and employ filming elements often associated with film noir such as, for example: ∼ scenes which portray a world of dark streets, of crime, corruption and disillusionment ∼ dark and low-key lighting often used to obscure the action and ‘deglamourise’ the world depicted ∼ the effective use of shadow, striped and other distorted or dim lighting techniques; oblique and vertical/sloping lines are used in preference to the horizontal to further create the feeling 124
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F of disharmony and claustrophobia; light enters rooms and casts almost unnatural shadows ∼ the common use of extreme high angle/low angle perspectives to disorient the viewer and ∼ ∼ ∼
∼ ∼
create a mood of uneasiness, alienation and loneliness action which often takes place at night, in the rain or in interior settings; day scenes often have the blinds closed and indoor lighting is always subdued characters who are often corrupt or immersed in the seedy, harsh underworld of crime a ‘hero’ of the film who is often disillusioned with life and his role in it; untraditionally, main characters are rarely given spot lighting; the hero is often cast in shadow, creating a fatalistic and hopeless mood stock characters such as the hard-boiled detective and femme fatale who represent a more cynical worldview themes that are more fatalistic with a general tone of pessimism; the dark and uneasy visual expression of film noir emphasises these themes.
See also Film. KS
Flat and round characters This distinction was identified by EM Forster (Aspects of the Novel, 1927). A flat character is one who does not develop or change throughout a text. A round character does develop and evolve, often demonstrating a marked difference in behaviour, understanding or values at the conclusion of the text. Shakespeare’s comedies frequently contain at least one flat character, and this is usually the character who does not learn, adapt and grow from the experiences of the drama, and is therefore often isolated at the end of the play (for example, Malvolio in Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night). See also Character/Characterisation, Fiction. JM Reference: Forster, E.M. (1927, 1956) Aspects of the Novel, New York: Harvest Books.
Folk literature Genres of literature that have typically emerged from an oral tradition or folklore, reflecting and expressing the culture, rituals, customs, values and beliefs of the time and place. Folk literature includes ballads, proverbs, fairy tales, folk tales, songs, ghost stories, riddles, fables, nursery rhymes, legends and other stories that have been passed down from one generation to the next. Once the literature becomes codified in print, it may lose its folkloric distinctiveness. See also Fairy tale, Legends. JM
Folk tale A fictional text that is not set in any particular time and usually includes elements of fantasy. Besides being entertaining stories, folk tales are often instructive in that they use symbolism, personified animals and humans to exemplify some value, moral, custom or belief central to the culture from which it originated. See also Allegory, Archetype, Fairy tale, Nursery rhyme. JM
Form In English, form is used to describe the structure and technical features of a text. The form is often distinguished from the content, subject or matter of the text, although form and content are ultimately inseparable: form (the how of the text) does not exist without content (the what of the text) and viceversa. The principle of ‘form following function’ is one that underpins much literary criticism and writing pedagogy. See also Analysis, Close reading, Literary criticism, Poetry, Representing, Structuralism, Writing. DC, JM
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F Formalism A school/s of literary criticism the emerged in the early 1900s. Prior to the Russian Formalists and the English and American New Critics, the study of literature was about historical context and the biographical background of the author rather than about the study of language as such. A literary text was not studied as a discrete and defined text, but as a platform to examine the conditions that produced the text. Russian Formalists and the English and American New Critics changed this; they proposed that literature was a different type of text to philosophy, or sociology or biography, and that imaginative literature offered another kind of truth than that offered by the rational disciplines like science. In fact, they believed that imaginative literature had its own internal logic, and that it evolved not in response to the context in which it was created, but autonomously, according to the evolution of literary forms in and of themselves. For Formalists, literature should be considered in terms of what makes a text ‘literary’, rather than for what it might show or teach us about the world it describes. If literature should be studied in order to determine a text’s literariness, then it follows that the attention of the Formalist critic should be on the language and artistic devices that produce the particular quality of the text. Literary devices are what make a text ‘literary’ or not. The two genres that Russian Formalists were most interested in were poetry and prose narrative. In studying poetry, Russian Formalists were interested in what Roman Jakobson called ‘organizational violence’, where poets employed language that did not so much pay attention to grammatical sense as to aesthetic sense. For narrative, Russian Formalists distinguished between what they termed ‘the story’ and ‘the plot’, the chief difference being the order in which the story is narrated, and the story as it ostensibly happened. Russian Formalists were also famous for suggesting that, apart from the literary devices, what made a text literary was its ability to defamiliarise the reader with their world. They meant by this that literature could present something apparently ordinary in such a way that it became extraordinary. See also Literary criticism, New Criticism. SGS Reference: Rivkin, J. & Ryan, M. (2005) ‘Introduction: Formalisms’, in Literary Theory: An Anthology, Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Forum theatre A form of participatory theatre, made popular by Augusto Boal (1931-), the Brazilian founder of Theatre of the Oppressed. Actors create a scene depicting oppression or conflict. Members of the audience are invited to stop the scene at any point and intervene as 'spect-actors', taking the role of one of the characters, to try to resolve the situation of oppression or conflict by the use of some alternative behaviour. See also Drama, Drama terms. JH
Four phases of classroom experience: A pedagogical model commonly applied to the study of texts in English. It consists of four sequential phases of teaching and learning. Phase 1: Getting ready for the text through pre-reading/pre-viewing strategies. Ways of arousing interest, activating or building upon prior knowledge, scaffolding, and encouraging readers to form some initial, tentative hypotheses about and expectations of the text. For example: ∼ a mystery box filled with items relevant to the ideas, action or characters of the text ∼ predictions based on the title, cover or visual images related to the text ∼ parallel experiences of experiences or incidents in the text ∼ the use of an extract ∼ activities setting the scene ∼ an issues discussion ∼ an excursion. 126
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F Phase 2: Getting into the text through engagement strategies. Ways of involving the student in the process of anticipation, retrospection, reformulation and confirmation of initial responses. For example: ∼ prediction of a character’s motivation/personality, a character’s reaction to a particular event, a character’s course of action, a sequence of events, a possible resolution ∼ story maps ∼ character grids ∼ director’s notes ∼ action webs ∼ timelines ∼ reading/viewing journal ∼ open questions ∼ small group discussions of key ideas and elements of the text. Phase 3: Coming back to the text through response strategies. Facilitating, stimulating and encouraging students to return to the story, to refine their understanding, response and evaluation of the text, and shape their own personal interpretation of it. Provide opportunities for reflection so that greater meaning can be brought to the text. There are many strategies for responding to texts, ranging from creative and critical written responses, dramatic interpretations, oral responses, translating the text into another medium or form, drama strategies of hot-seating, panels and so on. Phase 4: Going beyond the text through reflection, synthesis and further textual experience. Encouraging students to recognise intertextuality. Going beyond the text enables teachers and students to take up the issues and experiences represented in the text and to explore them further. Many of the common response strategies can be extended well beyond the text. For example: ∼ use other related texts ∼ explore other works by the same composer ∼ use the text as a springboard for examining broader concepts. The model assumes an activity-based and student-centred approach to English. Phases 2 and 3 are the most widely applied in English classes. While Phase 1 is not always a pre-requisite for Phases 2, 3 and 4, it is an important means of stimulating student interest for Phase 2. Phase 4 – going beyond the text – is a crucial phase for the fostering of scope and sequence in English, whereby students build upon, connect and extend their learning. See also Engagement, Fiction, Film, Literature, Media, Multimedia, MyRead, Poetry, Reading, Representing, Writing. JM
Four roles of the reader Also known as the four resources model. Developed by Peter Freebody and Allan Luke in 1990 (Freebody & Luke, 1990; Freebody 1992; 2004). The four roles of the reader is a model of reading instruction that focuses on the skills that are necessary for a reader to participate in a textbased culture. According to Freebody and Luke, successful readers enlist the following roles: ∼ Code breaker: decoding the alphabetic codes, phonics and conventions of texts. ∼ Text participant: participating in texts by making meaning through comprehending and
composing. ∼ Text user: using different texts for different purposes, understanding language features and
how they relate to social and cultural functions of texts. ∼ Text analyst: analysing how texts position readers, understanding that texts are not
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F The four roles of the reader model has been adopted widely in schools and educational policy, both in Australia and overseas. It is included in the most state governments’ literacy guidelines and curriculum frameworks, the Australian Government’s strategies for teaching reading in the middle years, and is the basis for the United Nations World Health Organisation’s health literacy policy (WHO, 2003). See also MyRead, Reading. KF References: Freebody, P., & Luke, A. (1990). Literacies programs: Debates and demands in cultural context. Prospect: Australian Journal of TESOL, 5:7, pp. 7-16. Freebody, P. (1992) “A socio-cultural approach: Resourcing four roles as a literacy learner”, in A. Watson & A. Badenhop (eds.) Prevention of reading failure, Sydney: Ashton Scholastic, pp 48-60. Freebody, P. (2004) Hindsight and foresight: Putting the Four Roles Model of reading to work in the daily business of teaching, in A. Healy and E. Honan (eds.), Text next: New resources for literacy learning, Newtown, NSW: Primary English Teachers Association, pp 3-17. World Health Organization (2003) Working with Individuals, Families and Communities, Geneva: WHO.
Free verse Poetry that does not have regular rhythm or rhyme. Instead, free verse usually relies on other techniques to imbue it with form – for example, the subject, voice, theme or figurative language. Sometimes free verse will contain lines or sections with patterns of stress, or a discernable metre, but generally, the poetry is not structured according to this convention. Typically, free verse is a series of lines of verse and this distinguishes it from prose. Free verse contains what are often uneven lines, using punctuation, end-stops and run-on lines. Modernist poets developed and exploited free verse, with poems such as TS Eliot’s The Waste Land (1922) and Walt Whitman’s “Song of Myself” (1855) standing as exemplars of this kind of poetry. Other poets, such as, for example, William Blake (1757-1827), Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867), and DH Lawrence (1885-1930) also experimented with this form. Since that period, free verse has become typical of much 20th and 21st century poetry. See also Poetry. JM
Freytag’s pyramid The German critic, Gustav Freytag (1816-1895), devised a structural framework to account for the action and plot development in Greek and Shakespearean five-act plays. See also Anticlimax, Climax, Denouèment, Drama, Drama terms. JM
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F Functional grammar Functional grammar is also known as systemic functional grammar (SFG) or systemic functional linguistics (SFL). The words ‘genre theory’ have also been used to describe this model of grammar developed by Professor Michael Halliday, based on his early research and writing in the 1960s. Halliday was heavily influenced by the work of one of his teachers JR Firth, a British linguist prominent throughout the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s. Halliday’s foundational paper, “Categories of the theory of grammar”, written in England, was published in 1961. In his seminal works, Explorations in the functions of language (1973), and especially Learning how to mean (1975), Halliday developed his theory that there are seven functions of language that children acquire in their early years. Based heavily on the careful observation over time of his own son, Halliday argued that children are motivated to acquire language because it serves certain purposes or functions for them. He described the first four functions as those which help the child to satisfy physical, emotional and social needs. Halliday calls them instrumental, regulatory, interactional, and personal functions. ∼ Instrumental: serves to manipulate the environment, to cause certain events to happen. This is
when the child uses language to express what they want. ∼ Regulatory: The control of events. This occurs when the child uses language in an attempt to
direct others. ∼ Interactional: Serves to ensure social maintenance. This is when the child uses language as a
way of making contact with others and developing relationships ∼ Personal: This is when the child deploys language to express feelings, opinions, and so on,
thereby establishing and developing an individual identity. The next three functions assist the child to relate to and understand the external environment within which they are living and growing: Halliday describes these functions as ‘heuristic’, ‘imaginative’, and ‘representational’: ∼ Heuristic: This is when language is used to gain knowledge about the environment (e.g. 'What
is the tractor doing?') ∼ Imaginative: Here language is used to tell stories and jokes and to create an imaginary envi-
ronment, systems or ideas. ∼ Representational: The use of language to convey facts and information, to make statements,
explain, or report to represent reality as one sees it. Halliday moved to Australia in the 1970s, establishing the department of linguistics at the University of Sydney. Through his teaching there, SFL has spread to a number of institutions throughout Australia. It has spread to other countries from that Australian base. Systemic functional grammar, and its advocates, have been the focus of various battles in the broader controversies about language and literacy in education within what has been termed the ‘Literacy Wars’. Halliday used the term ‘systemic’ to refer to the view of language as “a network of systems, or interrelated sets of options for making meaning” (1994: 15). Systemic functional grammarians see the term ‘functional’ as denoting that their approach is focused on meaning: Systemic-Functional Linguistics (SFL) is a theory of language centred around (sic) the notion of language function. While SFL accounts for the syntactic structure of language, it places the function of language as central (what language does, and how it does it), in preference to more structural approaches, which place the elements of language and their combinations as central. SFL starts at social context, and looks at how language both acts upon, and is constrained by, this social context.
(www.isfla.org/Systemics)
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F However, from the late 1960s until the mid 1990s, the Dutch linguist Simon Dik achieved fame through developing his own theory of what he called ‘Functional Grammar’ which he developed when he was Professor of General Linguistics at the University of Amsterdam between 1969 and 1994 (he died in 1995). His magnum opus was in two parts. The first, The Theory of Functional Grammar (Part I: The Structure of the clause) was published in 1989. The second, The Theory of Functional Grammar (Part II: Complex and Derived Constructions) was published posthumously in 1997. Dik’s construction of Functional Grammar placed an emphasis on what he and his colleagues called ‘natural language’, as well as on compatibility with what this version of Functional Grammar described as the psychological processes involved in the processing of natural language. An explication of Dik’s theory of Functional Grammar can be found at. See also Systemic-functional grammar. PB References: Halliday, M.A.K. (1973) Explorations in the functions of language, London: Edward Arnold. Halliday, M.A.K. (1975) Learning How to Mean, London: Edward Arnold. Halliday, M.A.K. (1994) Introduction to Functional Grammar, 2nd edn. London: Edward Arnold.
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G Gaze Theory A theory based on the work of Michel Foucault (1926-1984) and Jacques Lacan (1901-1981) to explicate the ways in which the spectator/audience looks upon the ‘other’: on representations of people in visual images, and the effects of this on interpersonal and intrapersonal experience. The theory was developed by feminist critics who applied the concept of the ‘gaze’ to interpret and critique the relations between men and women. Specifically, feminist critics explore the ways in which the male ‘gaze’ or ‘the look’ positions and regulates women. The gaze is interpreted as more than merely ‘a look’: it signifies a relationship of power between the observer and the observed. (Schroeder, 1998: 2008). The theory has been widely applied to film and media, illuminating the ways in which we view and read visual texts. Daniel Chandler has identified “several key forms of gaze…in photographic, filmic or televisual texts, or in figurative graphic art. The most obvious typology is based on who is doing the looking.” See also Feminist literary criticism, Gender, Image, Visual text. JM References: Chandler, D. (2005) Notes on “The Gaze”, Lutz, C. & Collins, J. (1994) “The Photograph as an Intersection of Gazes: The Example of National Geographic” in ed. L. Taylor (1994) Visualizing Theory. New York: Routledge. Schroeder, J. E. (1998) “Consuming Representation: A Visual Approach to Consumer Research” in Barbara B. Stern (ed.) Representing Consumers: Voices, Views and Visions. London: Routledge, pp. 193-230.
Georgian poets English poets who were writing at the time of the reign of King George V (1910-1936). The anthologised poetry was typically conventional in form (e.g. the lyric was popular) and pastoral or bucolic in theme. Georgian poets included Walter del a Mere (1873-1956) and Rupert Brooke (1887-1915). Two poets who drew subsequent acclaim for their work – Edward Thomas (18781917) and Wilfred Owen (1893-1918) - were also writing during this period, although their poetry is distinguished from the pastoral Georgian themes by its representation of war and the powerful, subjectively rendered experience of war. JM
Gender Refers to the social and cultural dimensions of male and female identity. It is a term of classification that differentiates the sexes in the same way that classifications of race, age and religion, for example, are employed to group individuals in society. In English, gender is considered as part of the study and analysis of texts. Representations of gender in texts are explored in terms of their constructions of masculinities and femininities and how these reflect, challenge, promote or subvert cultural and social beliefs, values, power relations, ways of thinking and worldviews.
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Feminist literary criticism seeks to expose and analyse the ways in which gender operates in texts to influence, shape and maintain patriarchal structures and power relations in wider society. Part of the work of feminist criticism has been to ‘reclaim’ and give voice to the work of marginalised women throughout history and to interrogate the ways in which dominant notions of canonicity privilege particular ways of thinking, being and viewing the world. For example, many canonic texts represent males as protagonists who are at the centre of the textual world, while females are often represented in more passive, dependent, circumscribed and peripheral roles. Texts are examined for their representation of stereotypes, on the assumption that texts can powerfully influence the values, beliefs and perceptions of the responder and the culture to which that responder belongs. Gender is also important in English in terms of its pedagogical implications. A great deal of research and scholarship in recent decades has centred on the role of gender in learning (particularly when it comes to reading and engagement in English), and the implications of this for effective and inclusive teaching and learning and student achievement. See Feminist literary criticism, Gaze theory. JM ∼ Use excerpts from the following films: ∼ Romeo + Juliet (Luhrmann, 1996) - the scene when Juliet is preparing for the ball,
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
with the Nurse. Juliet’s mother enters the scene.
∼ Radiance (Perkins, 1998). Opening scene. ∼ Faces in the Mob (ABC, 1997). Scenes with the mother kangaroos and their joeys. ∼ Watch the excerpts without interruption. Watch the excerpts again, asking students to be alert the ways in which gender is represented. Compare representations. Examine relationships, dialogue, setting, filmic techniques (lens, angles etc), music, body language etc to identify how gender is constructed and the assumptions about gender that underpin these representations.
∼ Using a list of binary oppositions, examine the characters in a text, considering the extent to which they are represented in terms of binaries such as, for instance: weak/strong; family/career; passive/active; submissive/dominant; collaborative/ competitive; emotional/rational; marginal/central; dependent/independent. Are these differences, as represented in the text, a consequence of biology (sex) or culture (gender constructions)?
∼ Pair a number of texts by male and female writers that have a similar thematic focus. Students compare the perspectives, ways of thinking and values in each text, exploring the extent to which differences and similarities may be due to gender. References: Alloway, N. & Gilbert, P. (eds.) (1997) Boys and literacy: Professional development units, Victoria: Curriculum Corporation. Alloway, N. & Gilbert, P. (eds.) (1997) Boys and literacy: teaching units, Victoria: Curriculum Corporation. Fraser, H. (ed.) (1995) Challenging the text: Critical literacy units for secondary English, James Cook University: Townsville. Martino, W. (1995) Gendered learning practices: exploring the costs of hegemonic masculinity for boys and girls in school. Proceedings of the Promoting Gender Equity Conference, 22-24 February 1995. ACT Department of Education: Canberra.
Genre (Latin: ‘type’, ‘kind’ ‘sort’) Refers to the categorisation of a type of text according to its purpose and its use of particular conventions, codes, forms, modes, setting, characters, structure, techniques or themes. Genre can refer to the broad groupings of types of texts such as, for example, novels, poems, nonfiction, plays, films, media and multimedia. It can also refer to the equally broad categories of, for instance, tragedy, comedy, epic, horror, musical, fantasy, western and crime. Texts are categorised within a certain genre when they adopt, adapt or experiment with the set of recurring conventions and distinguishing features of that genre. Depending on their experience, the reader comes to expect or implicitly recognise certain structural, linguistic or thematic features when they engage with a text composed in a particular genre. 132
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It is important to consider a genre as dynamic and flexible rather than as a fixed, immutable category. Composers regularly experiment with, alter or subvert the conventions of a particular genre in order to extend its boundaries, modify and critique its historical precedents or comment on its inherent system of values and ways of interpreting the world. It is generally understood that genres are shaped by a set of norms that in turn reflect and embody particular social and cultural beliefs and attitudes. Composer may work within and/or against the conventions of a genre in creating a new text. Innovation often occurs when received generic conventions and codes are modified, expanded and transformed. Genres are therefore evolving and permeable categories and can be regarded as contextually contingent forms. Some genres are more prevalent and popular during particular historical periods, reflecting the social, cultural and other contextual factors evident during the time. Examples of this include the predominance of satire and the mock-epic during the Augustan period; the pervasiveness of the lyric poem during the Romantic period; the popularity of the serialised novel during the Victorian era; and the emergence of crime fiction in the 19th century. The major classical genres identified by the Ancient Greeks were tragedy, epic, pastoral, lyric, comedy and satire and writers well into the 18th century were expected to follow the strict conventions of each. However, classifying the hierarchical taxonomy of genres is not necessarily an impartial and uncontroversial process in that genre may be seen as a theoretical conception, as opposed to something that exists objectively. The task of categorising texts according to genre is highly problematic, since genres also contain a myriad of subgenres. For example, ‘alternative worlds’ novels are seen by some as a subgenre of the ‘speculative fiction’ genre. Another problem with ‘genre’ is the seemingly ever-increasing number of genres and subgenres with the burgeoning of hybrid genres such as, for instance, ‘paranormal romance’, ‘space opera’ and ‘ethnographic science fiction’. In the 20th century, a branch of literary criticism known as Genre criticism emerged with the work of Mikhail Bakhtin (1895-1975) and was developed in the 1980s with the work of Carolyn R Miller. Miller and others have examined the socio-cultural contexts that give rise to and influence the purpose of and responses to a range of genres. With the emergence of new media, attention has turned to analysis of new genres that are hybridised, multimodal and sometimes more complex than the traditional print genres. Digital multimodal texts, such as, for instance, websites, do not adhere to the conventions of print texts in terms of form, content, production and dissemination. Within the broad category of digital texts alone, there are multitudes of hybrids and subgenres, each with their own sets of evolving conventions, codes and purposes. See also Codes, Conventions. DC, JM
lyric ballad cinquain
elegy
acrostic ode
sonnet
dirge haiku epic
villanelle dramatic monologue
limerick monody blank verse nursery rhyme
sestina
satire
abstract
concrete
free verse
song
epigram
pastoral
symbolist
anthem
threnody
tanka idyll
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POETRY
Examples of subgenres within the genre of poetry
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G Genre-based approach to writing A pedagogical model which emerged in the late 1980s in Australia that focused on teaching writing through genres (text types) and grammar: genre theory was also known as "functional grammar" and, later, expanded into "systemic functional linguistics" or "systemic linguistics". The genre-based approach to writing gained currency in English syllabuses, particularly in NSW and Queensland, and advocated the principle that learning to write entails the successful mastery of a range of hierarchical genres – their form, codes and conventions. Student achievement in writing was measured against the ability to explicitly appropriate and reproduce generic structures and features. Underpinning the model was the belief that initiating students into the dominant discourses (seen to be represented through dominant genres) of culture would enable them to access (and potentially shape) the power relations operating in that culture. Critics of the model have pointed to the paradox of one the one hand seeking to equip students with the language skills to participate in and influence power relations, yet on the other hand, adopting a pedagogy which limits students to knowledge about and the capacity to merely replicate discourses, thereby undermining the aim of empowering students to challenge and shape those dominant structures. In addition, critics of the model have pointed to the problematic concept of genre, arguing that genre and definitions of genres are themselves constructed (by particular groups to serve the purposes and interests of those groups) and are continuously shifting, contingent and unstable. For a fuller account of the genre-based approach to writing, see Ian Reid, The place of genre in learning: current debates (1989, CSLE: Deakin University). See also Functional grammar, Systemicfunctional grammar, Writing development, Writing. JM
German Idealism Refers to a collection of philosophical theories connected by the view that the mind creates the external world. Four principal types of idealism are: 1. Berkeleian idealism: George Berkeley (1685-1783) held that reality is of the nature of the mind, a set of ideas and nothing more. Universals or absolutely general classes do not exist: they are merely names. Only material particulars exist, though he reduced these to the ideas that exist in the mind. Thus, a material object consists of nothing but ideas, whether in the mind of the individual, or God (who created the individual). 2. Transcendental idealism: also called critical idealism, a term applied by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) to his theory of the external world. According to this theory, objects have no independent existence outside our thoughts; they are merely appearances. 3. Objective idealism: fully developed by Georg Hegel (1770-1831), this type of idealism contends that all that exists is a manifestation of one mind. 4. Subjective idealism: used by Hegel and Marxists in referring to the idealism offered by philosophers such as Kant. What we come to know about objects is constructed by the individuals who perceive them. The opposite view is that of objective or absolute idealism. The German idealist philosophers developed a fresh kind of philosophy intended to protect knowledge and virtue from the dissident dogmas of the late 18th century. Thinkers such as Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803), Johann Fichte (1762-1814), Johann Schiller (1759-1805), Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832) and Friedrich von Schelling (1775-1854) were hugely influential, contributing to the rise of the Sturm und Drang movement in literature: a movement driven by the frustrations of social and economic deprivation in the war-ravaged German principalities in the 1770s. The German idealists influenced English Romantics such as William Wordsworth (17701850), ST Coleridge (1772-1834) and Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822). DC References: Berlin, I. (2001) The Roots of Romanticism, The A.W. Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts. Bollingen Series, xxxv: 45, Washington: The National Gallery of Art. Flew, A. (ed.) (1979) A Dictionary of Philosophy, London: Pan Books.
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G Hausheer, R. (1999) ‘Fichte and Schelling’, in ed. A. O’Hear, German Philosophy Since Kant, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.
Globe Theatre (The) The original Globe Theatre was built in 1599 at Southwark, London by Richard Burbage’s company, the Lord Chamberlain’s Men (which included the young actor and playwright William Shakespeare). The original Globe was destroyed by fire in 1613 during a performance of Shakespeare’s Henry VIII. A canon that was fired during the performance led to the thatched roof catching fire. The theatre was rebuilt with a tiled roof and reopened in 1614. In 1642, The Globe was closed down by the Puritans, as were many other theatres around this time. The Globe was subsequently destroyed again and the location of the original site remained uncertain until parts of the foundations were discovered in 1989. The theatre that now stands near the site of the 1642 Globe is a modern version of the original, and it opened in 1997. The Globe Theatre - now known as “Shakespeare’s Globe” – has a website that provides a range of resources and information about the Elizabethan period, the history and architecture of the theatre, playing spaces, Shakespeare and his plays, the role of music and symbolism, stage design and Elizabethan actors.
Reconstruction of Shakespeare’s Globe Theatre, London, 2007
The forward thrust stage of Shakespeare’s Globe Theatre, London. This stage design enabled physical proximity between actors and audience.
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G Gothic A genre that emerged in the mid 1700s and was later developed by the Romantics and the Victorians. Gothic literature and film combine elements of horror and romance, emphasising extreme emotions, physical and psychological terror, the supernatural, castles, haunted houses, superstition, and settings that rely on atmospheric and elemental phenomena such as storms, thunder, lightning, fire and eerie darkness. The characters are often stereotyped or stock: for example, ghosts, magicians, vampires, madmen/madwomen, werewolves, Byronic heroes, femme fatales, and villains. Examples of Gothic fiction and fiction with Gothic elements include: Frankenstein (Mary Shelley, 1818); Northanger Abbey (Gothic parody, Jane Austen, 1798); “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” (ST Coleridge, 1817); stories of Edgar Allen Poe (1809-1849); Wuthering Heights (Emily Brontë, 1847); Jane Eyre (Charlotte Brontë, 1847); The Picture of Dorian Grey (Oscar Wilde, 1891); and Dracula (Bram Stoker, 1897). The continued appeal of vampire stories, particularly amongst teenagers, is evident in the plethora of young adult gothic fiction, film and television produced from the late 1990s to the present (e.g. the highly popular Buffy the Vampire Slayer - television series, 1997-2003 and film, 1992; and the more recent Twilight - novel, 2005 and film, 2008). These and other contemporary vampire texts rely on female protagonists, extending the conventions and boundaries of the genre, mixing gothic with romance, action and adventure. For practical strategies for teaching gothic texts, see DL Long and T Heller, eds. Approaches to Teaching Gothic Fiction: The British and American Traditions, New York: Modern Language Association of America. See also Genre, Fiction, Novel. JM
Grammar There are few aspects of English that attract such polarised views as the subject of grammar. There are also few aspects of English that are more misunderstood. There are, for example, at least five credible kinds of grammar which, in their various ways, help us to understand how the English language operates to make meaning: ∼ Traditional (originally Latin-based) Grammar ∼ Transformational Grammar; Functional Grammar (based on Halliday's original seminal work which was heavily influenced by the work of one of his teachers J R Firth, a British linguist prominent throughout the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s) ∼ Genre Theory / Systemic Linguistics (based on later developments of Halliday's work) and ∼ the Functional Grammar developed in the latter half of the 20th century by the Dutch linguist Simon Dik. The teaching of grammar in English continues to be embedded in teaching as part of the developing understanding of language in use in context, meeting the needs, interests and capacities of students at each stage of their learning. Grammar in secondary schools is generally taught explicitly at the point of need, either with individuals who are experiencing difficulties, or as ‘mini-lessons’ whereby direct instruction is provided for the whole class when the teacher identifies a particular need. Grammar is taught most effectively within meaningful contexts of purposeful reading and writing, rather than through decontextualised drill. Research has demonstrated the latter to be the least effective means for developing students’ capacities in writing. Indeed, contemporary researchers have stated that “there is no high quality evidence that the teaching of grammar, whether traditional or generative/transformational, is worth the time if the aim is the improvement of the quality and/or accuracy of written composition…the evidence base to justify the teaching of grammar in English to 5 to 16 year-olds in order to improve writing is very small.” (Andrews et al, 2004) See also Functional grammar. JM Reference: Andrews, R., Togerson, C., Beverton, S., Locke, T., Lowe, G., Robinson, A. & Zhu, I. (2004) The
Effect of Grammar Teaching (Syntax) in English on 5 to 16 Year Olds’ Accuracy and Quality in Written Composition: Review Summary, UK: University of York.
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G Graphic novel A synthesis of the comic and the novel. Graphic novels are multimodal texts that employ a range of techniques associated with both the comic and the novel. Like a novel, they are produced in a more durable physical form - hardcover or paperback - than traditional printed comic books. Graphic novels may be a novel-length story, a collection of shorter stories and may include elements of nonfiction. They cover a range of subgenres including horror, fantasy, autobiography, sport, action and adventure, science fiction and romance. Graphic novels in digital and interactive formats are increasingly popular as a form of entertainment, with some television series and movies appropriating graphic novels (for example, Watchmen the film, 2009, translates the graphic superhero text to the screen). The crossover in form and medium (comic/novel/film; print/digital) is an indication of their popularity, not only with younger readers, but also with adults. In this sense, they share the same kind of relationship that Anime shares with Manga. Examples of graphic novels include: Dreamwalker (Isobelle Carmody and Steven Woolman, 2002); The Arrival (Shaun Tan, 2007); and the Sin City series (Frank Miller, from 1991). See also Image, Fiction, Multimedia, Multimodal, Popular culture, Text, Visual literacy. JM
Greek theatre The 5th century BC is thought to be the high point of ancient Greek theatre with the flourishing of works by the great playwrights such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and Aristophanes. The plays were performed in outdoor amphitheatres, actors wore masks and there was a chorus. Plays were part of religious festivals. Features of the amphitheatre included: ∼ orchestra: this was normally a large, circular, level space where the actors performed. ∼ theatron: usually part of hillside overlooking, and often wrapped around the orchestra, where the audience sat. ∼ skene: the building behind the stage. Actors could make entrances and exits through it. See also Aristotle’s unities, Drama, Drama terms. JH
Group work Also known as ‘small group work’. An approach to learning that is underpinned by principles of student-centred, learning-centred and activity-based English teaching and learning. A great deal has been written about group work to provide teachers with pedagogical and theoretical guidance in implementing group learning in the classroom. Group work is a widely accepted approach to teaching and learning in English, with research demonstrating that student learning and achievement is greatly enhanced and strengthened by opportunities to work in small group settings in purposeful and structured ways. Such pedagogy enables students to use language and experience language in authentic ways that build personal and social language skills. It is often the case that students in K-6 classes demonstrate high-level group work skills, yet too frequently these are neglected or undervalued in the transition into secondary classroom contexts. Group work is characterised by: ∼ the configuration of learning in small groups so that students have the opportunity for a greater share of the ‘talking space’ in the classroom (Barnes, 1976) ∼ inquiry, project, problem-solving, and activity-based learning through ‘making and doing’ that enables students to use language to generate ideas, hypothesise, learn from each other, speculate, explore, discover and synthesise new knowledge and understanding ∼ cooperative (or collaborative) learning that places the student as the user of language at the centre of the learning process, valuing the language the student brings to the class and the social nature of learning ∼ the assumption that purposeful talking and listening constitutes core business in the English classroom
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G ∼ a structured context in which individuals work towards learning goals and outcomes (this can
be done as individuals who work on their own and come together in a group setting at key moments, or as collaborative work with assigned roles and tasks) ∼ an approach in which the teacher plans, structures, coordinates, facilitates, guides and monitors learning, but does not dominate the talking space of the classroom ∼ a context in which students work towards increasing independence and confidence as learners and where students acquire skills of metacognition. As Adams and Pearce point out, some teachers “have to control an obsessive, professional fear of something we call ‘irrelevance’…given the right starting point or setting, unsupervised pupils can actually be expected to sustain thoroughly useful conversations.” (Adams and Pearce, 1990: 7). It is the responsibility of the teacher to gradually move students’ talk “in the direction of relevance, of objectivity, of depth, and of reciprocity.” (Wilkinson, 1973: 434). Group work is part of an holistic pedagogy that strives for a balance between: ∼ teacher-directed and student-centred approaches ∼ individual, pairs, small group and whole class configurations ∼ content and process. Effective group learning does not happen by chance. It requires careful planning, implementation and monitoring, and all students need to learn about the processes and expectations of group learning experiences. The approach to group work needs to be thoughtfully managed so that students do not tire of the same, predictable structure and process each time they work in groups. One of the most valuable resources for small group learning is J Reid et al Small group learning in the classroom (1989). See also Constructivism, Cooperative learning, Differentiation, Learnercentred English, Learning styles. JM Principles for Group Work Establish protocols and expectations for group work
In Practice •
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Discuss and document expectations, rules, roles, leadership, group responsibility, seating plans, on-task behaviour, sanctions for non cooperation, guidelines for participation. Consider the size and rotation of the groups. Consider the make-up of groups (friendship, mixed ability, gender etc) Assign roles: e.g. Leader, facilitator, scribe, questioner, summariser. Home groups may design a symbol, logo, crest or emblem etc, to represent their group.
Allow time for students to learn how to learn in groups
•
Initial group work should be tightly structured with clear indications of purpose, time limits (e.g. 5 minutes), roles and short focus activities, (perhaps initially working in pairs) and expected outcomes. Expect that it may take some time for students to become accustomed to group learning.
Incorporate opportunities for pair and small group learning on a regular basis
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Students will grow in confidence and competence if group work becomes an integrated part of the classroom experience.
Vary the process
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Ensure that group work is not always conducted in the same way – e.g. the same groups, approaching tasks in the same way, reporting back and so on. Use the strategies below to provide variety in group work, maintain student engagement, and extend students’ capacities and skills.
Employ a wide range and diversity of questions, stimulus and materials
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Equip students with knowledge about the range of types of questions that can be asked (see Questioning) Include opportunities for students to evaluate their own learning and the group process. Allow for choice and negotiation in group learning so students are increasingly taking responsibility for their learning.
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G There are many practical strategies for group work that allow for variety not only in process, but also in structure. Practical Strategy Think-pair-share
Process • • • • • •
Jigsaw
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Buzz
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Fishbowl
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Carousel brainstorming
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Teacher poses a provocative question or stimulus. Students work individually on a response – jotting ideas in note form. Students pair-up and discuss, explore and refine responses. Pairs form groups of four and undertake further discussion, exploration and refinement. Group leader reports to whole class. Quality of discussion depends on quality of the stimulus/question/task. Students are assigned a task in a home group. Once the home group has completed the task, new groups are formed with each person providing an overview of the previous groups’ work. Whole class discussion to conclude. Based on the idea of a short, sharp working-bee, small groups are assigned a task with a limited time for completion. Buzz groups work on a problem, case, scenario, question or statement. Groups report back to whole class. Buzz groups can also operate online. A small group discusses, explores and interrogates a topic seated in a circle in the middle of the class. The class listens and takes notes in response to the fishbowl discussion. Allows for immersion in talking and listening and group work for students who may be initially more comfortable with listening and observing before taking part. Teacher poses 4 open-ended questions. These are posted in the 4 corners of the room. Along with the question, there is a large sheet of blank paper. Teacher reads questions to class and explains expected responses. Class is divided into four groups. Each group is assigned a corner in which to start the carousel procedure. Each group is given a different colored marker. Time limits are given for each carousel point. Stop and start signals given. Students rotate clock-wise, around the room. At each new corner, the group reads the previous group’s responses. Teacher monitors activity. Last group to each question reviews all responses and selects the five best to share with the class. Group leader reports back to whole class.
Simulation
• •
In groups, students take on a role or address an imaginative scenario.. Readers’ theatre, improvisations, skits and dramatisations are effective ways to simulate.
Thinking hats
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Based on de Bono’s 6 thinking hats. Each student has a different coloured hat (see Talking and Listening) which is assigned a particular role. After students work in home groups, they can jigsaw by having all the ‘red’ hats in one group, all the ‘green’ hats in another, and so on, before returning to a whole class configuration.
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Literature Circles
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• • • •
A way of engaging students in reading and exploration of texts. Based on student interest and choice. Promotes interpretive community. Important part of a wide reading program. (See Literature Circles)
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G References: Adams & Pearce (1990) in P. Brock, English Curriculum Support Materials, Armidale: UNE Barnes, D. (1976) From Communication to Curriculum. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Barnes, D. Rosen, H. & Britton, J. (1969) Language, the Learner and the School, Harmondsworth: Penguin. Hill, S. & Hill, T. (1990) The Collaborative Classroom, South Yarra: Eleanor Curtin. Manuel, J. (2004) “Connecting voices – effective engagement and pedagogy for oral English” in Reviewing English in the 21st Century, eds. W. Sawyer & E. Gold, Melbourne: Phoenix Education. pp. 73-85. Reid, J. (2002) Managing Small Group Learning, Newtown: PETA. Reid, J., Forrestal, P. & Cook, J. C. (1989) Small group learning in the classroom, Scarborough, WA: Chalkface Press. Wilkinson, A. (1973) “The Concept of Oracy” in Readings for Teaching English in Secondary Schools ed. T. Hipple, London: Methuen.
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H Hagiography Originally this term referred to any religious writing on the lives of the saints and holy figures. In more recent times, it has acquired a further meaning: it is sometimes used to describe a text that treats its subject with strongly biased or unwarranted reverence and praise. JM
Haiku Originally a Japanese poem of three lines with a strict form comprised of 17 syllables: line one contains five syllables; line two contains seven syllables; and line three contains five syllables. Haiku usually takes a single idea, theme, subject, experience or feeling and represents this through figurative language. Haiku is akin to a visual snapshot in words. A haiku can exist on its own, or as part of the cycle or set of haiku poems on a theme, subject etc. See also Poetry, Representing, Writing. JM
Your task? To capture in words what you experience with your senses and
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
your imagination…
Your goal? At least 10 Haiku, using words to celebrate a place, a time, an afternoon…
Presentation? Presentation Calligraphy, pictures, sketches, photos, collages, class anthology, web anthology.
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H Half-rhyme Sometimes also known as imperfect rhyme and slant rhyme. Half-rhyme became popular with late 19th and 20th century poets who sought the aesthetic effect of rhyme and pattern, without the possibility of that rhyme becoming clichéd and predictable. Hence, the endings of lines of verse ‘half rhyme’, as in the following example: Now, when alone, do my thoughts no longer hover Over the mountains, on that northern shore, Resting their wings where heath and fern leaves cover… (Emily Brontë, “Remembrance”, 1845) See also Poetry, Rhyme. JM
Hermeneutics The study of how human beings understand and interpret texts. Hermeneutics is a philosophical, rather than a scientific, exploration of how understanding occurs. It is concerned with how understanding is initiated, how understanding is created across temporal, cultural, gender, and class divides. The discipline of hermeneutics began with the study of scriptures, since this type of study deals with such divides, and as such investigates the ways in which context, presuppositions, questions, and time shape the ways in which readers approach texts. While the roots of modern hermeneutics are found in the philosophy of Aristotle’s rhetoric, modern hermeneutical scholarship began with the work of Freidrich Schleiermarcher and Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911), through to Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), Paul Ricoeur (1913-2005) and Hans-Georg Gadamer (19002002). Hermeneutics uses the concept of the ‘hermeneutic circle’ which is essentially the idea that we read parts that contribute to an understanding of the whole, and so on to new parts, and then on to a new whole, and so on interminably. What modern hermeneutics further contributes to this concept of the hermeneutic circle is that what we understand to be the parts and the provisional whole is also deeply and inescapably conditioned by our rootedness in a language, culture and history. Modern hermeneutics then proposes that reading texts helps to illuminate what kind of language, culture and history it is that conditions our understanding, and as such this illumination in turn helps us to read with more depth and complexity: what Gadamer (1976) called our “horizon” is enlarged. See also Interpretation, Literary criticism. SGS References: Gadamer, H-G. (1976) Philosophical Hermeneutics, trans. 2nd ed. David E. Linge, Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press. Klemm, D.E. (1986) Hermeneutical Inquiry: The Interpretation of Texts, Atlanta: Scholars’ Press.
Hero / Heroine (Greek: ‘protector’) The central character or protagonist in a text. Heroes and heroines were originally exalted, superhuman, godlike or idealised figures in mythology who achieved great feats of courage, endurance or social good. In literature and other texts, they are central characters who face challenges and crises and through their inner strength, bravery, wisdom, perseverance or physical prowess, triumph over adversity, overcome obstacles, achieve remarkable things, and resolve conflicts through their personal agency. In everyday contexts, the terms can refer to valorised public figures or other individuals who are seen to demonstrate exceptional qualities and to fictional characters in comics, movies and television shows (superheroes/superheroines). It is common in the media to refer to sports people as ‘sporting heroes’ (although it is far less common to hear the term ‘sporting heroine’). Other uses of the term associate heroism with bravery in war (‘war hero’). There are many types of heroes/heroines, although there is considerable overlap in types. In film, the term ‘hero’ refers to ‘the real one’. In other words, if a crew member stands in for lighting checks, for example, the second assistant director or the director may ask for ‘the hero’ - the actual 142
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H actor – to return to the set. The term is regularly applied when taking shots with products or objects, where the shots are rehearsed with poor quality substitutes so it does not matter whether they are damaged. Then, for the actual ‘takes’ they bring in the ‘hero’ product or object. The term has broadened within the film industry to mean the actual or final ‘proper’ one, and not the practice version. See also Archetype, Antagonist, Drama, Drama terms, Protagonist. JM Type
Features
Examples
Tragic
Often, but not always, a noble figure or leader who faces challenge, adversity and suffering but is doomed and eventually defeated by character flaws, poor decisions and/or external forces. Requires a reversal of fortune and self-discovery of tragic flaw.
King Lear (Shakespeare’s King Lear); Macbeth (Shakespeare’s Macbeth); Othello (Shakespeare’s Othello); Willy Loman (Miller’s Death of a Salesman)
Willing
Determined, brave, self-motivated; willingly takes on challenges and confronts obstacles; and enjoys the adventure. Can be an ‘ordinary’ figure or crusader.
Batman; Superman; James Bond; Alexander the Great; Superwoman; Marco Polo
Reluctant
Does not choose to participate in challenges; may have self-doubts; hesitant and uncertain about status and the unknown; needs to be motivated and driven by external forces to act.
Frodo, Bilbo and Samwise (The Lord of the Rings); Neo (The Matrix)
Epic/classic
Hero/heroine often based on classical myths and legends; undertakes a challenging journey or quest; overcomes adversity; returns from journey transformed.
Gilgamesh; Beowulf, Odysseus; Achilles; King Arthur; Jason (Golden Fleece); Richard the Lionheart; William Wallace; Joan of Arc
Action
Developed in film and television series; great prowess and physical attributes; tough and intrepid; usually male.
James Bond; Luke Skywalker; Jason Bourne (The Bourne trilogy); Indiana Jones; Lara Croft (Tomb Raider); Lysia (Hercules: The Legendary Journeys).
Romantic
Alienated from mainstream society; rejects social Mr Darcy (Pride and Prejudice); Don norms and values; possesses exceptional attributes; Juan (Byron); Jane Eyre (Jane Eyre); emphasises the inner life rather than action and Emma (Austen’s Emma). adventure; breaks free of society’s moral constraints; emerged during the Romantic period.
Superhero/ heroine
Fictional figures with exceptional powers, strength Superman; Spiderman; and courage; often with a distinctive costume; may Wonderwoman; Captain Marvel; The have a secret identity; takes on extraordinary Fantastic Four; Zorro. challenges for the public good; triumphs over threats, ‘evil’ and arch enemies. Often based on epic/classic hero/heroine.
Antihero
Often the antithesis of the mythic hero/heroine; may be regarded as a rebel or ‘noble’ villain by society; questions authority; audience regards them sympathetically; eventually they may triumph and redeem their position in the eyes of wider society. Similar to Byronic hero. Common in modern and postmodern texts and popular culture.
Frankenstein (Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein); Mephistopheles (Goethe’s Faust); Ned Kelly; Scarlett O’Hara (Gone with the Wind); Lester Burnham (American Beauty); Homer and Bart Simpson (The Simpsons); Shrek and Fiona.
Lone
Often lives in remote or wild natural environments, isolated from social group, eventually re-enters society through heroic deeds.
Indiana Jones; Rambo; The Lone Ranger; Jason Bourne (The Bourne Trilogy).
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H Heroic couplet A pair of rhyming lines of verse, usually written in iambic pentameter. The heroic couplet was refined by Alexander Pope (1688-1744) during the 18th century and was a common structural device in the epic and satiric poetry of the Neoclassical period. The appeal of the heroic couplet was its neat, ordered and clean metrical pattern, and the resulting epigrammatic style that it afforded: Is the great chain, that draws all to agree, And drawn supports, upheld by God, or thee? (From Pope’s “An Essay on Man”, 1717) See also Neoclassical period, Poetry, Rhyme, Satire. JM
Heteroglossia A term associated with the Russian literary theorist Mikhail Bakhtin (1895-1975), who used it to describe the play of conflicting voices evident in any literary text. Bakhtin argued that literary texts are dialogic rather than monologic, referencing many different voices including those that are normally heard outside the mainstream. The play of different and conflicting voices emerges from the speech of the narrator/s, character/s and the author/s. See also Dialogic, Narratology. JH
Hierarchy of discourses In any narrative there are layers of ‘voices’, perspectives or points of view (of, for instance, the narrator/s and characters) each of which is constructed and controlled by the author. In this framework, we can think of the author as the ultimate decision-maker: it is the author who decides what to include, exclude, emphasise or direct attention to; how to present characters through choices about description, dialogue, relationships and significance in the plot; and when to allow the narrator or characters to become privy to knowledge that the audience may or may not have. In this way, the author is at the peak of the ‘hierarchy of discourses’ that operates in a text. The concept was originally set forth by Plato (c. 428-348 BC) as a means of categorising and comparing the range and value of discourses used in speech and writing. See also Narratology. JM
Historical criticism A tradition of literary criticism that preceded, and stands in direct contrast to, New Criticism. Historical critics claimed that in order to understand a text, one had to understand the historical context from which it was produced. For example, historicism suggests that it is impossible to understand Jane Austen’s novels without understanding the social norms that created a society wherein women could not own land. Therefore, an historical critic would set about reading historical texts to illuminate that contextual world and thereby provide a lens for interpreting the literary 144
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H work. New Criticism emerged as a reaction to the preceding practice of relying on historical and biographical details to interpret the meaning of a text. See also Interpretation, Literary criticism, New Criticism. SGS
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Reference: Rivkin, J. & Ryan, M. (2005) “Introduction: Writing the Past”, in Literary Theory: An Anthology, eds. Rivkin & Ryan, 2nd edn. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
When reading a text you may ask:
∼ What aspects of the historical time and place may have influenced the creation of this text?
∼ If it is possible to ascertain, how was this text received when it was first published? ∼ What aspects of the writer’s life and times may have shaped this text? ∼ Does the form and content of this text endure beyond the historical time and culture within which it was originally created?
∼ Do you think that insights into the writer’s life and times help to illuminate aspects of this text?
Historical fiction A prose fiction text that draws or is based on historical events and/or settings and/or people. These novels require a degree of verisimilitude in that they depend on the accuracy of the historical elements that are woven through or form the basis of the fiction. Examples of Australian historical fiction include: Thomas Keneally’s Bring Larks and Heroes (1967); Peter Carey’s Oscar and Lucinda (1988), Jack Maggs (1997) and True History of the Kelly Gang (2000); Kate Grenville’s The Secret River (2006); Jackie French’s Hitler’s Daughter (2001); Morris Gleitzman’s Once (2006) and Then (2008) and Kirsty Murray’s Children of the Wind quartet (Bridie’s Fire, 2003, is Volume 1 of the series) which explores the Irish immigrant experience in Australia. Other examples of historical fiction are Margaret Mitchell’s Gone with the Wind (1936) and Sebastian Faulks’ Birdsong (1993). See also Faction, Fiction, Literature. JM
History play The most famous history plays are those by Shakespeare, based on the historical detail from Holinshed’s Chronicles (1577, 1587). For example, Henry IV, Parts 1 and II; Henry V; Richard II; and Richard III are some of Shakespeare’s better-known history plays. Any play that is set in a particular historical period and draws on actual historical figures and events is referred to as a history play. See also Drama, Shakespeare. JM
Horror A genre of fiction and film intended to shock and frighten the reader/viewer. The genre now extends into magazines, television, web discussion boards and computer games. Horror as a genre often involves murder, mutilation, suicide, insanity, torture, ghouls, ghosts, vampires, zombies, evil entities, possession, and Satanic themes. An interest in and preoccupation with the innermost fears and phobias of the human psyche; the ability of the individual to endure extreme suffering; and a fascination with symbols of darkness and evil have permeated the genre. The horror genre has ancient antecedents in works such as those by Seneca (c. 4 BC – 65 AD) which represent his interest in suffering. Virgil’s (70-19 BC) Aeneid (c. 29 BC), Lucan’s (39-65 AD) Pharsalia (c. 1st century AD), Statius (c. 1st century AD), Silicus Italicus and Valerius Flaccus (c. 14 AD) rely on grisly events and macabre details. The writing of the Middle Ages continued the interest in horror in works such as Beowulf (8th century AD) and Geoffrey Chaucer’s (c. 1340-1400) The Pardoner’s Tale. Its importance is indicated in the development of the short story with its connections to the crime, suspense, mystery, supernatural and gothic genres.
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H According to Cuddon, from the 16th century, ‘Hell’ was relocated from the middle of the earth to the human mind and thus signalled the beginning of the idea of an inner, individual hell: a subjective, psychological hell that is represented as personal and inescapable. Such a representation of hell is evident in John Milton’s (1608-74) Paradise Lost (1667, 1674), Sir Walter Raleigh’s (c.1552-1618) History of the World (1628) and Sir Thomas Browne’s (1605-82) Religio Medici (1642). The Elizabethan and Jacobean writers continued the fascination with madness and suffering that is frequently a hallmark of the horror genre. The popularity of the horror genre receded in the middle of the 17th century but with the advent of the ‘graveyard school of poetry’ in the mid-1740s and its preoccupation with death, corpses and suffering, there was a shift away from the sensibility of the Augustan Age. Horace Walpole’s (171797) The Castle of Otranto (1764) is sometimes considered as a progenitor of the genre, as is The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794) by Ann Radcliffe (1764-1823). The dramatisation of Gothic novels influenced German writers of ‘terror fiction’, known as the Schaurroman. Adelbert von Chamisso (1781-1838) explored psychological states of fear and evil in Peter Schlemihl (1814) and Edgar Allan Poe (1809-49) built on ETA Hoffman’s (1776-1822) work in a range of pieces. His William Wilson (1839) and A Tale of the Ragged Mountains (1844) treated the concept of the ‘doppelganger’ (double-goer), as did Fyodor Dostoevsky’s (1821-1881) The Double (1846), Robert Louis Stevenson’s (1850-1894) Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1886) and Oscar Wilde’s (1854-1900) The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891). Poe also wrote a number of popular horror stories such as The Fall of the House of Usher (1839), The Murders in the Rue Morgue (1841), The Pit and the Pendulum (1843) and The Cask of Amontillado (1846). John William Polidori’s (1795-1821) The Vampyre (1818) was the first vampire story while Bram Stoker’s (1847-1912) Dracula (1897) has become the most widely known vampire novel. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818) has also been classified as science fiction and a philosophical novel, with the character of Lord Ruthven figuring as a model for later vampire fiction. Prominent 19th and 20th century writers of horror include: HP Lovecraft (1890-1936); Ambrose Pierce (c.1842-1913); MR James (1862-1936); Stephen King (1947); and James Herbert (1943). Examples of the horror genre in film include: Rosemary’s Baby (1968); The Exorcist (1973); The Texas Chainsaw Massacre (1974); The Omen (1976); Halloween (1978); The Amityville Horror (1979 and 2005); Friday the 13th (1980); Poltergeist (1982); A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984); and 1408 (2007). See also Gothic, Fiction, Film, Novel. DC Reference: Cuddon, J.A. (1991) Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, 3rd edn. London: Penguin Books.
Humanism A term which has been applied to a variety of ethical, philosophical and intellectual movements: for example, Secular humanism, Christian humanism, Literary humanism, Cultural humanism, Modern humanism, Educational humanism, Philosophical humanism and Liberal humanism. Originally, the term ‘humanist’, from which the term humanism is derived, referred to a devoted scholar of the humanities. Humanism as a generic term has been applied to the historical movement and intellectual culture of Renaissance Europe. The movement sought to counter the philosophy of Medieval Scholasticism by celebrating human achievement, rejecting superstition, and in seeking to dignify and ennoble humankind, it assumed an anthropomorphic view of the human condition. Rather than perceiving human beings as corrupt, fallen and in need of redemption through divine intercession, Renaissance humanists looked to human experience, sentience, artistic achievement and the intellect to shape moral values and illuminate ‘truths’ of existence. At various times since the Renaissance, humanism has been revived in a range of forms, particularly during the 19th century when the onrush of industrialisation, technology and scientific innovation threatened, according to the humanists, the significance of human endeavour and agency. The breakdown of shared moral certainties (influenced in part by Charles Darwin’s The Origin of Species, 1859 and Charles Lyell’s Principles of Geology, 1830), fuelled the 19th century humanism that is 146
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H evident in Matthew Arnold’s influential book, Culture and Anarchy (1869). Here Arnold declared that: Faith in machinery is, I said, our besetting danger; often in machinery most absurdly disproportioned to the end which this machinery, if it is to do any good at all, is to serve; but always in machinery, as if it had a value in and for itself. As far as Arnold was concerned, the salvation of ‘culture’ depended on an immersion in “the best that has been thought and said” – ‘great’ works of literature and art. This position is summed up in his poem “Dover Beach” (1867). Without the certainty of an external moral frame of reference, the speaker of the poem urges a turning towards individual human experience and relationships as the ultimate source of meaning and ‘truth’. Education was seen as a bulwark against the tide of ‘dehumanising’ industrialisation. In his famous book English for the English (1925), George Sampson argued that education had a central role in “preparing children against their occupations”. The legacy of such thinking is evident in the emergence of the Cambridge School of literary criticism in Britain in the late 1920s. FR Leavis (1895-1978), whose work was highly influential in establishing and sustaining the New Critics movement, similarly regarded English education as a ‘civilizing’ force: In new and worsening cultural circumstances, the Cambridge school gave powerful currency to the notion that the teacher, critic and artist had no choice but to oppose the destructive, seemingly inexorable drift of industrial civilisation.” (Abbs, 1992: 12) The impact of New Criticism has been far-reaching in English and can be seen to embody aspects of humanism espoused by some humanists of the 19th century. The term ‘liberal humanism’ came into vogue in the 1970s as a way of negatively categorising New Criticism as a critical approach that was non-Marxist, non-theoretical and non-radical. One of the major criticisms of New Criticism was the view that this approach to literature regarded human nature as unchanging, with the ‘universal’ dimensions of human experience represented in ‘great’, transcendent literature. More recently, the term ‘humanism’ has been loosely applied to a number of philosophical schools that reject religious beliefs and the supernatural in any form, arguing that attention to and action on liberal moral values such as pluralism and social justice should be the priorities of individuals, education and government. See also (The) Enlightenment, Interpretation, Marxist literary criticism, New Criticism. DC, JM References: Abbs, P. (1992) in C. Davies, What is English? Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Arnold, M. (1869) Culture and Anarchy, 2007 edn. BiblioBazaar.
Hyperbole (Greek: ‘overcasting’) A figure of speech which uses exaggeration to heighten effect for emphasis. It is often used in comedy. Hyperbole is used in everyday speech: for example: ‘He’s ancient!’; ‘She couldn’t hit the side of a barn’; ‘I’ve told you a million times – don’t exaggerate!’ The media, particularly current affairs television, often use hyperbole such as ‘Australia’s Worst Driver’ or ‘World’s Worst Father’. DC
Hypertext Electronic texts that have the capacity to incorporate, as part of the complete text, images or text beyond the text being viewed on the screen. Readers of such texts access the extended text through hyperlinks. These hyperlinks are important in their operation and power in creating the hypertext as they allow the reader to navigate through the linked texts which together constitute the whole text. Hypertext fiction uses this non-linear nature of electronic texts to develop the narrative. Hypertexts allow students to be actively engaged in constructing meaning by making choices about where they will navigate to next, thus disrupting the convention of sequential narrative and authorial control over plot, character and narrative development. One example of hypertext fiction is the “Choose your own Adventure” series at See also Interactive text, Multimedia. KS
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H Hypothesis (Greek: ‘to propose, suppose’) A premise, theory or suggestion which still has the semblance of the speculative. Many literary works are based on an hypothesis or suggestion: apocalyptic works, for example, are premised on an hypothesis about life and (what is left of society) after a cataclysmic event. This hypothesis may be represented in a vision of the invasion of aliens as in HG Wells’ The War of the Worlds (1898) or in scenarios such as the detonation of an atomic or nuclear bomb. William Golding’s Lord of the Flies (1954) portrays a group of schoolboys marooned on an island after an unnamed global catastrophe and Cormac McCarthy’s The Road (2006) depicts the wanderings of a man and his son in what appears to be a post-nuclear environment. See also Antithesis, Debate, Essay, Rhetoric, Thesis, Writing. DC
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I Icon An exalted image that carries symbolic meaning. Although the term was originally associated with visual art and religion, it has acquired broader currency in popular culture to describe exceptional role models, exemplars or images that are valued because of the qualities they represent. Icons in popular culture can include, for example, elite sports people, actors, advertising logos and even types and brands of food and drinks. In 1954, American New Critics WK Wimsatt and MC Beardsley wrote The Verbal Icon, setting out the principles of New Criticism. As the title suggests, the approach to literature advanced by this critical framework treated the text as a self-contained verbal icon to be revered. See also Archetype, Image, Representing, Symbol. JM ∼ Exploring issues of Australian identity, popular culture, stereotypes and cultural assumptions and values:
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∼ In groups, students brainstorm examples of Australian icons. These may take the form of people (celebrities, sports people etc), places, buildings, objects, animals, food, or other things that have achieved iconic status.
∼ Collate a class list of Australian icons and discuss the inclusion or exclusion of any contested examples. Explore why icons have achieved this status. For example: • Popularity • Association with historical moment/time • Leadership • Advertising/Media • Talent • Endurance • Creativity • Intelligence • Is the status warranted and why? • What is it about these icons that renders them ‘Australian’ as distinct from ‘universal’ or specific to other cultures?
References: Wimsatt, W.K. & Beardsley, M.C. (1954) The Verbal Icon: Studies in the Meaning of Poetry, Kentucky: University of Kentucky Press.
Ideology (Greek: ‘idea’) Generally any system or body of ideas, values and norms directing personal, political and social action, transmitted through a range of cultural practices. It can also refer to principles, laws, beliefs, interests and statutes. As used by Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895), ideology refers to such general systems in that they contain falsehood and The English Teacher’s Handbook
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I distortion created in the main unconsciously. In metaphysics, the term includes all types of ideas and as such, no idea or system of ideas is considered objective and disinterested. The term ideology was made prominent by the Marxist thinker Louis Althusser (1918-1990), in his essay “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses”. Althusser describes ideology as “the imaginary relationship of individuals to their real conditions of existence”. By this he means that an individual views the world through a framework that does not necessarily correspond with reality. According to Althusser, this framework is necessarily an illusion, and is constructed by the bourgeoisie to support its own interests: “that cause is the existence of a small number of cynical men who base their domination and exploitation of the ‘people’ on a falsified representation of the world which they have imagined in order to enslave other minds by dominating their imaginations” (2005: 694). The critical feature of Althusser’s notion of ideology is that it is totalizing. The ‘people’ are so convinced of the true and real correspondence of their ideology with reality, that they will defend against any attempts to emancipate them from the enslaving ideology. Althusser calls this phenomenon the “ideological effect”. In this way, the work of ideology is a closed system since those who are oppressed actually work to keep the ideology intact. Raymond Williams developed a concept of ideology that has been applied to the study of language and texts. Williams suggests that we see every text (or other cultural practice) as the site in which three phases of ideological development can be traced. These phases he calls dominant, residual and emergent (1977: 121-8): ∼ The dominant refers to those aspects of the text which express the socially privileged and
central ways of seeing and saying of its age: the dominant discourses in the present. ∼ The residual refers to those ways of saying and seeing which were once central but have now been superseded and are only evident as vestiges: these were often the dominant discourses of the past. ∼ The emergent refers to those embryonic growth points which exist only as half-formed potential but which may be perceived as precursors of new ways of saying and seeing: these may become the dominant discourses of the future. (Pope, 2003: 109) In Ideology: An Introduction (1991) the critic Terry Eagleton defines ideology in this way: A dominant power may legitimate itself by promoting beliefs and values congenial to it; naturalizing and universalizing such beliefs so as to render them self-evident and apparently inevitable; denigrating ideas which might challenge it; excluding rival forms of thought, perhaps by some unspoken but systematic logic; and obscuring social reality in ways convenient to itself. Such `mystification', as it is commonly known, frequently takes the form of masking or suppressing social conflicts, from which arises the conception of ideology as an imaginary resolution of real contradictions. (Eagleton: 1991: 5-6) See also Dominant reading, Interpretation, Literary criticism, Literary theory, Resistant reading. SGS, JM References: Althusser, L. (2005) “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses”, in Literary Theory: An Anthology, eds. J. Rivkin, & M Ryan, 2nd edn. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, pp. 693-702. Eagleton, T. (1991) Ideology: An Introduction, London: Verso. Pope, R. (2003) The English Studies Book: An Introduction to Language, Literature and Culture, 2nd edn. London: Routledge. Williams, R. (1977) Marxism and Literature, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Idiom A figure of speech or a colloquial metaphor that describes something in such a way that it may not make sense to those who are not familiar with the particular colloquial dimensions of the language. On a literal level, the phrase or saying may seem odd or even nonsensical, but through general usage it acquires meaning and becomes recognised as an idiom within a particular social or cultural group. Examples of idiomatic expressions include: ‘pushing up daisies’ (dead); ‘the real McCoy’ (something that is genuine or original); ‘eat humble pie’ (recognise an error and admit to it); 150
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‘sour grapes’ (feelings of bitterness and resentment at not achieving what was hoped for); ‘foot the bill’ (fully pay for something); ‘forbidden fruit’ (something that is taboo); ‘stone the crows’ (an expression of surprise); ‘strike me pink’ (an expression of amazement); and ‘to call a spade a spade’ (to tell the truth even though this may be confronting or controversial). See also Dialect, Language. JM Create a class database of idioms, drawing on students’ knowledge of the language used in their daily lives, within a range of contexts (for example, family, sporting club, peer groups). Select some of these idioms and research their origins and derivations.
Idyll (Greek: ‘little picture’) A short poem, or section of a poem, that usually idealises or romanticises rustic, bucolic life. Characters may appear in these poems – usually shepherds or field workers, depicted in a state of repose, peace, calm and happiness. The earliest example of this form is attributed to the Greek Bucolic poet Theocritus (3rd century BC), and his Idylls have arguably stood as a model for later poems in this form. Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s Idylls of the King (1885) is a lengthy narrative poem exploring the legend of King Arthur. This poem questions the simplistic depiction of idyllic life by representing warring interior and exterior forces as they are embodied in the characters and actions of the poem. See also Poetry, Writing. JM
Illusion (Latin: ‘deception’) The creation of a fictional, imaginary world within a text that leads the responder to ‘willingly suspend disbelief’ – that is, to accept the illusion of the constructed world as a version of reality. Shakespeare (1564-1616) explores this concept in many of his plays, particularly the comedies such as Twelfth Night (1623). In this play, the idea of appearance and reality, truth and fabrication, honesty and deception are represented through, for instance, the use of masks and disguise (e.g. females dressing as males). Such techniques pose the question: if we can believe the ‘illusion’ created by a film or drama, how do we distinguish illusion in everyday life? See also Alienation effect, Drama, Film, Imagination, Realism, Representation, Willing suspension of disbelief. JM
Image The representation of a sensory experience, idea or object. The term originally referred to a representation of a person by a sculptor. Its importance in the arts lies in its capacity to convey the richness and complexity of experience in words and visual forms. Images may be literal or figurative. A literal image may aim for a sensory representation of the object or sensation, while a figurative image may utilise metaphor, simile, synecdoche, onomatopoeia or metonymy. Students inhabit an image-laden world. In English, students learn to decode the codes and conventions and interpret the purpose of still and moving images, developing an increasingly sophisticated understanding of the role of image in communicating, representing and shaping meaning, attitudes, beliefs and values. See also Film, Representing, Viewing, Visual text. JM
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I Analysing Visual Images Focusing on the movie poster below (or any other image), and using the terms defined in the Film and Visual literacy Appendix, follow these steps in analysing the image.
1. Identify and describe ∼ Identify and describe everything you can see in the image (e.g. objects, figures, elements, vectors, colours, shadows)
∼ How has the image been created (e.g. photograph, drawing, painting, collage)? What materials have been used to create the image?
2. Analyse ∼ How have the things you have identified and described been organised in the image?
∼ What are the relationships between the different elements of the image? ∼ How are the elements of the image positioned (e.g. vectors, balance, shadows, symmetry, asymmetry, height variation, wide-angle, close-up, foreground, background etc)?
∼ How would you describe the mood or tone of the image and what has influenced your view?
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∼ From what and/or whose perspective has the image been constructed? 3. Interpret ∼ Why do you think this image has been created?
∼ Is the image trying to persuade you to regard an object or element favourably or otherwise? If so, why?
∼ Does the image contain any emblems, symbols, archetypes or familiar scenes?
∼ Does the image evoke an emotional response in you? If so, what and how has the image achieved this?
∼ Does this image remind you of, or make reference to any other images (intertextuality and allusions)?
∼ What do you think is the main purpose, audience and theme or idea?
∼ Would this image be understandable in a different cultural context or with a range of audiences?
4. Evaluate ∼ Do you think the image successfully communicates a core idea or theme?
∼ If so, what are the key techniques employed to achieve this?
∼ If not, what aspects and elements of the image are not effective? ∼ How could this image be adapted or transformed for another context?
Poster reproduced with permission, Paramount,
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I Imagery (Latin: ‘making of likeness’) A term with a number of meanings: its literal meaning is a collection of images in a literary work, or a unit of a literary work. It is synonymous with a figure of speech or trope. There are four types of tropes: images which are literal, descriptive and sensory wordpictures; symbols which blend a literal and sensuous quality with an abstract or evocative quality; simile which describes and compares by analogy; and metaphor which describes by implied analogy. The study of the imagery in a literary work may focus on the depiction of the physical world through language use; upon the rhetorical devices and patterns through which the tropes in the work are realised; upon the psychological state which enabled the work to be produced and which may provide its metaphorical and unique meaning; or upon the pattern of images which may reinforce or contradict literal aspects of the story or plot. See also Depiction, Description, Image, Language, Metaphor, Representation. DC, JM
Imagination (Latin: ‘forming an image’, ‘representation’) The capacity to create and form images, ideas, pictures and thoughts with the mind. Imagination is the faculty that enables the individual to create meaning and apprehend new insights; solve problems by imagining them to be otherwise; and deepen understandings of the self and others, with or without direct sensory stimulus from the external world. Imagination is an expression of the inner life that offers the capacity to envision things to be other than they are; to make connections; synthesise disparate phenomena and illuminate experience in powerful ways. John Dewey (1859-1952) in The Quest for Certainty observed that “Every great advance in science has issued from a new audacity of the imagination”(1930: 5). The Imagination in Education Research Group (IERG) promotes the central role of the imagination in teaching and learning and defines Imaginative Education as: a way of teaching and learning that is based on engaging learners’ imaginations. Imagination is the ability to think of what might be possible, in a manner that is not tightly constrained by the actual or taken-for-granted. It is the “reaching out” feature of the mind, enabling us to go beyond what we have mastered so far. Without human imagination, no culture would look the way it does today, and no learner would be able to participate in and contribute to that culture. … the imaginative educator seeks to value and build upon the way the child understands her or his experiences, rather than always focusing on the “adult” way of understanding as the measure of learning. To do this, educators themselves must be imaginative and sensitive to dimensions of learning that they may have never thought of as relevant to education. (IERG: http://ierg.net/about/whatis.html#intro) S T Coleridge (1772-1834) in Biographia Literaria (1817: Chapter 14) presents what is considered to be the most extensive attempt to define the imagination. What distinguishes the Romantic period above all else is the stress placed on the role of the individual imagination as an ordering, unifying and creative force in human experience. During this time Newtonian theories emerged to explain some of the workings of the universe, reducing life to a series of scientific ‘laws’ and ‘matter’. According to Coleridge and his peers, one of the consequences of such a mechanistic view was to deny human beings the capacity to transcend their physical state through an act of the imagination. For Coleridge, the human faculty of the imagination and the artist's mind are considered as active, creative powers capable of apprehending the Platonic ‘ideal’ forms, or truths, through communion with nature. That is, the imagination is like a mirror or inner eye, capable of transforming and resolving external and internal conflicts. But as Pope observes, Imagination is a concept with a complex history and constantly renegotiated meanings so there is every reason to believe that (like the related, equally out-of-favour but resilient term creativity) it will have a valuable future too. (Pope, 2003: 216)
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I Since Coleridge’s efforts to define the imagination, there has been a range of critiques of this view, particularly from poststructuralist critics who have questioned the concept of the imagination as a wholly productive, individually controlled and manifested phenomenon. Is or can the individual imagination, for example, operate outside of the cultural, social, political, economic, historical and other contextual forces that influence and shape language, thought and action? Importantly, it cannot be assumed that the imagination is amoral – that is, an a priori ‘good’ concept, process or phenomenon. There have been and continue to be well-documented cases (and many that remain partially documented) of individuals and groups who ‘imagine’ acts of destruction, cruelty, murder, and torture, and go on to enact such imaginings in the external realm. Personal diaries and digital communications, for example, have exposed the ethical and moral complexity of the term ‘imagination’, with some notorious cases of mass murderers broadcasting their imagined plans and intentions on spaces such as YouTube and MySpace. In the 20th century, the work of Maxine Greene (1918-) and Elliot W Eisner (1933-) has been particularly influential in the development of pedagogies of imaginative education in the arts. Both argue for the central role of the (individual and social) imagination in thinking, feeling, the construction of knowledge, innovation, creativity, aesthetic experience, ethical action, understanding and learning. See also Affective learning, Creativity, Drama as a learning medium, Literature, Reading, Representing, Viewing, Writing. JM References: Eisner, E. W. (1998) The kind of schools we need: personal essays. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Eisner, E. W. (1985) The art of educational evaluation: a personal view. London: Falmer Press. Dewey, J. (1930) The Quest for Certainty: A Study of the Relation of Knowledge and Action, London: George Allen & Unwin. Imagination in Education Research Group,. Pope, R. (2003) The English Studies Book: An Introduction to Language, Literature and Culture, 2nd edn. London: Routledge.
Imaginative re-creation Originally a creative strategy defined by Leslie Stratta, John Dixon and Andrew Wilkinson (1973) as students adopting “a creative role in relation to the work of fiction” to enable them to “imaginatively re-create the experience of the novelist.” Activities that engage students in both the form and meaning of a text through imaginative re-creation include, for example: ∼ dramatising part of a novel ∼ recasting sections of the novel from a different point of view (e.g. of a minor character) ∼ translating elements, scenes of ideas from the novel into another medium (e.g. into a poem,
script, newspaper article) ∼ film or record an interpretation of aspects of the novel. In the late 1980s, Sawyer, Watson and Adams extended the concept of imaginative re-creation to mean tasks which Encouraged students to ‘get inside’ the text, consider it from different angles [or] extend their understanding of it without resorting to parcels of organised adult information about the text. (Sawyer, Watson & Adams, 1989: 82) Imaginative re-creation now encompasses the wide range of activities associated with engagement and response to a range of texts (and is not limited to work with fiction). Peter Adams (2004) provides a comprehensive coverage of the concept, with a range of practical strategies to support the implementation of imaginative re-creation in English. For further practical strategies for imaginative re-creation with fiction, poetry, drama, film and nonfiction, see Drama, Poetry, Literature, Writing. JM References: Adams, P. (2004) “Imaginative re-creation of literature: a critical examination from the perspective of the 21st century, in Reviewing English in the 21st century, eds. W. Sawyer & E. Gold, Sydney: Phoenix Education.
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I Adams, P. (1992) “Dependent Authorship: Writing from the Inside Out”, in Reconstructing Literature Teaching: New Essays on the Teaching of Literature, ed. J. Thomson, Norwood: AATE. Sawyer, W., Watson, K., & Adams, A. (1989) English Teaching from A to Z, Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Stratta, L., Dixon, J., & Wilkinson, A. (1973) Patterns of Language: Explorations of the Teaching of English, London: Heinemann Educational Books.
Imaginative text Any text that creates a fictional world and/or represents people, places, situations, experiences and events that are wholly, or predominantly imaginary. Examples of imaginative texts include: stories (novels, short stories), poems, films, picture books, plays, nursery rhymes, myths, and many visual arts including paintings. Imaginative texts are both created and read by students in English, with students ‘reading as writers’ and ‘writing as readers’ of imaginative texts across a broad range of genres. See also Creativity, Drama, Fiction, Film, Imagination, Literature, Literature Circles, Novel, Poetry, Wide reading program, Young adult literature. JM
Imagists/Imagism A term describing a group of poets and a type of writing that evolved just prior to World War I. Imagists sought to capture a concentrated and evocative representation of things and experiences. The poetry is often brief and atmospheric and seeks to create a vivid ‘picture’ of the subject. In this way, imagist poetry is similar to haiku. Imagism emerged from the experiments with free verse and valued the use of everyday speech and language in poetry. Prominent writers in this movement included Amy Lowell, HD (Hilda Doolittle) (1886-1961), Ezra Pound (1885-1972) and TE Hulme (1883-1917). An example of an Imagist poem is TE Hulme’s “Autumn”: A touch of cold in the Autumn night – I walked abroad, And saw the ruddy moon lean over a hedge Like a red-faced farmer. I did not speak, but nodded, And round about were the wistful stars With white faces like town children. See also Imagery, Poetry, Representation. JM
Imitation (Greek: ‘copy’) In English studies an imitation refers to a translation and adaptation of a work to create a new text for a contemporary context. The term also refers to the practice of imitating the classics genres – a feature of the literature of the Neoclassical period. Imitation in this sense implies more than a mere copying of the original works: it is an attempt to acieve the excellence of the ancient models, infusing these with the spirit and tenor of the imitating writer’s time. A third meaning of imitation is that associated with Aristotle’s (384 - 322 BC) mimetic view of art: art was considered to hold a mirror to life, capturing ‘reality’ and representing this in a heightened way. See also Drama, Literature, Mimesis, Realism, Representation, Verisimilitude. JM
Impersonality A concept proposed by TS Eliot (1888-1965) in his essay “Tradition and the Individual Talent” (1920). Eliot argued that traces of the personality of the composer should not be evident and should not be the basis for imaginative representation. This concept is in direct opposition to the Romantic view of literature as the expression of the emotions and feelings of the artist. Eliot asserted that: “Poetry is not a turning loose of emotion, but an escape from emotion; it is not the expression of personality, but an escape from personality. But, of course, only those who have personality and
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I emotions know what it means to escape from these things” (1920). See also Affective criticism, Author, Objective correlative, Negative capability. JM Reference: Eliot, T.S. (1920) “Tradition and the Individual Talent” in The Sacred Wood: Essays on Poetry and Criticism, (1997 edn.) London: Faber & Faber.
Implied author A term coined by Wayne Booth (1921-2005), detailed first in his book The Rhetoric of Fiction (Chicago, 1961). Booth makes a distinction between the “career author”, who is the flesh and blood author writing the text, and the “implied author”. Booth explains that the “implied author” is the “sum of all the choices” that the career author makes, and that this “sum” takes on a character all its own. He borrows from Jessamyn Hicks, who explains what it is like to write: “Writing is a way of playing parts, of trying on masks, of assuming roles” (Booth, 1961: 71). In this sense, the overall “presence” we get from a text, that is in essence the sum of the choices that the author has made, becomes like a character in that an examination of the “implied author” gives us a sense of what this “official scribe” values and does not value. As Booth explains, ‘the implied author’ chooses, consciously or unconsciously, what we read; we infer him [sic] as an ideal, literary, created version of the real man; he is the sum of his [sic] own choices” (p. 75). Booth draws a parallel between the “implied author” and the “narrator” and explains that there can be a separation between the two. For example, the complex narration in Joseph Conrad’s (18571924) Heart of Darkness (1902) reveals a disjunction between the implied author’s values and the narration of Marlow. Marlow narrates a kind of admiration for the iconic Kurtz, while the implied narrator establishes some moral distance from the horrific acts that Kurtz engages in. In this way, Booth suggests that careful reading can trace the effect of the implied author and its complex relationship with the narrator. Of the career author, Booth suggests that we can know nothing definitively, and that it is not the task of the reader to pursue the career author. He suggests that we may have impressions of the career author from the implied author, just as when we write letters, we give a sense of ourselves and yet our voice changes depending on the recipient. He suggests that more fertile observations result from an engagement with the implied author. See also Author, Conventions, Hierarchy of discourses, Implied reader, Narrative, Narrator, Narratology. SGS Reference: Booth, W. C. (1961) The Rhetoric of Fiction, 2nd ed. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.
Implied reader A term used by the critic Wolfgang Iser (1926-2007), it is a part of the discourse of the Readerresponse movement. Drawing from Wayne Booth’s (1921-2005) work on the “implied author”, Iser worked to show that the reader was as instrumental in “creating” a text as the author. He explains that “central to the reading of every literary work is the interaction between its structure and its recipient”, suggesting that the text exists, as it were, in between what the author creates (the shape, the offering, the choices that Wayne Booth describes as the “implied author” and then the “total act of discourse”) and the responses that the reader offers to those choices. Iser describes the different types of readers who exist for a text: the ideal reader, the concrete reader, the historical reader, and the contemporary reader. Iser’s “implied reader” is a kind of answer to Booth’s “implied author”, in that Iser suggests that the “implied reader” equates to the invited response to the schematic and structural invitations made by the text. He says that the implied reader is “an expression of the role offered by the text”, and explains that this ‘expression’ occurs in the mind of the reader to such a degree that one might even be able to say that a text ‘exists’, as it were, in the mind of the reader. A unit of work can expose the way in which an implied author may invite the implied reader to respond through aesthetic choices (Iser would actually call these ‘artistic’ choices, rather than aesthetic). For example, the film Shine (Hicks, 1996) offers a very clear invitation to the ‘viewer’ to assemble pathos for David, and enmity for David’s father. Students can then identify key moments in the film where these invitations are made, and can further identify the aesthetic choices that prompt 156
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I such responses. They can then identify the ‘space’ that Scott Hicks, as director, carves out for the viewer to move into. See also Author, Implied author, Interpretation, Reader, Reader-response criticism, Reception theory. SGS Reference: Iser, W. (1978) The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP.
Impressionistic criticism An approach to the study of literature that was prominent prior to the emergence of New Criticism. Impressionistic criticism relies on the personal responses of the reader/critic and does not depend explicitly on a particular critical or literary theory. See also Affective criticism. JM
Improvisation (known also as impro) Drama work during which players do not use a script or fully predetermined scenario, but make up the words and/or action; includes role-play, rehearsal exercises, theatre-sports, stand-up comedy and performance storytelling. For an improvised scene to work the participants must work together cooperatively. There are some key elements: Offer, Yield (or acceptance) and Extend. An actor makes an Offer by speaking or gesturing to another e.g. ‘How is your father?’ For the impro to work the other actor(s) must Yield (or Accept the offer) e.g. ‘Oh he’s fine, he has just been married for the fourth time’ - which is an example of a Yield and Extend. Not accepting the offer is known as Blocking e.g. ‘What father, he’s been dead for 20 years!’ (This term can be confused with the ‘blocking’ a director does during rehearsal of a play). See also Drama, JH
Indigenous education Indigenous student achievement in literacy and English continues to be a priority area in education at national, state and territory levels. Each jurisdiction has a set of policies and professional development programs to assist teachers in addressing the range of needs of Indigenous students through informed pedagogy, resources and increased cultural understanding. In English, it is important to recognise the distinctive and often complex issues which impact upon Indigenous student learning in mainstream classrooms. For many Aboriginal students, their first language in not Standard Australian English. It is therefore vital to recognise the variety of language and cultural backgrounds of students and integrate this understanding into any classroom teaching and learning context. Aboriginal languages are central to issues of identity, place and culture and all teachers should be well informed of the pedagogical and philosophical dimensions of teaching Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students. In addition to the specific pedagogical and other approaches to address the needs of Indigenous students, all English programs should include the study and experience of texts by and about Indigenous experience. Many web-based resources exist to assist teachers in planning and programming for the inclusion of such texts in English: The Macquarie PEN Anthology of Aboriginal Literature: (www.allenandunwin.com/default.aspx?page=94&book=9781741754384) and the AustLit resource site: (www.austlit.edu.au/specialistDatasets/ lackWordsExtraNotesCh3.xml). See also Dreamtime, Legends, Myths. DC, JM
Indij Readers A series of fictional texts for students learning to read which represent the experiences, cultures and perspectives of Indigenous Australians. “All texts are authentic in that the language choices made are to support the purpose of the text: to entertain, inform or recount and not as part of a levelled reading scheme.” (Last, et al, 2004: p. ix). Indij Readers are designed for Indigenous and nonIndigenous students and present authentic stories to engage beginning and older readers in meaningful and enjoyable reading experiences. See also Dreamtime, Indigenous education. DC, JM Reference: Last, A., Rushton, K., McDonnell, N., Bunworth, M., Gilbert, S. (2004) Indigenous Readers: Our Lives, Our Stories, Rockdale: Indij Readers.
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I Inflection A term with two meanings. The first relates to a change in the form of a word to indicate a change in its grammatical function, usually at the end of a word; and a change in the pitch of a word. For example, the word ‘well’ can function as a noun, adjective and exclamation and could be said in a variety of ways. DC Reference: Cuddon, J.A. (1991) Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, Great Britain: Penguin
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) A broad term used to refer to the diverse ways that information is produced and communicated by technological means. In its widest sense, ICT can encompass a great range of media that creates, enables and disseminates information (television, radio, computers, phones, mobile phones, still image and video cameras) as well as the other technological devices and processes that facilitate communication (internet, data projectors, smart boards, wireless technology, storage devices such as flash drives, CDs, DVDs, MP3 players, and other hardware and software that depends on technology). ICT is an integral part of the lives of students and integral to effective pedagogy and learning in English. Increasingly, classrooms are equipped with technology such as smart boards, data projectors and wireless internet. Ideally, such technology should be exploited as a powerful resource for teaching and learning on a daily basis. The possibilities for the application of ICT in English are endless: from integrating images and videos into lessons; accessing information from and analysing websites; collaborative and individual research; composing and representing using ICT; presenting, publishing and disseminating work using ICT; and networking with people and contexts beyond the confines of the classroom. Useful resources for teachers in the implementation of ICT include: Durrant, C. & Beavis, C. (2001) P(ICT)ures of English: teachers, learners and technology. Norwood: Wakefield Press/AATE. In addition to its role as a powerful tool for learning, ICT can also be scrutinised and critiqued in terms of the ethical, social, personal and cultural issues associated with its widespread use. See also Digital texts, Media, Multimedia. JM
Inner speech See Interior monologue, Stream of consciousness.
Intentional Fallacy In 1954, the American New Critics, WK Wimsatt and MC Beardsley published The Verbal Icon, setting out the principles of literary criticism that underpinned their work. In this book, they argue that it is impossible to definitively establish what the author’s intention or implied intention was for writing a work. Therefore, any reference to the author’s intention in the analysis and evaluation of a text is misleading and irrelevant. The Intentional Fallacy became a standard tenet of the New Critics’ method and complemented the view that the text is a self-contained artefact that should be judged according to principles of close reading and textual analysis – with no recourse to information or speculation about the author or the historical context. See also Author, Interpretation, Literary criticism, New Criticism. JM Reference: Wimsatt, W.K. & Beardsley, M.C. (1954) The Verbal Icon: Studies in the Meaning of Poetry, Kentucky: University of Kentucky Press.
Interactive text A text that requires the audience to actively engage in responding to and/or co-creating the text. Examples of interactive texts include computer games, digital stories, hypertext fiction, some bookraps and webquests. See also Digital texts, Hypertext, Multimedia. JM
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I Interior monologue
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A technique employed to record the thoughts, emotions and inner experiences of a character. Two types of interior monologue can be identified: the first is the presentation of the character’s thoughts, emotions and sensations without any apparent structural or grammatical organisation. The second type involves the author selecting, presenting and on occasions commenting on the monologue. Perhaps the best-known example of a fictional interior monologue is James Joyce’s Ulysses (1922). Many films employ the technique of voice-over which is a form of interior monologue in this medium. Fictional and nonfictional diaries are also variations on the interior monologue. See also Diary, Stream of consciousness. JM When studying a text (e.g. novel, play, film or short story), students select a character and a significant episode. As a response strategy, students create an interior monologue to explore the unspoken thoughts, feelings and perceptions of the character. The monologue may be constructed in a range of forms, from a diary entry to a dramatised soliloquy.
International Federation for the Teaching of English (IFTE) The International Federation for the Teaching of English grew out of an international conference on English teaching held at Dartmouth College, New Hampshire, in 1966. As outlined on the IFTE website www.ifte.net (from which this entry has been taken) following this meeting a network of international meetings and publications began to develop, and this eventually led to the formal constitution of IFTE in 1983. Since then a pattern has developed of holding a major international conference in one of the IFTE countries every four years, with a meeting of the executive attached to it. Recent major conferences have been held in New York (1995), Warwick (1999), and Melbourne (2003). Interim meetings have been held in Adelaide (1993), Johannesburg (1997) and Vancouver (2001 & 2005). Ken Watson has written a comprehensive history of IFTE, which is available on the IFTE website:. PB
Interpretation The act of making sense and understanding the meaning of language, a text or experience. Interpretation is one of the outcomes of the process of engaging with and critiquing, explicating, analysing and evaluating language. It is driven by the question: ‘what does this mean?’ Some argue, however, that it is impossible to capture in words the ‘meaning’ of an artistic work. The institutionalisation of the study of literature has, however, spawned a plethora of frameworks, models, theories and approaches that aim to support the reader in acts of interpretation through subjecting the text to rigorous ‘scrutiny’, ‘interrogation’, ‘resistance’ and ‘gaze’. These theories, ironically fuelled by the institutions that many of them simultaneously critique and depend upon, have highlighted the ways in which interpretation is dependent on a range of variables. These include the personal, social, cultural, historical and other contexts of the responder and are shaped by the particular critical theory, lens or lenses that the responder adopts or assumes when engaging with a text. Later 20th century critical theories and reading practices, for example, see the act of interpretation as being shaped by certain sets of assumptions, beliefs, ideologies, conventions and practices that are culturally contingent. Poststructuralist arguments about the instability of meaning have focused on overturning orthodox practices of institutionalised literary interpretation and criticism and have proposed that texts are, ultimately, resistant to any act of interpretation. Yet, ironically, even these theories rely on the act of interpretation in order to reject the notion of interpretation. Such theories aim to equip readers with the tools to analyse language not as something that merely reflects The English Teacher’s Handbook
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I ‘reality’, but something that in fact creates ‘reality’. The following table provides a simplified overview of the differences between critical theories when it comes to defining the act of interpretation. Theory
Nature of Text
Role of Reader
Role of Teacher
Expressive Criticism
An expression of the author’s worldview.
To engage with and apprehend the thoughts, feelings and perceptions of the author as expressed in the text.
Encourage personal engagement and expression of affective responses.
Based on the affective response of the responder. Emphasis on the intentions and perspectives of the composer.
New Criticism Autonomous, selfcontained artistic object. Timeless. Assigned value in relation to other texts.
Close textual analysis of form and content which embeds moral significance. Attention to figurative language, organic unity and literary devices. No recourse to history, context, authorial intention, biography of composer or responder.
Accomplished critic. Teach a particular way of reading ‘Close reading’: valuing skills of language analysis and interpretation. Induct students into ways of reading and interpreting.
Personal response via close reading is mediated by received or authorised interpretations. Little room for alternative readings. Emphasis on skilled discerning reading of the text.
Structuralism
A construct. Defined in terms of conventionally structured genres. Text as a system of signs.
Decode signs, Explicate system of conventions and codes signs and generic of the genre which in conventions. turn allows a reading of the codes and systems that inform human experience .
Interpretation based on considerations of form and structure and a decoding of the system of signs structuring the text.
Readerresponse Criticism
Subjective stimulus. Text depends on the reader for meaning.
Creates unique responses through transaction with the text. Affective and cognitive domains engaged
Facilitator of personal responses. Values and understands process of reading and individual engagement.
Interpretation emerges from the transaction between the reader and the text; the interpretation becomes the ‘poem’ (i.e. the new text created as a result of the reader-text interaction).
Psychoanalytic Criticism
Text is a site for the subjectivity of the reader to find resonance and inscribe meaning. ‘Unconscious’ dimensions of texts open to interpretation.
Enjoyment, pleasure and affective response is valued as a foundation for developing informed critical response.
Move students beyond an immediate affective response to a more informed and developed critique of texts.
Interpretation emerges from an analysis and evaluation of the conscious and unconscious patterns of behaviour, fantasies, fears, dreams, conflicts and motives of characters.
Post structuralism
Site for competing discourses.
Textually constructed subject/reader.
Reader interrogates the text, Provide opportunities for identifies dominant and textual exploration. invited reading positions, explores ‘gaps and silences’ and proposes alternative or resistant readings. Subverts textual assumptions.
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I Theory
Nature of Text
Role of Reader
Role of Teacher
Interpretation
Rhetorical Criticism
Art as a conscious creation of the artist with ‘implied author’ and ‘implied reader’ providing cues for interpretation.
Explore the implicit world view, values and beliefs of the ‘implied author’. Close reading with attention to ‘authorial voice’, ‘reliable and unreliable narrators’. Explore the rhetorical devices employed by the artist to engage and persuade the reader.
Encourage close reading with attention to the analysis and evaluation of the artist’s use of rhetorical devices. Attention to the text as a ‘constructed’ work, not as merely a simple reflection/ slice of life.
Interpret works through close reading and examination of the ‘implied author’, ‘implied reader’, ‘reliable and unreliable narrators’ and the values, belief systems and world views implicit in the use of rhetorical devices. (Booth, 1961)
Ethical Criticism
Literature as a potential reservoir for the study of the moral and ethical dimensions of human experience.
Explore texts with attention to the values, ethics and ways of thinking that they promote or challenge, and the implications of this for the reader’s contextual experience and own ethical behaviour.
Provides opportunities for exploring and articulating values (self, text, other), and ethical dimensions of social, cultural, personal and other experience.
Reader explores and critiques the text with attention to the value and belief systems, language and power and a developing self-awareness of the significance of these for their own growth, ways of thinking and behaviour.
(Adapted from Corcoran, B., Pradl G., & Hayhoe, M. (2002) Knowledge in the Making, NJ: Boynton/ Cook.) In her influential essay “Against Interpretation” (1964), Susan Sontag (1933-2004) argued that the nature of literary criticism and the rise of literary theory in the 20th century had placed too heavy an emphasis on the intellectual critiquing of art through abstract theoretical frameworks. She contended that such an emphasis threatened the aesthetic and spiritual power of creative works, especially as a bulwark against rampant rationality, materialism and empiricism. Sontag believed that interpretation had become “the intellect’s revenge upon art” and asserted that “in place of a hermeneutics we need an erotics of art.” (Sontag, 1996: 272) See also Literary criticism. JM References: Booth, W. C. (1961) The Rhetoric of Fiction, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Corcoran, B., Pradl, G. & Hayhoe, M. (2002) Knowledge in the Making, NJ: Boynton/Cook. Sontag, S. (2003) “Thirty Years Later…” (1996) in Where the Stress Falls, London: Vintage.
Interpretive community Describes the set of shared assumptions, practices, attitudes and conventions that influence the engagement with and interpretation of texts in a community. The reading practices and beliefs about texts, textuality and response held and enacted by an individual are shaped by the community to which they belong. David Bleich (1975), Stanley Fish (1980) and Robert Scholes (1985) propose variations on the concept of an interpretive community. In English, the concept is generally adopted in its broadest sense to mean the ways in which students within a class learn to read and learn about their reading practices; share personal responses; be open to the testing and modification of these depending on their interactions with others in the class; and understand that ways of reading and interpreting are influenced by the shared conventions, expectations and assumptions of the social group. An interpretive community values the contributions of individual students; rejects a hidden curriculum that assumes there is one way of reading and interpreting texts (a single, authoritative position); strengthens the confidence of students in reading practices and response; and is underpinned by the teacher’s understanding of the reading and response process. The American poet, Walt Whitman (1819-1892) said of reading and response that: The English Teacher’s Handbook
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I … the process of reading is not a half-sleep, but, in the highest sense, an exercise, a gymnast’s struggle; that the reader is to do something himself [sic] must be on the alert, must himself or herself construct indeed the poem, argument, history, metaphysical essay – the text furnishing the hints, the clue, the start or framework. Not that the book needs so much to be the complete thing, but the reader of the book does. (1871) Building an interpretive community in English requires a pedagogy that is student and learningcentred, activity-based and interactive: activities that promote collaborative engagement with and interpretation of texts promote a strong interpretive community. See also Constructivism, Cooperative learning, Group work, Interpretation, Learning-centred English, Literature, Literature Circles, Reading, Wide reading program. JM
Interrogation An approach to language and texts associated with some poststructuralist critical theories. This approach frames the relationship between the reader and the text as one in which the reader ‘interrogates’ the text: the assumptions of the text, the cultural, historical, social and other contextual values informing the text, and the material conditions from out of which the text has been produced. It can be argued that interrogating the text is an extension of the kind of thoughtful, deliberate and active engagement with the text’s form and content that has been central to almost all models of literary criticism since New Criticism. Models that use the term ‘interrogate’, do, however, propose a more explicit political agenda in the act of textual analysis. The term ‘interrogate’ can carry connotations of an aggressive, adversarial relationship between reader and text, since interrogation is typically associated with the processes of criminal law, with unequal power relations and with the protocols of extracting information from ‘suspects’ within tightly structured contexts. Some approaches to reading, such as, for example, Reader-response criticism, have proposed that not only does the reader interrogate the text, but the text, likewise, interrogates the reader. See also Critical Literacy, Interpretation, Literary criticism, Reader, Reader-response criticism. JM
Intertextuality Refers to the idea that every text is in some way related to every other text. Intertextuality infers that all texts are composed from other texts as composers borrow and transform existing texts in some way while also encompassing the notion that readers bring their previous experiences of reading to any text. Author and reader can be said to share a field of discourse during the transmission of a text: through the author’s representation of such things as people, events, objects, attitudes, concepts and values, and the reader’s decoding or re-construction of those representations. Such a process of decoding depends upon the reader’s knowledge of conventions and genres and/or memory of other similar texts that may be related, for example, by context, setting, theme or story. The reader will make connections to elements of the text that seem familiar to them and their interpretation of the meaning of a text will be significantly influenced by the interrelationships between them, the text and the different connections they see existing between texts. The shaping of meaning by both author and reader is thereby guided by intertextuality, cross-referencing and culturally determined reading and writing conventions and practices as no text is deemed to exist in isolation from other texts, and from their conventions and genres. Intertextuality encapsulates the idea that the meaning of a text may be constructed by the author’s inclusion, and/or the reader’s experience and knowledge of, for example: ∼ Specific earlier texts, evidenced by such things as direct references, quotations and allusions ∼ A well-known story existing in a number of versions e.g. legends, myths and fairy tales such as Cinderella ∼ An archetype i.e. a basic model from which copies are made e.g. the quest, the lone survivor, the wandering hero, the lost child 162
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I ∼ Genres and conventions e.g. folk tales, romances, tragedies, crime stories and other genres
which are conventionalised in their content, structures, characters and patterns of represented behaviours, values, morals etc ∼ A particular form of narration or narrative structure e.g. omniscient narrators, multiple narrators, linear or non-linear narratives ∼ Socio-historical or cultural narratives, events or people e.g. citation of or allusion to actual social contexts and times, historical events and/or figures, authentic documents included or referred to within a narrative, or description of specific cultural practices ∼ Other works and texts such as paintings and songs. See also Anxiety of influence. KS
Interview
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
A discussion or conversation between two or more people in which an interviewer poses a series of questions to an interviewee/s who then responds to these questions. The purpose of an interview is to elicit information from the interviewee and interviews are usually designed to appeal to a particular audience. Interviews are a standard part of the media. The effectiveness of an interview depends on the nature of the questions, the responsiveness of the interviewee, and the ability of the interviewer to build upon and adapt questions in the light of the interviewee’s responses. See also Drama, Media, Talking and listening. DC, JM ∼ Working in pairs, students select, or are assigned, a picture of a person (or animal or object etc). These may be from magazines, postcards etc. Each student creates a character profile, based on their visual stimulus.
∼ Students then interview each other in role. Students can also be given a scenario or scene to contextualise the activity (e.g. stuck in a lift together; meeting at a party).
∼ This strategy can also be adapted to texts being studied in class – e.g. students in pairs adopt the role of a character in the text and interview each other.
∼ Hot-seating and panels also rely on interview techniques and require astute, informed questioning and responses from participants.
∼ Interviews can be shaped into written responses, including creative responses such as poems, diary entries, letters, narratives and reports.
Intonation
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
(Latin: ‘sounding’) The sound pattern of phrases and sentences produced by pitch variation in the voice and emphasis on particular words. Intonation helps to distinguish between statements, questions and other types of utterances in spoken language. Intonation is an important indicator of meaning. A simple phrase may be interpreted in diverse ways, depending on the intonation. For example: She is a child?/She is a child! See also, Language, Mood, Tone. JM
In small groups, students experiment with different intonations when speaking the following sentences. Prior to this task, students can create a bank of ‘emotions’ that are often present in the intonation of language. For example: anger, fear, bewilderment, confusion, excitement, enthusiasm, disinterestedness, anticipation. ∼ Oh my goodness, she is here. ∼ Pass me the water. ∼ Hurry up or we will miss the train. ∼ It is really a spaceship? ∼ Are we there yet? ∼ It’s time to go.
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I Invective (Latin: ‘scolding’) A harsh attack on someone or something. Invective was common in the poetry of Augustan poets such as, for example, Alexander Pope (1688-1744) and John Dryden (1631-1700). An example of invective occurs frequently in Dryden’s “Absalom and Achitophel: The Second Part”, lines 463-465:
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
With all this bulk there's nothing lost in Og, For ev'ry inch that is not fool is rogue: A monstrous mass of foul corrupted matter, As all the devils had spew'd to make the batter. Students can play with language, become more familiar with Shakespearean language, and create ‘insults’ using the template and words provided on the Shakespeare Insult Kit webpage:
Irony (Greek: ‘dissimulation’) A complex term generally considered to refer to a statement which appears to say one thing but really implies its opposite. Therefore, an ironic comment always implies something different from what it appears to say, though it does not always mean the direct opposite of what it is appearing to say. Sarcasm is a form of verbal irony that is intended to be more directly insulting than irony. Irony can be evident in the tone of a work or it can be employed as a structural device. For example, structural irony is evident with the use of an unreliable narrator. Irony as a technique has a long history from the ancient Greeks, through to the 17th century (when irony was used extensively by writers) to the present day. Many literary works adopt an ironic tone, achieved by a teasing or laconic tone and ironic tension. Ironic tension was highly valued by the New Critics, since it indicated a range of possible meanings and perspectives contained within a single work. Irony can satirise, mock and ridicule and is thus a chief technique of the satirist and in the hands of a skilled artist, can also rebuke mildly. Jane Austen’s (1775-1817) novels exemplify the use of irony as a narrative technique. Many of Thomas Hardy’s (1840-1928) novels depend on ‘cosmic irony’ where ‘destiny’ or ‘fate’ intervenes to frustrate and often destroy the lives of the characters. See also Conventions, Language, New Criticism. DC, JM
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J Jacobean age The period of time in English history marked by the reign of King James I, from 1603-1625. The age is renowned for its drama, particularly that of John Webster (1580-1634) and the later works of William Shakespeare (1564-1616) and Ben Jonson (1572-1637). The drama of this period (which immediately followed the Elizabethan age) is characterised by its technical excellence and its dramatisation of violence, corruption, human weakness and suffering. Webster’s The White Devil (1612) and the Duchess of Malfi (1614) are two acclaimed Jacobean tragedies. JM
Journal writing The Australian educator and researcher Jack Thomson described journal writing in English as “an essential tool of learning” (2004: 304): this can be extended to include the view of journal writing an essential tool for learning. Journals have become a staple of English, along with small group work and students’ use of expressive and informal language to explore new ideas, hypothesise, articulate perspectives, interpret, synthesise knowledge, develop their language and thinking skills, and make meaning. Journals provide a context in which students can use language ‘at the point of utterance’, free from the strictures of formal assessment. They allow students the scope, opportunity and space not only to learn to write by writing about issues, ideas, topics, experiences and texts in immediate, expressive ways, but also, importantly, to write to learn. Through such writing, students can move from raw, unreflected-upon ideas to higher-order thinking, creativity, synthesis, discovery and application of new ideas and concepts to new contexts. There are a number of varieties of journals that can be used in English: ∼ journals that include a range of writing from reflections on learning, exploration of ideas and
texts, responses and scaffolded or guided expressive writing tasks ∼ double entry journals, in which the pages are divided into two columns – one for the student’s writing and the other for the teacher to engage with and respond to this in an informal, supportive and constructive way ∼ reading journals that include initial responses to texts; and learning journals in which students regularly reflect on their progress, learning style and development. If journals are to be used as part of an English writing program, students need to be informed about the purpose and audience. Journals in English are not synonymous with diaries: the latter has a far more personal and intimate function for the individual, with the self as audience. Students need to be aware that the teacher may or may not read the journal and it is not a place for venting about other students or teachers. Usually, journals are not formally assessed. Instead, they may be regarded as ‘process’ journals, and it is the level of commitment to the process that teachers may assess with a ‘satisfactory’ grade. It is also desirable to conduct interviews with students, similar to teacher-student conferences, with the focus on the process of journal writing and the student’s selfThe English Teacher’s Handbook
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J evaluation. Developing metacognition skills is a significant part of the purpose of journals in English. It is important, however, that journal writing, like any other activity in English, does not become too routinised and predictable: if this happens, the effectiveness of the journal as a tool for learning is diminished. See also Metacognition, Reflection/Reflective practice, Writing. JM Reference: Thomson, J. (2004) “Journal writing – an essential tool of learning”, in Reviewing English in the 21st Century (eds) W. Sawyer & E. Gold, Sydney: Phoenix Education.
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K Kabuki theatre Kabuki is a form of traditional Japanese theatre which was a popular people’s theatre. The plays employ an older version of the Japanese language which is not easy for many contemporary Japanese to understand. Actors are accompanied by music from traditional Japanese instruments. JH
Key Learning Area Key Learning Area (KLA) is a term referring to a school subject area as a component of the curriculum. Subject areas were identified by the Australian Education Council and developed by its Curriculum and Assessment Committee (CURASS). In the 1990s, as part of a national collaborative curriculum project, CURASS developed National Statements and Profiles for eight KLAs: ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
The arts English Health and physical education Languages other than English Maths Science Studies of society and environment Technology
The Statements set out the learning areas and the agreed knowledge, understanding, values and skills students acquire within each KLA. The Profiles set out required student outcomes and intended levels of student achievement in each KLA. The national collaborative curriculum project did not proceed to implementation, although the curriculum of Australian states and territories are more or less structured around these (or similar) KLAs. See also Curriculum, National Curriculum. DC, JM Reference: Australian Education Council (1994) A Statement on English for Australian Schools. Melbourne: Curriculum Corporation.
Künstlerroman: (German: ‘artist’ plus Roman ‘novel’) A novel which charts a protagonist’s journey from childhood to maturity, the associated difficulties of a hostile environment and the character’s inner struggles. This protagonist is usually an artist or writer. Sometimes called the apprenticeship novel, such works result in the protagonist gaining an understanding of his/her creative mission. James Joyce’s A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1917) is perhaps the most famous example in the English language. DC
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L Lament A poem of mourning for the loss of a person, a group, or abstraction such as a nation or position. It is similar to a dirge, elegy and monody. JM
Language (Latin: ‘lingua’, French: ‘tongue’) The use and analysis of language in all its manifestations is central to subject English. Language as a system of signs is the basis of all communication and the vehicle through which we make and express meaning. Language as a term has a range of meanings: language as it refers to the common and specific language of a group or nation; language as it refers to systems of signs used to communicate through words (spoken and written), images and behaviour; and language as it refers to particular varieties or styles of language, such as for example, Old English, advertising language, the language of music, or the language of film. All language is shaped by context, purpose and audience and functions in a myriad of ways. It is through language and using language that we: ∼ participate in social contexts, define our identity, make sense of experience, build
relationships, define our place in the world and express who we are ∼ “develop our thoughts, shape our experience, explore our customs, structure our community,
construct our laws, articulate our values and give expression to our hopes and ideals” (Commonwealth Department of Employment, Education and Training, 1990: ix) ∼ recognise and understand the way language operates to include or exclude individuals and
groups and to maintain, challenge of transform existing power structures and social relations ∼ think, feel, reflect upon, question, imagine, create, compose, develop and organise ideas and
make meaning individually and in collaboration with others. Since the 1960s, developments in English education have been driven by new understandings, based on research, of the ways in which students learn, the role of language in learning, and the implications of this for pedagogy and student achievement. A range of often competing theoretical positions and practical models have informed the approach to language teaching and learning in English. The ground-breaking work of John Dixon (Growth Through English, 1967); James Moffett (Teaching the Universe of Discourse, 1968); James Britton (Language and Learning, 1970); Michael Halliday (Explorations in the Function of Language, 1973); Andrew Wilkinson (Language and Education, 1975); Douglas Barnes (From Communication to Curriculum, 1976); Garth Boomer (Negotiating the Curriculum, 1982); Richard Andrews (1994) and others, has had a profound impact on English curriculum in Australia, the United Kingdom and Canada. The seminal ideas about language-in-use, the learner as a social user of language, and the integration of the language modes that emerged in the last four decades of the 20th century have provided a theoretical and pedagogical foundation that continues to inform English teaching and 168
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L learning. These approaches to the use and analysis of language have stressed the fundamental principle that school students best acquire and develop their knowledge, understanding, skills and values in subject English and the English language by engaging in purposeful tasks of language in use in a variety of contexts within and across the domains (or modes) of reading, writing, listening, speaking, viewing and representing: all objectives of English are stated as “ability to do something”: to listen, read, speak and write, and in doing so to interpret, discriminate, communicate, evaluate…(NSW Secondary Schools Board, 1972: 2) A more recent syllabus states that the aim of teaching and learning in English is …to enable students to understand, use, enjoy and value the English language in its various textual forms and to become thoughtful, imaginative and effective communicators in a diverse and changing society. (NSW Board of Studies, 1999: 7) Thus, students are immersed in a rich and meaningful language environment that values the students’ developing language and the language of others – in a wide range of texts and contexts. Language skills are explicitly taught, acquired and used in purposeful ways that are connected to the lives, and meet the needs, interests and capacities, of all students. Teachers aim to consistently model exemplary language use and the enjoyment of language and communication in all its manifestations. The following table provides a very simplified overview of the main developments in language teaching and learning in subject English since the 1960s. The points here should be considered as partial and indicative and serve as stepping-off points for further reading. Development Teaching the Universe of Discourse (Moffett, 1968)
Key ideas and principles •
•
•
• •
• •
Language as a tool for learning
•
(Moffett, 1968; Britton, 1970; Wilkinson, 1975; Barnes, 1976)
• •
• •
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All discourse can be considered in terms of a ‘speaker’, a ‘listener’ and a ‘subject’ (first person, second person, third person, respectively) – the “I – You – It” of communication. Language development occurs when there is increasing distance between the “I” and “You” of the discourse (i.e. speaker and listener/audience) Key stages are: Reflection Conversation Correspondence Publication Each stage requires more distance between ‘self/speaker’ and ‘listener/ audience’ than the preceding one. Increased distance between speaker and ‘subject’ reflects increasing abstraction and capacity to write in ‘poetic’ forms using ‘poetic’ (highly wrought and developed) language. Critical of English as ‘content-knowledge’ to be transmitted to student as ‘passive’ recipient. Critical of studying the forms and rules in isolation from context and purpose. Focus on developing skills in language by using language and forms, rather than being told ‘about’ language and forms. Learners are active participants in and users of language. Learning is recursive. We learn language by using language in a wide range of contexts and through experience of a wide range of texts. Talking (using ‘expressive’, informal, conversational language) is the foundation for developing language skills. Talk is central to learning: hypothesising; testing out ideas; solving problems; telling stories; sharing perspectives; having ideas challenged and/or affirmed; shaping identity (values and beliefs). We not only learn to write, but write to learn. Expressive’ talking is the starting point for students’ development as writers.
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L Development
Key ideas and principles
Language Functions (Halliday, 1973; Britton et al, 1975; Doughty et al, 1973)
Social nature of language; Language and power (Janks, 1993; Scholes, 1985)
Language, rhetoric and ethics (Andrews, 1995; Thomson, 2004)
• • • • •
•
•
•
• •
Language in communication is shaped by purpose, context and audience. Focused exploration of language in use in the classroom. Development of students’ language skills for the range of functions (see Functional Grammar). Language differences should not be regarded as language ‘deficit’. Study of language in context in use requires students to be actively using language and learning about how it operates to communicate meaning. Developing awareness of the relationship between language and power and how identity, power and social relations are mediated by and constructed through language in use. Students learn how culture and social power is shaped, maintained, mediated and challenged through language. Students learn to use “all the rhetorics of their culture” (Andrews, 1994, 1995) to extend and enrich their capacity to use language in the range of social, personal and other ways required. Builds on the socio-cultural model of language and cultural studies. Students acquire the ability to make ethical and value judgements about texts, recognising that these are “partially culturally constructed.” (Thomson, 2004: 19)
Types of Language Abstract
Language that represents ideas, concepts and intangible qualities such as ‘beauty’, ‘happiness’, ‘truth’ and ‘joy’.
Concrete
Any language that denotes or identifies things recognised through the senses of touch, smell, sight, sound or taste. Concrete language is specific and particular, often describing an object, person or event. For example: Her hair is thick and brown. Concrete language aims for clarity of description and in this sense, it is in contrast to abstract and metaphorical language.
Emotive
Language that appeals to the emotions and aims to provoke an emotional response. This kind of language is common in the media (especially advertising) and is a powerful tool for persuading the audience to buy a product or accept a particular point of view.
Expressive
One of the three types of language identified by Moffett (1968). It is the language growing out of personal experience and the expression of this in a direct voice. It is distinct from formal language, in that expressive language is language of the ‘self’.
Formal
Language that occurs in formal contexts and is shaped by the codes, expectations and audience. An essay or a scientific report, for example, uses formal language. Formal language occurs during official ceremonies, important public occasions and often in law courts and some meetings.
Literal
Concrete, exact and precise language to name, denote, identify, describe and explain. Literal language is the opposite of figurative, metaphorical or symbolic language. Imaginative texts typically work through both literal and figurative language, producing two or more layers of meaning – ie literal and metaphorical or symbolic.
Metaphorical
Language that relies on metaphor, either implicitly or explicitly. Metaphorical language is common in poetry and other imaginative texts.
Persuasive
Language that is designed to persuade or convince the audience of a particular point of view. Advertising relies on persuasive language to engage and appeal to the audience.
Rhetorical
Originally the language of speech that was intended to persuade and convince the audience with its power of argument. Rhetorical language has also come to refer to the language and conventions that are used in, for example, speeches. Rhetorical texts are characterised by their use of devices such as repetition, analogy, inclusive language (us, we, they), metaphor, questions, amplification, alliteration and assonance.
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L Sensational
Similar to emotive language, sensational language aims to provoke a sharp and immediate response, capture attention and amplify a topic or situation. Sensational language is common in tabloid newspapers and some current affairs’ television.
Symbolic
Language the draws on symbols to communicate ideas.
Referential
Exact language that seeks to denote, identify and describe things or phenomena in precise and scientific terms. It is the opposite of emotive language.
Phatic
Language that is used to begin and end conversations. Conventional greetings such as “How are you today?” or “Have a good day” are examples of the use of phatic language.
Poetic
Highly compressed, distilled language that usually relies on figurative language such as metaphor, simile, imagery and symbolism and on devices such as rhythm, metrical patterns (although rhythm and metre are not always present), alliteration, assonance, connotation and allusion. Moffett’s model of writing (1968) identified poetic language in the triad of modes (expressive, transactional and poetic) and described poetic writing as the most sophisticated form of writing characterised by an increased distance between the ‘I’ and the audience of the text.
Transactional
Language used to get things done. It occurs as part of everyday communication and in includes questions, requests, instructions, directions and the transmission of information. One of three modes identified by Moffett (1968). Transactional language and writing aims to gets things done.
See also Language Across the Curriculum, Functional grammar, Language in Use, Linguistics, Literacy, Literature, Reading, Representing, Talking and listening, Viewing, Writing. JM References: Andrews, R. (ed.) (1995) Rebirth of Rhetoric, London: Routledge. Barnes, D. (1976) From Communication to Curriculum, Harmondsworth: Penguin. Boomer, G. (1982) Negotiating the Curriculum, Sydney: Ashton Scholastic. Britton, J. (1970) Language and Learning, Harmondsworth: Penguin. Britton, J. et al (1975) The Development of Writing Abilities (11-18), London: Macmillan. Commonwealth Department of Employment, Education and Training (1990)The Language of Australia: Discussion Paper on an Australian Literacy and Language Policy for the 1990s, Canberra. Dixon, J. (1967) Growth Through English, Huddersfield: OUP and NATE. Doughty, P., Pearce, J., and Thornton, G. (1973) Language in Use, London: Edward Arnold. Janks, H. (1993) Language, Identity, and Power, Johannesburg: Hodder & Stoughton. Halliday, M.A.K. (1973) Explorations in the functions of language, London: Edward Arnold. Halliday, M.A.K. (1975) Learning How to Mean, London: Edward Arnold. Halliday, M.A.K. (1994) Introduction to Functional Grammar, 2nd edition, London: Edward Arnold. Moffett, J. (1968) Teaching the Universe of Discourse, Boston: Houghton Mifflin. NSW Board of Studies (1999) English Stage 6 Syllabus, Sydney: NSW Board of Studies. NSW Secondary Schools Board (1972) Syllabus in English: Years 7 – 10, Sydney: NSW Secondary Schools Board. Sawyer, W. & Gold, E. (eds) (2004) Reviewing English in the 21st Century, Melbourne: Phoenix Education. Scholes, R. (1985) Textual Power: Literary Theory and the Teaching of English, New Haven: Yale University Press. Stratta, L., Dixon, J., & Wilkinson, A. (1973) Patterns of Language: Explorations in the Teaching of English, London: Heinemann. Thomson, J. (2004) “Post-Dartmouth developments in English teaching in Australia” in Reviewing English in the 21st Century, eds. W. Sawyer & E. Gold, Sydney: Phoenix Education. Wilkinson, A. (1975) Language and Education, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Language Across the Curriculum (LAC) The English Teacher’s Handbook
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L In the 1970s the notion of Language Across the Curriculum was promoted as a fundamental part of all teachers’ practice – every teacher had a responsibility to nurture language growth in their students by acquiring and implementing appropriate strategies that would engage the learner as an active participant in using language and making meaning, rather than as merely a passive receiver of transmitted knowledge. This movement was built upon the assumptions about knowledge and constructing knowledge that were being developed from research at the time. What this LAC movement did was to herald a shift in the teacher-learner paradigm: the teacher was no longer the solely empowered and privileged one who was the gatekeeper of all subject knowledge because he or she had mastered the discourse this subject knowledge was transmitted through and embedded in. The subject knowledge was hitherto considered to be an inviolable set of truths that were unalterable through time and space. Recent critical theory has promoted the view that knowledge is contestable and therefore fluid, shifting and subject to change and also dependent upon the context and the learner or individual’s frame of reference. Central to this concept is a concern with the ways in which language can be used to acquire knowledge and the ways in which a student’s proficiency with language can be enhanced. The concept holds that we acquire knowledge through the use of one or more of the language modes – e.g. listening, talking, viewing, representing, reading and writing - and thus, all teachers should be aware of the role language plays in learning and seek to maximise opportunities for students to use and reflect on language in all sites of learning. Language Across the Curriculum was prominent in the 1970s and 1980s, following the work of James Britton, Harold Rosen, Douglas Barnes and the findings of the Bullock Report, A Language for Life (1975). More recently, language across the curriculum as a concept has been superseded by literacy across the curriculum, reflecting government priorities and recent research in language development. See also Language, Language in Use. DC Reference: Watson, K, & Sawyer, W., & Adams, (eds) (1989) English Teaching from A-Z. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Language in Use One of the pioneering works in the ‘risorgimento’ of the teaching and learning of English that was accelerated by the Dartmouth Seminar and the publication of John Dixon’s seminal Growth Through English (1967) was Language In Use co-authored by Peter Doughty, John Pearce and Geoffrey Thornton (1973). It was one of the earliest teaching resources that implemented the teaching and learning principles and practices inspired by the ‘New English’. It drew heavily not only upon a much more engaged and personal response approach to literature, but also upon sociolinguistics and a strong sense of the role that language can play in advancing social justice. In particular, the lesson programmes developed in Language in Use addressed and confronted issues of racism, class division, disadvantage and equity. It made a significant impact upon the teaching of English in the 1970s and continues to influence English teaching and learning to the present. Stratta, Dixon and Wilkinson’s Patterns of Language (1973) similarly focused on the conscious use and understanding of language through purposeful and activity-based learning in English. See also Language, Language Across the Curriculum, Language in Use, Literacy. PB References: Britton, J. (1970) Language and Learning, Harmondsworth: Penguin. Britton, J. et al. (1975) The Development of Writing Abilities (11-18), London: Macmillan. Dixon, J. (1967) Growth Through English, Huddersfield: OUP and NATE. Doughty, P., Pearce, J., & Thornton, G. (1973) Language in Use, London: Edward Arnold. Stratta, L., Dixon, J., & Wilkinson, A. (1973) Patterns of Language: Explorations in the Teaching of English, London: Heinemann.
Language modes 172
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Learning-centred English A theoretical and pedagogical approach to teaching in English that places the learner and learning at the centre of the educational process. Learning-centred English assumes that each student, individually, and collectively, will be consistently engaged in a wide range of purposeful, contextualised and enjoyable experiences of language in use. The pedagogy of learning-centred English is active, project-based, inquiry-based, experiential and purposeful. Students are regarded as active participants in developing their knowledge, understanding, skills, values and attitudes through making, doing, appreciating, exploring, discovering, critiquing, creating and evaluating. Learning-centred English assumes that progression in English is dependent on the relationship between content and process. R D Walshe’s model of learning-centred English encapsulates these key tenets: JM Problem Artistic Processes
Experience Feel challenged Decide on project
Investigate
Get Insights
Express
Refine
Absorption Engagement Study/ research
Illumination Inspiration or revelation/ ‘flash’
Scientific Problem Process Define as question Plan the inquiry
Observation Exploration stratagems Data collection
Hypothesis Experiment/ Illumination e.g. Draft test precisely Verification or methodical Falsification generalisation; or inspiration Final writing
Problem- Problem/ Solving puzzle Process Define as question Plan the inquiry
Investigation Illumination Collect data ‘Ah-ha” Review Insight(s) Alternatives Think laterally
Writing Experience Pre-writing Process Decide to Ideawrite Recollection Define Research writing-aim Brainstorming Early broad plan
Illumination ‘See a pattern’ ‘Limit the subject’ ‘Get a lead’
Drafting Developing e.g. in paint- Working out ing Crafting prelim. ‘Finishing’ sketching or ‘roughing’
Announcement
Communication Response Show to inti- Appreciamates tion Exhibit widely Criticism Evaluation Publication Perhaps first to Associates, then more widely
Formulation Checking Report Of best Error Demonstration solution Elimination Performance Critical review
Drafting Plan, or further brainstorming; then first draft
Revision Self-editing Redrafting Proofreading
Reaction
Response Acceptance Or criticism
Response Appreciation Criticism Evaluation
Publication Response Show to Appreciaanother tion Read to others Criticism Circulate Evaluation widely
Reference: Walshe, R.D. (2007) “It’s Time Australia Reshaped English”, Presentation to The Legends Round Table on English Education, Arts, English and Literacy Education Research Network, The University of Sydney, August, 2007. Published in Illuminations: Journal of the Arts, English and Literacy Education Research Network, Volume 1:1, November, 2008.
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L Learning styles Refers to the different ways in which individuals engage with, respond to, process and make meaning from learning experiences. It is recognised that individuals learn in different ways and at differing rates. A number of pedagogical models have been developed that categorise, define and address the various ways in which students learn. These models seek to shape learning experiences so that all students are catered for. The role of the teacher, and the relationship between teacherstudent and learning, is summed up in UNESCO’s 1996 report, Learning: The Treasure Within: The teacher’s work is not confined simply to transmitting information or even knowledge; it also entails presenting that knowledge in the form of a statement of problems within a certain context and putting the problems into perspective, so that the learner can link their solution to broader issues. The teacher-pupil relationship aims at the full development of the pupil’s personality, with emphasis on self-reliance; from this point of view the authority vested in teachers is always paradoxical, since it is not based on the assertion of their power but on the free recognition of the legitimacy of knowledge. (1996: 36) Two well-known models that define learning styles are Multiple Intelligences and Left Right Brain. The following overview provides the key principles of each model and suggests practical strategies for implementing these principles in teaching and learning. See also Cooperative learning, Differentiation, Group work, Learning-centred English, Pedagogy, Student-centred learning. JM References: Delors, J. (1996) Learning: The Treasure Within, Report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-First Century, New York: UNESCO Publishing. Gardner, H. (1983; 1993) Frames of Mind: The theory of multiple intelligences, New York: Basic Books.
Model
Principles
Multiple intelligences: Intelligences: A theory developed by • Verbal/linguistic: words and Howard Gardner that defines language, written and oral. 7 dimensions to intelligence. Traditionally privileged in Each individual learns through education. engaging one or more of • Logical/mathematical: scientific these intelligences more thinking, involving reasoning, readily than the others. logical thinking, hypothesising, testing, apprehending patterns and drawing conclusions. • Musical: Attuned to sound, rhythm, tone, melody, the voice and sounds in the environment. • Visual/spatial: visual images and creating mental visual images. Attuned to special patterns and visual information. • Body/kinaesthetic: physical movement and activity, tactile, hands-on, practical. • Inter-personal: relationships, communication and interactions with others. • Intra-personal: reflection, introspection, metacognition, feelings, emotions, spirituality.
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Strategies •
•
• •
•
•
•
Reading, writing, discussion, abstract thinking and forms of reasoning through language. Present information systematically and logically. Use problem-based approaches, opportunities for abstract reasoning, and make connections explicit. Use aural stimulus, present new material with awareness of sound. Use visual stimulus and visual strategies for learning – graphic organisers (e.g. mind-maps). Strategies that provide opportunities for activities that require doing, making, movement (role-play, performance). Group work, collaborations, interacting through talk and projectbased activities. Individual work, opportunities and time for reflection, valuing of emotional as well as cognitive responses.
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L Model Left Right Brain: Based on the research of Dr Roger Sperry. For some individuals, one side of the brain may be dominant in thinking and learning. For others, there is a greater degree of balance between the two hemispheres.
Principles
Strategies
Left Hemisphere: Rational thinking, logic, language, analysis, mathematical processes.
Left Hemisphere: Sequenced, step-by step explication, systematic and sequenced learning tasks, chunking information and activities.
Right Hemisphere: Creativity, imagination, abstract, visual, musical, non-verbal, conceptual thinking.
Right Hemisphere: Big picture connections between new information and personal context, discussion of ideas, observation, casebased activities and group work.
Legend (Latin: ‘what is read’) A story or series of stories based on an historical figure, subject, place or event. Originally, legends were stories about the lives of the saints and were part of the oral tradition of storytelling. Later, stories about significant figures (real or based on actual people and events) such as, for example King Arthur, Robin Hood and Alexander the Great. Legends abound in all cultures across time and are derived from historical episodes that have gained currency and popularity. The term is often used interchangeably with myth. While myths involve stories about ‘gods’, legends tend to focus on historically verifiable material and involve a degree of realism or verisimilitude. There is an abundance of resources on legends online. Below are some useful links with annotations: This New Zealand site has links to many myths and legends from around the world and some excellent teaching ideas for students in the middle years: Remember to consider myths from all around the world. Older students should be able to go beyond the simply descriptive and move into analysis. The Aboriginal Youth Network has extensive material on the website which provides a wealth of examples of Indigenous legends suitable for children, adolescents and adults: . See also Dreamtime, Myth. JW, JM References: Gold, E. (ed) (1997) Timeless Truths: Exploring Creation Myths and Dreamtime Stories in Years 7-10, Sydney: Phoenix Education. Kendall, S. (1990) “Teaching Mythology: Not the Same Old Thing” The English Journal, 79: 4 “ (April, 1990), pp. 29-32.
Lesson plan A detailed plan of the learning goals, pedagogy, resources and content of a lesson. Lesson plans are prepared as part of a unit of work. Effective teaching and learning depends on effective planning and lesson plans can be considered as part of the sequence of planning. At the macro level, a program is designed for each class. The program consists of a series of integrated units of work. Each unit of work is made up, at the micro level, of a series of lesson plans. See also Curriculum, Program, Unit of work. JM The English Teacher’s Handbook
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L Example of a Lesson Plan Template Class: Unit: Lesson Outcomes:
Day/Date/Time: Syllabus Outcomes: Aim:
Preparation and resources: Procedure/strategies: Focal activities/tasks: Learning configurations and styles: pairs, small group, etc Modes: Talking, viewing etc Links to assessment: Homework: Links to next lesson/ closure: Reflection / Evaluation:
Limerick
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
A short, humorous rhyming poem of five lines which has a generic structure and rhyme pattern. Limericks were originally devised by the English poet, Edward Lear (1812-1888). Limericks combine a couplet with a triplet. Line 1 usually introduces the character or situation. Lines 1, 2 & 5 rhyme with each other. Lines 3 and 4 also rhyme. For example: There was a young woman named Bright Whose speed was much faster than light. She set out one day In a relative way, And returned on the previous night. Author unknown See also Poetry, Rhyme. JM Each Minties’ wrapper has a sketch on it. The illustration depicts a scene and/or character/s. After reading and modelling limericks, students each have a Minties’ wrapper and create a limerick based on the visual text of the wrapper. Limericks can then be shared, collated or illustrated. This activity encourages students to think and write creatively and imaginatively, using visual stimulus. There is an emphasis on rhythm and rhyme patterns, description, humour and brevity of language to capture a scene in verse.
Linguistics The scientific study, explanation and description of language that focuses on language structure (grammar) and/or meaning (semantics). Prior to the rise of linguistics as a discipline in the 20th century, the study of language was referred to as philology and concentrated on the historical developments and changes in language. Sub-branches of linguistics include phonetics, semantics, phonology, psycholinguistics, semiotics, applied linguistics and discourse analysis. See also Functional Grammar, Grammar, Language, Literacy. JM 176
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L reiterate the ways in which literacy skills are best acquired in English: through rich, purposeful language in use, in meaningful contexts. On this point, Jonothan Neelands contends that: The narrow focus on the technology of language in the subject of English in the state of England, has tended to background the traditional centrality of literature, poetry and other cultural experiences in the English classroom. The acquisition of testable skills in Literacy in its narrowest sense has replaced the idea that English, drama and media can offer young people a life resource at every level of human experience; from the pragmatic to the poetic; from spectatorship to participation in a wide range of representative and communicative forms.† By focussing on literacy at the expense of critical cultural learning, the idea that English classrooms are the principal site for young people to make and respond to cultural work has almost been forgotten. (Neelands, 2009) See also Language, Language in Use. PB References: Australian Education Council (1994) A Statement on English for Australian Schools. Melbourne: Curriculum Corporation. Neelands, J. (2009) “Getting off the subject; English, drama and media and the commonwealth of powerful culture” in J. Manuel, D. Carter, P. Brock & W. Sawyer (eds) Re-Visioning English: Educating for Education: Imagination, Innovation, Creativity , Sydney: Phoenix Education. NSW Department of Education and Training, (1994) Literacy ’97 Strategy: Focus on Literacy, Sydney: NSW Department of Education and Training.
Literary criticism The practice of studying, analysing, interpreting and evaluating literature. Literary criticism is considered to be the practical application of literary theory, although some argue that they are one and the same. Literary criticism – or the deliberate and systematic exploration of literature – has a long history, beginning with the Ancient Greeks, Plato (c. 428-348 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC). Both addressed the questions of the purpose, nature, function and value of literature. Plato considered ‘art’ as a powerful force in shaping morality and ways of thinking, but saw this, ultimately, as a negative influence on his ‘ideal’ society. Truth and knowledge, according to Plato, exist in ideal forms that cannot be apprehended through artistic representations. In contrast, Aristotle considered effective art to be an imitation of reality, operating according to universal laws and capable of enlightening audiences through their engagement with its moral dimensions and potential for catharsis – or the purging of negative emotions. Since Plato and Aristotle, there has been a continuum of debate about the definition, role, significance and place of literature – aesthetic texts – in human experience. Many of the approaches to the study of literature prior to the 20th century regarded the artistic work as a means to the end of learning more about the historical period and the life of the author and as a tool for addressing significant moral, philosophical and ethical questions about how to live a virtuous and ‘good’ life. Texts were not necessarily considered in and for themselves, as aesthetic artefacts, but as educative works and sources of moral instruction. Literary criticism, prior to the 20th century, is regarded as ‘moral/philosophical criticism’ since its aim was to promote literature (the traditional triumvirate of novels, plays and poetry) as a secular source for nation-building and ennobling the moral capital of individuals within a culture. Since the turn of the 20th century, and the institutionalisation of English studies, literary criticism has developed rapidly in concert with the rise of literary theory. The major critical movements or schools in the 20th century to the present are: Historical/Biographical criticism; New Criticism (Formalism); Structuralism; Psychoanalytic criticism; Archetypal criticism; Freudian criticism; Reader-response criticism; Poststructural criticism; Rhetorical criticism; Ethical criticism; Post-colonial criticism; Feminism/ s; and New Historicism. The American literary critic MH Abrams, in the opening chapter of the highly influential book The Mirror and the Lamp (1953) set out in the opening chapter - “Orientation of Critical Theories” – a framework for understanding literary criticism. According to Abrams, a critical approach is 178
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Work (Text)
Audience (Reader)
Artist (Composer)
Although Abrams used these terms, it is also possible to substitute ‘writer’, ‘dramatist’, ‘poet’ or ‘composer’ for ‘artist’; ‘context’ for ‘universe’; ‘reader’, ‘viewer’, or ‘responder’ for ‘audience’; and ‘text’ for ‘work’. Most critical approaches to the study of literature focus on one or more of these elements (and their interrelationship) to explain how we make meaning and where meaning ‘resides’: the Expressive criticism associated with the Romantics, for example, considered the ‘artist’ to be the source of meaning; New Critics insisted on the primacy of the ‘work’ as the source of meaning; and Reception theory shifted the focus to the interaction between the ‘audience’ (reader) and the ‘work’ as the source of meaning. Since the late 1960s and 1970s, however, the relationship between these elements has been problematised by structuralist approaches to language, the emergence of movements such as Reader-response criticism, Marxist criticism, Feminist criticism, New Historicism, Rhetorical criticism and Ethical criticism. Despite this, Abram’s framework remains useful for exploring the ‘orientation’ of different critical approaches. See also Interpretation, Literary theory. JM Reference: Abrams, M. H. (1953) The Mirror and the Lamp: Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition , Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Literary theory Theorised discourse about the nature, value, purpose, significance and interpretive practices relevant to the study of literature and language. Literary theory informs and underpins the practice of literary criticism. The rise of literary theory as a distinct branch of the humanities in the second half of the 20th century, saw its inclusion in a range of disciplines in universities, including the disciplines of English and philosophy. Further, discrete university courses dedicated to the study of literary theory also emerged at this time. According to Barry, the study of literary theory, or ‘theory’, reached its zenith or “high water mark” (Barry, 2002: 1) in the late 1980s. Since then, the appeal of theory in and for itself has subsided, as have the often intense and polarised discourses around it. Instead, the assimilation of many of the tenets of a range of theories as part of the fabric of the study of literature and language is now commonplace and (for the most part) uncontroversial. When debates about theory do arise, they are often around questions of how, why and at what stage of learning students should be introduced to theory in the context of their study in English. For teachers, however, an understanding of the continuum of literary theory and the implications of this for effective pedagogy informs their professional knowledge-base and pedagogical skills in the same way that theory informs the practice of other specialised professionals in disciplines such as law, engineering, architecture and medicine. See also Interpretation, Literacy criticism. JM References: Barry, P. (2002) Beginning Theory: An introduction to literary and cultural theory. Manchester:
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L Manchester University Press.
The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism.
Literature (Latin: ‘familiarity with letters’) A term that has shifting and contested meanings. Since the late 18th century, the term has referred to imaginative and creative writing in the major artistic genres in print: novels, poetry, short stories and drama. A broader definition of literature includes film and some nonfiction such as, for example, autobiography, biography and diaries. Attempts at defining art, the aesthetic and literature are almost as old as language itself and each generation of critics and others continue to wrestle with the elusive nature of ‘literariness’. Importantly, since the 1960s, ‘literature’ as it is applied in English education encompasses not only the imaginative, creative writing of others that is read and studied in English, but the imaginative, creative writing of students themselves. Ian Reid described the ‘gallery’ and ‘workshop’ approaches to the study of literature in English (Reid, 1984). The former is characterised by students’ engagement with and analysis of canonic and other literature, with the implication that what is read is critiqued and valued in ‘objective’ ways. The ‘workshop’ model assumes that students’ own writing is part of the continuum of literature. In this model, students are encouraged, for example, to ‘rewrite’ the literature of others, experimenting, adapting and transforming these texts to create new texts. In so doing, they engage with and interpret the forms, techniques, ideas, ways of thinking, assumptions and values that contribute to the developing mastery of language use and analysis. Such writing has been described as “dependent authorship” or “imaginative re-creation” (Adams, 2004) whereby students use literature as a model for their own writing and their development as writers, readers and critics. The term ‘literature’ has carried evaluative connotations, referring to texts that are considered to be of ‘classic’, ‘canonic’ or enduring quality, and which are written using literary language and forms. Poststructuralist theorists contend that all texts are constructed artefacts, emerging from cultural and personal contexts which are, in turn, shaped by values, beliefs, material conditions, ways of thinking and ideology: the idea of the ‘literariness’ of a text, or a special hierarchical or privileged category of ‘literature’, is rejected by these critics. Within such a framework, products of human activity that rely on language (including visual and non-verbal) are considered to be ‘texts’ and are seen as part of a continuum of discourses or system/s of signs. There is a reluctance within such a framework to confer particular a priori value or status upon certain texts over and above others. Others argue that “art is more than documentary…and is not imposed on us as an invention of middle-class elites…we have done it forever…art allows us to claim ourselves back from the machine...it is not ornament, surplus, extra, but the beating heart of who we are.” (Winterson, 2008). Still others argue that the capacity to evaluate texts and make informed value-judgements about the worth and quality of these is part of the ethical project of English (Thomson, 2004). The term ‘literature’, defined as creative, imaginative expressions of human experience, remains an important term in many discourses – public and academic – about a range of artistic, aesthetic, imaginative and creative works. There is a plethora of awards, for example, for ‘literature’ (Nobel Prize, other international, national and state awards etc). In each case, literature is defined as a print text with ‘literary’ qualities that is judged according to a range of often competing criteria. A concept (or concepts) of the ‘literary’ is also embedded in terms such as ‘literary theory’; ‘literary criticism’; ‘literary genres’; literary techniques’; and ‘literary devices’. Traditionally, the study of literature has been organised according to literary periods: for example, we talk of the literature of the Middle Ages, Renaissance, Elizabethan era, Victorian era, Romantic period, Modern era and Postmodern era. Such grouping enables the literature of a particular historical period to be explored and compared to understand the prevailing issues, genres, ideas and ways of thinking typical of that period and to map developments in literary style, technique and subject. The study of 180
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L literature can also be organised according to specific genres and sub-genres (novel, poetry, short story, nonfiction, Young Adult, children’s, action and adventure, fantasy, science fiction, etc); thematically (literature of love, mourning, protest, etc); and according to the gender, age, nationality or race of the composer. The task of assigning value, assessing literary and aesthetic ‘merit’ and deciding on the worth of particular texts in relation to others, and comparing these views with the views of others, past and present, continues to be a central part of English education. Equipping students with the critical skills, knowledge and understandings to make informed value-judgements and to recognise that all discourse about and evaluation of literature is value-laden, is a key goal of learning in English. It should not diminish the aesthetic dimensions of student engagement with and enjoyment of imaginative texts, and nor should it obviate the fact that English syllabus documents continue to refer to the study of “language and literature” as a central endeavour in English. Literature, in this context, is defined broadly as students’ and others’ creative and imaginative texts (in a range of modes such as print, oral, visual, media and multimedia). The creation, dissemination and enjoyment of creative works continues to occupy a central place in culture, education, personal lives and the community. It entertains; brings deep pleasure and satisfaction to the reader/viewer; opens up new worlds and ways of thinking, knowing and understanding; encourages empathy; asserts the significance of the inner life; connects individuals to wider visions of and perspectives on humanity; illuminates diverse, richly-textured experience; and offers myriad representations of what it means to be human. See also Drama, Drama as a learning medium, Fiction, Four phases of classroom experience, Interpretation, Literature Circles, Literary criticism, Nonfiction, Novel, Poetry, Short story and Wide reading program for practical strategies. JM Ten DON’Ts for Teaching Literature (Watson, 1983) 1. DON’T neglect reading aloud to them. To read aloud is to praise literature, spread enjoyment, convey the sound-of-writing. 2. DON’T impose reading around the class (‘round robin’). If you think oral reading practice is needed, why not in pairs or groups?
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
3. DON’T hand out a class text long before dealing with it – the keen ones will have it read and will be bored when you get to it. 4. DON’T spread ‘treatment’ of a book over a long period, with breaks at irritating places. Remember – enjoyment is central! 5. DON’T expect discussion after you’ve read a poem only once to them. They may need to read it silently, and you again. 6. DON’T issue worksheets or ‘guides’ which fail to allow for discussion and fail to offer a generous choice of written activities. 7. DON’T insist on writing about every book in your wide reading program. Sometimes, surely, the reading is enough! 8. DON’T continually set the writing of book reviews, when there are so many other imaginative forms in which to write. 9. DON’T demand chapter-by-chapter summaries – but if you do, experience the boredom yourself by writing with the class. 10.DON’T turn stories or poems into comprehension exercises – which, after all, are testing devices, not learning experiences. N.B. Of course, some of these DON’Ts may be acceptable options if offered for free choice among many other options. (Ken Watson, (1983) “Ten Don’ts of Teaching Literature, in Teaching Literature, Sydney: PETA Publications.)
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L References: Adams, P. (2004) “Imaginative re-creation of literature: a critical examination from the perspective of the 21st century”, in Reviewing English in the 21st Century, eds. W. Sawyer & E. Gold, Sydney: Phoenix Education, pp. 36-50. Reid, I. (1984) The Making of Literature: Texts, Contexts and Classroom Practices, Norwood: AATE. Thomson, J. (2004) “Post-Dartmouth developments in English teaching in Australia” in Reviewing English in the 21st Century, eds. W. Sawyer & E. Gold, Melbourne: Phoenix Education, pp. 10-22. Thomson, J. (ed.) (1992) Reconstructing Literature Teaching: New Essays on the Teaching of Literature, Norwood: AATE. Thomson, Jack, (1987) Understanding Teenagers’ Reading: Reading processes and the teaching of literature, 1992 edn. Norwood: AATE. Winterson, J. (2008) Opening Address to the Sydney Writers’ Festival, May. Watson, K. (1983) “Ten Don’ts of Teaching Literature, in Teaching Literature, Sydney: PETA Publications.
Literature Circles An effective approach to implementing a wide reading program in English. Students choose their own reading material and form small groups based on reading interest. Time is set aside for reading and discussion, with each member of the group taking a role. The principles and practical strategies for Literature Circles are as follows: ∼ Students choose their own reading materials. ∼ Small temporary groups are formed, based upon book choice. ∼ Different groups read different books. ∼ Groups meet on a regular, predictable schedule to discuss their reading. ∼ Advance preparation is crucial! Literature Circles are most successful when students have been prepared for the various roles and the meeting procedures. ∼ The more organisation a teacher puts into the program, the better the Literature Circles run. ∼ Discussion topics come from the students. ∼ Group meetings aim to be open, natural conversations about books, so personal connections, digressions, and open-ended questions are welcome. ∼ In newly-formed groups, students may play a rotating assortment of task roles. ∼ The teacher serves as a facilitator, not a group member or instructor. ∼ Evaluation is by teacher observation and student self-evaluation. ∼ When books are finished, readers share with their classmates, and then new groups form around new reading choices. The website: provides details about how to establish reading groups, ways of integrating these into units of work, ways of encouraging reflection and metacognition, and strategies for linking Literature Circles to other classroom activities. See also Group Work, Fiction, Literature, Novel, Reading, Wide reading program, Young Adult Literature. JW, JM
Logo A picture or a picture with words designed to encapsulate the distinguishing features of an organisation, company or group. As a visual text, the purpose of a logo is to encourage the audience to perceive the organisation, company or group in a particular way. An effective logo will generate an easily recognisable and memorable association between the visual image and the organisation, company or group. Logos are often used in, for example, advertising, promotional materials, letterheads, signs and billboards. See also Film, Image, Media, Multimedia, Visual literacy, Visual text. DC, JM
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L ∼ Students create a logo for their own product, company or nonsense item. Or, create a logo or series of logos to represent a character/s in texts. Students support their logo choice with quotations from the text being studied.
∼ In small groups, students brainstorm as many logos as possible, identifying the most common and recognisable ones. Use this as a basis for examining the reasons why logos are utilised as part of advertising and marketing, and the role of visual texts in communicating messages and values.
∼ Visit the Logo and Trademark database which contains thousands of recognisable and less familiar logos:
∼
Lyric A poem that explores and expresses emotions. It is usually a shorter poem, in contrast to the epic, and may be set to music. The most common types of lyric poetry are the sonnet and the ode. Lyric poetry has a long history, but it reached its high point as a preferred genre in the Romantic period. See also Poetry. JM
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M Machinima An animation technique created by a machine (especially a computer). Often characters from computer games are used to create dramatic scenarios. See also Film, Media. JH
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There are several free animation programs available for download. These range from very simple line drawn animations to more complex creations. This website has a good listing of examples: http://animation.about.com/od/referencematerials/a/ freesoftware.htm Alternatively, students can storyboard animations, create flip-books, write ‘choose your own adventure’ texts and analyse animation and storylines within existing games. JW
Malapropism (French: ‘ill-suited’) Named after the character, Mrs Malaprop, in Richard Sheridan’s play The Rivals (1775). She was constantly muddling and confusing words and as a result, much of what she had to say was nonsensical. In contemporary popular culture, the characters Kath and Kim, from the eponymous television series, often utter malapropisms to add to the comic effect. For example: ‘effluent’ (affluent); ‘cardonays’ (chardonnays); ‘monogamy cupboards’ (mahogany cupboards); and ‘what are you incinerating?’ (insinuating). JM
Manga
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Popular Japanese comics that emerged in the post WWII period which have their roots in ancient forms of Japanese art. Manga are widely read and produced not only in Japan, but throughout the world. The comics take up a variety of subjects including action-adventure, romance, comedy, science fiction and fantasy, mystery, horror, sports, games, and business. See also Comics, Image, Popular culture, Visual text. JM, KS
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∼ Students research the role of Manga comics in Japan and their place in popular culture (how does it affect fashion, media, lifestyle?)
∼ Students create their own Manga comic book character adhering to the conventions of the genre.
∼ Each pair of students can create their own Manga character profile, these can be displayed on walls or compiled and published online as a compendium and reference when students are creating Manga narrative.
∼ Student pairs can be randomly assigned genre cards and asked to create their Manga comic in this style.
∼ Visit a Manga site such as JW The English Teacher’s Handbook
M Marxist literary criticism Modern Marxist literary criticism reacts against approaches typified by FR Leavis (1895-1978) and the American New Critics, which proposed that a literary work can be approached purely aesthetically and formally, with no regard to its context or the values which produced the text. Marxist literary criticism suggests that all texts are produced in and through culture, and, moreover, that culture is designed to uphold the interests of the bourgeois and the upper class. Literature, many Marxist literary critics would claim, supports the values upheld by the bourgeoisie, at the expense of the working class. As such, Marxist literary criticism works to expose the erroneous values that allow the bourgeoisie and the upper class to claim that their literature is in fact a universal literature, with a view to emancipating the working class and their interests. Based on the work of Karl Marx (1818-1883), Marxist literary criticism takes account of the class system within society, and argues that the idea of their being a “neutral”, “aesthetic” or “a-political” stance is a ruse for supporting the views of the bourgeoisie. A seminal work for the Marxist literary critics was Louis Althusser’s “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses”, where Louis Althusser (1918-1990) suggests that literature would be an “ideological apparatus”, specifically designed to dupe the working class into believing that their oppression and suppression was somehow a universal state, when in fact it was the direct result of “a small number of cynical men who base their domination and exploitation of the ‘people’ on a falsified representation of the world which they have imagined in order to enslave other minds by dominating their imaginations” (in Rivkin and Ryan, 2004: 694). Marxist literary critics are suspicious of claims of the superiority of the imagination, and of “literariness”, for precisely this reason. Literature helps to form a collective imagination, and if that collective imagination is fed the view that the working class is somehow natural, then, it is argued, it is clearly the work – be it conscious or unconscious – of the ruling classes in order to keep their privileged position safe. In this sense, Marxist criticism relies on the theory of social realism, whereby literature is mimetic and a site where social realities are represented and reflected. Prominent Marxist literary critics include Terry Eagleton (1943-), Fredric Jameson (1934-), Martha Vicinus, and Richard Ohmann, among others. Each of these critics, although very different in their manifestations of Marxist literary criticism, has in common the basic assertion that literature is necessarily political, and that to claim that it is apolitical betrays the most political position of all; that is, assent to the status quo. In addition, all of these critics would assert that the importance of the context of literature, both in terms of its production and its reception, as the right and proper concern of the literary critic. Literature can critique, promote, or ignore the status quo, (Marxist literary critics may differ on whether they believe texts can reject the status quo or not) and the only way one can properly ascertain how a text positions itself in this regard is to take into account the economic, cultural and political context into which a text inserts itself. Critics of Marxist literary criticism – and some of that criticism comes from within Marxist literary criticism itself – have suggested that the foundations of Marxism are themselves acontextual, and as such contradict Marxism’s basic assertion that all human work is necessarily bound by context. Still further, some have suggested that Marxism’s adherence to the notion of ‘ideology’ (particularly Althusser’s) can be totalising, thus refusing the working class an avenue for escape. Others have suggested that Marxism simplifies the contribution that literature makes to human experience, and that Marxism that assumes the complicity of literature of the bourgeoisie makes the mistake of making ‘literature’ monolithic, when it may be deeply varied in its contribution to society. See also Interpretation, Literary criticism, Literary theory. SGS, JM References: Althusser, L. (2004) “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses”, in J. Rivkin & M. Ryan, Literary Theory: An Anthology, 2nd edn. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 693-702. Rivkin, J. & Ryan, M. (2004) “Introduction: Starting with Zero”, in Literary Theory: An Anthology, 2nd edn. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 643-646.
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M Maxim (Latin: ‘greatest proposition’) A pithy and often witty statement that proposes a rule or guide for behaviour or provides an insight into some aspect of human experience. Oscar Wilde (1854-1900) was the master of edgy maxims. In 1894 a series of maxims was published anonymously in the Saturday Review, and titled: “A Few Maxims for the Instruction of the Over-Educated”. These were later acknowledged to be the creations of Oscar Wilde. For example: ∼ Education is an admirable thing. But it is well to remember from time to time that nothing that
is worth knowing can be taught. ∼ Friendship is far more tragic than love. It lasts longer. ∼ Art is the only serious thing in the world. And the artist is the only person who is never serious.
And these from “Phrases and Philosophies for the use of the Young” (The Chameleon, 1894): ∼ Only the shallow know themselves. ∼ Ambition is the last refuge of the failure. ∼ A truth ceases to be true when more than one person believes in it.
The Ancient Greek and Roman philosophers coined many maxims that maintain their currency in contemporary discourse. For example: ∼ Every day should be passed as if it were to be our last. (Syrus)
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See also Adage, Cliché. JM Debate: Debate Students play a game called ‘cross the line’ using these and/or other maxims as stimulus. A line is made with masking tape on the floor. One side is ‘agree’, one side ‘disagree’ and the ‘line’ is for those who sit on the fence. Teacher or students take turns to read the maxims and students position themselves according to what they believe to be true. Create: Create Students are given Polonius’ speech from Hamlet. After discussion in the context of the play they need to come up with a series of maxims, giving advice to:
∼a young person about to move out of home ∼a friend about to go on first date Students can look at advice given in Shakespeare’s time, in Ancient Greece and Rome etc. Students discuss the maxims they have studied and decide whether or not they are ‘for all time’. JW
Meaning Refers to the linguistic study of how language makes sense in communication (semantics); how signs are selected and organised to communicate (semiotics); the outcome of decoding language in acts of communication; and the outcome of cognitive and affective understanding of language and experience. Meaning depends on an active process of employing and comprehending the complex system of signs and codes that shape communication. In English, students use language and engage with the language of others in order to communicate meaningfully, build relationships, and generate insights into themselves, others and the world around them. “Meaning is achieved through responding and composing, which are typically interdependent and ongoing processes.” (NSW Board of Studies, 1999: 7). Meaning is dependent on a range of variables, such as, for example: purpose; intention; audience; values; beliefs; context; language competence in reading, writing, talking, listening and viewing; and hermeneutics. When it comes to texts and the process of how we making meaning, there has been, over the past few decades, a spectrum of judgement about the nature of the reader’s response to a text. At the 186
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M one end is the empiricist assertion that the meaning the reader ought to take away from an engagement with a text is incontestable, and entirely beyond the realms of speculation and context: that texts contain truths and represent the grand narratives that shed light on the meaning of the human condition. At the other end of the spectrum are those who have adopted an opposed position of relativism – such as that expressed by some poststructuralists – whereby the meaning of the text is completely constructed by the reader (who is himself/herself constructed by culture), according to a potentially endless plethora of contextual determinants. In secondary English, pedagogy tends to draw on a middle ground. In his book, On Literature, the contemporary Italian intellectual and author Umberto Eco (1932-) takes the following approach in articulating a position within this spectrum: Reading works of literature forces on us an exercise of fidelity and respect, albeit within a certain freedom of interpretation. There is a dangerous critical heresy, typical of our time, according to which we can do anything we like with a work of literature, reading into it whatever our most uncontrolled impulses dictate to us. This is not true. Literary works encourage freedom of interpretation, because they offer us a discourse that has many layers of reading and place before us the ambiguities of language and of real life. But in order to play this game, which allows every generation to read literary works in a different way, we must be moved by a profound respect for what I have called elsewhere the intention of the text. (Eco, 2005: 22) See also Communication, Decode, Interpretation, Literary criticism, Literary theory, Literature, Reading. JM References: Barry, P. (2002) Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory, Manchester: Manchester University Press. Eco, U. (2005) On Literature, (trans. Martin McLaughlin), London: Secker & Warburg. NSW Board of Studies (1999) English Stage 6 Syllabus, Sydney: NSW Board of Studies.
Media (Mass media) In English, media is one of the key language contexts, along with multimedia, literature, and everyday and workplace communication. Media has been an integral part of the English curriculum since the 1970s and continues to play a powerfully influential role in students’ lives. Mass media is a form of communication (in print, images, sound or a combination of these) intended to reach a ‘mass’ audience, with the purpose of entertaining, informing, persuading, selling products, and influencing the lives of large numbers of people. The blurring of the traditional categories of media – newspapers, radio, television, advertising and marketing, film and magazines – has occurred with innovations in information and communication technology. The former limits on the circulation of and access to media are increasingly irrelevant as technology enables global dissemination of information. This has rendered even more important the need for students to be well equipped to be intelligent, discriminating, questioning and informed ‘consumers’ of the media. Increasingly, students are not merely consumers of media: they are producers of media. Through language, image and sound, media texts construct versions of reality that encode a whole range of values, beliefs, perspectives, attitudes and ways of thinking. They often do so in ways that portray these versions of reality as ‘natural’ and prevailing, shaping popular culture and promoting particular perspectives on, for example: gender; stereotypes; relationships; class; ethnicity; family; community; sexuality; identity; age; the workplace; social issues; political issues; and the world around us. The media deals with issues and ideas relevant to almost every aspect of cultural, communal, social, political, economic and personal experience. Engaging with, critiquing and creating media texts provides students with the opportunity to actively participate in the shaping and communication of culture, and the capacity to interpret and critically evaluate its role in their lives. Given the overlap between media and multimedia, it is important to integrate the range of texts and contexts in an English program and to encourage students to understand the continuities within the broad range of types of texts and forms of communication. In addition, by facilitating and supporting the study and creation of media texts as part of a continuum of language and textual The English Teacher’s Handbook
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M study, English should provide the opportunity to: ∼ increase students’ awareness of their reading and viewing preferences and habits ∼ recognise and understand the purpose, audience and place of the mass media in the communication of information ∼ develop knowledge and understanding of the features of media language and technology and be capable of employing these in a range of contexts ∼ develop awareness of media bias and the implications of this ∼ develop understandings of the conventions, codes and techniques employed in media to construct and convey information ∼ develop an understanding of media as technology and media as process ∼ explore the issues and implications of media ownership, globalised media, media online ∼ broaden the experiences of students in reading and viewing media. Television: As a pervasive source of popular culture, most students are exposed to the medium of television on a daily basis. It is therefore essential that they become informed, critical viewers who understand and evaluate the content and processes of the production and dissemination of television programs.
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1. Audit personal viewing practices and preferences. Over a period of a week, students keep a record of what has been watched, when, for how long, ratings of programs, genres, target audiences (age group, gender, language background etc) and country of origin (e.g. Australia, USA, Britain, New Zealand, Japan, France etc). 2. The audit of individual viewing practices can be supplemented by a mapping of a television program guide over the period of a week, analysing the frequency, popularity, balance and timing of different types of shows. Students can also analyse the content of a range of television channels, comparing these and exploring the reasons for the differences and similarities.
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Type of show/content: ∼ Talk show ∼ Soap opera ∼ Drama ∼ Movie ∼ Game show ∼ Reality TV ∼ Sitcom ∼ Commercial ∼ Infotainment ∼ Lifestyle program ∼ News ∼ Children’s program ∼ Mini-series ∼ Documentary ∼ Current affairs ∼ Interviews 3. Students focus on one or more of these types of show/content and conduct an indepth study of the content, conventions, techniques, audience, formulae, and popularity, and compare similar types of shows across different channels. For example, investigate the range of reality TV shows. 4. Students watch a series of television shows through a particular lens (e.g. gender, race, language background, age). Explore the ways in which viewing positions influence the response to different types of shows.
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M 5.
Compare and contrast 3-4 evening news bulletins (content, point of view, images, length of report, use of evidence, bias, balance of fact and opinion).
6.
If possible, examine the range of specialist channels on cable television, identifying the niche channels.
7.
Examine media ownership and cross-media ownership and the implications of this for freedom of the press, censorship and diversity.
8.
Examine the occurrence of heroes/heroines and villains and other stereotypes in television shows and advertising.
9.
Examine the place of ‘public’ broadcasters (e.g. ABC and SBS) in relation to commercial broadcasters, considering the audience for each and the role of each in the dissemination and shaping of information and culture.
10. Explore the relationship between television shows and associated websites (e.g. Australian Idol, Q and A or The Biggest Loser TV shows and websites), examining the phenomenon of cross-media representations, advertising and interactive modes of participation and magazines. 11. Use the study of television to stimulate creative writing, filmmaking, script-writing, performance and representing. For example: script an episode or part of an episode of a TV show; parody a talk show or game show; script and perform a scene based on a popular soap opera, using parody or satire; use a text being studied in class and transpose sections of this for television or a website; prepare a proposal for the production of a text as a TV mini-series (including setting, casting, plot); students read a news bulletin, adopting the conventions of the form; create a commercial for TV to be screened during a children’s/sports/news/ reality TV program.
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Radio: An equally pervasive part of popular culture, radio has been radically diversified since it was first invented in the late 1800s. As the first form of ‘wireless’ communication, the radio continues to play a significant role in young people’s lives, with many radio stations now podcasting content, using personalities who straddle radio, television and web contexts, and appealing directly to niche 1. Students audit their listening habits for the duration of a week. Record the time spent listening to radio, the time/s of day/night, listening as background or foreground media, choice of station/s, features of the station/s (host, music, ads, etc). Students compare their audits, identifying differences and similarities. 2. Students undertake an analysis of a particular type of radio station or broadcast and its features and conventions. For example: ∼ Breakfast radio ∼ Talkback radio ∼ Current affairs ∼ Disk jockeys and hosts ∼ Music ∼ Sport ∼ News ∼ Interviews ∼ Target audience ∼ Ads/commercials ∼ Structure (mix of ads, music, talkback, news etc). 3. Explore the crossover between radio, the web and print media such as magazines. Analyse the websites of one or more radio stations to identify the purpose, audience, content and uniqueness. 4. Explore the nature of the content and the range of stations available.
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M
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audiences through music, talkback, websites, advertising and competitions. These approaches to broadcasting are part of the medium’s efforts to compete with an ever-increasing range of entertainment and communications in young people’s, and others’ lives. 5. 6.
7.
8. 9.
Research the history and development of the radio, interviewing parents, grandparents and others about their experience of radio throughout their lives. Using a text or texts as the basis for creative writing, representing and performing, students create a script for a radio broadcast. For example, “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” as a radio play. Podcast or vodcast the performance. Create a segment to be broadcast: a morning radio segment; a news report; a sports report; interview a personality or a character from a text to be broadcast on radio. Visit a radio station to learn about the processes, technology and context of broadcasting. Compare and contrast the language and conventions of different types of radio programs: e.g. sports programs and talkback programs; music radio and news radio.
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Newspapers and magazines: While newspapers rate poorly as a leisure reading choice for adolescents, magazines are a highly popular form of media with female adolescents. (Manuel and Robinson, 2002, 2003). Technology has influenced the dissemination of news such that, increasingly, people are accessing news from the web, rather than from the print form of newspapers. Technology and economic imperatives have also influenced the nature of journalism, the immediacy of access to news and the blurring of distinctions between reporting and traditional journalism. Issues of censorship, authorship, the shaping of ‘truth’ in the media and the powerful effects of globalisation have all impacted on the nature and purpose of newspapers and magazines. Magazines are a pervasive tool in the maintenance of popular culture, especially for adolescent females. There is an expanding market for such materials as the younger ‘tweens’ market has greater access to print and other media. Students should critically engage with these forms of media, exploring the ways in which they use language, image and conventions of form and content to disseminate information, persuade, entertain and influence the values and ways of thinking of their audiences. In a similar way to news sites, magazines are now proliferating on the web, in the form of e-zines.
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Newspapers 1. Examine headlines and reports about the same story from a broadsheet and a tabloid. Analyse language features; the fact and opinion within the respective articles; position in paper; the intended audience; use of visual images; space given to story; and the layout of the report. 2. Compare the print and online versions of a newspaper. Look at sections, advertising, visuals, layout, hyperlinks, etc and explore how the medium of production influences and shapes the nature of the news and other content. 3. Retell a story from different points of view. 4. Examine the purpose of visual images associated with a story. (See Image). Magazines/eMagazines/e-zines: 1. Review two or three magazines, identifying the target audience, dominant advertising, layout, contents, cost and circulation. 2. Map the range and diversity of magazines and e-zines, according to: audience; special interest; gender; age and ethnicity. 3. Produce a class magazine or e-zine, aimed at a particular audience with appropriate content, advertising, etc. 4. Compare two magazines aimed at very different target audiences – e.g. a magazine for a teenage girl and a golf magazine. Analyse the content, advertising, visual images etc.
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Advertising: The marketing and advertising of products in a consumerist society is pervasive and powerful. In English, students develop the capacities to ‘read’ and critique the language, techniques and strategies employed in advertising in order to acquire the knowledge, skills and understanding they require to be informed citizens. Advertising is often studied as part of a unit of work (e.g. on media, censorship or visual texts), or as part of a language focus (e.g. on persuasive language or language and image). 1. In small groups, students cut a range of images, captions and rubrics from magazine and newspaper advertisements. They identify: • target audience (age, gender, ethnicity, etc.) • language use • relationship between language and image/s • visual techniques (see Image). • Students select a number of these images, and using print text, create a collage that aims to alter the ‘message’ of the image/ad by using the printed text to comment on it. 2. In small groups, students brainstorm the ads from TV, radio and other sources that they most readily recall. What aspects of these ads contribute to their appeal? 3. Students research the Australian Advertising Standards Bureau webpage: 4. Examine the standards and regulations for advertising to different target audiences (e.g. children). 5. Debate the pros and cons of junk food advertising during children’s TV shows. 6. Audit the advertisements on different channels at specific periods of time and during particular programs (e.g. sporting events; talk shows; reality TV shows). How are these ads appealing to their target audience (e.g. emotive language; images; music; appeals to nationalism, etc.)? 7. Compare the advertising techniques employed by different media (TV, radio, web, billboards, cinema, buses etc).
See also Film, Image, Logo, Multimedia, Popular culture, Reading, Representation, Viewing, Visual text, Writing. JM References: Manuel, J. & Robinson, D. (2003) "Teenage boys, teenage girls and books: Re-viewing some assumptions about gender and adolescents' reading practices", English Teaching: Practice and Critique, 2:2, September, pp. 66-77. Manuel, J. & Robinson, D. (2002) "What are Teenagers Reading? The Findings of a Survey of Teenagers' Reading Choices and the Implication of these for English Teachers' Classroom Practice", English in Australia, 135, pp. 69-78.
Mediated performance
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Dramatic performance as presented to an audience through any technological medium, including amplified sound, television, video and digital-based forms. See also Drama, Film. JH ∼ Installation artwork: a representation of a poem or short piece of fiction that includes music, action and moving image.
∼ Short film-making: a video clip of an interpretation and representation of a poem. ∼ A talk show filmed and edited in post-production to include credits, music and sound effects.
∼ News reading: in pairs students create and edit a news bulletin (each group given different topics).
∼ Have an Oscars’/Logies’ party including popcorn and dress-ups to screen the films. JW
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M Medium of communication The form in which the language, ideas and images of any communication act is manifested and transmitted. See also Medium of production. JM
Medium of production
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The form in which a text (written, spoken, visual or other type of text) is produced. The composer makes deliberate choices about the medium of production to effectively communicate ideas to an audience. The medium of production is inseparable from the content and the ‘how’ or form of a text is shaped by and dependent on its function. Each medium is distinguished by a set of conventions, codes, techniques and practices specific to that medium. Creating an effective text requires an understanding of these conventions, codes, techniques and practices and an awareness of how the process of selecting, ordering and expressing ideas is influenced by the demands of the particular medium. Marshall McLuhan (1911-1980) famously declared that “the medium is the message”. See also Genre. JM ∼ Select a short text such as a short story or a news report. ∼ Transform the ideas in the text into another form. For example, transform the news report into a dialogue or a poem; or transform the story into a mini-saga, a diary entry, a blog or a news report.
∼ Compare the two texts, examining the form, conventions and features of each, analysing how the medium of production influences the meaning of the content and the audience response.
Melodrama This term has had a number of meanings in theatre history but now generally referrers to Victorianstyle stage productions with stock characters: the hero, the heroine, the villain, and comic characters. It is not a subtle form of theatre and is characterised by heightened emotion, crude plots and overacting. Many TV soap operas could be classed as melodramas. JH
Memoir (French: ‘memory’) A type of autobiography which focuses on the relationships, people and events experienced by the author during a part of their life. It is distinguished from autobiography in that there is less direct emphasis on the entire life of the author, although as terms to describe a genre, memoir and autobiography are often used interchangeably. See also Autobiography, Diary. JM
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Students interview a family member and use their stories as inspiration for writing a short memoir.
∼ Students write a short memoir for a fictional character encountered in a study of a text.
∼ Create a digital memoir – in the mode of a digital narrative. ∼ Students could write nonsense memoirs: e.g. memoir of the last carrot in the fridge. JW
Metacognition Refers to the awareness and understanding of one’s process of learning (cognition). JH Flavell (1976) coined the term ‘metacognition’ describing it as “one’s knowledge concerning one’s own cognitive processes or anything related to them, e.g. the learning-relevant properties of information or data. For example, I am engaging in metacognition if I notice that I am having more trouble 192
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M learning A than B; if it strikes me that I should double check C before accepting it as fact.” (Flavell, 1976: 232) It is dependent on reflective practice and a knowledge of the ways in which learning takes place. It also requires the capacity, through higher-order thinking, to identify the most effective ways of learning, processing information and coming to meaning, and the capacity to apply this knowledge to new learning contexts. This, in turn, improves learning and assists students in moving towards increasing independence as learners. Metacognition is also defined as ‘thinking about thinking’: self-regulated learning is the prime goal of metacognition. It is an important component of teaching and learning in English and encompasses strategies that encourage, make explicit and validate students’ growing understanding of how they best learn. Journals (e.g. reading and writing journals); stimulus questions; discussions about the process of learning before, during and after tasks; reflective practice and evaluation of learning are all avenues for developing metacognitive skills. See also Representing. JM
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Teacher
Students
Make explicit the purpose of and processes involved in the learning task
Reading logs, including reflections on reading practices (when, where, how, what, why?)
Build a shared language to talk about learning and reflection
Student surveys of learning styles, strengths and weaknesses
Model reflection during and after learning activities
Writing journals (reflecting on aspects of class activities and preferred approaches to texts)
Provide students with trigger stems that provide a scaffold for metacognition: Today I learned to/about… The steps involved in this learning were… I felt confident doing… Next time, I would like to… I am good at… I could learn more about how to…
Small group and pair discussions utilising cognitive organisers and trigger questions and stems
Utilise cognitive organisers during activities such as: Mind maps Venn diagrams 4-Mat PMI charts de Bono’s 6 thinking hats (blue is for metacognition)
Self-evaluations at the end of units of work or a series of lessons. These can be collaboratively constructed and can include evaluations of group learning
Dedicate time to reflective practice to legitimate Monitoring of own learning through ongoing reflecits importance in teaching and learning tion and discussion of ideas for future learning References: Adapted from Bellanca, J & Fogarty, R. (1991) Blueprints for Thinking in the Co-operative Classroom. Melbourne: Hawker-Brown. Flavell, J. H. (1976) “Metacognitive aspects of problem solving”, in The nature of intelligence, ed. L. B. Resnick Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Metafiction Also known as ‘metanovel’ it refers to novels which write about novel-writing. This technique involves subverting the illusion of fiction; disrupting the reliance on an omniscient narrator; and drawing attention to the constructedness of the text. A famous example of a metanovel is Italo Calvino’s If on a Winter’s Night a Traveller (1979). John Fowles’ The French Lieutenant’s Woman (1969) is also a metanovel in that it uses parallel narrators and one of these narrators reflects on the process of novel-writing throughout the text. JM The English Teacher’s Handbook
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M Metalanguage
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The particular language used to describe language. A metalanguage includes the technical terms, concepts, codes and conventions that provide a vocabulary to describe and discuss how language operates. For example, there is a metalanguage of film and visual texts that enables students to analyse and interpret these media applying appropriate terms and concepts. ‘Meta’ suggests a ‘higher’ or additional language. JM Maintain a continuous word bank: for each new unit of work, the class adds to their word bank of technical terms, concepts, codes and conventions. This serves as a reference through the year for the whole class. This can be collated as a digital database. JW
Metaphor (Greek: ‘transfer’) A figure of speech, also known as a trope, that compares two things or ideas that are apparently unrelated but are linked linguistically in such a way that a point of similarity is created, producing a vivid image. This device is used to precisely capture the feelings, mood, object or essence of one thing by associating it directly with another. Metaphor is similar to analogy but is much more forceful and compelling. A metaphor expresses something as something else, rather than as merely ‘like’ something else, as is the case in a simile. Metaphors proliferate in all kinds of texts, especially in imaginative texts such as poetry, since poetry relies on an economy of language to express ideas and feelings. Metaphors enable writers to generate innovative and exciting ways of thinking about experience, ideas and objects. Examples of metaphors in literary texts include: “All the world’s a stage” speech (in Shakespeare’s As You Like It, 1599) and this speech from Macbeth (c. 1603): Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player That struts and frets his hour upon the stage And then is heard no more: it is a tale Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying nothing. (Shakespeare, Macbeth, Act V, Sc v, spoken by Macbeth) In William Blake’s (1757-1827) “A Poison Tree”, the entire poem is a metaphor for the experience of anger, vengeance and its consequences. I was angry with my friend; I told my wrath, my wrath did end. I was angry with my foe: I told it not, my wrath did grow. And I water’d it in fears, Night & morning with my tears: And I sunned it with smiles, And with soft deceitful wiles. And it grew both day and night.
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M Till it bore an apple bright. And my foe beheld it shine, And he knew that it was mine. And into my garden stole, When the night had veil’d the pole; In the morning glad I see; My foe outstretch’d beneath the tree. Metaphor is commonly exploited in the language of media and everyday communication (especially in clichés). For example: ‘The room is a pig-stye’; ‘Life is a roller-coaster’; ‘Money is the root of all evil’. The term ‘mixed metaphor’ refers to a metaphor or combination of metaphors that are overworked and clumsy. Mixed metaphors often occur in sporting broadcasts, where commentators are ‘thinking at the point of utterance’ (Britton, 1970). For example, ‘Even though this game is a war, what happens on the field should stay behind closed doors.’ See also Allegory, Comparison, Image, Language, Media. JM Reference: Britton, J. (1970) Language and Learning, Harmondsworth: Penguin.
∼ A simple and enjoyable creative strategy for encouraging students to think metaphorically, and to understand the concept of metaphor, is to provide a series of triggers.
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∼ Describe a character/object/self as a: piece of fruit colour season type of flower type of car land-form (e.g. ocean, desert, mountain, volcano, brook) force of nature (e.g. hurricane, sun-shower, hailstorm, flood, fire) currency (Dollar, Yen, Kroner, Euro) kind of pasta kind of fabric country kind of building body of water (sea, lake, river, stream, dam) kind of lolly musical instrument. ∼ Students can create metaphors for a series of characters in a text; for themselves; celebrities; or a combination of these and use them as part of a piece of writing. Such creative thinking strengthens students’ imaginative, linguistic and cognitive capacities, and can be transferred to any number of other contexts. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Metaphysical Poets A group of lyric poets writing during the 17th century, although they were not considered as a group or school as such until they were given the title “Metaphysical” by Dr Samuel Johnson (17091784) in 1779. The most well-known Metaphysical poet was John Donne (1572-1631). Metaphysical poetry is characterised by its differences from the poetry that preceded it – namely, Elizabethan lyric poetry that is typically consonant, harmonious and aesthetically appealing. Metaphysical poetry, however, relies on wit, paradox, unexpected and often startling imagery and metaphor, clever conceits, puns and often very assertive, colloquial and exclamatory language. The concern with metaphysics – or the philosophy of apprehending the underlying principles and ultimate ‘reality’ that lies behind the world of the senses. In this way, the poetry explores the philosophy of Plato’s ‘ideal forms’. JM The English Teacher’s Handbook
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M Metre (Greek: ‘measure’) Refers to the regular stress patterns and rhythm in language. Verse is often distinguished from prose by its dependence on explicit metre (although some poetry does not work through strict metrical patterns). The metre of a poem is defined in terms of a series of ‘feet’: a ‘foot’ is a unit of stressed/unstressed syllables. The most common metres in English verse are iambic (‘rising rhythm’) metres and trochaic (‘falling rhythm’) metres (in, for example, lyric poetry). Iambic metres are made up of a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable; trochaic metres are made up of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. Feet
Stressed (x) Unstressed (/)
Iamb
x/
Trochee
/x
Anapaest
xx/
Dactyl
/ xx
Spondee
//
Pyrrhic
xx
When a series of ‘feet’ are combined in a line of verse, the metre is defined in terms of how many ‘feet’ are contained in the line. Line lengths
Metre
One foot
Monometer
Two feet
Dimeter
Three feet
Trimeter
Four feet
Tetrameter
Five feet
Pentameter
Six feet
Hexameter
Seven feet
Heptameter
Eight feet
Octameter
Thus, a line of verse that has six trochaic feet is known as ‘trochaic hexameter’ (/x /x /x /x /x /x). The metre of a poem can be apprehended by reading the poem out aloud and ‘scanning’ the lines by identifying the stress patterns of the syllables. Some poems have varying metres from line to line or stanza to stanza.
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William Shakespeare’s plays and William Wordsworth’s The Prelude (1850), for example, are written in blank verse - unrhymed iambic pentameter. See also Accent, Poetry, Rhythm. JM
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Stomping out Iambs: Read out aloud Green Eggs and Ham (Dr Seuss, 1960) or a similar children’s text. Ask students to stomp lightly on left foot and hard on right foot for each iamb. Inspired by “Romping and Stomping Shakespeare” from the Folger library,. JW
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M Metonymy The substitution of one word (or words) for another that is closely associated with the original object or experience. For example, ‘Canberra’ used to refer to ‘the Parliament of Canberra’; ‘Washington’, ‘The Administration’ or ‘The Whitehouse’ for ‘USA government’; ‘the Crown’ for the ‘monarchy’; ‘hits the bottle’ for ‘drinks too much alcohol’. DC
Middle English Although arbitrary classifications within the history of the development of the English language according to specific years or even groups of years is rather artificial, there is a general agreement that the evolution from Old English /Anglo-Saxon to Middle English was a product of the Norman Invasion (1066). This period is often assumed to have finished around the mid to late 15th century. Middle English was spoken in England and Scotland. Whereas the Wessex variant of English had been dominant in Old English, the Middle English period was characterised by a diversity of English dialects finding expression in printed texts. For example, those variants of English found in North East England (especially Northumbria and East Anglia) and, particularly, London started coming to the fore with each of these areas boasting growing literary importance. London’s position was strengthened by Londoner Caxton’s introduction of the printing press. The prominent literary figures of the Middle English period include Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343-1400), William Langland (c. 13301387) and Thomas Malory (c. 1405-1471). The latter, apart from his notoriety because of a string of criminal charges and periods in prison, was the author of Le Morte d’Arthur that established the Arthurian legend which – bolstered over subsequent centuries through literature, art, music, theatre, and film – continues to engage the interest of many today. PB
Mimesis/mimetic
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(Greek: ‘imitation’) Refers to imitation and reflection of ‘reality’. Aristotle wrote extensively about mimesis in Poetics (4th century BC). Art, through simulated representation of external reality and real events, can provide the audience with an experience of that reality at one remove. When watching a tragedy, for example, the audience can empathise with the characters and become immersed in the action, experiencing all the emotions without being physically involved in the tragic events. In this way, tragedy provides an opportunity for catharsis. According to the theory of mimesis, art does not merely imitate reality, but represents that reality by selecting, shaping and altering it for a purpose: a mimetic work embodies and transforms aspects of reality. See also Catharsis, Drama, Image, Imitation, Literary criticism, Realism. JH, JM The Last Battle (last in the Narnia series) deals with this concept well. Here the concept is explained thus: Narnia (as it exists for the characters) is only a copy of the True Narnia (allusion to heaven) which is brighter, more real and everlasting. The concept is easily explained to students by looking at shadows on walls, candlelight reflected in a mirror or even a student’s own reflection. Students could also look at an artwork in groups, and each group can be given a different ‘lens’ to observe it through (e.g. this painting was aimed at children; this painting is a warning to adults to be careful in love). Each group then reports on their interpretation of the ‘truth’ or ‘reality’ presented. JW
Mixed ability teaching An approach to teaching and learning that is based on research and theories of learning. These theories propose the benefits of grouping students of mixed ability in the one class, rather than ‘streaming’ them. Arguments against streaming have been based on extensive research and have been widely published in recent decades. The key arguments against streaming that have emerged from the research are: the negative impact on student achievement and self-perception for less able The English Teacher’s Handbook
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M students when streaming is inflexibly applied; the inability to accurately ‘place’ students in streams; the detrimental impact of labelling students at an early stage in their learning; the benefits for talented students in a mixed ability classroom where the pedagogy capitalises on their strengths and abilities; and the impact of streaming on teacher perceptions, expectations and the flow-on of this to student achievement. Documented benefits of mixed ability teaching include: the development of collaborative and social skills, which in turn heightens students’ engagement, achievement and workplace readiness; differentiated teaching that caters for the needs, interests and abilities of diverse students; and student and teacher expectations are grounded in what the student knows and can do, with both working towards achieving the outcomes of the program. See also Assessment, Differentiation, Group work, Learning styles. DC
Mnemonic
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
(Greek: ‘to remember’) Relating to memory, or intended to aid memory. A verse may assist memory, as in the following mnemonics relating to the six strings of the guitar (E, A, D, G, B, E): Every Ant Drags Great Big Eggs; and the sharps on the musical stave (F#, C#, G#, D#, A#, E#, B#): Funny Clowns Go Dancing After Every Bounce. DC Look to Science teaching for this one. Many mnemonics exist for things such as the periodical table, placement of planets etc. Use poetic techniques or literary devices and have students create their own mnemonics for everyday rituals and routines. JW
Mock-heroic Refers to any work (often poetry) that treats an apparently serious matter in a mocking, comic and trivialising way. The purpose of the mock-heroic is to satirise or ridicule a social convention, pretentiousness or arrogance in order to instruct, correct and critique. See Neoclassical period. JM
Modality The language choices that a composer makes in order to communicate subtlety of meaning and ideas. JM
Models of English teaching Since it was established as a subject in the school curriculum, English teaching and learning has been informed by a number of models. Each values and emphasises a particular aspect of and approach to the study of language and literature. The evolving and informed eclecticism of English pedagogy means that elements of each of these models are evident to a greater or lesser degree in current English syllabus documents. The models can be summarised as follows: 1. Cultural Heritage: Emphasises the importance of studying the culture’s literature to initiate students into that culture’s values, beliefs and ways of thinking. 2. Skills: Emphasises the role of language and the need to equip students with the language skills in each of the language modes. 3. Personal Growth: Emphasises the holistic personal development and enjoyment of the student through immersion in all the language modes in active ways as composers and responders to a wide range of texts in context.
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M 4. Cultural Studies: Emphasises the influence of cultural context and social systems on the production, dissemination and experience of the range of language and texts existing in a given culture. 5. Rhetorical/Ethical: Emphasises the importance of values and how they are formed and maintained, and the ethical implications of composing, responding to and judging the worth of the range of language and texts in social and cultural contexts. See also Pedagogy. JM
Moderation An assessment term related to ensuring that consistent and reliable interpretations of student assessment conducted in a variety of settings will be fair and reliable, maintain the integrity of the curriculum as well as ensure that students receive a meaningful and transferable credential. Moderation involves statistical procedures of aligning internal assessment marks so that student results across the variety of settings can be compared accurately and fairly. For example, student performance in a course may include internal assessment marks for individual students awarded by a school which are then moderated by using the performance of the school course group in the corresponding external examination for that course. The moderated assessment and the examination mark will be averaged to provide a composite mark. See also Assessment. DC
Modernism A term applied to a period of time in the 20th century, post-World War I, during which literature was characterised by its innovations and difference from the conventions and ways of thinking evident during the 19th century. Some argue that Modernism had its origins in The Enlightenment at the end of the 18th century. The Enlightenment was defined by three key shifts in social and cultural thinking: reason was championed as the intellectual foundation for human existence; advances in science heralded a view that order could triumph over chaos; and the developments in science replaced superstition. The concept of ‘modernity’ also emerged from the Industrial Revolution, the French Revolution and the rise of capitalism. Rather than harking back to a so-called Golden Age, people sought emancipation from poverty, war and violence and believed in the potential for human society to move inexorably forward through advances in technology, industrialisation and rational thought. The literature associated with Modernism is marked by its experimental qualities, its responses to the wider social and cultural changes taking place at the time, its break with the realism of the preceding century and its innovations in each of the three major genres of the novel, poetry and drama. This innovation included a mixing of the conventions of genres so that novels became more poetic and poetry became more prose-like. Writers during this period played with the conventions of narrative, preferring discontinuous narrative or stream of consciousness over narrative techniques that rely on an omniscient narrator or a single narrative point of view. Smaller schools such as Imagism, Symbolism, Dadaism, Surrealism and Expressionism can be considered part of the larger Modernist movement. Acclaimed writers, poets and dramatists of the modern period include: DH Lawrence (1885-1930), Marcel Proust (1871-1922), James Joyce (1882-1941), William Faulkner (1897-1962), TS Eliot (1888-1965), Virginia Woolf (1882-1941), HD (Hilda Doolittle) (1886-1961), Ezra Pound (1885-1972) WB Yeats (1865-1939), Bertolt Brecht (1898-1956) and Samuel Beckett (1906-1989). Not all writers during this period were experimental. Thomas Hardy (1840-1928), for example, wrote a substantial corpus of poetry during the later stage of his life, and this cannot be said to be experimental or counter-conventional in the light of what had preceded it or was published contemporaneously. See also Literary criticism. JM
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Montage (French: ‘mounting’) Generally used to describe the assemblage of a film through editing or the changing of one image to another. Montage describes a particular method of editing in which images, objects and figures are linked or overlaid in a variety of creative or unexpected ways in order to generate certain effects or ideas. More specifically it is a number of shots edited quickly together in order to form a brief impression of a character, time or place. Such a montage sequence in a film summarises a topic or compresses a passage of time into brief symbolic or typical images. Frequently dissolves, fades, superimpositions and wipes are used to link the images. Montage is often used in film opening title sequences. See also Film, Image, Representing, Representation. KS
Mood
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
(Old English: ‘feeling’) Refers to the atmosphere and feeling evoked by and in a text. The mood of a text may shift from the beginning to the end of the text. Often, the mood that is established at the opening of a text establishes the mood for the entire work. Mood is created through choice of language and the use of devices such as imagery, metaphor, symbolism, description, depiction and dialogue. See also Atmosphere, Depiction, Language, Tone. DC, JM ∼ Select 3-4 different types of texts that deal with similar themes (e.g. “The Raven”, a poem by Edgar Allen Poe; the opening of a short story such as “Vendetta” by Guy du Maupassant; a picture book such as PJ Lynch’s The Christmas Miracle of Jonathan Toomey; and the opening scene/s of a film such as Scary Movie 1)
∼ Read out aloud (or view) the opening of these texts. Ask students to be alert to the ‘mood’ of the text by identifying the tone; language (e.g. emotive, descriptive, ironic); point of view; narrative voice; imagery; colour, layout and perspective (visual texts); setting; dialogue; and sound effects and lighting (in film)
∼ After reading/viewing and discussing each text individually, compare the ‘mood’ of the three texts, focusing on conventions, techniques, language, medium of production and the impact of these on students’ responses.
Motto (Latin: ‘utterance’) A short saying expressing the guiding maxim or ideal of a family, group, company or organisation. Mottos are often found on material advertising or describing an institution, club, association or company, and are typically found on family crests. The term also refers to a quotation prefacing a book or chapter in a book. DC, JM ∼ Examine mottos of sporting and cultural clubs. What do they tell us about the club?
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STRATEGY
M
∼ Look at the school motto and try to discover the history behind it. Is it still appropriate today?
∼ Students research family crests, mottos etc - where did they come from? Is the motto in Latin? Does the meaning change over time?
∼ Students create a motto for their friendship group and explain how it represents them. JW
Multicultural literature The introduction of multiculturalism as official government policy in the early 1970s did not simply mean that immigrants would be able to retain the language and culture of their homelands and still call themselves Australian; it also led to a reassessment of Australian culture as such, and a 200
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M questioning of its almost exclusively Anglo-Celtic roots. In the field of Australian literature, scholars started to ask why the literary canon did not include writers from the large non-Anglo immigrant groups which had arrived in Australia in the wake of World War II: did such writers not exist, or was it rather that they were overlooked, not considered part of the national culture? Inspired by a desire to make such writers more visible, and to make the national literature more representative of the cultural diversity of the nation, early scholars of multicultural literature saw it as their main task to gather information about writers from ethnic minority backgrounds and their work, and to make it available to the wider scholarly community in the form of bibliographies and anthologies. This information is now available through AustLit, the comprehensive online database for information on Australian literature. ‘Multiculturalism’ and ‘multicultural writing’ are terms which raise a number of questions about definitions and demarcations: Is all Australian writing multicultural or only that produced by writers of ethnic minority backgrounds? Is it the thematic contents of a text that makes it multicultural or only the ethnic background of the author? Should the category include writing by Indigenous Australians? Are only first-generation migrants multicultural or does the term cover their Australian-born descendents as well? Some critics prefer to use other terms, such as migrant writing, NESB (nonEnglish speaking background) writing, ethnic or ethnic minority writing, diasporic writing, etc, but none have found unanimous critical support. While acknowledging that these categories can be unwieldy, scholars of multicultural writing still find them useful as a means of highlighting the contribution of non Anglo-Celtic writers to Australian literature, and in order to argue against their marginalisation in the national culture. Today, Australian multicultural literature generally refers to writing produced by Australians of non-Anglo-Celtic background, both first-generation migrants and their immediate descendents. Indigenous writers are not normally included in this category. The history of multicultural additions to the national literature closely reflects trends in Australian immigration since World War II. Apart from the (relatively small) number of non-Anglo writers who had made their home in Australia before this time, the first writers identified as multicultural belonged to the (predominantly European) migrant groups who arrived in the country in large numbers in the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s: Greeks, Italians, Balts, Poles, Jews, to name just some of the larger groups. In more recent decades, Australian-born and -educated descendents of these migrants have added a further dimension to the multicultural literary tradition. At the same time, they are joined by writers belonging to more recent migrant groups, coming from places such as Vietnam, the Middle East, India, China and South-East Asia, and adding even greater diversity to a previously European-dominated literary culture. Multicultural writing echoes the writers’ widely diverse backgrounds and experiences, and so by its very nature defies any attempt to generalise about its forms and content. It ranges from the pareddown realism of Judah Waten (1911-1985) and David Martin (1915-1997) to the linguistic exuberance of Pi O (Peter Oustabasidis b.1951) and Ania Walwicz (1951-), from the lyricism of Dimitris Tsaloumas (1921-) to the raw, angry voices of Ouyang Yu (1955-), from the wistful nostalgia of Vasso Kalamaras and Anna Couani (1948-) to the humour and biting satire of Yasmine Gooneratne ( and bleak grunge of Christos Tsiolkas (1965-). Thematically, it knows no boundaries, but a number of motifs based on the writers’ cross-cultural experience can be traced across a large number of writers and texts: dislocation (physical, psychological, cultural) and alienation, the search for cultural and personal roots, the outsider’s perspective on Australia, explorations of myth and cultural traditions, generational disharmony, racial and ethnic discrimination, the migrant child as gobetween. Autobiography and autobiographical fiction are common – recent examples include Alice Pung’s Unpolished Gem (2006), Christos Tsiolkas’ Loaded (1995) and Brian Castro’s Shanghai Dancing (2003) – but it is an all too familiar misconception to assume that all ethnic minority writing is based on the writers’ own life: like all creative works, their literary worlds are imaginary constructions in which history and fantasy intertwine to produce ‘realities’ that are familiar, deceptive, weird and wonderful, a constant challenge to our perceptions of what is true, what is real, and what is Australian.
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M Most ethnic minority writers in Australia, and certainly those who are best known to mainstream audiences, write in English; others prefer to write in their languages of origin and some publish in two or several languages. Many build their bi- or multi-lingual background into the writing itself through linguistic experimentation: mimicry of the accented or imperfect English of particular migrant groups; untranslated words or passages from other languages; side-by-side publication of the same text in two languages. In Shaun Tan’s The Arrival (2007), there is no verbal language at all: the migrant story is told entirely through pictures. However, linguistic confusion is echoed by the proliferation of incomprehensive signs which the migrant slowly learns to decipher. Many multicultural writers also build formal aspects of other literary traditions, or oral story-telling traditions, into their writing in English. One example is Merlinda Bobis (1959-), who both in writing and performance, recreates oral narrative forms of Filipino culture. AustLit (www.austlit.edu.au), the comprehensive database of information about Australian Literature, includes a Multicultural subset, plus a number of search options for exploring the linguistic and cultural background of authors and texts. Please note that AustLit is a subscription database. For a survey of the theoretical contexts of multicultural writing, see Sneja Gunew (1946-), Framing Marginality: Multicultural Literary Studies, Carlton, Vic.: Melbourne University Press, 1994. A longer introduction to Australian Multicultural Literature can be found in: Wenche Ommundsen, ‘Multicultural writing in Australia’, in Nicholas Birns and Rebecca McNeer, eds. Companion to Australian Literature of the Twentieth Century, Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 2007. WO
Multiliteracies A term coined by the New London Group in 1996 to describe the changing nature of texts and the literacy demands these make on us in an increasingly digital age. The term encompasses the engagement with, and the interpretation and production of, multimodal texts (texts that work through more than one mode – for example, combining print, visual and spatial elements, such as in the case of a website); and the need for the knowledge, understanding and skills to effectively deal with cultural and linguistic diversity and complexity in contemporary forms of communication. Being ‘multiliterate’ means being equipped with the capacity to decode systems of signs, interpret and make meaning across the vast range of types of texts and communications that characterise the digital age. See also Film, Image, Language, Literacy, Multimedia, Visual literacy, Visual text. JM
Multimedia Any text that is characterised by a convergence of forms (printed text; images; video; animation; and sound). A multimedia text usually depends on the use of technology for its creation and dissemination. Devices such as computers, iPods, mobile phones, DVD players and recorders; data projectors; media players and other electronic and digital devices are each described as ‘multimedia’ (noun) and enable the production and distribution of multimedia (adjective) texts. These texts are categorised as either ‘linear’ or ‘non-linear’ texts, depending on the arrangement of the content and the opportunity for the responder to interact with and direct the movement of the text. Linear texts include films screened in a cinema; music accessed in a digital format and some screened performances and presentations. Non-linear, or hypermedia texts allow the responder or user to navigate through the content in non-linear ways; to interact with the content and form; to add to, edit and intervene in the text to create new texts; and to utilise hyperlinks that take the user to other parts of the same text, or to other related texts. Innovations in technology mean that students are immersed in a world of multimedia as part of their everyday lived experience. Multimedia has also revolutionised teaching and learning, allowing educators to expand the boundaries of pedagogy in an almost endless array of ways. Online learning is becoming more commonplace, through the development of e-learning hubs and sites, vodcasts and purpose-designed interactive digital spaces. As digital natives, many students are adept at accessing and creating multimedia for learning, entertainment and pleasure. The 202
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M implications of this for learning are profound, particularly in English where the modes of writing, reading, talking, listening, viewing and representing are at the core of the subject. Each of these modes converges in and is integral to multimedia. Students engage with and create multimedia as part of their leisure activities (through mobiles, digital devices and websites such as, for example, MySpace, YouTube and Facebook). They are engaging in reading and writing, for instance, in new ways that do not rely on the traditional conventions associated with print medium texts. English teaching needs to account of such changes and build upon the knowledge, skills and understanding that many students already possess when it comes to multimedia and technology. See also Digital text, Film, Image, Media, Visual literacy, Visual text. JM ∼ PowerPoint presentations: these can include print texts, hyperlinks, moving images, still images, and sound.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Digital narratives/stories: based on a text (character/s); the student’s own experience; or themes and topical issues.
∼ Websites: there is an endless range of possibilities for making and doing, and for using the web as a resource for research and learning.
∼ Filmmaking and film analysis. Digital technology enables students to use accessible programs such as iMovie or Movie Maker to create films and DVDs, based on responses to texts, themes and topics.
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
SMART Boards – for use in class. Digital databases (e.g. for collating materials for projects and research). Interactive and e-learning sites. Webquests, Wikis, blogs. Publishing creative and critical works online. Critical analysis, comparison and mapping of popular networking sites, focusing on purpose, audience, interactive capacities, privacy policies and design.
Multiple choice questions (mcq) A question-type commonly used in tests and examinations in which the candidate is required to choose the correct answer from a given number of prefabricated options. Critics of mcq hold that this type of questioning negates the opportunity for the candidate (i.e. the reader) to participate in authentic interpretation and meaning making because a ‘third party’ has engineered a ‘correct’ answer. These kinds of questions also proceed on the assumption that, apart from simple identification and naming of literal and concrete items, there is a fixed and uncontested interpretation of any given text. Critics further contend that mcq can lend themselves to focusing on specific vocabulary items, identifying the exact meaning of obtuse phrases and attending to minor items of formal logic. See also Assessment. DC Reference: May, B. & Raleigh, M. (1984) ‘Comprehension. Bringing it back alive’ in ed. J. Miller, Eccentric Propositions: Essays on literature and curriculum, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Multimodal Refers to a text that operates in and/or through more than one mode. Examples of multimodal texts include films and websites. Such texts employ a range of modes (visual, aural, print) to communicate meaning rather than relying on one mode, as is the case, for example, in a printed poem. See also Digital text, Film, Graphic novel, Image, Media, Multimedia, Visual texts. JM
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M Music theatre This is an umbrella term for a range of theatre productions that involve singing, musical accompaniment and often dancing. Music theatre includes: cabaret, revues, burlesques, musicals, operettas and operas. Arriving at an exact definition of each genre is difficult. It has been argued that the difference between opera and a musical is that opera is sung throughout and musicals have spoken dialogue. However, several very famous operas contain dialogue, e.g. Mozart’s The Magic Flute and Bizet’s Carmen, and many famous musicals are through song e.g. Jesus Christ Superstar and Les Misèrables. There are some general and common differences. Opera singers are usually not amplified and performers in musicals are. Opera is usually (but not always) sung in the original language and musicals are performed in the language of the audience. Music theatre genres allow for ensemble singing where many voices can be heard at the same time. This is not a typical feature of spoken theatre. See also Drama. JH
MyRead A comprehensive Australian web-based resource for teaching reading in the Middle Years. The site has a wealth of practical strategies; teacher resources that provide materials on the theory and practice of reading pedagogy; details about the latest research in the teaching of reading; further reading; resources for assessment; profiles of students who are under-achieving or reluctant readers; and organisational and process strategies for establishing and maintaining a productive, engaged and effective classroom learning environment. See. See also Literature Circles, Reading, Wide reading program. JM
Mystery (Greek: ‘secret rites’) A broad term closely allied to the detective story, crime fiction and film, gothic fiction and film and thriller fiction and film. The mystery is a work of prose or a film in which mystery or terror is integral to the plot: there is always a puzzle at the centre of the story that needs to be solved, often, but not always, by a detective. Mystery texts need not include a crime and the puzzle is not always resolved. Along with mystery fiction and film, there are mystery texts, including television dramas and documentaries that draw on actual events, unsolved crimes or ‘cold cases’, and mysterious phenomena (such as for example, the mysteries of the Bermuda Triangle). Mysteries may incorporate or emphasise the supernatural. Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849) is often credited with the first mystery story - “The Murders in the Rue Morgue” (1844) and Wilkie Collins’ (1824-1889) The Woman in White (1860) and The Moonstone (1868) are also considered to be early mystery classics. Agatha Christie (1890-1976) wrote a series of vastly popular mysteries that have been adapted for the screen. Other notable mysteries include Arthur Conan Doyle’s (1859-1930) The Complete Sherlock Holmes (1891-1927), also adapted for the screen; Josephine Tey’s (1896-1952) The Daughter of Time (1951); and Rebecca du Maurier’s (1907-1989) Rebecca (1938). More recent popular mystery writers are Dan Brown (1964-) who wrote the enormously popular The Da Vinci Code (2003); Patricia Cornwell (1956-); Sue Grafton (1940-); Ian Rankin (1960-) well-known for the creation of Rebus; and Stieg Larsson (1954-2004). See also Fiction, Genre, Novel, Writing. DC
Myth (Greek: ‘story’, ‘word of mouth’) Traditional stories that represent a culture’s beliefs, truths, values, ways of thinking and ways of explaining the world. Originating in the oral story-telling tradition, myths typically tell the story of a highly significant enduring human experience; religious principles; creation; mortality and immortality; the supernatural; the seasons; and the cycle of life. Like fables and parables, myths operate on several levels (literal and symbolic) often involving gods, goddesses, heroes, heroines, archetypes and symbols. Myths are usually timeless in that the setting, action, characters and events in the story have continued relevance and accessibility to audiences in different contexts. Myths are deeply embedded in culture, reflecting and embodying the prevailing 204
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M perspectives and attitudes of that culture. Myths pervade literature, film and other texts. Myths are often considered to be synonymous with legends. Legends, however, tend to represent actual historical events and people, whereas myths do not necessarily rely on this type of verisimilitude (although they may). Myths are more concerned with the metaphysical, seeking to illuminate and interpret the great questions of human existence and the universe. Originally, myths were often represented dramatically and performed, on the stage or orally. A group of myths is referred to mythology. Myth and mythology can also be applied in pejorative ways to indicate the perpetuation of ideas, concepts or things which are not ‘true’ in the scientific sense. For example, we refer to ‘urban myths’ as stories that have no basis in fact or experience, but continue to enjoy currency as a way of explaining unknown or mysterious phenomena or events. Carl Jung (1873-1961), Joseph Campbell (1904-1987) and Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908-) explored the psychology of myths, with Jung arguing that the archetypes in myths are representations of universal states of mind and human types. Northrop Frye (1912-1991) developed Myth criticism: an approach to texts that assumes all literature is based on the appropriation and adaptation of myths and the use of archetypes and archetypal plots. Frye argued that the major genres of literature can be understood in terms of myth: for example, tragedy is associated with Autumn; comedy is associated with Spring; irony is associated with Winter; and romance is associated with Summer. Later critics such as Roland Barthes (1915-1980) extended the application of myth criticism to interpret and critique a whole range of human activities in order to analyse the cultural values that inform them (Mythologies, 1957). There are many examples of novels, poetry, films and computer games that exploit the use of myth. In prose fiction, a well-known example is Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (The Modern Prometheus) (1820). There is a wealth of epic poems and fiction that represent the hero’s journey or quest; and many films that incorporate myth, such as, for example, Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (Mamoulian, 1931, Fleming, 1941); King Kong (Cooper, 1933, Jackson, 2005); Xena - Warrior Princess (1995); Clash of the Titans (Harryhausen, 1981); O Brother, Where Art Thou (Cohen, 2000); and Troy (Petersen, 2004). Baz Luhrmann, when commenting on his film, Moulin Rouge! (2001), asserted that all films are in some way based upon or draw on elements of mythology. Myths exist in almost every culture. In studying myths in English, there is an abundance of diverse texts to select from: ancient Greek and Roman; Norse; Celtic; Indian; Egyptian; Chinese; North American; Japanese; Maori; and Indigenous. Myths can be studied as individual texts; myths from different cultures dealing with a similar theme can be compared; and myths can be used a resource and stimulus in a wide range of units of work. See also Archetypal and Myth criticism, Dreamtime, Film, Legend, Writing. JW, JM References: Barthes, R. (1957, 1970) Mythologies, Paris: Seuil. Campbell, J. (1988) The Power of Myth, New York: Doubleday. Frye, N. (1957) Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays, Princeton: Princeton University Press. Gold, E. (ed) (1997) Timeless Truths: Exploring Creation Myths and Dreamtime Stories in Years 7-10, Sydney, Phoenix Education.
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N Narrative Most commonly used to denote a ‘story’ (which may be fictional or factual) that is told in one or more forms of print and visual media. The term also refers to the process and technique employed to represent ideas and experience – commonly known as ‘narration’. Narrative is a broad term that encompasses a wide range of types of print, oral, performance and visual texts, from short stories, anecdotes, graphic novels, jokes, historical accounts, films and plays. The common but by no means universal ingredients of narrative include: ∼ a story-teller or implied narrator (narrator) ∼ an intended or implied audience/reader (narratee) ∼ a structure (plot, sequencing and unfolding of action in time – and for visual texts, in time and ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
space; a beginning, middle and end) characters (action and dialogue) point/s of view setting (place, mood, atmosphere, context) an emphasis on ‘telling’ rather than ‘showing’ (as is the case in Drama).
Narrative as technique is driven by the careful selection and ordering of material by the composer (as distinct from the narrator). For example: what is left out; what is implicitly suggested; what is explicitly explored; and which parts of the action are clearly or subtly endorsed or rejected? These elements make up what can be called the ‘narrative’ of a text. David Lodge (1935-) argues that the two main tools that the narrative uses are “summary” and “scene”: summary is used to truncate the actual passing of time, and “scene” is used to “show” what is happening, thus imbuing the event with significance. In this way, narrative is a key tool used to create the general shape of a text, and to engage and influence the reader’s response to that text. Formalist and structuralist critics developed analytical frames to account for the structure of narrative. Although this emphasis on structure has been criticised by later poststructuralist critics, these frames are helpful in understanding the common features of narrative as a form (see Narratology). Novels and short stories are common forms of narrative studied in English. Oral narratives are also common, especially in the daily language experience of students. William Labov developed a framework for understanding the structure of oral narratives, based on the premise that such narratives proceed through six stages: ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
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Abstract – setting up the context for the story or making links to the preceding conversation Orientation – establishing the context, setting, characters, etc. Complicating action – ‘what happened’ Evaluation – narrator’s comments on the action and events Resolution or outcome – tying up of the elements of the story The English Teacher’s Handbook
N ∼ Coda – link to proceeding conversation. (Pope, 2003: 223)
See also Author, Character, Fiction, Hierarchy of discourses, Implied author, Implied reader, Narratology, Narrator, Plot, Point of view, Reader, Story, Writing. SGS, JM References: Labov, W. (1972) Language in the Inner City, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press. Lodge, D. (1992) The Art of Fiction, Harmondsworth: Penguin. Pope, R. (2003) The English Studies Book: An Introduction to Language, Literature and Culture, 2nd edn. London: Routledge.
Narratology A form of literary criticism that has its roots in structuralism – in fact, most structuralist literary critics could be said to have practised narratology. Narratology applies the basic premise of structuralism – that form can be separated from content, and that form tells us about the social system of signs that enables a text to ‘mean’ – and applies it to particular texts with particular emphasis on narrative time, narrative voice and plot structure (Rudrum, 2002): In order to understand narratology's contribution to semiotics, it is important to grasp the distinction between its three fundamental entities: story, narrative and narration. The story generally corresponds to a series of events and actions that are told by someone (the narrator), and represented in some final form, producing a narrative. As a field of study, narratology looks at the internal mechanisms of narrative, the form taken by a narrated story. In the field of narrative discourse, we endeavour to identify the common, near-universal principles of text composition. Thus, we attempt to discern what relations are possible between the elements of the narrative/story/narration triad. These relations operate within four analytical categories: mood, the narrative instance, level and time. (Guillemette & Lévesque, 2006) Narratology’s focus is on uncovering the system of signs that governs a text, and one of the seminal efforts at this kind of grand-scale investigation was Claude Lévi-Strauss’ (1908-) work on myths. Lévi-Strauss postulated that myths in any given culture could be broken down into basic constituent themes, and that each, particular social myth governing any society could be finally shown to be derivative of one of these basic themes (Eagleton, 2003: 90). Lèvi-Strauss believed that these myths were essentially agents by which a society was organised, and that texts and people operated within this system of myths apparently oblivious to either the myth’s existence, or the myth’s constructedness. The key figures of narratology in literary criticism were Roland Barthes (1915-1980) and Gérard Genette (1930-). Roland Barthes’ essay in Image-Music-Text, entitled “Introduction to the Structural Analysis of Narratives” explores plot-based narratology, and Gèrard Genette’s Narrative Discourse gives a sophisticated account of how narration works and how the position of the narrator affects the story itself (Rudrum, 2002). Genette shows that there is a difference between what is narrated (histoire) and the way it is narrated (rècit), asserting that the narrator is able to shape a story quite apart from the way it ‘actually’ happened. One of the key ramifications of narratology is that the investigation into narration, and the way a text is structured by narration, demystifies the power of literature (Eagleton, 2003: 92). By showing the nuts and bolts, for example, of the way narrative works in Joseph Conrad’s (1857-1924) Heart of Darkness (1902), one is less concerned with Marlow’s existential crisis, perhaps, and more concerned with the way narrative itself attempts to create that crisis. See also Code, Hierarchy of discourses, Literary criticism, Narrative, Narrator. SGS, JM References: Eagleton, T. (2003) Literary Theory: An Introduction, 2nd edn. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Guillemette, L. & Lévesque, C. (2006), “Narratology”, in Louis Hèbert (dir.), Signo [on-line], Rimouski (Quebec), http://www.signosemio.com. Rudrum, D. (2002) "Narratology". The Literary Encyclopedia..
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N Narrator The narrator is either the character or the presence in a text that ‘tells’ the story. Narration can take different forms. Narrators can be either embedded characters within a story (first person narration), or omniscient narrators (third person narration) who can identify with different characters equally and defy time and space to be able to narrate all events. Over time, and particularly in the 19th and 20th century, story-tellers have moved toward a more conscious rendering of the narrator’s presence, suggesting that writing has become aware of the way in which the narrator’s voice – omniscient or not – is a construction by the author that directs the reader’s responses and sympathies. The narrator is quite distinct from the author, and the point of view of the narrator and the author can sometimes be at odds. In this case, such a narrator would be what Wayne Booth (1921-2005) calls an “unreliable narrator” (Booth, 1961: 158). This distance between the narrator and the author can be created by several things: a moral distance, physical distance, and intellectual distance. For example, Rodman Philbrick’s novel for young adults, Freak the Mighty (1993), is narrated by a boy with learning difficulties in the process of overcoming his fear of writing. The distance between the “implied author” and Maxwell Kane, the boy, is created by age, experience, and intellectual maturity. The choice of placing the narration with Maxwell creates a keyhole for young readers into the world of a boy who is bullied and who struggles with reading. The overall effect is to create a genuine empathy for Maxwell and his predicament. In addition, the narrator may be distant from the other characters in the novel, creating tension in the story. Again, this distance may be temporal, intellectual or moral (Booth, 1961: 156). For example, the narrator of Wuthering Heights (Brontë, 1847) Nellie, is clearly at odds with the values and behaviours of some of the characters she describes: her ambivalence and sometimes outright fear and disdain for Heathcliff (and also at times for Cathy) suggests a moral disconnect between the narrator and the characters. Furthermore, Booth points out that the narrator can be intentionally distant from the reader by deliberately challenging the assumed norms of the intended or implied audience (Booth, 1961: 156). For example, Kate Grenville’s recent novel The Secret River (2006) has the reader follow the white convict William Thornhill in his quest to grab land in the Hawkesbury. While the novel’s third person narrator clearly invites us to sympathise with his plight as convict, Thornhill’s eventual descent into brutality and cruelty is at an intentional moral distance from the reader. The overall effect of this narrative technique is to generate jarring insights into the tattered relations between Aboriginal and white Australia. See also Author, Character, Fiction, Implied author, Implied reader, Literary criticism, Narratology, Narrative, Novel, Point of view. SGS, JM Reference: Booth, W. C. (1961) The Rhetoric of Fiction, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
National Curriculum Attempts at establishing a national curriculum in English have taken place in recent decades in a number of countries including the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Australia. France, Italy, Finland, and Japan are among other countries which have put in place national curricula in their particular languages. Typically, the historical tradition in a number of English speaking countries has been for curriculum to be determined at the State/Province/Territory levels, rather than across the whole of the nation. There are interesting variations of the either/or paradigm; for example in Canada. In Canada, although the curricula for primary level education (ages 6/7 to 11/12/13 years) vary by province or territory, most include language arts/literacy (usually English, plus French in some provinces or territories), mathematics, social studies (usually includes history, geography, personal, social, health and civic education), general science/technology, the arts, and physical education. At lower secondary level (ages 11/12/13 to 15/16 years), the curricula in most provinces include language arts (English/French), mathematics, arts education, health education, physical education, science and technology, and social studies. Information and communications technology (ICT) and careers are often also included. Foreign language provision varies and is usually optional. 208
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N It is of note that the four western Canadian provinces and three northern territories have established a protocol for collaboration in education from Kindergarten to Grade/Year 12 (ages 5 to 18/19). The Western and Northern Canadian Protocol includes the development of common curriculum frameworks and learning outcomes in certain curriculum areas. Invariably where there have been State/Province/Territory curricula, attempts by the national government or a national agency to develop a national curriculum have not been without their challenges. For example, in the early 1990s the Commonwealth, state, and territory governments in Australia established a major project to develop national curriculum in the 8 ‘Key Learning Areas’ (KLAs) in Australian school education: English; Mathematics; Science; Technology; Languages other than English; Health and Physical Education; Studies in Society and Environment; and the Arts. Eventually, after producing national Statements and assessment Profiles in all 8 KLAs, the project came to an end – basically because of change in governments at the state level. Indicative of both the delicate nature of intergovernmental collaboration required, the second Chair of the body set up to direct this project, Dr Ken Boston, wrote later: “the Statements and Profiles (were) the result of a voluntary and fragile alliance which … held together only because each of the States and systems (judged) it to be of benefit to them and the nation” (Boston, 1994: 44). Not untypical of the attempted scope of a national curriculum, at least within the English speaking countries, is the following statement by England’s Qualifications and Curriculum Authority: We develop the national curriculum, which defines the knowledge, understanding and skills to which children and young people are entitled. We keep it under review, to evaluate its appropriateness and relevance to the changing needs of learners and society. (www.qca.org.uk/qca) In the English-speaking countries these attempts have not been without their controversies: this was particularly the case in England. But idealism and high aspirations usually characterise the aims of those seeking to develop a national curriculum. See also Curriculum, Key Learning Area. PB Reference: Boston, K. (1994) “A Perspective on the So-called ‘National Curriculum”, Curriculum Perspectives, 14: 1, April.
Naturalism A sub-category of realism that asserts that all human behaviour, experience and ‘truths’ can only be explained and understood with reference to observable causes emerging from the natural world, heredity, the impact of the environment and scientifically verifiable principles. Naturalism rejects appeals to the supernatural, the spiritual, the numinous or the divine in interpreting the human condition. The prominent 20th-century educator and philosopher, John Dewey (1859-1952), was a self-proclaimed naturalist. The influence of naturalism is evident in the works of Èmile Zola (18401902) (Nana, 1880; Germinal, 1885); Thomas Hardy (1840-1928) (Jude the Obscure, 1895); Henrick Ibsen (1828-1906) and Theodore Dreiser (1871-1945). See also Literary criticism, Realism. JM Reference: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
Negative capability A concept developed by the English poet John Keats (1795-1821), and first explained in a letter he wrote to George and Thomas Keats in 1817: It struck me, what quality went to form a Man [sic] of Achievement especially in Literature & which Shakespeare possessed so enormously – I mean Negative Capability, that is when man [sic], is capable of being in uncertainties, Mysteries, doubts, without any irritable reaching after fact and reason. The concept of negative capability holds that the artist should be open-minded and receptive to imaginative experiences which may not be familiar to the artist’s own self or identity. This receptiveness enables the artist to enter into and represent new experiences and allow the The English Teacher’s Handbook
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N imagination to act as the supreme authority in shaping and influencing that representation. In such a state, there is no need to resolve or even understand the contradictions or paradoxes of human experience. Instead, the concept of negative capability allows the artist to embrace the uncertainties and mysteries of existence through creative representation. JM
Neoclassical period A period in English literature within the Age of Reason. One of the prominent writers of this time was Alexander Pope (1688-1744). Pope was writing in a pre-industrial England whose 'high' culture was very much influenced by Newtonian physics with its rationalistic approach to human beings and their place in a universal order. A great resurgence of belief in the potential of the human intellect and reason to understand ‘absolute truths’ about the nature of the cosmos was apparent at this time. It was a period in which moral and religious zeal flourished and individuals' responsibility to the established social structures and institutions was of paramount importance. The valorisation of the individual, a process which as modern readers we are so familiar with, played no overt part in the society of Pope's time, although you will notice that much of his poetry is addressed to, and is concerned with, individuals, including Pope himself! One of the basic maxims of the age was to 'judge the part in relation to the whole'. See also Age of Reason, (The) Enlightenment, Heroic couplet, Satire. JM
Neologism
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
(Greek: ‘new word’) A new, invented word, expression, phrase or term. New words are regularly coined and added to the language via popular culture, literature, science, and other disciplines. Digital communication, for example, has added a plethora of terms to the language. The advent of sms (short message service), for instance, has brought with it a raft of new abbreviations that have become part of the language: for example, ‘lol’ (‘laugh out loud’). Often, students are actively engaged in coining new words and expressions, establishing their own language for communication within a particular group. Shakespeare added around 1700 new words to the English language, most of which are now commonplace. For example: majestic, radiance, mimic, gossip, elbow, dawn, luggage, addiction, bedroom, tranquil, obscene, and lonely. For a fuller list of Shakespeare’s neologisms, and links to the plays in which they first appeared, see:. JM ∼ View the segment of Clueless where a character attempts to invent a new ‘cool’ word.
∼ Create an sms dictionary for an older generation. ∼ Create nonsense words to describe an object. JW
Newbolt Report The Newbolt Report, The Teaching of English in England (1921) was the most substantial study of the teaching of English in England (and Wales, although the latter did not figure in the title) in the first half of the 20th century. This substantial and profoundly influential work was almost 400 pages long. Indeed, the only report to rival it in both quality and quantity is the Bullock Report A Language for Life (1975). Chaired by the poet Sir Henry Newbolt (1862-1938), who was the President of the English Association (which continues its existence into the 21st century) its intellectual and scholarly roots can be found in the ideas of Matthew Arnold (1822-1888). The 15 members of the committee included George Sampson whose book English for the English (published in the same year, 1921) was and remains one of the seminal books on English and its teaching. The Arnoldian belief that the love and study of English Literature should constitute the ethical and moral fibre/backbone of English society in the face of what Arnold insisted was the failure of established religion any longer to provide such 210
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N a compass underpinned the Newbolt Report. The committee was strongly of the view that the study of English had to be undertaken in all schools – which, as it discovered, had not been the case. The Newbolt Report even went beyond the context of schooling to include the study and teaching of English in universities within its scope. The Report insisted that English should constitute the very foundation of school education. Newbolt’s committee eschewed any notion that such literature should be read only by the highly educated and the ‘upper’ classes. “The literature of England belongs to all England, not to the universities or to any coterie of the literary or the learned: and all may enjoy it who will” (p. 204). On the other hand, there are those who have asserted that the members of the committee had a collective sense of social and linguistic superiority over those who did not speak ‘proper’ English and/or whose language was ‘tainted’ by dialect. The issues it dealt with and its exhortations to teachers of English are strikingly relevant to contemporary times. For example, secondary school students were urged to undertake “a close and intensive study of specially selected works in verse and prose, chosen on account of their intrinsic value” (p. 16). Teachers of English were told that they needed to make regular reference to “the other creative arts, music, architecture, painting, etc” (p. 118). A staggering feature of the Newbolt Report was contained in its publication of the results of a survey of the number and scope of books being read in London Elementary schools. The survey found that within these London Elementary schools there were approximately 1650 titles in circulation, from a number of approximately 2 million volumes. The Newbolt Report evinced a powerfully Romantic perception of the world. Literature was seen to be “the most direct and lasting communication of experience by man to men (sic)” (p. 9). The spirit of humanity was seen to be driven by three purposes: “the love of goodness, the love of truth, and the love of beauty” (p. 9). Hand in hand with the study of literature the Report promoted the study of science. Together, the ideals of literature and science as imbibed through their study would mean that “the child’s natural love of goodness will be strongly encouraged and great progress may be made in strengthening of the will.” (Newbolt, 1921: 9). PB Reference: Newbolt, H. (Chair) (1921) The Teaching of English in England, London: HMSO
New Criticism A school of literary criticism established and developed by the Cambridge School from the 1920s to the 1950s, and developed by the American New Critics in the 1930s. It is also known as Formalism. English as a discrete university discipline had only been in existence since the early 1900s: English courses of study and models of approaching the study of literature had not been institutionalised in universities prior to this time. The leaders of the New Criticism movement were IA Richards (18931975), William Empson (1906-1984) and FR Leavis (1895-1978), each of whom were teaching at the University of Cambridge. New Criticism developed as a reaction against the kinds of criticism that preceded it: criticism that was impressionistic, reliant on details of the life of the author and other historical or cultural factors; the moral and philosophical import of the text; and proceeded in terms of major historical periods, such as, for example, the literature of the Romantic period or Renaissance. In response to this ‘subjective’ approach, New Critics insisted on a focus on the ‘text’ (although they did not use this term) and the close scrutiny of the form, structure and content of the literary work without reference to ‘external’ variables or the impressions and affective responses of the critic. In 1929, Richards published Practical Criticism which set out the method of studying literature through intensive analysis of ‘how’ a text produces meaning. This is enacted by attending only to the words on the page since New Critics argued that in the end, this is the only available ‘evidence’. These critics were concerned with ‘trusting the poem and not the poet’. The focus was on evaluating the ‘organic unity’ of the work: the interrelationships of the parts to the whole; the use of techniques such as paradox, irony, metaphor, symbolism, patterns, ambiguity, conceits and tension; and the consequent judgement about the value and worth of the text. The English Teacher’s Handbook
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N This approach assumes that the text is an autonomous, timeless, self-contained entity, and its ‘essential’ meaning or ‘truth’ transcends the limitations of a particular historical context or author’s life. Meaning can only be apprehended and understood through close analysis of the text itself. Meaning inheres in the language. Literature ‘contains’ expressions of universal, enduring and perpetually relevant truths about human existence. New Critics were concerned to invest the study of literature with a ‘scientific’ rigour and regarded great literary works as highly significant expressions of morality. In the face of what they perceived as the onrush of dehumanising technology, the study of literature was one remaining ‘space’ to celebrate and connect with ‘humanity’. FR Leavis is considered to be one of the key pioneers of the movement, establishing the journal Scrutiny in 1932 that published articles exemplifying the New Critics’ approach. Leavis’ The Great Tradition (1948) and The Common Pursuit (1952) were highly influential, with the former explicating the New Critics’ ‘canon’ of English literature. In the decades after the widespread application of New Criticism, theorists have reacted against what they consider to be the acontextual, essentialist and ‘elitist’ tenets of this approach, arguing that it assumes a transcendent view of human nature as unchanging, homogeneous and universal. New Critics’ insistence on the primacy of the text means there is little or no emphasis the role of contextual forces in the production and dissemination of the text, and the social, economic and political variables that influence production, reception, interpretation and meaning. Despite the now widely accepted criticisms of the limitations of this approach, the principles of close reading remain influential in English education. In addition, New Criticism is considered to be a part of the evolving historical continuum of literary criticism that spawned the succeeding developments in theory and practice. See also Canon, Close reading, Interpretation, Literary criticism, Literary theory, Literature. JM References: Abrams, M. H. (2005) A Glossary of Literary Terms, NY: Harcourt Brace. Barry, P. (2002) Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory, Manchester: Manchester University Press. Leavis, F.R. (1948) The Great Tradition, London: Chatto & Windus. Leavis, F.R. (1952) The Common Pursuit, London: Chatto & Windus. Richards, I. A. (1929) Practical Criticism, London: Kegan Paul. Thomson, J. (ed.) (1992) Reconstructing Literature Teaching: New Essays on the Teaching of Literature, Norwood: AATE. The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism.
New Historicism A school of literary criticism that emerged in the 1980s as a reaction against the tenets and practices of New Criticism and Deconstruction. Unlike the 19th century Historical criticism, New Historicism does not use the text as an exemplar or a means to the end of moral, philosophical or historical study. Rather, New Historicism is concerned to interpret a whole range of traditional literary and non-literary texts, blurring the boundaries between these and reading texts against the backdrop of historical and cultural contexts. This approach reads literary and non-literary texts from the same historical period in order to gain a more incisive understanding of the ways in which the historically and culturally dependent sets of beliefs, values and practice shape and influence the text. Like poststructuralist approaches, New Historicism inquires into the issues of power, social structures and colonisation as they are manifested in texts, regarding such representations as evidence of the reinforcement and perpetuation of dominant systems of thought and social relations. This approach rejects the notion of canonicity, or the existence of transcendent ‘literariness’. Unlike some poststructuralist approaches, the discourse of New Historicism is less dense and jargon-laden and tends to promote the place of historical evidence in textual analysis. See also Interpretation, Literary criticism. JM
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N When reading/viewing a text, consider:
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
What are the relations of power suggested by this text? How is power either explicitly or implicitly operating in this text? What historical or cultural events may have influenced the creation of this text? What view of human existence does this text present? What does this text reveal about the relationship between society, individuals, language, knowledge and power in a particular culture?
∼ Does this text present a particular model of truth or authority that is specific to its historical time?
Newspaper See Media
Nobel Prize for Literature Alfred Bernhard Nobel (1833-1896), a Swedish chemist and engineer funded prizes and research foundations in literature, physics, chemistry, medicine or physiology through his income from his estate. With a central intention of promoting world peace, the first prizes were awarded on 10 December 1901 with the French writer RenÈ FA Sully-Prudhomme (1839-1907) receiving the inaugural prize for literature. Other notable recipients of this prize have been WB Yeats (1923), Ernest Hemingway (1954) and Doris Lessing (2007). The 1987 literature prize winner, Russian poet, Joseph Brodsky wrote “…there is no doubt in my mind that had we been choosing our leaders on the basis of their reading experiences and not their political programs, there would be much less grief on earth.” (p. 272) Visit the Nobel Prize site to read and listen to Nobel Laureates’ speeches:
Nonfiction Texts that purportedly deal with and represent facts, actual people, places and events rather than fictional or imaginatively derived material. Nonfiction can encompass speeches, essays, travel writing, biography, autobiography, journals, textbooks, and everyday and workplace texts such as brochures, pamphlets, user instructions and so on. The distinction between fiction and nonfiction is problematic, since all texts rely to some degree on the composer’s creative and imaginative selection and organisation of material. This is the case in some examples of biography and autobiography where accounts of persons, events and personalities are open to challenge. Many works have a blend of fiction and nonfiction, often making the detection of the fictional elements difficult. Nonfiction enjoys contemporary popularity through periodicals and collections of essays such as Black Inc. The Best Australian Essays, which is issued annually. See also Autobiography, Biography, Diary, Essay, Faction, Media, Multimedia, Reading, Rhetoric, Speech, Travel writing, Writing. DC
Novel (Italian: ‘a tale’, Sp. ‘news’, Fr. ‘new’) One of the three major traditional literary genres (along with poetry and drama). The term refers to a broad range of imaginative fiction texts that are categorised in subgenres (e.g. thriller, fantasy, action and adventure, romance, science fiction, spy, historical, crime). A novel is generally defined as an aesthetic text, with a sustained and welldeveloped narrative (story) that involves a theme/s, character/s, event/s, setting/s and a plot that are imaginatively rendered. The primary purpose of the novel is to bring pleasure and enjoyment to the reader. Beyond this broad definition, there is an almost endless array of variations on the conventional prose fiction form.
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N While there are some examples of early forms of the novel prior to the 18th century, it is generally agreed that the rise of the novel as a mainstream, popular and established form took place in the 1700s, with a flourishing of the form in the 1800s. In the 1700s, writers such as Henry Fielding (1707-1754), Daniel Defoe (1659-1731), Samuel Richardson (1689-1761) and Laurence Sterne (1713-1768) published what are now considered to be the first authentic novels. During the Victorian era during the 1800s, writers such as Jane Austen (1775-1817), George Eliot (18181880), Charles Dickens (1812-1870), William Thackeray (1811-1863), Elizabeth Gaskell (18101865) and the Brontë sisters (Charlotte, 1816-1855; Emily, 1814-1848; and Anne, 1820-1849) achieved great success, with a reading public that devoured prose fiction, often in serialised form in the periodicals of the time. Novels were very much part of popular culture. The work of women novelists was prominent and highly popular, especially in the context of the shifting roles of women in society, the rise of industrialism and the movement of women from the domestic to the public sphere. In the later part of the 19th century, and during the fine-de-siècle, a number of novelists experimented with the conventions and subject matter of the form, with innovations that had a farreaching impact on prose fiction in the 20th century. For example, James Joyce (1882-1941) established the narrative technique of stream of consciousness, opening the way for further developments in narrative technique and narrative voice. Thomas Hardy’s (1840-1928) novels were distinctive in their sustained representation of the intersection of pre-industrial rural life and the rise of industrialism, and the impact of this on traditional ways of living, social mores and values. He also shifted the thematic focus of the Victorian novel to an intense exploration of teleological questions about the role of fate, destiny and chance in individuals’ lives in a seemingly amoral, Darwinian universe. During the 20th century, novels began to be categorised and published according to whether they were considered to be ‘popular’ or ‘literary’. The latter was defined as a novel that was subjected to literary criticism, while the former was considered for its appeal to mass audiences for the primary purpose of entertainment. The distinction has always been problematic, with many of the ‘popular’ novels of the past achieving ‘canonic’ status once they attract the attention of literary critics. Assigning value to novels in terms of their ‘classic’, ‘popular’ and ‘canonic’ status constitutes an ongoing part of the study of English in formal educational settings. In the 20th and 21st centuries, with the rise of mass markets and mass production of printed texts, the novel continues to enjoy widespread appeal. Despite the public perceptions to the contrary, novels continue to occupy an important place in the leisure activities of young people who engage with prose fiction for pleasure and personal satisfaction. The burgeoning of Young Adult Literature (YLA) attests to the continued and significant role of fiction in the lives of young people. With the advent of visual media and multimodal texts, many novels are adapted for the screen, creating an important crossover of media. In addition, novels are also now increasingly produced and disseminated in digital forms, opening up a range of pathways for young readers to engage with fiction and to create and publish their own fiction. See also Author, Creativity, Drama as a learning medium, Four phases of classroom experience, Fiction, Genre, Imagination, Implied author, Implied reader, Interpretation, Journal writing, Language, Literary criticism, Literature, MyRead, Narrative, Narratology, Narrator, Reading, Story, Text selection, Wide reading program, Writing, Young Adult Literature. JM
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N There is a wealth of resource material to support the teaching of prose fiction in English. These exist in print form and online and range from practical guides to selecting appropriate texts to practical strategies for engaging students in reading and response. The role of reading journals, writi ng journals, portfolios, activity-based and projectbased learning, the integration of ICT, and a range of small group, individual, pairs and whole class tasks should inform approaches to teaching novels. 1. It is useful to frame the study of novels according to the four phases of classroom experience: pre-reading; during reading; response; moving beyond. MyRead.org.au provides a series of very useful ideas and scaffolds for approaching texts in this way. Also see Four phases of classroom experience. 2. Response strategies abound: for example,
∼ “100 Things to do with books” Nancy Mavrogenes:
∼ “103 Things to Do Before/During/After Reading” Jim Burke (1998) ∼
∼ “24 things to do with a book” Geoff Fox in A. Adams (ed.) (1982) New Directions in English Teaching. London: Falmer.
Novella (Italian: ‘tale’, ‘news’) A narrative that is longer than a short story, but shorter than a novel, usually running between 50 and 150 pages. The distinction does not have a great deal of practical use, since many texts that are technically ‘novellas’ (e.g. Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness, 1902, and George Orwell’s Animal Farm, 1945) are commonly referred to as novels. See also Drama as a learning medium, Fiction, Genre, Novel. JM
Nursery rhyme Texts that existed originally as part of the oral tradition, nursery rhymes are playful, short, rhythmic and simple verses often sung to children or by children (hence the term ‘nursery’). Nursery rhymes have a long history, and this has been well documented in the research literature. They are often used in secondary English to develop students’ language skills, embodied knowledge (since some rhymes are accompanied by actions and dance), awareness of metre and rhythm (many rhymes are intended to be sung), and understanding of stereotypes and aspects of culture. Many nursery rhymes are based on historical events, personalities and places. For example: “Ring-a-Ring-o’Roses” (emerged at the time of the Great Plague); and “Georgie Porgie” (based on the antics of the first Duke of Buckingham, George Villiers, 1592-1628). See also Children’s literature, Fairy tale. JM
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O Obituary
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An extended tribute to a deceased person. An obituary is usually written in prose and seeks to capture the significant aspects of the person’s life and personality. Obituaries probably emerged with the advent of the printing press in the 1500s and the earliest forms were akin to what are now known as death notices. An obituary is more detailed and personalised than a death notice. JM When studying a text that includes the death of a character/s, students can create an obituary, relying on the evidence from the text to compose their piece. The task enables students to develop awareness of concepts such as audience and purpose; develop skills in using techniques such as description, synthesis and chronology; encapsulate the focus through devising a title and rubric; and apply generic conventions drawn in part from biography. Obituaries for well-known people are regularly printed in newspapers, and these are often accompanied by a photo of the deceased. Examples can be selected to serve as models for students’ own writing.
Objective correlative A literary concept first described by Washington Alston in 1840, but later taken up and developed by TS Eliot (1888-1965). In his essay “Hamlet and His Problems” (1920), Eliot explains the concept in the following way: The only way of expressing emotion in the form of art is by finding an "objective correlative"; in other words, a set of objects, a situation, a chain of events which shall be the formula of that particular emotion; such that when the external facts, which must terminate in sensory experience, are given, the emotion is immediately evoked. Critics of this concept argue that it is impossible to create a ‘formula’ whereby reference to an external object can immediately provoke an emotional response. Others argue that it is impossible to know the author’s intention, and therefore the idea of an object provoking the author’s intended and desired associations and emotions in the responder amounts to a false expectation. Words such as ‘Disneyland’, and some brand names, have arguably succeeded in becoming objective correlatives for emotions of happiness, pleasure and fun. See also Intentional Fallacy. DC, JM Reference: Eliot, T.S. (1920) “Hamlet and his Problems” in The Sacred Wood: Essays on Poetry and Criticism, 1997 edn. London: Faber & Faber.
Objective criticism A critical approach to texts that regards the text as an autonomous entity. Analysis and interpretation is focused on the text itself, without reference to the biographical, historical cultural or other contextual factors, or the context of the reader. New Criticism exemplifies this approach. See also Interpretation, New Criticism. JM 216
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O Occasional verse A poem composed to mark or celebrate an event. Occasional poems are written for events such as births, marriages, funerals, coronations, investitures, and important public ceremonies. JM
Ode (Greek: ‘song’) A type of lyric poem that is more extensive, detailed and developed than other types of lyric poetry such as the sonnet. The ode was developed by Pindar, the Ancient Greek poet (522-442 BC). His odes were written to celebrate and praise Olympians. Odes are characterised by their focus on public, patriotic and elevated themes (Pindaric odes) or their focus on personal moods, reflection and emotional experiences (Horatian odes). Horace (65-8 BC) developed the form established by Pindar by shifting the public tenor to a more personal one. John Keats’ (1795-1821) odes are fine examples of the use of the Horatian model, since they are meditative, personal and deal with themes such as immortality, transcendence, nature and states of mind. See also Genre, Lyric, Poetry. JM Keats’ odes lend themselves to visual representation. “To Autumn” for example, is richly evocative and sensual in its use of imagery, personification and sound.
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∼ If possible, plan a task to be undertaken in Autumn. ∼ Students spend some time outdoors, focusing on an aspect of nature that is associated with the season (e.g. a leaf, tree, sky).
∼ Use this as a trigger for a ‘Spontaneous Memory Monologue’ (James Moffett, Active Voice: A Writing Program Across the Curriculum, 1992). Drawing on their own memories, students write about an experience of Autumn (e.g. playing in the leaves beneath a deciduous tree in the backyard of their home) provoked by their reflection on an aspect/s of the surrounding landscape.
∼ Allow time for students to complete this activity. ∼ Writing can then be shaped and polished – as a poem, narrative, digital story, PowerPoint etc.
∼ Writing can be anthologised, displayed or published in some other form, with visual representations included.
∼ Other resources such as, for instance, Antonio Vivaldi’s music (“Autumn” from The Four Seasons) and visual images of Autumn, can be used as pre-writing stimulus. ∼ Once students have completed their own writing, they can be introduced to Keats’ poem with the teacher reading this out aloud (possibly with accompanying music).
Old English/Anglo-Saxon Old English (also called Anglo-Saxon) is the oldest surviving written form of English. It was spoken in England and parts of Scotland from the 5th century. Although there were significant regional dialects, it was the Wessex dialect that gained supremacy. With its origins in Germanic and other languages, as it developed it incorporated features from other languages spoken and written by successive invasions. For example, the periods of Roman occupation and the influence of Christian missionaries brought Latin vocabulary into the language. Features of Celtic and Old Norse also were assimilated into the language. Old English was a synthetic language: number, gender, and case were signified by differences in word endings. Modern English is not a synthetic language: word order, not word endings, shapes the meaning. However, vestiges of the synthetic language remain: for example, woman/women; man/men; ox/oxen; mouse/mice; louse/lice. Scholars believed that there was a greater consistency between how Old English was written and how it was pronounced than is the case in modern English. But the phonemic/phonetic consistency of words was coloured by differences of dialect. A number of modern words with ‘silent’ letters in them would have been pronounced in Old English with those letters sounded. The English Teacher’s Handbook
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O It is almost certain that many Old English texts have not survived. But some very important works have: such as the epic poem Beowulf (8th-11th century) and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle – a remarkable record of significant events and experiences in England kept by monks in various monasteries. The surviving manuscripts of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle date from 7th Century until the late 12th century. The great literary figures of Anglo-Saxon literature include Bede and Caedmon. There are also other manuscripts which survive, such as lives of the saints, documents to do with the law, and translations of the Bible. The Norman Invasion of 1066 led to significant changes in the language and ushered in the period known as Middle English. See also Dialect, Middle English. PB
Onomatopoeia (Greek: ‘name-making’) Refers to a word that, when spoken, sounds like the noise that it is describing. For example: ‘hush’, ‘clatter’, ‘thud’, ‘bang’, ‘crack’ and ‘hum’. In Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s (1809-1892) poem “Morte D’Arthur” (1845) there is an example of the use of this technique: So saying, from the ruin'd shrine he stept And in the moon athwart the place of tombs, Where lay the mighty bones of ancient men, Old knights, and over them the sea-wind sang Shrill, chill, with flakes of foam. He, stepping down By zigzag paths, and juts of pointed rock, Came on the shining levels of the lake. See also Language, Poetry. DC, JM
Outcomes and objectives Outcomes and objectives are important components in the design of curriculum in that they set out what the learner has to learn and to what level of achievement. Use of both terms may vary according to the educational setting but generally, a distinction may be made, as follows. Objectives are the major elements in curriculum design which define the key learning that should occur. Objectives: ∼ identify specific outcomes or competencies to be achieved with regard to skills, content mastery, attitudes, or values ∼ establish the foundation for the selection or design of instruction materials, content, or techniques ∼ determine when the purposes of instruction have been achieved ∼ present a structure within which a learner can organise efforts to complete the learning tasks. Generally, learning outcomes specify what learners are supposed to know or be able to do as a result of a program of planned learning activities. Outcomes describe the actual capabilities, knowledge, skills, understandings, values or qualities learners should develop as a result of their educational experiences. Outcomes are based on: ∼ the agreed content, knowledge and understandings peculiar to the specific course of study or learning domain ∼ the needs of the learner at the specific developmental or stage of learning ∼ the needs of society as articulated in curriculum documents. See also Assessment. DC, JM
Oxymoron (Greek: ‘deliberately foolish’) A form of paradox in which two contradictory or opposite sayings or terms are joined. For example: “Tumult and peace, the darkness and the light.” (The Prelude, William Wordsworth, 1850). JM 218
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P Palindrome (Greek: ‘running back again’) A word or sentence which, when taken in the reverse order, gives the same word or sentence. For example, Napoleon (1769-1821) is attributed with coining the palindrome, ‘able was I ere I saw Elba’ and ‘Sums are not set as a test on Erasmus’. A clever example of the sustained use of palindrome as a structural technique is Weird Al Yankovic’s homage to Bob Dylan - “Bob”. It is a song in which the lyrics are made up entirely of palindromes. (www.com-www.com/weirdal/bob.htmlwww.com-www.com/weirdal/bob.html) DC, JM Reference: Cuddon, J.A. (1991) Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, Great Britain: Penguin Books.
Pamphlet
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(Greek: ‘small work’) A small publication, usually unbound, with a paper cover. Originally used to argue a case on an issue, the pamphlet was exploited as a form by authors such as Sir Thomas More (1478-1535), John Milton (1608-1674), Jonathan Swift (1667-1745) and Daniel Defoe (16611731), and by others throughout the period of the latter 18th and 19th centuries. More recently, the pamphlet is often used to inform the public of issues of interest and future meetings of different organisations. DC Students create pamphlets about an issue they are passionate about or one arising from the study of a text. This can range from expository pieces/ information texts to pure fantasy (e.g. making a pamphlet for a fairyland or theme park while studying A Midsummer Night’s Dream). JW
Panegyric (Greek: ‘pertaining to public assembly’) A formal speech or poem in which an individual or group is accorded high praise and commendation. DC
Pantomime (Greek: ‘imitating all’) Originally a form of entertainment in Ancient Greece, where a solo performer would sing, dance and often play a musical instrument. In the Middle Ages, it was a form of popular Italian drama which had strong resonances with Commedia dell’arte. Developing over the centuries, pantomime has come to refer to a form of ‘low opera’, especially produced for children, and with a celebratory focus (e.g. Christmas pantomimes). It is characterised by songs, dance, visually appealing costumes, music, comic acts, slapstick, audience participation and the appropriation of traditional fairy tales and children’s stories. JM
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P Parable (Greek: ‘to throw alongside’) A short illustrative story intended to point out a moral or lesson. Similar to allegory, the Christian scriptures include many parables such as “The Good Samaritan” and “The Prodigal Son”. See also Allegory, Fable, Fairy tale. DC
Paradigm (Greek: ‘example’) A pattern, exemplar or model. As a literary device, a paradigm indicates an illustrative parable or fable. DC
Paradox (Greek: ‘opposed to existing notions’) A seemingly self-contradictory statement that when scrutinised, may contain a surprising truth or insight. The American New Critic, Cleanth Brooks (1906-1994), in his essay "The Language of Paradox” argues that paradox is “the language appropriate and inevitable to poetry." Used extensively by writers, George Orwell’s (1903-1950) Nineteen EightyFour (1949) provide famous examples, ‘War is peace’; ‘Freedom is slavery’ and ‘Ignorance is strength’. Paradox is common in the poetry of the Metaphysical poets. Paradox is at the centre of John Donne’s (1572-1631) poem “The Canonization”. In another of his poems, “Death, Be Not Proud” (1633), the speaker declares “Death, thou shalt die”. DC, JM
Paragraph (Greek: ‘line drawing attention to part of a text’) A section or subdivision in a piece of writing. Varied in length, a paragraph generally deals with a specific point or aspect of a topic. Different types of paragraphs have different functions. For example, the opening paragraph of an essay usually sets out the main argument of the writer and foreshadows elements of supporting evidence to be explored in the main section of the essay. An essay’s concluding paragraph sums up the writer’s position on the topic and may attempt to reinforce his/her thesis through the inclusion of a supporting quotation, while a linking paragraph may only be one sentence long, linking lengthier paragraphs. See also Essay, Rhetoric, Writing. DC
Parallel (Greek: ‘alongside one another’) An aspect of syntax, parallel refers to the repetition of grammatically similar words of similar meaning in similar sequences. In TS Eliot’s (1888-1965) Four Quartets, (1941), “East Coker”, lines 40-46 there is an example of the use of this technique of parallel syntax emphasising similarities in meaning between the objects being described. DC
Paraphrase (Greek: ‘to recount’) Refers to capturing the gist or essence of a text or passage using other words. Paraphrasing is similar to the activity of retelling and recounting: it involves low-level, early phase comprehension skills within the taxonomy of learning in English. DC
Parody (Greek: ‘beside, subsidiary or mock song’) A work intended to mock or ridicule another through the imitative use of the words, tone, ideas and stylistic features of the original. The origins of parody are ancient with references to it in Aristotle’s Poetics (350 BC) and in Aristophanes’ The Frogs (4th century BC). A famous example of parody is Henry Fielding’s Shamela (1741) which parodies Samuel Richardson’s Pamela (1740). Government policies and politicians have also been the focus of parody. Jonathan Swift’s (1667-1745) essay A Modest Proposal for preventing the Children of Ireland from being a Burden to their Parents or Country used a business-like tone similar to those of politicians and public servants in proposing a solution to the problems of the British government in Ireland – cooking and eating Irish children: 220
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P I shall now therefore humbly propose my own Thoughts, which I hope will not be liable to the least Objection. I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London, that a very healthy Child well Nursed is at a year Old a most delicious nourishing and wholesome Food, whether Stewed, Roasted, Baked, or Boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a Fricasie, or a Ragoust. Recent examples of parody include the Australian television shows Frontline (1994-1997), which parodies current affairs programs, and The Hollowmen (2008) which satirises politicians and government bureaucracy. See also Imaginative re-creation. DC ∼ Use the songs of Weird Al Yankovic to illustrate parodying of famous contemporary songs. Students could choose a Top 10 song and parody it (they can also perform it if brave!)
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Several parodies of Dorothea Mackellar's “My Country” exist. Using these as models, students can write their own parody of the poem based on personal experience of Australia (particularly Australia from different migrant/indigenous perspectives). JW Well-known fairy tales and nursery rhymes are good stimulus for parodic writing. Here is an example of a student’s parody of Goldilocks and the Three Bears: “In the Style of James Joyce: A Portrait of Goldilocks as a Young Girl”
…I love porridge I’d love to have the whole place swimming in porridge I ate it all up and broke his chair. I hate chairs I remember the first chair I broke they were playing the blue Danube god how I hate the blue Danube and the rhododendron was in bloom and broke their chair because it was too warm in the room yes and now I have broken this chair yes and he is angry with me yes and he is standing over me yes and saying someone has been sleeping in my bed yes and there she is yes and I open my eyes to look at him and he looks like a little brown bear cub he asks me with his eyes if I have eaten all his porridge yes I ask him with my eyes to ask me again yes and he asks again ye did you eat my porridge yes I put my arms around him and drew him down to me…
Pastiche
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(Italian: ‘pastry, muddle’) A text that is created from fragments and pieces of other, original texts. See also Bricolage, Collage. JM Pastiche poem:
∼ Students are given a selection of evocative lines from a range of well-known poems.
∼ Students construct a new text using these fragments and weave their own lines of verse through or around these fragments.
Pathetic fallacy A term referring to the practice of ascribing to nature and the natural realm the feelings, emotions, sensations, thoughts and mood of a person (often the composer, and typically the poet). The pathetic fallacy is commonly employed in the poetry of the Romantics. See also Anthropomorphism, Personification. JM
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P Pedagogy (Greek: ‘to lead the child’) The art, craft and science of teaching. Pedagogy refers to the practical strategies employed in teaching and learning situations. Pedagogy is driven by theoretical principles: beliefs about the learner; the nature of knowledge and an understanding of the most effective ways of engaging and facilitating student learning. In English, the art and craft of teaching is not neutral, natural or simply imbibed. Pedagogy in English is underpinned and informed by a repertoire of theories, models and approaches including, for example: student-centred learning; learning styles; activity-based learning; constructivism; process approaches; workshop models; collaborative learning; Personal Growth; Cultural Heritage; Skills; Cultural Studies, Rhetorical and Ethical models; and Critical Literacy. Being informed about the theories of learning, knowledge and teaching that drive practice is essential for all teachers. Without such an awareness of the theoretical underpinnings of pedagogy, teachers are ultimately controlled by, instead of having control over, the discourses, values and assumptions that shape their practice and student learning. Pedagogy involves the range of tasks required for teaching and learning, from planning, programming, resources, practical strategies, structuring of learning environments, implementation, sequencing, assessment, evaluation, reflection, and curriculum development. Effective pedagogy is essential for engaging students in and making accessible new and unfamiliar experiences, content, processes and ideas. Particularly vital is the application of digital pedagogies: teaching strategies that account for the ways in which young people are now accessing and interpreting information and participating in the production of knowledge and meaning through their own digital creations. Students are immersed in a fast-paced, diasporic digital world where information and learning is multimodal, driven by a heavy emphasis on the visual, and not necessarily linear or sequential. In the classroom, this shift in students’ ways of engaging, creating and knowing has significant implications for teaching practice. Pedagogy that accounts for such changes involves not only the integration of digital technologies as resources: it requires processes of engagement and ‘making and doing’ that build on and refine students’ critical skills, aesthetic opportunities and capacities to read, write and view with increasing discrimination and sophistication. See also Assessment, Constructivism, Curriculum, Group work, Learning-centred English, Learning styles, Lesson plan, Poetry, Reading, Unit of work, Viewing, Writing. DC, JM
Performance poetry Poetry that is written specifically for the purpose of performance, as distinct from poetry written for distribution through print or other media. Poetry for performance has a long history as part of oral cultural traditions. It was commonplace for ballads, for example, to be written and performed by bards who had complete control not only over the text, but the communication and interpretation of this in performance. The genre came to prominence again in the 1980s as part of a wider movement in popular culture, particularly in America, and has since been a part of the pedagogical repertoire in English education. Performance poetry combines the conventions of verse and drama, and, importantly, invests the poet with the capacity to determine how, where and for what audiences it will be performed. It locates the act of representation in the immediacy and authenticity of live public space in a way that publication in print or other media cannot. Ideally, most poetry should be read out aloud to fully appreciate and understand its nuances of language. Performance poetry re-centres this ideal and melds the oral, aural, written and visual modes. It also enables embodied language and literature to be experienced in a communal setting, thus promoting the importance of interpretive communities, oral traditions and the significance of literary experience in everyday life. Opportunities for students in English to create and perform poetry can be integrated into almost any unit of work and enables the language modes to be engaged in an holistic and purposeful way. There are many valuable resources for teaching performance poetry, including the series by Rory Harris and Peter McFarlane: A Book to Perform Poems By (Adelaide: AATE). My Best Poetry Unit 222
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P (edited by Ken Watson, Sydney: Phoenix Education Press, 2001) is also a valuable resource containing practical strategies for the teaching of performance poetry. For oral performances of poetry online, see and the “Poetry Slam” competition at . Students can record and upload their performances of poetry at this site and take part in the Poetry Slam events. See also Drama, Poetry. JM
Persona (Latin: ‘mask’) An assumed identity or character. Derived from dramatis personae and the word ‘person’, it originally meant a mask or false face of clay or bark. An example of the use of persona in fiction is Marlow in Joseph Conrad’s (1857-1924) Heart of Darkness (1902). Robert Browning's (1812-1889) dramatic monologues rely on the skilful development of persona. See also Author, Dramatic monologue, Character, Implied author, Implied reader, Hierarchy of discourses, Narrative, Narratology, Narrator. DC
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Students assume the persona in a poem, artwork or work of fiction. Extend the story, in role as this persona or the persona of a silent/minor character in the text.
∼ Create a profile. ∼ Create dialogue between characters. ∼ Use a picture book such as, for example, Katie and the Mona Lisa (James Mayhew, Orchard Books, 1998) to explore the concept and technique of persona.
Personal Growth model In John Dixon’s seminal book, Growth Through English (1967) he describes three basic models for the teaching of English: “Cultural Heritage”; “Skills-based”; and one which he develops, drawing upon the deliberations and outcomes of the Dartmouth Seminar (1966) which he describes as “Personal Growth”. This book marked a profound shift in thinking about English as a body of content to English as process, with language and the user of language squarely at the centre of all teaching and learning. In 1968 David Sadler, then Chairman of the Department of English in Western Michigan University, proffered an insightful summary of the principles underpinning Growth Through English. (See ADE Bulletin 16a February 1968: 33-34 online at. The Personal Growth model draws upon, and does not exclude, the best features of the Cultural Heritage and Skills-based models while challenging and countering some of the premises of both. Characteristics of this model of teaching and learning include: the positioning of the learner and language at the centre of the curriculum; the development of students' personal responses; their enjoyment of reading; the fostering of individual creativity; the valuing of what students write and say; students’ exploration of and reflection over their experience (while having their rights to privacy completely respected); the focusing on literary, media and everyday communication texts; an emphasis on activity (‘making and doing’ and not merely responding and appreciating); and a focus on students’ language, needs, interests and capacities. Wayne Sawyer provides a full account of the contribution of the theory and pedagogy of the Personal Growth model, along with the criticisms that have been made of it by, for example, the critical literacy and genre schools. Sawyer argues that “Growth Through English is of course a product of a particular historical moment, yet in many ways it remains a remarkably modern document.” (Sawyer, 2004: 28). Far from rejecting the place of literature in English: Dixon and the London school turned their experiences in inner-city schools into a belief that their pupils’ culture had as much right to be represented in their education as those other The English Teacher’s Handbook
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P cultures represented in their reading materials…What Growth Through English tries to do is simply to widen the definition of literature to include not only pupils’ writing and other ‘spectator role’ language, but also into ‘participant role’ language…It is remarkable, given the 1970s criticism of his (Dixon’s) neglect of literature…that some modern criticism has also linked Dixon to a Leavisite tradition (Christie 1993; Christie et al 1991; Patterson 1992)…when so much of the work of Dixon and other ‘growth model’ advocates has obviously been to distance themselves from, and provide a balance to, the view of curriculum represented by the Leavis/Cambridge School. Indeed, the notion of ‘personal response’, which Christie and others see as almost equivalent to ‘personal growth’ has quite a different origin and meaning in both response theory and in Growth from what it had for Leavis. (Sawyer, 2004: 29) Importantly, Sawyer observes that: The critical literacy school accuse growth pedagogy of not critiquing, or aiding students to critique, the conditions of working-class life. But it could be argued that in celebrating the immediate life, culture and language of the working-class student, Dixon is taking the far more radical stand of presenting a new social basis to the curriculum. Undoubtedly, there is a genuine radical element in early growth pedagogy, an element that concentrated on the causes of social inequity…(and) the bulk of what is has to say has underpinned leading-edge English practice for thirty years. It is worth revisiting for these historical reasons, as well as investigating what it still has to say for the future. (Sawyer: 2004: 30) See also Dartmouth seminar, Experiential learning, Language, Learning-centred English, Literary criticism, Student-centred learning. PB, JM References: Dixon, J. (1967) Growth Through English, Huddersfield: OUP and NATE. Sawyer, W. (2004) “Seminal books on English teaching”, in Reviewing English in the 21st Century, eds. W. Sawyer & E. Gold, Sydney: Phoenix Education.
Personification A metaphor which attributes human characteristics to the non-human or to abstract qualities. For example: John Keats’ (1795-1821) “To Autumn” employs the technique of personification to represent the season of Autumn as a living, sentient phenomenon. See also Ted Hughes’ (19301998) poems: “Wind” and “Hawk Roosting”. See also Pathetic fallacy. JM
Perspective The particular way of viewing, reading, writing and interpreting texts, ideas, situations, events, places and people. Perspective is contingent and endlessly fluid depending on the context, the individual responder and the text itself. The perspective presented within a text is similar to the point of view. See also Film, Image, Point of view, Visual text. JM
Phonics Few terms generate more heat and less light in the public and professional discourses about the acquisition and development of literacy than “phonics”. Teaching children to read by using phonics involves focusing on the relationships between letters and sounds (phonemics). Usually this is accompanied by teachers requiring students to learn certain rules to help them better relate letters to sounds. But one of the problems with setting down immutable rules is that English does not always abide by simple rules linking letters and sounds. This is the consequence of the development of the English language over many centuries. While we can trace the first records of written English back to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle - where the first entries are in the 9th century AD and continued into the second half of the 12th century - the unrecorded history of the spoken English language obviously long predates that period. †Furthermore, in the development from Old English/Anglo Saxon to the 21st century, the language has undergone significant changes in structure, vocabulary, and semantics as features of other languages have become assimilated into English. 224
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P Where controversy about phonics arises is when assertions are made such as that phonics is the ‘be all and end all’ best method of teaching literacy; and/or where it is asserted that phonetic/ phonemic skills must be taught first in any presumed sequence or hierarchy of skills necessary for a child to acquire the skills of reading; and/or when advocates of phonics teaching deride any other form of literacy teaching as being ineffective in teaching young people how to read. Advocates of the primacy of teaching phonics have not infrequently taken issue with advocates of a “Whole Language” approach – and vice versa. In quite a few areas, such either/or polarisation has had a corrosive effect upon the teaching and learning of English.A dichotomy between the whole language approach and phonics has emerged in recent decades: there have been intense debates produced by this dichotomy in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia. Government reports have been commissioned to address these issues. In 1984, the American National Academy of Education commissioned a report on research and practice in reading, titled Becoming a Nation of Readers. This report, while acknowledging the important role that phonetic/phonemic instruction plays in helping to teach a child to read, also stressed the importance of complementary strategies of engaging the students with the search for meaning in sentences, as well as reading stories. Later research has demonstrated that a very early emphasis on explicit systematic teaching of phonetic/phonemic relationships is of particular importance for children who have considerable difficulties in learning. The ebb and flow of debate – usually within a polarised context of ‘phonics versus whole language’ - has continued. Perhaps the state of recent research might be best summed up by saying that while phonetic/phonemic instruction is a necessary strategy in the acquisition and development of early literacy skills, it is not sufficient. Generally speaking, there has been a move away from advocating and defending polarised positions and towards intelligent eclecticism - with teachers drawing upon a range of theoretical and practical strategies of teaching and learning that are relevant to the needs, interests and capacities of their students as well as the particular context in which the learning and teaching is taking place. In practice, exemplary teachers of English at whatever stage of a child’s development are multiskilled and intelligently eclectic in their theoretical knowledge and practical strategies. In their explicit teaching and developing the reading skills of their students, teachers of English need to be able to draw upon their knowledge of such essentials as phonemic-phonetic relationships; holistic approaches to learning; grammar, spelling, and the multiple functions of language; appropriate linguistic and literary theory; a wide range of literary, factual, media, visual, and other forms of text; and so on. The most comprehensive study of the teaching of English in the second half of the 20th century was what is known as the Bullock Report (1975) A Language for Life: Report of the Committee of Inquiry appointed by the Secretary of State for Education and Science under the Chairmanship of Sir Alan Bullock, F. B. A., Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, London, 1975). What it said about phonics (in the opening three paragraphs of Chapter 6 “The Reading Process”) within a broader range of diverse but complementary strategies for the teaching of reading remains timelessly germane. 6.3: In our view a large part of the controversy (about methods of teaching reading) arises from the expression of unnecessarily extreme opinions, often more extreme than the real beliefs or practices of those who advance them. In addition, the contentious statements are often based on inadequate information. For example, we receive many letters whose writers seem convinced that the majority of infant teachers had abandoned the teaching of phonics; they argued that a return to the practice would raise standards dramatically. But the results of our survey showed that their supposition was far from correct. We believe that an improvement in the teaching of reading will not come from the acceptance of simplistic statements about phonics or any other single aspect of reading, but from a comprehensive study of all the factors at work and the influence that can be exerted upon them. (Bullock, 1975: 78) See also Language, Literacy, Reading. PB Reference: Bullock, A. (1975) A Language for Life, London: HMSO
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P Picaresque (Spanish: ‘rogue’, ‘rascal’) Refers to both a subgenre of prose fiction and a literary technique. The picaresque novel portrays the adventures of a roguish hero (rarely a heroine) who is nevertheless appealing. The hero typically acts in defiance of a corrupt social context, and the adventures are often represented episodically. Picaresque originated in Spain, although there are early examples of the form in Sanskrit legend. Satire and comedy are a feature of the genre, with the hero’s antics often portrayed as immoral in relation to the prevailing social morality. The setting is usually realistic. The picaresque technique is characterised by an episodic and simple plot. Examples of the genre in English include: Daniel Defoe’s Moll Flanders (1722) (a rare example with a female protagonist); Henry Fielding’s Joseph Andrews (1742) and The History Tom Jones, a Foundling (1749); and Mark Twain’s Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884). See also Fiction, Literature, Novel, Realism. JM
Picture books A picture book is conventionally a book of less than 600 words with images intertwined with written text at each opening. It is often (unfortunately) assumed that picture books are written for younger readers and thus that all contain a simple story structure and plot with attractive decorative images which will facilitate children learning to read or learning a new language. Award winning author and illustrator, Shaun Tan, however, questions traditional assumptions about picture books arguing that most of us remain interested in the imaginative play of drawings and paintings, telling stories, and learning how to look at things in new ways. Many contemporary picture books, despite their apparent simplicity, are intentionally written to stretch the imaginations of children, adolescents, young adults and more mature readers alike. Images are not necessarily ancillary – they may well convey meanings additional or even contrary to the written text. Richly interpretive picture books are constructed carefully to deliberately bring text and image together to enable us to explore spaces/ places to play (Williams, 1987; Gleeson, 2006), to challenge our stereotypes and subvert the usual or everyday. Despite their apparent simplicity, many contemporary picture books are written for adolescents, young adults and more mature readers. RE While picture books are commonplace in the K-6 classroom, they have now become widely accepted as valuable resources in the 7-12 English classroom. Indeed, Raymond Brigg’s When the Wind Blows has been set for study at senior secondary level as a text in and for itself. In secondary English classrooms, picture books have been typically utilised to deepen understandings of, for instance, narrative structure; conventions of story and the relationship between visual and printed text; the ways in which image can work with language to produce irony, parody and satire; the ways in which gender, class and race stereotypes and cultural assumptions can be both promoted, critiqued and subverted; intertextuality and exploring literary concepts such as the constructedness of texts and the multiplicity of meanings that can emerge from a range of reading perspectives. As Watson writes, “the picture book can be a powerful aid in helping students to grasp some unfamiliar literary concepts; it can also be used as a means of promoting visual literacy.” (Watson, 2004: 265) Of course, picture books are written to be entertaining, informative and to be enjoyed for their aesthetic qualities, but the latter experience does not preclude the use of picture books as a powerful and accessible source of learning for students in English 7-12. For a wide range of practical approaches to using picture books, Year 6-10, see See also Children’s literature, Image, Literature, Visual text. JM Reference: Watson, K. (2004) “Picture books in the secondary classroom” in Reviewing English in the 21st Century, eds. W. Sawyer & E. Gold, Sydney: Phoenix Education. Watson, K. (ed.) (1997) Word and Image: Using Picture Books in Years 6 to 10, Sydney: Phoenix Education Press.
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P Play script Unlike poetry or the novel, there is no intimate relationship implicit between the reader and a play script. When reading novels and other literary text we read for personal and aesthetic pleasure. A play script, however, needs to be read differently. We should read a play script as we read a nonfiction piece such as a set of instructions. A play script is written for a team - directors, designers, actors and so on – to bring to life, so students need to read scripts as if they were going to put on the play. JH
Pleonasm The repetitious use of words, often to emphasise meaning. For example: ‘Absolutely yes’. The media, particularly through advertising, continually employ tautologies, with ‘free gift’, ‘safe haven’ and ‘end result’ being common examples. DC
Plot (Greek: ‘plaited, woven’) Refers to the arrangement or organisation of events in a work of fiction, a play, a poem or a film. The distinction between story and plot was first identified by Russian Formalists. MH Abrams defined plot as “the system of actions, represented in a dramatic or narrative work” (Abrams, 1958: 69). A plot is intended to engage the curiosity of the reader/viewer and to sustain this interest. In Poetics, Aristotle considered plot as the “the first principle, the soul of a tragedy” and “the imitation of an action”, as well as “the arrangements of the incidents.” The imitation of actions in the real world, praxis, was viewed as assembling an argument, logos, from which were selected and rearranged the elements that formed mythos, the plot. A plot, Aristotle contended, needs to have unity, through the structure of a beginning, middle and end. He considered the episodic plot, in which acts proceed “without probable or necessary sequence” as being of lesser status. Causality was an important principle through which an author should outline a plot and then explicate and intensify it. EM Forster’s (1879-1970) Aspects of the Novel (1927) defined plot in the following way: “We have defined a story as a narrative of events, arranged in their time-sequence. A plot is also a narrative of events, the emphasis falling on causality.” Thus, a story arouses curiosity and plot requires of the reader/viewer the skill of astute recall. Seymour Chatman in Story and Discourse Narrative Structure in Fiction and Film (1978: 19) states that structuralist theory promotes the view that each narrative has two parts: firstly, a story (histoire), the content or chain of events (actions, happenings), and existents (characters, items of setting); and secondly, a discourse (discourse), through which content is conveyed. This story is the what in a narrative and the discourse is the how. The integration of conflict into a plot is generally considered essential, leading to rising action and suspense, and ultimately to a crisis. The action is then resolved and completed through a dènouement. Some works will then repeat this cycle. Many composers of prose fiction, film, drama and poetry have experimented with plot, requiring the responder to be actively involved, making links between events and characters in a plot that contains a number of narrators and non-chronological plotlines. An example of this type of text is Robert Cormier’s novel I Am the Cheese (1979) in which the reader has to piece together a series of incidents – which initially appear to have little or no connection – through a number of narrative voices and the inclusion of taped transcripts. See also Drama, Fiction, Film, Literature, Narrator, Narrative, Narratology, Novel. DC References: Abrams, M.H. (1958) A Glossary of Literary Terms, New York. Chatman, S. (1978), Story and Discourse Narrative Structure in Fiction and Film, Cornell: Cornell University Press. Cuddon, J.A. (1991) Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, 3rd edn. London: Penguin Books. Holman, C. Hugh (1976) A Handbook to Literature, 3rd edn. Indianapolis: The Odyssey Press
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P Pluralism In English education, pluralism refers to pedagogy and theory that embraces a multiplicity and diversity of approaches, texts, languages, ways of thinking, opinions, perspectives, responses, interpretations and meanings. Pluralism assumes an expansive awareness of the need for students not only to develop confidence and excellence in their use of language and encounters with texts, but also to recognise that diversity and even at times conflicting views are inevitable in the teaching and learning process. Exposure to a wide variety of language opportunities and texts, as well as to a range of competing approaches to the reading and interpretation of those texts, is a fundamental pedagogy in the pluralistic classroom. The goal of pluralism is the student’s increasing knowledge, understandings and skills generated through higher-order thinking; making and doing; synthesis and application of ideas and information; and purposeful learning activities across a range of settings (e.g. individual, pairs, small group and whole class). See also Differentiation, Group work, Learning styles, Pedagogy. JM
Poetic justice Refers to the concept of good and evil being appropriately rewarded and punished in imaginative texts. If imaginative texts have a moral function, it was considered appropriate that texts should portray a world in which good prevails and evil is defeated. The term was coined by the critic Thomas Rymer (c. 1643-1713) in The Tragedies of the Last Age Considered (1678) and although the concept is rarely embraced by composers, it does find expression in particular genres. Many popular Hollywood films and television series, for example, rely on the formula of virtue triumphing over vice; ‘good’ characters achieving victory over the ‘bad’ and villainous characters; and a ‘happily ever-after’ dénouement that satisfies the requirements for poetic justice. DC, JM
Poetic licence Refers to the leeway and permission afforded to poets to play with language, manipulate established conventions, coin new words and syntax and generally create their own ‘rules’ as part of the creative process. JM
Poetics Refers to a set of general principles or theory about poetry and the study of poetry. Similarly, poetics can refer to the set of principles or theory relevant to a particular genre, such as, for example, tragedy, drama, crime fiction or film. JM
Poetry (Greek: ‘creator’) A term which refers to texts which use language in particular ways, utilising conventions of form and written in non-prose style. Often, poetry is distinguished as a type of text by its use of patterns, rhythm, metre and figurative language. The terms poetry and verse are often used interchangeably, although poetry can carry the connotation of a more highly wrought and sophisticated use of language than verse. Robert Frost (1874-1963) asserted that "Education by poetry is education by metaphor. [Poetry provides] the profoundest thinking that we have." Research with secondary school students over the last four decades, in Australia and the United Kingdom, however, has indicated that poetry is the least enjoyable and preferred aspect of their English education experience. Typically, students regard the study of poetry as ‘boring’, resisting the ineffective pedagogical approaches that treat poetry as a quarry for figurative language or require students to read the poem in isolation and answer a list of comprehension questions (Manuel and Robinson 2002, 2003). Despite a wealth of resources for engaging students with poetry, it continues to be poorly regarded by many students, particularly adolescents. The following practical suggestions are not intended to be adopted as discrete lesson plans. Rather, they are ideas and practical triggers which can be integrated into units of work and adapted in a range of ways to suit the learning context. The strategies are underpinned by a set of principles: 228
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P namely, that poetry in English should be shared, enjoyed, contextualised, read aloud where appropriate, performed, written, connected with the lived experience of students, and provide extensive opportunities for engagement and learning across the spectrum of modes. Poetry lends itself to performance, dramatisation, choral readings, and connection with media, multimedia and everyday texts. Exploring song lyrics is an effective strategy for encouraging reluctant students to engage with the techniques of poetry, providing a pathway into poetic texts that may not be immediately familiar or accessible. DC, JM
Engaging students with poetry Each of the following strategies can be applied in practice using the Four phases of classroom experience and Group work configurations:
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
Pre-reading /Engagement During Reading Response Moving Beyond the text Suitable for whole class Suitable for small group/pairs
Titles
Read a poem out aloud without the title. In pairs, students decide on a suitable title after discussion. Justify the choice. Compare and contrast titles with the original. Promotes engagement, personal response and confidence. 1, 6, 7
Sequencing
Rearrange the stanzas or lines of a poem. In groups or pairs, play with the options for reframing the poem. 1, 2, 6, 7
Visual images/
Use these before reading as an engagement strategy to provoke ideas and build anticipation. 1, 5, 6
music stimulus Transformations
Rewrite the poem in another form. Rewrite it as a news story, a recipe, a report, a dialogue, a soliloquy, a letter, a journal entry etc. 3, 6, 7
Focused browsing Allow time for small groups to browse through poetry with a simple focus task. 2, 6 Anthologies and interleaving
Students collate their favourite poems with annotations and visual images. They may interleave these with their own poems to create a personal anthology. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Versions
Select poems that have a number of versions – e.g. Edited versions of a poem prior to its final version (some of Wilfred Owen’s poems). Promotes understanding of the creative process and the crafting of language. 2, 3, 5, 6, 7
Become the speaker
Construct responses in the role of the subject of the poem. Ask the speaker questions, hot-seat the speaker of the poem. Learn about ‘voice’ and ‘persona’. 3, 4, 5, 6
Reading as ‘other’ Generate a list of types of people (may be stereotypes: e.g. rock star, homeless person, doctor, unemployed person, sailor). Students adopt a role and read the poem in role. Promotes understanding of dominant and alternative readings, point of view, reader-response and multiple readings. 3, 6, 7 Syndicates
Each small group is responsible for selecting the poems that the class will explore in the coming week. The group must also make suggestions for activities and resources to be used. 1, 2, 6
Cloze
Leave out words, but do not have a list of the ‘correct’ words at the bottom (this then becomes a ‘fill-in-the-gaps’ task instead of an active meaning-making task). 2, 6, 7
Parody the poem Use a model such as “Come live with me and be my love” and have students write their own parodic, modern version of this. 3, 4, 6, 7
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Construct the ‘response’ poem
Read a poem such as “Advice to a Teenage Daughter”. In response, students compose “Advice from a Teenage Daughter”. 3, 4, 6, 7
PAT
Use A4 or other sized cards. Each group prepares a series of focus questions and possible activities for the reader to engage in when considering the poem. 2, 3, 6
Yes-But-No
Using a series of opposites, ask groups to respond to aspects of a poem by asking, for example, if the poem should be read loudly/softly; this poem is happy/sad etc. 2, 5, 6, 7
Visual representation 1
Students gather as many pictures as possible from magazines, the web, etc. Match these to poems. Explore the relevance of poetry to media and everyday life. 3, 6, 7
Ghosting
Describe/write the next scene or event of a poem. Describe/write the scene before the poem. Describe/write the missing scenes or events. 3, 5, 7
S and I
In pairs, ask students to put an S against anything which is stated in the poem and an I against anything that is implied. This is an active, problem-solving task and generates much discussion. 2, 3, 6
Think, pair, share
Read the poem. Think about it, using the “Four roles of the Reader” guides. Pair up with a partner and discuss ideas. Share with another pair, or with the whole class. 2, 3, 6
The Oscars
Create a mini-film storyboard of the poem in a certain cinematic style. 3, 4, 5, 6
Visual representation 2
Much poetry lends itself to visual interpretation. Students in groups, or pairs can utilize visual and digital media to represent the poem. 3, 4, 6
Display and publish
Anywhere and everywhere. Make posters, anthologies, use the web to publish, mobiles, class displays etc. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Rhythm, rhyme Use hands, feet, voices, bodies, instruments, etc to interpret a poem dramatically. 2, and sound games 5, 6 Sound recordings
Record readings of a poem. Record several versions and compare and contrast. Focus on tone, mood, language, voice. 3, 5, 6, 7
Word cache/Writing derby 1
Free write for one minute, writing every word that comes to mind (word cache). Then use these words to write in prose (writing derby) for three minutes. Free write on issues raised by the poem: e.g. love, death, memory, loss, fear, anger, faith, hope, time, revenge, and power. 1, 7
Read out aloud
Once or often, without having to discuss or analyse. 1, 2, 5
Read silently
And jot down initial responses in pairs. 2, 6, 7
Frontloading
Discussions of issues/themes, memories, experiences, objects, pictures, scenes, building a common field of reference, in pairs, small groups, individually or as a whole class. 1, 5
Interactive websites
There are many excellent poetry writing and publishing sites on the web. Interactive sites engage students in creative activities around poetry and also reinforce the concepts of purpose and audience as key components that shape all writing. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Word cache/ Writing derby
Focus on the characters/people/places/ideas in the poem. In one minute, brainstorm and write down every word that comes to mind when thinking of the character/ person/places/idea. Then, in a limited time (2-3 minutes) write in prose form. 3, 7
Penny Blackie approach
Read the poem out aloud. Ask three questions. Get together with partner and reduce 6 questions to 3. Get together with another pair to form groups of four. Reduce 6 questions to 3. Whole class discuss questions from each group. (Hayhoe) 2, 3, 6, 7
Picture-text creations
Create a collage or visual representation of the poem. 3, 4, 6, 7
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Draw the poem (setting, events, ideas) in simple artistic forms or symbols. 3, 7
Transformation
Change one or more things about the poem and explore what difference it makes. For example, change the gender of the subject, the setting, the language, or the sequence of ideas. SCAMPER technique: http://wwwfp.education.tas.gov.au/english/ideas.htm 3, 4, 6, 7
Music
Select a piece of music to set the poem to. 3, 4, 6, 7
Digital story
Create a digital story/narrative of the poem. This works well for poems that have a strong ‘voice’, subject or setting. 3, 4, 6, 7
Drama
Dramatise the poem. Be as adventurous as possible. 3, 4, 6, 7
Choral readings
In small groups or as a class. Make it fun. Promotes understanding of rhythm, voice, mood, tone and point of view. 3, 4, 5, 6
Bring Your Own Lit Each day, a student/s brings to class one poem and reads it out aloud. Useful for (BYOL) immersing students in poetry without the need to analyse or assess. Builds confidence, familiarity and enjoyment. 2, 3, 5 Photographic essays
Respond to the poem through a series of still images that provide an interpretation of the poem. A reflection statement can accompany this. 3, 4, 6, 7
Parallel creations
An engagement strategy, ideal for ‘getting ready for the text’. For example, think of a time when you were … frightened, amazed, angry etc … what was it like? This will build personal connections with the poem. 1, 5, 6, 7
Class critical anthology
Anthologise the poem and the class’s responses (e.g. visual representations and interpretations) 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Research
Research the poet, other poems, the context, the major themes. 4, 6, 7
Intertextuality
What other poems/literature/texts does this poem remind you of or lead you to? 4, 7
STAR
Who, What, When, Where, How, Why? 2, 5, 6, 7
Group composition Group composition of a poem on a theme or idea. 4, 5, 6 Haiku and cinquains
Students individually, in pairs or small groups, compose a cycle of these on a topic or theme and publishing online, in anthologies and with visual representations. 4, 6, 7
Guest speakers
Invite poets to talk to the class. 1, 4, 5
References: Fox, G. & Merrick, B. (1982) “Thirty-six things to do with a poem” in A. Adams (ed) New Directions in English Teaching, London: Falmer. Hayhoe, M. and Parker, S. (1988) Words as Large as Apples, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Manuel, J. & Robinson, D. (2003) "Teenage boys, teenage girls and books: Re-viewing some assumptions about gender and adolescents' reading practices", English Teaching: Practice and Critique, 2:2, September, pp. 66-77. Manuel, J. & Robinson, D. (2002) "What are Teenagers Reading? The Findings of a Survey of Teenagers' Reading Choices and the Implication of these for English Teachers' Classroom Practice", English in Australia, 135, pp. 69-78. Watson, K. (ed.) (2002) My Best Poetry Unit. Sydney: Phoenix Education.
Point of view Refers to how an author, through the creation of a narrator/s, has chosen to tell a story. More accurate terms may be ‘narrative stance’ or ‘narrative technique’. A basic choice for an author is between ‘first-person’ narration and ‘third-person’ narration. In first-person narration, the author usually creates a character who tells the story from their ‘point of view’ – that is, from their own stance. This is a common technique used in novels such as Charles Dickens’ (1812-1870) Great Expectations (1861) and Daniel Defoe’s (1661-1731) Moll Flanders (1722). The reader should not The English Teacher’s Handbook
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P assume that the first-person narrator is synonymous with the author (see Narrator, Hierarchy of discourses). Third-person narration involves the narrator remaining outside the narrative, referring to the characters as ‘he’, ‘she’ and ‘they’. In third-person narratives, the narrator is sometimes invested with the ability to read the minds of the characters, or to see the future or the past in order to tell the story. Such narrators are often referred to as ‘omniscient narrators’. The term ‘unreliable narrator’ was coined by Wayne Booth (1921-2005) and denotes a narrator whose values depart noticeably from that of the implied author’s. For example, the flow of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s (1804-1864) The Scarlet Letter (1850) is constantly interrupted through the offering of opinions, speculation on motives and suggestions of alternative views. The narrator even takes part in the interactions, as in chapter one, where he picks a rose and offers it to the reader. The narrator also makes the claim that he is guiding the reader through a myriad of sources: legends, rumours, manuscripts and gossip, that may or may not be reliable. The reader is forced to choose a version of the story or reject them all. As Giorgis and Johnson observe: One of life's biggest challenges is accepting that there are numerous interpretations and that there is rarely one right way to view the world. Literature can introduce characters who have learned to accept that different viewpoints exist, demonstrating how they persevere when faced with difficulties. Books can also change readers' perspectives about what they already know and extend their knowledge through new ways of seeing familiar things (2002: 491)
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
See also Author, Implied author, Fiction, Persona, Narrator, Narratology, Novel, Writing. DC, JM ∼ Look at a simple idea like comparing how you would imagine a bug sees the world to how a human does.
∼ Watch the animated film Hoodwinked that retells Little Red Riding Hood from the point of view of three main characters.
∼ Other fairytale parodies will be useful models and resources. ∼ In small groups students write from the point of view of each character in a scenario e.g.: a student explains to her teacher that an assignment is incomplete.
∼ For more senior classes use the concept of point of view to debate controversial media issues.
∼ Also use picture books to explore the ways point of view is employed by the author and illustrator. JW
Reference: Giorgis, C., & Johnson, N.J. (2002) Multiple perspectives.
The Reading Teacher
Polemic (Greek: ‘war’) An argumentative work in which the views of the author are asserted vigorously. Often covering controversies in politics, religion, economics and social issues, the views of the polemicist can be found in newspaper opinion pieces, magazines and periodicals, talkback radio and Internet blogs. See also Bias, Language, Rhetoric, Writing. DC
Popular culture Camille Paglia (1947-) described popular culture as the “new Babylon, into which so much art and intellect now flow.” The term ‘popular culture’ refers to the ‘culture of the people’. It is evident in the mass media, film, popular literature, music and multimodal texts such as, for example, websites, comics, graphic novels and computer games. Although debate continues to arise intermittently in the public arena about the role of popular culture in English, the critical study of popular culture texts and processes has been a central component of many English syllabus documents for many decades. 232
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P Students are immersed in popular culture in their daily lives and much of it powerfully influences their sense of identity, values, beliefs, ways of thinking and views of the world. Given its pervasiveness, and it impact on students, it is essential to equip them with the critical skills and knowledge to be able to understand how and why such texts and practices operate to entertain and/or influence their lives. The inclusion of popular culture texts in English is not at the expense of other types of texts and language experiences. Rather, they are an important part of the language and literature continuum. These texts can be studied in and for themselves, and utilised as effective ‘pathways’ for students in the study of more sophisticated literature and language. After all, Shakespeare’s plays were, at the time he was producing them, regarded as ‘popular culture’. JM Pop Culture in Australia
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Create time capsules from the past and compare with the present. ∼ Fashion/teen magazine audit: look at stories, structure, and advertising. What are we really buying? Count and tally pages under categories: advertisements, advice, information report, fashion, beauty etc.
∼ Music lyrics as poetry: look at different eras. What were the major concerns, ways of thinking and ideals. Has this changed through time?
∼ Visual deconstructions of pulp fiction novel covers: take a critical literacy approach and discuss intended audience, etc.
∼ Cult of the celebrity: undertake an examination through popular magazines. ∼ Music video: read lyrics, then add music, then add the clip. How does the meaning and message change depending on the mode of production?
∼ Using digital technology, have students create a music video clip of a poem. ∼ Explore representations of gender in popular media. ∼ Dr Seuss, The Simpsons, Shrek and intertextuality: using these texts delve into intertextual references. 2 minutes of Shrek 2 will yield many connections to other texts that can be explored. JW
Portfolios A collection of student work samples. Portfolios offer an approach to teaching, learning and assessment in English that is underpinned by a set of assumptions about the learning process, the learner and the role of the teacher. Portfolios have been a common part of other disciplines and professional fields, but have only been adopted systematically in English since the latter part of the 20th century. They provide evidence of both student learning and achievement and enable students to collect, select, reflect on and present what they know and can do. Portfolios (for learning and/or assessment) offer the opportunity to enact authentic learning that is linked to authentic assessment, involving the teacher and the student in negotiating and working towards learning goals and outcomes. Students take responsibility for their learning and the outcomes of their learning in tangible and meaningful ways, and reflect not only on the ‘what’ of their learning, but also the ‘how and why’. The principles underpinning the use of portfolios include those embedded in student-centred and process-centred models of learning. Portfolios allow students to demonstrate what they know and can do in a wide range of forms and media. Writing portfolios, for example, provide students with a ‘real’ context for collating drafts, selecting pieces to be polished for publication, maintaining records, reflections on writing, feedback and works-in-progress. Portfolios enable teachers to assess not only the products and artefacts generated from students’ learning, but also the processes that have contributed to this learning. Portfolios may take a range of forms: writing, reading, multimodal, multimedia, performance and representation. Raines (1996) sets out a series focus questions to be used as the basis for ongoing reflection by students in the development of their portfolios: The English Teacher’s Handbook
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What are your writing (reading, representing, performance etc) goals? In what ways have you achieved these goals? What still needs to be done? What is your best work? Why do you believe this is your best work? Why did you include this and other evidence in your portfolio? What changes do you see in your work over time? What are the key things you have learned during this process?
See also Assessment, Experiential learning, Learning-centred English, Writing. DC, JM Reference: Raines, P. (1996) “Writing Portfolios: Turning the house into a home”, English Journal, 85:1.
Positioning A term relevant to particular poststructuralist theories and approaches to reading and viewing. The term refers to the ways in which a text, through its language, techniques and ideas, invites, persuades or manipulates the responder to adopt a certain position, respond in a certain way or assume a certain point of view. Such theories and approaches argue that a composer and/or text invite a particular reading or positions the responder to react to ideas, characters, events or situations through the skilled development of tone, mood, perspective, connotative language and the careful choice of content, emphasis and focus. A Critical Literacy approach to texts, for example, encourages the responder to resist the invited reading and the tendency for the text to position him/her within a dominant reading. Readers resist the text, according to this model, by actively and critically interrogating the purpose, context and meaning of the work and thereby developing alternative readings. In this way, according to such approaches, the responder is less likely to uncritically accept the political, social, cultural, philosophical or historical assumptions and aesthetic of the text. The term also highlights the complex process of engagement and response that shapes any interaction between reader/viewer and text. Reader-response critics contend that any act of engaging with language is inevitably a dynamic one in which the text and the reader/viewer act upon each other in the process of coming to meaning. Some critical approaches that encourage alternative and resistant readings assume that the text has more ‘power’ in the reader-text dyad: other approaches see the dyad as more evenly balanced. See Alternative reading, Critical Literacy, Critique/critiquing, Dominant reading, Literary criticism, Interpretation, Reader, Resistant reading. JM
Postcolonial criticism A form of literary criticism that seeks to illuminate the ways in which the ‘white story’ has been privileged over and above those of other ethnic groups and cultures. In particular, postcolonial literary criticism takes issue with the ways in which narratives of colonisation have told the story of white domination without attending to the negative consequences of white colonisation. By pointing out the privilege that the Western canon has given to the white story – both in terms of the privileging of white authors and the privileging of white perspectives within the narratives themselves – postcolonial critics seek to expose the pattern of domination and so release the stories of other ethnicities. As such, postcolonialism draws on the notion of ‘the other’, using the term to explain the critical and imaginative silences of other ethnicities in the Western canon. In terms of literary criticism, modern postcolonialism began with Chinua Achebe’s essay on Joseph Conrad’s (1857-1924) Heart of Darkness (1902) entitled “An Image of Africa: Racism is Conrad’s Heart of Darkness” (Conrad: 1998). Achebe attacks Conrad for privileging the white experience of Africa at the expense of the African perspective. He makes the point that Conrad gives voice to the white experience, but renders the Africans in the narrative as speechless, only depicting them as “bestial” (Achebe, 1998: 252). Much controversy over Achebe’s claims ensued, and the beginning of the still continuing debate can be found in the Norton edition of Conrad’s Heart of Darkness. 234
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P Another seminal figure in postcolonial criticism was Edward Said (1935-2003), with his two books Orientalism (1978) and Culture and Imperialism (1994). Said’s Culture and Imperialism, for example, seeks to “dialectically, oppositionally to uncover and elucidate [the imperial] context ... to challenge and defeat both an imposed silence and the normalized quiet of unseen power wherever and whenever possible” (Humanism and Democratic Criticism, 2004: 135). When Said acts as a literary critic, therefore, he intentionally reads against the invited position and interrogates the text for its unacknowledged imperial positions (for example, see his reading on Jane Austen’s Mansfield Park). The works of Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (1942-) have also been influential in the field. Critics of postcolonialism have suggested that post-colonial critics deliberately misread the text to draw out the narrative of ‘the other’, and some feminists have criticised Said in particular for privileging the male ‘other’ over and above the female ‘other’, in his attempt to interrogate white imperialism (this is particularly so in the feminist rejoinders to Said’s interpretation of Mansfield Park). See also Interpretation, Literary criticism, Literary theory. SGS References: Conrad, J. (1963) Heart of Darkness, 3rd edn. ed. Robert Kimbrough, Norton Critical Edition, London & New York: Norton. Said, E. (2004) Power, Politics and Culture: Interviews with Edward W. Said, ed. Gauri Viswanathan, London: Bloomsbury. Said, E. (2004) Humanism and Democratic Criticism, London: Macmillan Palgrave. Said, E. (1994) Culture and Imperialism, Vintage: London. Said, E. (1978) Orientalism, Vintage: London.
Postmodernism A broad term to describe the move against modernity – “against ‘grand narratives’ of truth, reason, science, progress and universal emancipation which are taken to characterize modern thought from the Enlightenment onward” (Eagleton, 1996, 2000). Broadly speaking, postmodernism may be used to describe the efforts of many literary and other theories and literary criticisms to challenge a patriarchal, bourgeois, white projection of truth as “Truth.” It would loosely include efforts by feminism, postcolonialism, cultural studies, deconstruction, poststructuralism, cultural materialism and gender studies to resist dominant meta-narratives of “Truth”. Postmodernists would challenge the notion of Truth as discrete and immutable and would suggest that such an understanding of truth, meaning and the human subject is simply constructed by the dominant group, and subsumes any different experiences (by women, the masses, or by other ethnic people, among others) under the umbrella of white, male experience. In this way, ‘otherness’ is eradicated and silenced, and the narratives that provide texture, richness and variation in the human experience are marginalised. Postmodernism seeks to expose the efforts of the dominant group, and thus emancipate these marginalised narratives to speak. Postmodernism can be broadly seen to encompass two dimensions: one; the aesthetic or cultural movement to include and celebrate difference and break down hierarchy, and two; the philosophical movement to achieve the same. In art forms (literature, visual art forms, theatre and so on) postmodernism finds expression in breaking down the perceived hierarchy between high and low art, deliberately mixing the ‘literary’ and ‘non-literary’. This mixing of the two previously discrete categories embodies an attempt to challenge the dominant group whose interests are seen to be served by the category of ‘high art’. In addition, it suggests that since there can be no ‘truth’ as such, outside of interpretation or discourse, ironic playfulness is a more authentic way to engage with life since it exposes ‘malevolent’ hierarchy. Critics of postmodernism, in addition to the traditional criticism that upholds modernist notions of transcendent truth, have argued that forms of postmodernism have left its practitioners unable to engage politically. Its commitment to difference, relativism and endless variety in meaning has rendered it unable to mount a sustainable argument against political and economic injustice. See also Interpretation, Literary criticism, Literary theory. SGS Reference: Eagleton, T. (1996) Literary Theory: An Introduction, 2nd edn. Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press.
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P Poststructuralism Refers to a set of theories that emerged in France in the 1960s (closely associated with the work of Roland Barthes, 1915-1980, and Jacques Derrida, 1930-2004) examining how language operates and the constructedness of meaning. It is widely associated with the term “deconstruction”, used to describe Derrida’s philosophy and the reading that he practiced throughout his career. Poststructuralism takes the basic tenets of structuralism – that the signifier and the signified are not necessarily linked in essence, but are arbitrarily aligned for an instant – and moves them into the realm of political reflections on power, ‘the other’, and how one might resist oppression by the powerful (see Deconstruction for a more detailed analysis of his particular version of poststructuralism and see Structuralism for the precedent to poststructuralism). Poststructuralist theories begin with the recognition that meaning is produced and constructed in, by and through language. That is, language does not reflect pre-existing meanings and cannot transcend history and social relations of power. Post-structuralist critics are concerned to ‘deconstruct’ the language of the text to expose the meaning beneath the literal, surface meaning of a text. Rather than being primarily concerned in the first instance with the process and content of narration, or stories, poststructuralist theories go ‘behind’ the narration to consider what it is that structures and dissolves particular meanings, and at what cost. What cannot be/is not said is of as much interest as what can be/is said. Where New Critics valued the qualities of unity, pattern, symmetry, paradox, irony and coherence in a text, poststructuralist critics seek the conflicts, absences, contradictions (also paradoxes) and disunity in texts. In addition to Derrida, the other philosophers who would be considered a part of the poststructuralist movement are Julia Kristeva (1941-), Luce Irigaray (1932-), Hèlène Cixous (1937-), Gilles Deleuze (1925-1995), Jean-Franáois Lyotard (1924-1988), and Jean Baudrillard (19292007). Essentially, what these philosophers have in common is a radical shift away from what Lyotard called “grand narratives” toward “micro stories” (Rivkin and Ryan, 2005: 258). Each of these philosophers, in varied ways, moved away from the idea that truth was essential, quantifiable and ontological to the idea that truth is essentially unstable. They argued that the truth we live by is essentially constructed, and remains in a process of construction, rather than being a pre-existing referent for us to access. This move away from truth as ontological allowed poststructuralist literary critics and philosophers to assert the value of poststructuralism as an ethical force. Like deconstruction, which is considered a version and the founder of the broader movement – poststructuralism suggests that the idea that truth is essential is a violent assertion, since it silences all varied and contradictory claims to truth made by ‘others’, as it were. In this way, poststructuralism argues to free alternative claims to truth, and works to destabilise central, ontological claims to truth. The incorporation of aspects of poststructuralist theories in the teaching English has been the source of much controversial public debate. It can be considered, however, as part of the historical continuum of theory that English teachers engage with and critique and it may or may not as a consequence inform aspects of English pedagogy at certain appropriate stages of teaching and learning. A survey of English curriculum documents in Australia demonstrates a continued reliance on the major models of English: Cultural Heritage, Skills and Personal Growth with a balanced inclusion of aspects of Cultural Studies, Critical Literacy and Ethical and Rhetorical models. SGS, JM Reference: Rivkin, J. & Ryan, M. (2005) Literary Theory: An Anthology, 2nd edn. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Preface (Latin: ‘before’) A statement written as an introduction to a literary of other work. One of the most famous prefaces in the English language is Harley Granville-Barker’s Prefaces to Shakespeare (4 vols. 1927-48). DC
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Press The collective term for news media and agencies, particularly newspapers. The press in the later 18th century also included periodicals such as Spectator and Tatler. See also Media. DC
Production (Latin: ‘to bring forth’) Any work created as a result of literary or artistic effort, such as a theatre play, a published work of fiction, poetry, nonfiction, or a film, television show, music, websites and other multimedia. DC
Programming Refers to teaching/learning programs that are the planned and documented teaching/learning strategies to be implemented by a classroom teacher, based on a syllabus or its equivalent. Programming is undertaken at the beginning of a teaching/learning cycle and is often adjusted as the teacher learns more about the needs and interests of the students. A program is often divided into units of work, in which a specific focus is established. This focus may be the study of a genre such as epic poetry, or a specific text such as the novel Great Expectations (Charles Dickens, 1861) or the integrated study of a theme such as Adversity. While there is no prescribed format for a teaching/ learning program, some important ingredients may be an indication of the duration of the program/ unit; when the program/unit will be implemented; the title of the unit; its intentions, as in targeted syllabus outcomes or objectives; a meaningful sequence of strategies, designed engage the students and facilitate learning; and resources. Programming is a crucial part of a teacher’s work and through the documentation of the planned learning experiences provides the teacher with accountability to educational authorities and stakeholders such as parents. In planning a teaching program, the following considerations should be addressed: ∼ syllabus requirements ∼ learning experiences that encompass the full range of language modes and contexts ∼ the balance between literature, media, multimedia, nonfiction, everyday and workplace texts ∼ the inclusion of texts from a range of cultures ∼ an emphasis on the process of learning, differentiation, learning styles, and authentic assessment ∼ a mindfulness of the worldviews presented in the selected texts, with a balance, for example, between ‘tragic’ and ‘comic’ perspectives. See also Assessment, Curriculum, Evaluation, Learning-centred English, Lesson plan, Pedagogy, Unit of work. DC
Program Registers These are part of classroom teaching/learning programs where the classroom teacher ‘signs-off’ that the planned activities related to the relevant syllabus content, objectives and outcomes, have been completed. Depending on the format and content of the program, the teacher will generally notate the program, indicating what content, objectives, outcomes and strategies have been completed. Often, the teacher will include comments on what worked well and what did not; adjustments to the program resulting from amended planning or interruptions and the like. The notations are an important part of accountability and provide important information for a substitute teacher or for the teacher who next takes the class. See also Evaluation, Programming, Unit of work. DC The English Teacher’s Handbook
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P Prologue (Greek: ‘before speech’) A prologue is the opening section of a work, as in a preliminary act or event, without being an introduction. A famous example is Geoffrey Chaucer’s (c.1343-1400) “General Prologue” to The Canterbury Tales (c. 1380 – 1400). Verse prologues were common in 17th and 18th century drama and are sometimes found in prose fiction. DC
Propaganda (Italian: Relating to the Sacred Congregation for Propagating the Faith) The organised and sometimes institutionalised dissemination of ideas, beliefs, information, or allegations with the purpose of influencing a large number of people’s views, opinions and perceptions. Pamphlets and journals in the 18th century such as Daniel Isaac Eaton’s “Politics for the People” (1794) and Thomas Spence’s “Pig Meat” (1793-1796) were propagandist in their anti-establishment views, while the 20th century saw the rise of film as a tool for dissemination of political propaganda, as evidenced by the German Nazi movement. See also Bias, Language, Writing. DC
Prose (Latin: ‘direct’) Any form of written or spoken language that is not ruled by systematic metre or explicit patterns such as rhythm, stanzas, and rhyme. It encompasses an endless range of types of fiction and nonfiction texts. For example: novels; short stories; journals; biographies; autobiographies; diaries; picture books; magazine articles; newspaper articles; reports; digital texts (blogs, emails, discussions etc); and letters. Prose is distinguished from verse (or poetry) in its sustained and often direct movement, relying on a middle, beginning and end, without and overreliance on explicit recursive or repetitive language techniques. The major genres of prose such as the novel and short story are also categorised into subgenres (e.g. fantasy, mystery, horror, action and adventure). Students should be exposed to and compose a wide range of prose texts in an English program. See also Fiction, Nonfiction, Novel, Short story, Story, Writing. DC, JM
Protagonist (Greek: ‘main actor’) The main or central character in a text. It has the connotation of hero/heroine in many cases, although the two terms are not always synonymous. In drama, the protagonist is the character who dominates the action, is the focus of interest and is pivotal to the movement and resolution of the play. In fiction and film, for example, the protagonist may be represented through the eyes of the narrator, or other characters, and/or through the point of view of the character him or herself. Texts may have one or more protagonists – characters who carry the major interest and are central to the story or drama. See also Antagonist, Hero / Herione. JH
Pseudonym (Greek: ‘false name’) Refers to a fictitious name adopted for the purposes of publishing or public endeavour that is not the birth or legal name. A pseudonym is similar to a pen name (nom de plume) and stage name. It is often adopted to conceal the identity of the composer or to render the public name more palatable or appealing; for example, Agatha Christie (1890-1976) used the pseudonym Mary Westmacott and Sylvia Plath (1932-1963) used Victoria Lucas. Examples of composers and others adopting pseudonyms include the Brontë sisters who published under the pseudonyms of Currer (Charlotte), Ellis (Emily) and Acton (Anne) Bell (Brontë); Mark Twain (Samuel Clemens) 1835-1910; Mary Ann Evans (George Eliot) 1819-1880; and Lewis Carroll (Charles Dodgson) 1832-98. Visit the ‘A.K.A.’ website at: for an extensive list of famous and lesser-known pseudonyms. JM
Psychoanalytic criticism Also known as Freudian criticism. An approach to literary criticism that applies the techniques and principles of psychoanalysis to interpret texts. This form of literary criticism draws heavily on the 238
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P theories of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and seeks to understand texts in terms of how they represent the ‘conscious’ and ‘unconscious’ workings of the mind, dreams, sexuality and human ‘instinct’. Psychoanalytic critics are alert to any ‘psycho-drama’ in the work and regard the explicit content of the text as the manifestation of the ‘conscious’ mind. The deeper meaning of a work can be apprehended through an analysis of the ‘unconscious’ mind at work ‘behind’ the text. This may be apprehended through the use of Freudian symbols (e.g. water/life; fire/destruction or rebirth; cave/ female genitals; sword, tower, pen, gun/phallic symbols of power and potency); the identification of Freudian phases or stages (e.g. oral, anal, phallic); and the interpretation of characters as psychological tropes with an emphasis on their feelings, motives and interior states. There is a concern in psychoanalytic criticism for the individual’s inner conflicts, and anxieties, rather than for the wider social or cultural conflicts that may be represented. Following the work of Freud, Jacques Lacan (1901-1981) developed a Lacanian approach to the analysis of texts, modifying Freud’s theory by proposing the elusiveness of language, the ‘mirror stage’ and the centrality of the concepts of ‘lack’ and ‘desire’ in human experience. Lacan also argued for the constructed nature of individual subjectivity. The Psychoanalytic approach has been criticised for its oversimplification of literature, its emphasis on hunting out symbols, metaphors and images, and its reliance on the work of Freud which has been similarly critiqued to expose its flaws. This approach, while promoting individual enjoyment and pleasure in reading and response, does not account for the historical and cultural contexts that can influence the reader’s engagement with and response to texts and language. See also Interpretation, Literary criticism. JM Reference: Barry, P. (2002) Beginning Theory: An introduction to literary and cultural theory, Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Pun
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
A deliberate play on language to communicate a double meaning, usually for humorous effect or to display wit. Puns often employ homonyms. For example, a recent headline in a British newspaper used a pun to describe how the substitute players for a football team came on in the final session and scored the winning goals against the German side. The headline read: “Our subs sink Germans”. There is a play on the word “subs”, alluding to both the substitute players and also to submarines in WWII in the battles against the Germans. DC, JM Use the web resource: Pun of the Day (www.punoftheday.com) to explore the range of types of puns. Students can add their own examples of puns to this site, and examine the way language is used succinctly and precisely for comic or satiric affect in the examples provided on this site.
Purpose (Latin: ‘to propose’) The intention or reason motivating an endeavour. In texts, the purpose can be interpreted as the driving motivation for creating a work. The purpose of George Orwell’s (19031950) Animal Farm (1945), for example, is generally considered to be a condemnation of totalitarianism, particularly communism. When composing texts, students should be encouraged to articulate their purpose. An awareness of purpose influences both the form and content of text, and shapes the kinds of decisions about the language to be employed. In reading/viewing others’ texts, students are often encouraged to identify the purpose of the text. In some cases, this is reasonably straightforward, as in, for example, propaganda, speeches, and advertising. With other texts, the task of deciding upon the purpose or intention of the composer is more complex and problematic. While it is valuable to speculate on the purpose of a text, the Intentional Fallacy posits that it is impossible to ever definitively or authoritatively assert what the composer’s ‘intention’ was in producing it. See also Author, Intentional Fallacy, Language, Representing, Writing. DC, JM
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Q Quatrain A stanza of four lines in poetry. Quatrains are a common structural device in ballads and many popular songs. JM
Questioning techniques Effective pedagogy requires a repertoire of question types and a teacher who is able to apply these for stimulating, guiding, challenging and deepening student learning. Teacher-centred classrooms tend to be characterised by the predominance of ‘closed’ and ‘control’ questions. Learning and student-centred classrooms, however, are characterised by a wide range of question Question Type
Practical Implications
Appeal questions
Require students to agree with or share an attitude, or remember an experience. These can occur when the teacher is actively engaged in problem-solving (and modelling this) and invites students to share in this experience through appeal questions. Opens up learning opportunities.
Closed questions
Require one ‘right’ answer, almost always known in advance by the teacher. Narrows learning opportunities if used too often at the expense of other question types.
Control questions
Require students to comply with the teacher’s views and opinions. Narrows learning and limits inquiry if used too often at the expense of other question types.
Naming questions
Require simple recall of information, identification, description. Can be limiting if used too often due to its focus on lower-order thinking skills.
Observation questions
Require students to interpret and make value judgements
Reasoning questions
Require students to think out aloud, hypothesise, test knowledge, reconstruct from memory and use reason and logic to find solutions.
Recall questions
Memory test questions requiring students to recall facts, information, ideas, understanding and knowledge from memory.
types employed not only by the teacher, but also, importantly, by the students. JM Reference: Manuel, J. (2004) “Connecting Voices: Effective engagement and pedagogy for oral English”, in Reviewing English in the 21st Century, eds. W. Sawyer & E. Gold. Sydney: Phoenix Education, p. 81.
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Reader Refers to the individual who engages with a text and the implied, generic or intended audience of a text. In the light of theories of learning, language, texts and reading practices, the concept of the reader has become more complex and nuanced than that of a passive ‘receiver’ of information and knowledge from a text. In 1741, David Hume (1711-1766) argued that the process of engaging with a text requires an ‘ideal reader’ – one who reads as though ‘he’ was a universal ‘everyman’ [sic], setting aside personal, idiosyncratic perspectives. In the 20th century, Reception theory and Reader-response criticism proposed that the concept of ‘the reader’ is not singular – that each reader is unique and brings to the text his or her own set of beliefs, expectations, experiences, view of the world, reading skills and values. Therefore, the idea of a single ‘ideal reader’, implied or assumed by the text, needs to be extended to take account of many kinds of readers. There is, for example, the ‘informed reader’ who is assumed to have the knowledge, background and reading competence to engage with elements such as allusion and specialised language in a text. There is the ‘implied reader’ (Booth, 1961) which the text, through its language and ideas, assumes it is speaking to; the ‘super-reader’; the ‘reluctant reader’; the ‘under-achieving reader’; the ‘resistant reader’ and the ‘encoded reader’. Each of these terms seeks to qualify the concept of the unitary reader by recognising the range of differences that individuals bring to their experience of a text. The concept of the reader has also been enlarged to refer to reading not just print texts, but reading and viewing visual images and the whole range of modes of language and communication. See also Aesthetic and efferent reading, Author, Implied author, Implied reader, Literary theory, Literary criticism, Reading, Reception theory, Reader-response criticism. JM Reference: Booth, W. C. (1961) The Rhetoric of Fiction, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Reader-response criticism An approach to reading and textuality built on the work of Louise Rosenblatt (1904-2005) and Wolfgang Iser (1926-2007) (see Reception theory), and developed by Norman Holland (1927-), Stanley Fish (1938-) and David Bleich. This approach focuses on what readers experience as they read, shifting the New Critics’ emphasis from the self-contained text to the process of reading and meaning-making. Therefore, the role and personality of the reader – what s/he brings to the text in terms of values, experience, beliefs, memory, and reading competence - is central to the act of criticism.
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R Reader-response criticism is a branch of Reception theory and is underpinned by the assumption that the text, or words on the page, do not have meaning in themselves: meaning is produced by the ‘transaction’ between the text and the reader. Therefore, any text is always created anew with every new act of reading. This ‘new’ text is what Rosenblatt refers to as the ‘poem’. There is no single, fixed or authoritative meaning residing within any text. Meaning is contingent upon how the reader constructs meaning and the forces that influence that process of reading. These forces include the personality of the reader, their past and present, their prior and current experiences of texts, and their knowledge and understanding of the textual and reading conventions that shape their reading experience.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Reader-response criticism contests the notion of fixed, canonic literary value, regarding instead the continuum of texts (including film, media and other texts) as forever open to fresh responses and interpretations. This critical approach has significantly influenced the pedagogy of English, since it places the reader at the centre of the reading process and values at all stages, the development of an active, critical, imaginative and self-conscious responder who is increasingly aware of his or her own reading strategies and repertoires. Using this approach to teaching and learning, the classroom becomes a setting for dynamic, creative engagement and response, without the constricting limitations of a single (often the teacher’s) incontestable interpretation of a text. See also Aesthetic and efferent reading, Appreciation, Interpretation, Literary criticism, Literary theory, Literature, Reading, Reception theory. DC, JM When reading a text you may ask:
∼ What aspects of my experience do I see reflected in this text? ∼ What aspects of age, race, ethnicity, social status and gender are influencing my reading of this text?
∼ Do I empathise with any character or experience in this text? Why? ∼ Are there characters or experiences in this text that challenge and/or unsettle me? Why?
∼ When I read this text, would I change things about its form and/or content? Why?/ Why not?
∼ How do others in my group respond to and interpret this? In what ways are such responses and interpretations different from or similar to my own?
References: Rosenblatt, L. (1938) Literature as Exploration, NY: Appleton-Century. Tompkins, J.P. (ed.) (1980) Reader-Response Criticism: From Formalism to PostStructuralism, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Reading From decades of research, we understand that reading is an active process of making meaning from signs and systems of signs. Reading is a transaction between the reader and the text: the text acts upon and shapes the reader and the reader acts upon and shapes the meaning of the text. As readers, what we bring to the text is critical: 1. Our experience of the process of reading (decoding symbols; knowledge of structures and features of language; and our understanding of the codes and conventions of types of texts). 2. Our experience of the world: we use our existing knowledge of the world to connect new ideas, synthesise these and make meaning. Reading is not merely a mechanical process of decoding print, but a thinking process – a ‘psycholinguistic guessing game’ (Goodman, 1968, 1986, 1996) where we make meaning from the grapho-phonic, syntactic, and semantic cueing systems in the text. Reading is about making sense out of print, not just sound out of print. We can read phonetically, for instance, without understanding the meaning of what we are reading. Prediction is a central feature of the reading process: we predict and then have these predictions confirmed or denied by the text as we read on. Some 242
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R reading programs tend to ignore or undervalue the experience a student brings to the text in the meaning-making process. Packaged programs are actually detrimental to these readers, confirming their assumptions that reading is boring, meaningless and tightly controlled by adults. As teachers, we need to avoid the ‘bits-and-pieces’ or ‘bottom-up approach’. Instead, ∼ model good reading practices by reading out aloud to students, demonstrating enthusiasm and discussing the pleasures and satisfactions that can be derived from reading ∼ give students some choice in what they read. Some students will need more guidance and encouragement than others in making selections for Literature Circles and reading groups. Enjoying reading builds reading proficiency ∼ emphasise reading as an act and process of making meaning and communication rather than merely a series of sub-skills. Use whole texts regularly (stories, poems, plays, articles), rather than fragments (isolated words, phrases, exercise paragraphs) ∼ encourage readers to become active thinkers, predictors and evaluators of their reading process. Encourage speculation, anticipation and critical thinking and the sharing of responses to build an interpretive community ∼ constantly link reading practices and responses with students’ writing, building an understanding of the art, craft and skills involved in shaping language for a purpose and audience to represent ideas and communicate meaning ∼ keep in mind that we read for a wide range of purposes: for pleasure, relaxation and enjoyment; to gather information and ideas; for writing; for assessment; to escape; to learn more about other people, places and experiences; to confirm or challenge values, identity, beliefs and attitudes; to solve problems; and experience vicariously new worlds and perspectives. Too often, reading at school becomes associated with information gathering, a precursor for writing, and the completion of assessment tasks. Models of Reading Cognitive models Expressivist models Emerged from 1960s cognitive psychology • These theories see reading primarily as an activity • Objectivist theoretical assumptions in which readers create their own personal mean• Information processing ings from the text as they read • Reader actively draws on prior knowledge to • “There is no such thing as a generic reader or a make meaning generic literary work; there are in reality only the • Very influential in research on reading potential millions … the novel or poem or play ex• Text is a container of meaning ists, after all only with interactions with specific • Theory that all human processes, including readminds.” (Louise Rosenblatt) ing, can be dissected and quantified • Mastery of a set of skills: mental capacities fore- • Emerged from student-centred theories of Rousseau grounded in this process and Dewey. • Reader as a social being is less important • Reader-response theories (Holland, Fish, Smith, Brit• Schema theory: universal foundation which underton, Meek, Rosen, Bleich, Iser, Fish) lies knowledge • Reading is a process that should be owned by the Socio-cultural models reader and bear an organic connection to the rest • Social context of the reader and text is emphaof the student’s life sised • Opposed to reading programs (basal readers etc) • Reading regarded as a social process • According to Catherine Belsey, in expressivist theo• Reading is not merely about comprehension and ries “the reader’s intuition is a new source of authorlearning, but also about shaping of cultural, ideoity” and this does not account for “the relationship logical and political beliefs and values between experience and language, ideology and • Reading and learning must be contextualised history.” (2002) • Freire: problem posing role of the teacher – op- • Readers primarily seen as individuals rather than posed to the ‘banking model’ of pedagogy and also as socially constructed subjects knowledge • Reading and the construction of knowledge is a transactional process: a transaction or interaction between reader and text takes place to create a ‘new’ text The English Teacher’s Handbook
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R •
“Different communities, different experiences of life, different social positions create essential contexts for the unique meanings each of us makes. Critical literacy teaching begins by problematising the cultures and knowledges of the text – putting then up for grabs, for critical debate, for weighing, judging, critiquing… Such analysis also provides the groundwork for ‘changing the subject’ of texts, and for strategically intervening in social contexts.” (Wendy Morgan, 2004)
• • •
•
The reader’s unique perspective is brought to bear and will greatly influence the shape of a work The work itself will also has the power to influence and shape responses The question shifts from ‘What does this mean?’ to ‘What can I learn from this work?’ The reader becomes an active agent in meaning-making “Knowledge is made rather than found.” (Stanley Fish)
Practical strategies for encouraging, supporting, enjoying, sharing and developing reading Strategy Reading out aloud
Examples
Context
Engage students in the worlds, pleasure and enjoyment that texts can WC, SG, P open up; acclimatizing them to language and discourses that may be unfamiliar, and to conventions, patterns and structures of texts
Personal literacy history Students complete a survey of favourite books; topics; interests; I leisure activities; and goals Reading Log
Include books read; books to be read; wish lists; agreed reading
I
Reading Journal
Include reading goals; reflections; responses to books; questions; I reviews; wish-lists; rating books 1-10; self-evaluations
Wide Reading Program Students self-select material and time is set aside in class for this kind WC, SG, P, I of reading. This program exists alongside and contributes to the class reading program which may be more teacher-directed Reading contracts
Personal negotiation with teacher
Focus on texts
Book of the week/month; Author of the week/month; Genre of the WC week/month
‘Bring Your Own Literature’ (BYO Lit)
Encourage students to bring in to class something they are enjoying WC, SG, P, I reading to share with the class. Should not be assessed. Intended to encourage enjoyment, self-awareness of reading development; recognition and valuing of diverse tastes; awareness that not all reading is associated with school assessment; building a community of readers and an interpretive community
Celebration and events
Participate in book fairs; writers’ festivals; reading challenges
Parallel creation
Use films, music, excursions, recordings or visual stimulus as resources WC for parallel creation prior to reading the book. Pre-reading, building the field, getting ready for the text
Displays
Boxes of books and classroom book displays – reading ‘corners’ if WC, SG, P, I you have a home room
Posters
Wall charts from book publishers or posters about books made by WC students; Favourite Books list; quotes from favourite books, or about books on posters and collages displayed around the room
Resource files
Source files/blogs/book raps compiled by students with reviews of WC, SG, P, I books and suggestions for further reading and responses
Podcasts
There are many books available as podcasts on the web
Excursions
Visit publishing houses or places of significance to particular texts/ WC thematic units
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Sharing
Literature Circles, Book Groups, Book Clubs: Virtual and Actual - WC, SG, P, I based on interest, ability, friendship. Students can create their own book clubs (through sites such as Facebook), participate in established book clubs and share reading on sites such as Facebook’s Virtual Bookshelf
Reciprocal teaching
With teacher and peer groups. More able readers work with less SG able readers, with assigned roles. Stages are: 1. Attempting to predict the story 2. Clarifying any misunderstanding 3. Asking questions concerning key content and language structures, patterns and features 4. Demonstrating understanding and comprehension through response
Interviews
Mock and real interviews with composers
Contact
Writing to/emailing authors and other audiences about books, WC, SG, P, I plays, poems etc
VIP: Variety, Immersion, Pleasure
Immersion in a wide variety of texts so that students grow in confi- WC, SG, P, I dence and competence in exploring and understanding
WC, SG, P, I
The table below describes a range of ways to engage and support students in their reading. Many of these strategies can be embedded in reading programs and units of work. Indications are given for the suitability of each strategy for whole class (WC); small group (SG); pairs (P); or individual (I) learning contexts. Practical strategies for improving reading comprehension Strategy
Example/Purpose
Context
Prediction
Predict from visual, printed and spoken cues (e.g. book, DVD cover). WC, SG, P, Draws on real-world knowledge to speculate on possible meanings. I Engages interest and promotes anticipation for reading on
Cloze
Designed to promote students’ use of efficient semantic and syntactic SG, P, I cueing systems to construct meaning. Provide experience in using anaphoric (backward) and cataphoric (forward) referencing techniques
Discussion
Talk about, hypothesise, speculate on stories or add missing scenes - WC, SG, P, verbally, dramatically or in writing as you are reading I
Sequencing
Heightens understanding of the ways texts work. Readers’ expectations SG, P, I and assumptions about texts and story are enriched and challenged. Develops understanding of narrative structure; voice; tense; plot and form
Changing the form
Translating, transforming and imitating the form so that students are SG, P, I brought back to the text again and again and gain insight into the art and craft of creating text and shaping response. Promotes concept of student as simultaneously writer and reader
Questions
Open-ended questions about texts which are generated by students
Dramatising and performing
A very valuable way of improving comprehension, promoting embodied SG, P, I knowledge, and encouraging interpretation
Fact and opinion
Use a highlighter to identify facts and opinions (e.g. in newspapers and SG, P, I magazines)
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Example/Purpose
Context
The implied reader Speculate on the intended audience of a passage from the evidence of its SG, P, I subject matter, language, style and presentation. Fables, fairy tales, nursery rhymes and parables
Employ these as parallel texts because they are readily accessible and WC, SG, P, often familiar and cross-cultural I
Versions
Select and compare different versions of poems, stories, myths, factual v SG, P, I fictional treatments – e.g. Cinderella. There are many versions to enable students to explore changes in language, audience, purpose, context etc
Character trees
grids/ Students complete this during reading, to deepen connections and SG, P, I understanding of characters – motivation, action, behaviour, dialogue etc
Representation
Time lines, mind maps, Venn diagrams, word webs. All work well to assist SG, P, I readers in understanding often complex patterns within texts
Drawing
Students create symbols, maps, plans, cartoons. Visual representations of P, I aspects of texts can be illuminating for some readers
de Bono’s Thinking Hats
Six In small groups of six, each student wears a different hat. Red: Feelings SG (What are my feelings about this?); Yellow: Strengths (What are the good points?); Black: Weaknesses (What is wrong with this?); Green: New ideas (What is possible?); White: Information (What are the facts?); Blue: Thinking about thinking (What thinking is needed?) Adapted from Edward de Bono (1992) Six Thinking Hats for Schools.
Practical strategies for addressing the needs of adolescents experiencing difficulties with reading Factor
Key Principle
Strategy
1. The Learning Environment
Schools and their practices vis-à-vis literacy and reading can position some students as ‘failures’ and thereby institutionalise deficit models of adolescent achievement.
There is a vast array of strategies to empower and enable readers to exercise ownership of and control over their language in a noncompetitive environment that values and builds upon their personal literacy capital.
2. Remedial Reading
Remediation programs that decontextualise literacy learning for struggling adolescent readers, and/or focus merely on ‘getting the word right’ approach to reading, can be more harmful than helpful in reversing the individual’s reading problems.
Choice of reading materials and reading that is purposeful and contextualised is critical for reading success. A balance of teacher-selected and student-selected materials is essential.
3. Reading Pedagogy
Well-informed teaching practice is pivotal for the struggling reader. All teachers are teachers of reading, even in high school. Poor pedagogy can imperil reading achievement for struggling adolescent readers just as excellent pedagogy can enhance it.
Start where the student ‘is at’. Build on their current skills, knowledge and interests. Employ a range of approaches, including whole class, small group, pairs and individual work. Make time for reading, and make reading count. Understand and implement effective reading pedagogy, in all curriculum areas. Model being a committed reader who enjoys reading for a range and variety of purposes.
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Key Principle
Strategy
4. Choice and selection of reading materials
The most significant catalyst for decreasing interest levels and reading difficulties in adolescents is inappropriately selected or taught reading materials. Students can become passive, apathetic and resistant readers if the materials are not managed and negotiated.
Empower students through the use of studentselected materials in the curriculum. When given the opportunity, most students will make ‘good’ reading choices that can be a potential asset to our teaching. Range of materials and access to materials are fundamental ingredients in an effective reading program in all curriculum areas.
5. Connecting school and life
“All reader are good readers, when they have the right book” (Jean Henry). Readers use reading for their own purposes. Reading must have a purpose beyond the merely functional or assessable. Motivation levels in adolescents are clearly linked to the quality and kind of reading they are required to undertake.
Ensure that reading has purpose and meaning that challenges students to use higher-order thinking skills, rather than requiring reading for mere information retrieval and low-level busywork tasks. Reading is more than a tool for academic learning. It is also a means for pleasure, enjoyment and personal learning.
6. Teacher Professional Development
Most secondary school teachers, with the exception of English teachers, have not traditionally considered teaching reading to be part of their role.
Be explicit about the demands of and the strategies required for reading in particular curriculum areas. Utilise the many resources available for teachers and students: e.g. MyRead.org.au
7.Expectations and Relationships
Teachers need to demystify the reading process and communicate to students through language and modelling, that learning to read is not a mystery or a prize to be won by an elected few. It is wholly within their reach if they are willing to engage. The teacher needs to trust that students can learn and will achieve.
The relationship between the teacher and the student has a decisive impact on the student’s self-image as a reader. High teacher expectations, and effective pedagogy and modelling of purposeful reading are crucial for success. Conversely, poor expectations and labelling of students can have serious deleterious effects on reader’s self-image that may have a profound influence their opportunities to achieve.
8. The Learner
Most reading difficulties are the result of factors other than an individual’s learning disability. Given this knowledge, it is possible for most students, with expert intervention and support, to achieve success in reading.
Make learning, as least for part of the time, fun. Reading is more than mere skills development. It is about books, stories, communicating and understanding. It is about opening new worlds, and illuminating old ones. There is a powerful nexus between enjoyment and learning.
See also Constructivism, Group work, Metacognition, Reader, Writing. DC, JM References: Belsey, C. (2002) in Davies, C., What is English Teaching? Buckingham: Open University Press de Bono, E. (1992) Six Thinking Hats for Schools, Victoria: Hawker Brownlow. Goodman, K. S. (1968) The psycholinguistic nature of the reading process. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press. Goodman, K. S. (1978) Reading of American children whose reading is a stable, rural dialect of English or language other than English. Washington, DC: National Insti-tute of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Goodman, K. S. (1986) What's whole in whole language? Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Goodman, K. S. (1993) Phonics phacts. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Goodman, K. S. (1996) Ken Goodman on reading. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Manguel, A. (1996) A History of Reading, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Manuel, J. (2005) Effective Strategies to Address the Needs of Adolescents 13+ Experiencing Difficulties with Reading: A Review of the Literature, NSW DET: Curriculum Support Directorate,
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R Morgan, W. (2004) “Critical Literacy”, in Reviewing English in the 21st Century, eds. W. Sawyer & Gold, Sydney: Phoenix Education. Thomson, Jack, (1987) Understanding Teenagers’ Reading: Reading processes and the teaching of literature, 1992 edn. Norwood: AATE.
Reading Groups See Literature Circles, Reading, Wide reading, Young Adult Literature.
Realism (Latin: ‘thing’) A term that has been applied to a kind of writing (and art) prevalent in the 19th and 20th centuries. It refers to the degree to which a text ‘imitates’ or reflects reality, although attempts to define ‘reality’ are problematic and continuously debated. Indeed, Aristotle’s theory of mimesis addressed this issue. In one sense, all texts rely to a certain extent on aspects of a particular ‘reality’ to shape the ideas, context, characters and setting of the text. In the study of literature and other texts, realism generally refers to the more direct and explicit engagement with ideas, events, people and places of a particular context, such that the point of view and subject matter seek to capture something close to a shared sense of the objective world – whether this be through descriptions and the documenting of places and events, or through the narrative point of view that seeks to imitate the actual working of the human consciousness (e.g. stream of consciousness). Often, realism focuses on the experiences of ‘ordinary’ people and their daily lives, in contrast to idealised or heroised subjects who may experience fantastic or extraordinary adventures. Novels of the 19th century, such as, for example, George Eliot’s Middlemarch (1871-1872) have been described as instances of realism, since they deal with ordinary people in everyday situations. See also Mimesis, Novel. JM
Reception theory Developed in the 1960s by Hans Robert Jauss (1921-1997), in the light of shifting understandings of the role and experience of the reader in the act of reading and interpretation of texts and language. According this theory, the reader of a text brings to the reading experience a set of assumptions, beliefs, perceptions and expectations that are fluid and shifting, depending on the moment of engagement with the text. Jauss argued that such factors inevitably shape the meaning that arises from the interaction of the text and the reader. Later, Wolfgang Iser (1926-2007) argued that reading is a process and experience whereby the reader is continuously constructing meaning, predicting and speculating on what will follow, having these expectations confirmed or challenged, and filling in the gaps of the text to make sense of the text. He called this the process of “anticipation and retrospection” (Iser, 1978). Starting out with reflecting on how literature functions as a medium of interaction between the context from which it emerges, and a reader who makes the literature concrete, Iser contributed to the development of literary theory by turning literature itself into a mode of reflection. In this so-called “Wirkungsästhetik” [“aesthetics of effect”] he conceived of the literary text as a structure that elicits aesthetic responses in its reader by opening up her or his habitual worldview. (Van Imshcoot, 2005: 1) According to Iser, the reader is always seeking to unify the indeterminacies of the text through this process of active engagement and the construction of a single meaning. Reception theory shares with New Criticism the view that the text has an internal coherence and unity, and it is the reader’s task to complete this. It also assumes that the reader will come to a single, determinate reading, although different individual readers will potentially derive different meanings from the same text. Unlike New Criticism, Reception theory relocates the final source of meaning from the text to the individual reader. See also Interpretation, Literary criticism, Reader-response criticism, Reading. DC, JM Reference: Iser, W. (1979) The Act of Reading, London: RKP Tompkins, J.P. (ed.) (1980) Reader-Response Criticism: From Formalism to PostStructuralism, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Van Imschoot, T. (2005) "Wolfgang Iser", The Literary Encyclopedia.
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Recursive Refers to the concept of learning as a dynamically evolving experience, rather than a strictly sequential or lockstep process. Recursive learning classrooms value and recognise that students learn in different ways. Recursive practice involves revisiting and refining prior learning at appropriate points in order to deepen and expand knowledge, understanding and skills. See also Metacognition, Reflection/reflective practice. JM
Reflection/Reflective practice The process of deliberating on, thinking about and reviewing learning, experience and knowledge. Students in English are encouraged to reflect on their learning through talking, writing and valuing the process of assimilating new knowledge and its meaning. Reflecting on learning is a crucial means of enabling students to understand and strengthen their own ways of learning; to make explicit to themselves what they have learned; and to acquire a metalanguage to describe how they have learned this. Such reflection leads students to understand how they best learn and acquire new knowledge and skills. Journals are an effective medium for reflection, as are class discussions and pair and small group discussions. Reflection can occur prior to, during and after a new learning experience. It is an integral component of effective pedagogy in English and is an important component of recursive classroom practice. Reflective practice is an essential element of effective teaching, with teachers engaging in the same kinds of processes of reflecting on their own learning and their teaching. Action research is a strategy for improving teaching practice through reflection and action. Self, peer and student evaluations are also avenues for teachers to improve practice through reflection on these forms of feedback. See also Assessment, Evaluation, Metacognition, Journal writing. JM
Refrain (Latin: ‘to break’) A recurring word, line, lines or stanza in a poem at regular or irregular intervals. Often the refrain will occur at the end of a stanza. Refrains are common in ballads, songs and hymns, allowing the audience to participate as a chorus. An example of a refrain in a ballad occurs in “The Three Ravens”: There were three ravens sat on a tree, Down a down, hay down, hay down There were three ravens sat on a tree, With a down They were as black as they might be. With a down derry, derry, derry, down, down. See also Poetry. JM
Register The variation in written or spoken language that is shaped by the writer’s or speaker’s purpose, context and audience. A formal register, for example, would be required in a professional setting such as a speech night or awards presentation. An informal or colloquial register is appropriate for a conversation between good friends. The register is determined by the writer’s or the speaker’s choice of language. Effective communication depends upon the use of the appropriate register. See also Accent, Dialect, Language, Talking and listening, Writing. JM
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PRACTICAL STRATEGY
R ∼ In small groups, students brainstorm a list of all the types of contexts that they experience in their daily lives. These may include, for example, home; peer group; workplace; sporting group; classroom; playground; online communities; and so on.
∼ For each of the contexts, students discuss what types of language and register are appropriate – e.g. ‘formal’ or ‘colloquial’ etc.
∼ Provide students with a series of scenarios and brief examples of dialogue or statements.
∼ The dialogue and statements can be matched to the most appropriate scenario, with students considering how and why a particular ‘register’ is required for each differing context.
Renaissance (French: ‘rebirth’) The period that immediately followed the Middle Ages, marked by a ‘rebirth’ and flourishing of artistic, scientific and intellectual endeavour. The Renaissance originated in Italy in the late 1400s and by the 1500s it had reached Europe and England. The Renaissance in England encompassed the Elizabethan and Jacobean ages (1558-1625). JM
Reporting The process and practice of providing detailed information about student achievement for students, parents, the profession and the wider community. Reporting can take place formally and informally. Formal reporting includes details of assessment and records of student achievement reported against standards, criteria, descriptors or other measures. Formal reporting is usually in written form. Reporting is integrally linked to assessment and evaluation regimes and generally takes place at the conclusion of a course of study, a stage of learning or at the transition points of education. Informal reporting can take place at any stage in the teaching and learning cycle, through, for example, interviews, conferences, discussions and verbal or written feedback to students, parents and others. See also Assessment. DC, JM
Representation Refers to the ways ideas, events, people and places are portrayed and presented in and through a text. See also Drama, Composing, Fiction, Film, Image, Language, Narrative, Poetry. JM
Representing One of the language modes of English. Representing is creating, constructing, and communicating meaning through a variety of visual media and forms including drawings; sounds; pictures; movements; illustrations; charts; graphs; posters; murals; photographs; dioramas; puppets; sculptures; models; dramas; videos; films; and electronic texts/graphics. When students engage in such activities, they understand and apply generic conventions and codes that are appropriate to the text and medium of production. Aristotle proposed that “the aim of art is to represent not the outward appearance of things, but their inward significance” and acts of representation in English (of creative and other types of texts) aim not merely to reflect experience but also to interpret it. See also Drama, Composing, Fiction, Film, Image, Language, Narrative, Poetry, Reading. DC, JM Forms of Representing
Examples
Maps and Webs
concept map; story map; character map; word map; concept web
Charts and Frames
summary chart; matrix; comparison/contrast grid; paragraph organizer frame; structured overview
Diagrams
labeled diagram; Venn diagram; tree diagram
Chains, Wheels, Timelines and Flowcharts
sequence chain; word chain; cycle wheel; word wheel; historical timeline; event flowchart; rebus
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Examples
Graphs
object graph; pictograph; bar graph
Illustrations
poster; painting; photograph; mural; slide show; collage; comic strip; storyboard; story quilt
Three-dimensional and mul- display; model; diorama; sculpture; skit; mime; tableau; role play; drama; puptimedia pet play; mobile; video; multimedia presentation Talk, Act, Draw, Write
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Talking, acting, drawing, and writing provide ways to express thoughts. Students talk, act, draw and write to represent what they are hearing, seeing, viewing, understanding, feeling, or thinking about a story, topic, or experience. They can use talking, acting, drawing, and writing to retell a text, to represent their response, or to share their impressions with others. Students are encouraged to share their representations with others and then to add further details or ideas to their representations. Students can talk about, act, draw, or write scenes or sequences of events from texts they have heard, read, or viewed. Students can share and discuss the scenes (Whitin, 1996). Another activity that students enjoy is representing a scene from different perspectives such as a bird's eye view or an ant's eye view (Moline, 1995). Students can also talk, act, draw, and write about a field trip experience or a guest speaker's visit.
Story Maps These assist students to develop a ‘sense of story’. Students can use a simple story map to retell the beginning, middle, and end of a story or create a graphic organiser that captures the problem-solution relationship found in a story.
Illustrator Strategies Students can explore different techniques and media to represent their ideas, capture a story line, illustrate a character or setting, and capture or create moods and feelings. Students can represent their understanding of word meanings through collages, paintings, and mobiles. Students can create comic strips of the key events and elements of a story, create murals, or design posters.
Books:: Wordless Picture Books Teachers model how wordless picture books tell a story or convey information. Students can tell a story or present information using this technique.
Stretch:: Sketch to Stretch In small groups or as a class, students view, read, or listen to a text. Before they begin, encourage students to think about how one can represent or draw the composer’s intended meaning. During and after viewing, reading, or listening to a text, students sketch their observations about the text and share them with a partner. Speech balloons and ‘thinking bubbles’ can be incorporated into the sketches to indicate what characters said or were thinking (Harste, Burke & Short, 1988). Alternatively, students can represent their observations through acting, designing a diorama, and other activities. References: Harste, J. C., Burke, C.L. & Short, K.G. (1988) Creating classrooms for authors, Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Moline, S. (1996) “I See what You Mean: Children at Work with Visual Information.”. Whitin, P. (1996) “Sketching Stories, Stretching Minds: Responding Visually to Literature.” .
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R Research Refers to the investigation of phenomena and human experience through the systematic application of research methods for gathering and analysing evidence. Research seeks to solve problems, discover new knowledge, interpret experience, draw conclusions and contribute to our understanding of ourselves and the world we inhabit in ways that are valid, reliable and can be reproduced. There is a range of types of research, based on the nature of the research methods being applied; the purpose and focus of the research; the context of the research (and researcher); and the research questions. This range is defined according to the two broad categories of qualitative research and quantitative research. In English education, both types of research occur, contributing the development of theory and pedagogy. Disciplines are characterised by their reliance on evidence-based research to inform these developments: English education is underpinned and sustained by a significant body of research that continues to inform all aspects of teaching and learning. A knowledge and understanding of not only the research-base of the discipline, but also the methods of conducting research in education is a vital part of the English teacher’s professionalism. Importantly, English teaching and learning assumes that students will become active researchers, particularly with the availability of information accessed through digital media. Research is driven by the need to answer questions and solve problems. Students should develop the skills to undertake not only the process of inquiry through research but also the skills to critically evaluate the validity and worth of material that they rely upon as evidence. The opportunities for research by students in English is endless, depending on the focus, tasks and outcomes of the particular teaching and learning program. Students are no longer wholly dependent on the teacher as the source of knowledge and information, although it is the responsibility of the teacher to equip students with the required skills and understandings that will enable them to conduct research in ethical and valid ways. Students, with the support of and modelling from the teacher, engage in their own research through investigating topics; issues; historical, cultural, biographical, and other information; as well as undertaking research to answer questions and invest projects with depth and substance. See also Action research, Constructivism, Reflection/Reflective practice, Student-centred learning. JM
Resistant reading An interpretation of a text that challenges received, ‘dominant’ or orthodox interpretations. A resistant reading seeks to ‘interrogate’ the text to expose its ideology. As the term implies, a resistant reading seeks to ‘resist’ the power of the text to persuade the responder that the worldview portrayed in the text is a ‘natural’ or universal one. In other words, the text is approached with suspicion since it is regarded as being complicit in the maintenance of dominant power structures. The responder actively ‘resists’ the potential for the text to exert power over him or her. Approaches to texts that encourage resistant readings reject the authority and agency of the author, insist on the primacy of ‘difference’ and tend to discount the aesthetic dimensions of texts. Ironically, or even paradoxically, such a view rests on the hegemonic view that all texts are first and foremost ‘cultural objects’ or documents encoding systems of signs while at the same time arguing against any manifestation of hegemony. Critics of this approach argue that such a position is highly problematic, given the responder is not a passive cipher and can exert the final ‘power’ over the text through the decision to simply not continue reading/viewing. Boyd (2006) argues that: another considerable apparent advantage of Theory for literary scholars was that it made it easy to generate new readings—and to have them published. One could choose from a range of mechanical templates: the deconstructionist insistence on the impossibility of meaning; the feminist criticism of the patriarchy; the feministpsychoanalytic insistence on the absent mother; the cultural materialist insistence on the economic substrate; the New historicist insistence on power as “always already” 252
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R recuperating dissent; and so on. Assured of the rightness of one’s convictions, one could adopt loose canons of evidence, or even dismiss the idea of objective evidence as a ruse and glorify strong or aggressive readings that contested the text’s apparent meanings. These self-proclaimed “interventionist” readings of past texts allowed a blithe conviction of moral superiority, since they indicted those who could offer no resistance, although it was never explained quite how charging a sixteenth-century text with complicity in, say, patriarchy would trans- form the modern world. Nor did the process actually require anyone, as Edward Said complained, to exert pressure in the world outside academe where conflicting interests might have to be contended with. (Boyd, 2006: 295) See also Alternative reading, Author, Critical Literacy, Dominant reading, Literary criticism, Literary theory. JM Reference: Boyd, B. (2006) “Theory is Dead – Like a Zombie”, Philosophy and Literature, 30, pp. 289-298.
Response terms When students are responding to texts and experiences (and ‘making and doing’) the ‘what’ and ‘how’ of any activity is defined as a ‘response’. Response terms are verbs, providing a framework for students as they engage in the process of responding. The terms carry specific meanings and expectations so it is important that these are made explicit to students prior to commencing any task. DC, JM Response term
Meaning
Account
Give an account of; report on and provide reasons for; retell and recount
Analyse
Explore, probe and question aspects of a text or experience, focusing on intercepting and making meaning of the whole through systematic attention to the parts
Apply
Use acquired knowledge, skills, understandings and values in new and/or different situations and contexts
Appreciate
Engage with, respect and value
Assess
Measure, weigh up or make a judgement about the quality, worth, value, relevance or outcomes
Clarify
Spell out in straightforward ways something that may not be immediately clear; illuminate
Compare
Demonstrate how things are similar and/or different
Construct
Build, design, make, assemble, compose, develop an argument, text, response
Contrast
Show how things are similar and/or different
Critically Explore, question and interpret a text and make a judgement about its value, worth and analyse/evaluate effectiveness. Define
Explain the meaning, name, describe and delineate the features
Demonstrate
Explain understanding with evidence and examples
Describe
Explain, portray, illustrate, depict
Discuss
Talk or write about a topic, idea, issue, setting out points ‘for’ and ‘against’
Distinguish
Highlight the differences between two or more things, recognise and explain differences, make a distinction between things
Evaluate
Make a judgement about the value and worth of something, appraise and assess the effectiveness of something
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R Response term
Meaning
Examine
Scrutinise, study in detail, investigate, interrogate and thoughtfully consider
Explain
Provide details and reasons, clarify, elucidate and explain
Identify
Recognise and name something
Interpret
Ascribe meaning, demonstrate understanding, translate
Investigate
Explore, inquire into, research and study something in detail
Justify
Provide valid reasons and explanations
Outline
Summarise key points, features, ideas
Summarise
Sum up, provide a brief overview of key point, features, ideas
Synthesise
Combine various parts into a whole, create a new product or argument by drawing together various sources
Restoration period The period in England commencing with the ‘restoration’ of the British monarchy under the kingship of Charles II in 1660. The Restoration period lasted for approximately 30-40 years (until 1689-1700). This period is celebrated for the emergence of journalism and periodicals, the flourishing of drama (Charles II re-opened the theatres) and the proliferation of odes as a poetic form of praise for the aristocracy. The so-called ‘court poets’ thrived during this period – poets who were attached to the court of Charles II, including John Dryden (1631-1700), and the Earl of Rochester (1647-1680). They wrote poetry about topical issues, public figures and political events. The literature of the time tended to obviate the personal in favour of an emphasis on the public and philosophical. Eschatological literature also featured during the later stages of the Restoration, reflecting the growing concerns of the Puritans within British society. It is believed that the playwright, spy and controversial figure of the time, Aphra Behn (1640-1689), was the first women in British history to earn a living ‘by the pen’ – an achievement hitherto known only by male writers. Her comedy, The Rover or The Banished Cavaliers, was performed in two parts in 1677 and 1681, respectively. Like many dramas of the period, The Rover had a clear political purpose, critiquing the Puritans and anti-royalists of the time. The period is also known for its comedy – William Congreve’s The Way of the World (1700) is a notable example of the genre and themes prominent at the time. Restoration comedy is characterised by its sexual explicitness, intrigue and focus on politics. JM
Revenge tragedy A type of tragedy that explores the tragic hero’s determination to exact revenge for perceived or actual wrongdoings against him/her. These tragedies dramatise the moral and psychological dilemmas and confusion of the protagonist, and often include violence, murder, treachery and the supernatural. The best-known example of revenge tragedy is Shakespeare’s Hamlet (c. 1601). JH
Reversal The turning point or hinge-moment in a drama or other text that signals the reversal of fortune for the protagonist. See also Climax, Drama, Freytag’s pyramid. JM
Review (Latin: ‘to see’) Generally, a short piece of writing which is a critical assessment or discussion of an issue, event or publication. The other sense of review is a publication such as a journal or periodical which includes articles on literature, art and philosophy. Famous examples include Scrutiny, the Edinburgh Review and The Bulletin. DC 254
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R Rhetoric (Greek: ‘orator’) The art and principles of speech, writing and communication. It originated with the Greek Sophists and was developed by successive Greek philosophers including Socrates (469-399 BC), Plato (c. 428-348 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC). Rhetoric as a discipline is closely linked to the practice of logic and the study of the principles of grammar (the study of language and symbols and the synthesis of these to communicate effectively), both of which are considered to be central to the art of rhetoric. Rhetoric aims to persuade the audience to the speaker’s/writer’s point of view. The principles of rhetoric centre on the quality of ideas, the organisation of these ideas and their expression. The study of rhetoric in the humanities aims to analyse the strategies (rhetorical) that the composer employs to engage and persuade the audience. Winterowd (1981: 66-69) proposed a model for the analysis of rhetoric, based on what he describes as the rhetorical context. He sets out 6 elements of rhetoric and explicates their function: Element
Question
Definition
Persona
Who?
The voice the audience apprehends
Topic
What?
The focus or subject of the text
Medium
Where?
The form and structure and context for the text
Purpose
Why?
The reason for the text
Tone
How?
The combination of mood, voice and style
Audience
Whom?
The responders
Rhetoric often involves the use of rhetorical questions designed to galvanise and advance an argument and engage the audience in the flow of ideas and thinking that is shaping the speech. Rhetoric also carries pejorative connotations in some contexts – ‘it is just rhetoric’ – implying that the quality of the communication or ideas is lacking substance and credibility. See also Argument, Debate, Essay, Language, Speech, Talking and listening, Writing. JM Reference: Winterowd, W. R. (1981) The Contemporary Writer, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Rhetorical criticism The dominance of New Criticism in the first half of the 20th century, with its tenets of close reading, the autonomy of the text and authoritative readings, prompted a number of American critics to question and extend the concept of the text, the author and the reader. Prominent within what was known as the Chicago School of critics were RS Crane (1886-1967) and Wayne C Booth (19212005). Crane’s work contested the notion of criticism as an ‘objective’ act, regarding it instead as a process and a method that was inevitably subjective and contingent. In 1961, Booth published The Rhetoric of Fiction in which he argued that all works of fiction are constructed narratives, dependent on the values, morals and beliefs of the author and the ‘implied author’. While the New Critics rejected any reliance on information about the author or historical context of the work, Booth posited that all narratives are shot through and inscribed with the personality of the author. The role of the reader/critic is to examine the implicit authorial or narrative voice, and apprehend the ‘implied reader’. Any act of reading requires a consciousness of the relationship between the author and the creation – and the subsequent moral, ethical and value-laden perspectives that drive the creation through the author’s use of rhetorical resources and techniques. See also Implied author, Implied reader, Interpretation, Literary criticism, Literary theory, Literature, New Criticism. JM Reference: Booth, W. C. (1961) The Rhetoric of Fiction, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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R Rhetorical modes Refers to the distinguishing features, conventions and purpose of the major modes of discourse: argumentation (persuasive discourse); explication (setting out, explaining and analysing ideas and information); narrative (story-telling); and description (portraying and representing people, ideas, places, events and action). See also Language, Writing, Speech. JM
Rhyme (Greek: ‘number’) One of the distinguishing features of poetry (verse). Although not all poems depend on rhyme, it is a technique associated with versification and refers to the use of identical or similar sounds at the end of (and sometimes within) a line of verse. There is a range of types of rhyme: end-rhyme (the most common type); half-rhyme; imperfect rhyme and internal rhyme. The structure of a poem is often dependent on its rhyme scheme. It is a device that contributes to the unity and coherence of the poem, the structural distinctiveness of the poem and the reader’s capacity to remember the lines. See also Metre, Poetry, Writing. JM
Romance A genre of fiction, poetry and film that deals with romantic love and romantic relationships, often from a female point of view. There are a number of subgenres of romance, including historical, contemporary, multicultural, adventure, comic and suspense romance. The genre is further distinguished by the classifications of ‘category romance’ (e.g. Mills and Boon), and ‘single title romance’ (e.g. the works of Barbara Cartland, 1901-2000, Danielle Steel, 1947-, or films such as An Affair to Remember, 1957, Love Story, 1970, Sleepless in Seattle, 1993, and Titanic, 1997). Single title romance may also include series, but the works are more substantial in length and less formulaic than category romance. The genre of Chick-lit can also be considered as a subgenre of romance. The genre is characterised by a female writer, writing for a female audience, with at least one female protagonist. There is a subgenre of romance, however, that is written by men, with a male narrator, with an implied audience of both males and females. An example of this is 2004 film The Notebook. Romance fiction and film have high marketability and are often very formulaic in their style, characterisation, setting, plot and dénouement. Samuel Richardson’s (1689-1761) novel Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740) was a successful work that focused on a romantic relationship and was written from a female narrative point of view. The works of Jane Austen (1775-1817) are considered to be the exemplars of romance, and have wide critical acclaim and enduring appeal for contemporary audiences. This is in contrast to the ‘category romance’ that is regarded as ‘pulp’ fiction, (for example, Mills and Boon stories) produced and disseminated for a short ‘shelf-life’. See also Chick-lit, Fiction, Literature, Novel. JM
Romanticism Although a term which is used extensively and can mean many things, ‘Romanticism’ denoted a broad movement of thought in the arts, philosophy, history and political theory towards the end of the 18th and early 19th centuries in Germany, France and England. Romanticism heralded a shift away from the rationalism and empiricism of The Enlightenment toward sensibility and feeling in relation to the natural order and nature itself. The movement celebrated the self, respect for the transcendental, the power of the imagination and the value of art. In addition, an emphasis on spontaneity, a link between human moods and the ‘moods’ of nature, the primitive and uncivilised way of life and the emphasis on natural religion were central to the movement. A pivotal figure was the French political and educational philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) whose key idea was that of the ‘general will’ in which an individual must give himself or herself totally, including all his rights, to the whole community. This, the ‘general will’ and individuals are ‘forced to be free’. Individuals are thus required to accept what is deemed to be best by the general will – the state.
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R The German Romantics influenced ST Coleridge (1772-1834) and Percy Bysshe Shelley (17921822), particularly the transcendental idealism of Friedrich Schelling (1775-1854), who held that ‘consciousness itself is the only immediate object of knowledge, and knowledge of the objective world arises merely in the form of a limiting condition acquired through the process whereby consciousness becomes aware of itself and provides the platform for valid philosophical reflection. Important figures in the German Romanticism movement were Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (17491832) and Johann Schiller (1759-1805). In Britain, key figures of the period included ST Coleridge (1772-1834), William Wordsworth (1770-1832), John Keats (1795-1821), Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822), Lord Byron (1788-1824) and Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832). In France, Victor Hugo (1820-1885), Alphonse Lamartine ((1790-1869), Alfred de Vigny (1797-1863) and Alexandre Dumas (1802-1870). In America, prominent writers included Herman Melville (1819-1891), Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862), Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) and Nathaniel Hawthorne (18041864). Research literature in the field of the history and development of English education has established the influence of Romanticism on the institutionalising of English theory and pedagogy (Reid, 2004). Romantic principles, such as for example: ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
child-centred approaches to learning the centrality of the individual imagination and creativity the importance of personal and individual response the teacher as mentor a recognition of students’ language as the foundation for language learning in the classroom self-directed learning and reflective practice unity and integration of the modes and activities in English.
According to research in the field, these and other principles have informed approaches to English education since the inception of the subject in the school curriculum in the 1800s. See also Expressive criticism, Imagination, Literary criticism, Literary theory, Literature, Pathetic fallacy. DC References: Cuddon, J.A. (1991) Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, 3rd edn. London: Penguin Books. Flew, A. (Ed.) (1979) A Dictionary of Philosophy, London: Pan Books. Reid, I. (2004) Wordsworth and the Formation of English Studies, England: Ashgate.
Rubric A brief, summative statement about the focus and nature of a text. The term also refers to an overview of key assessment criteria. JM
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S Saga (Old Norse: ‘tale’, ‘story’) A type of story that originated with the Icelandic epic tales in narrative form dealing with accounts of Viking adventures, heroes, warriors, legends and conflicts. They were part of the oral tradition of Scandinavia, and were common in the centuries leading up to the 14th century. Many of the epic tales have been recorded in writing. In contemporary contexts, saga also refers to an epic story on a grand scale that is often told in a very long novel or a series of novels. The term also refers to film or television series that treat an important historical movement, family history or great adventure in a detailed, sustained and lavish way. The film Gone with the Wind (Fleming, 1939) is an example of a film saga. JM
Sarcasm (Greek: ‘speak bitterly’) Language with a deliberately bitter and hurtful tone, intended to ridicule, satirise or the person/subject. See also Irony, Language. DC
Satire (Latin: ‘mixture’) Refers to a language technique and a genre. The purpose of satire is to expose and ‘correct’ human vice, folly, pretentiousness, arrogance, corruption, ignorance and weakness by subjecting these to ridicule, parody, irony, humour, caricature and sarcasm. Satire is distinguished from comedy in its serious purpose that goes beyond the purpose of merely entertaining and provoking laughter. The Neoclassical period in English literature is renowned for its satire, with John Dryden (1631-1700) and Alexander Pope (1688-1744) figuring as the two prominent satiric poets of the time. Satire is pervasive in texts and cultural contexts and is a powerful instrument for social and cultural critique. Two recent examples of satire in the Australian media are Frontline (19941997) and The Hollowmen (2008) both of which are television series that satirise the media and politics, respectively. See also Language, Neoclassical period, Writing. JM
Scaffolding A term associated with Jerome Bruner (1915-), the American psychologist, who developed a cognitive model of learning. He first introduced the concept of instructional scaffolding in the 1950s as a way of supporting and guiding the learner during the engagement with new and unfamiliar activities, skills, knowledge or information. Like a scaffold for a building under construction, the goal is to eventually remove the scaffold when the learner has acquired the skills, knowledge and understanding necessary to continue autonomously and independently. An example of scaffolding is the practice of immersing young children in rich language experiences, reading to them and guiding them through, for example, picture books. Eventually, this scaffolded experience will not be required, once the child has learned to read independently. Examples of 258
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S scaffolding in English include: providing models and guides; building the field; implementing prereading and pre-viewing strategies; modelling skills; reading out aloud to students; and ensuring opportunities for discussion and feedback. See also Constructivism, Group work, Learning-centred English, Learning styles, Pedagogy. JM
Science fiction (SF) A form of narrative, usually a short story, novel or film but can also encompass games, television shows and art. The concerns of science fiction are varied but often focus on the impact of science and technology on real or imagined worlds in which the settings can be futuristic or from the past. SF can include utopian visions and landscapes, visitations from aliens, scientific experiments, and social, environmental and climatic change. Some early progenitors were Jonathan Swift (Gulliver’s Travels, 1726); Mary Shelley (Frankenstein, 1818); Robert Louis Stevenson (The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, 1886); Daniel Defoe (Robinson Crusoe, 1719); and Jules Verne (1828-1905). The term ‘science fiction’ is thought to have been coined by William Wilson in A Little Earnest Book Upon a Great Old Subject (1851) and came into general use in the late 1920s through the works of Hugo Gernsack (1984-1967), with the term ‘scientific romances’, as used by HG Wells (1866-1946), declining as a result. Wells was hugely influential with The Time Machine (1895), The Wonderful Visit (1895), The Island of Dr. Moreau (1896), The War of the Worlds (1898) and First Men in the Moon (1901). Also influential were Edgar Rice Burroughs (1875-1950) and Edgar Wallace (1875-1932) both of whom wrote short stories for the early pulp science fiction magazines. Burroughs created the character Tarzan. After the First World War, visions in SF became more dystopian in texts such as, for example, Yevgeny Zamyatin’s We (1920-21); Muriel Jaeger’s The Question Mark (1923); and Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World (1932). The dystopian novel continued with George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949); Kurt Vonnegut’s Piano Player (1952); Evelyn Waugh’s Love Among the Ruins (1953); Ray Bradbury’s Fahrenheit 451 (1953); Anthony Burgess’ A Clockwork Orange (1962); and Philip K Dick’s Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said (1974). Writers such as Isaac Asimov (1920-92), Robert A Heinlein (1907-88), Clifford D Simak (1904-88), AE Van Vogt (1912-2000) began their careers writing for science fiction magazines such as the popular American magazine Astounding. Asimov’s I Robot (1951) and Heinlein’s Stranger in a Strange Land (1961) have been influential, as have the novels and short stories of Arthur C Clarke (1917-2008) such as Rendezvous with Rama (1973) and 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) and Frank Herbert (1920-86), particularly with the Dune series (1965). Women SF writers such as Ursula L Guin (b.1929) - The Earthsea Trilogy (1968-72); Josephine Saxton (b.1935) - The Hieros Gamos of Sam and Ann Smith (1969); Angela Carter (1940-92) - Heroes and Villains (1969); Suzy Mckee Charnas (b.1939) - Strange Seas (2002); Joanna Russ (b.1937) - When It Changed (1972); CJ Cherryh (b.1942) - Cyteen (1988); Pat Murphy - Points of departure (1990); and Pamela Sargent (b.1948) Cloned Lives (1976) have all been instrumental in the development of the genre. SF films have been numerous since George Méliès’ Le Voyage Dans La Lune (A Trip to the Moon) in 1902, Harry O Hoyt’s (1885-1961) The Lost World (1925), Fritz Lang’s (1890-1976) Metropolis (1927) and James Whale’s (1889-1957) Frankenstein (1931). Other classic and popular SF films include: The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951); Invaders from Mars (1953); Planet of the Apes (1968); Star Wars (1977-2005), Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977); Alien (1979; E.T: The Extra-Terrestrial (1982); Jurassic Park (1993); Star Wars Episode 1: The Phantom Menace (1999, part of the Star Wars series of films); The Matrix (1999); The Day After Tomorrow (2004); and Watchmen (2009). See also Film, Fiction, Novel. DC
Scope and sequence: A principle of curriculum planning used by teachers to indicate the breadth and duration of a teaching/learning program. This is generally done on a single page via a table which sets out the sequence of learning units and their titles; the duration of each unit; and relevant requirements such The English Teacher’s Handbook
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S as texts, resources and syllabus outcomes. The scope and sequence provides a ‘snapshot’ of the teaching/learning program. See also Curriculum, Programming, Unit of work. DC
Semantics (Greek: ‘sign’) The meaning of words and the study of the meaning of words. Semantics is one of the three branches of linguistics (along with phonology and syntax). Structuralist and later approaches to the study of language attend to the relationship between signs, meaning, function and context, exploring the ways in which language operates to ‘make sense’ in communication. See also Language, Reading. JM
Semiotics (Greek: ‘interpreter of signs) The study of systems of signs. Semiotics examines the ways in which the selection and ordering of ‘signs’ (language) is dependent upon and reflects the codes and conventions of culture. The process of selecting and ordering language is central to communication and to the production and interpretation of meaning. Signs are not created by an individual – rather, they are drawn from the reservoir of shared signs valued by a particular culture. In the context of textual analysis, a semiotic approach is interested in exploring the ‘signs’ that constitute a text. In a story, for example, there are characters, setting, plot, dialogue, narration and action. Semiotics asks how these elements are selected and ordered to make the text ‘mean’, and how this meaning relies upon a shared knowledge and understanding of generic, cultural and other conventions. See also Code, Convention, Language, Narratology, Reading. JM
Setting Refers to the world of the text in which portrayals of the characters, action, events, time, along with the narrative and ideas combine to establish the context, mood, atmosphere and distinctive features of the work. The setting is a fundamental element of fiction, film, drama and sometimes poetry and nonfiction, and is generally established at the outset of the work. The setting anchors other elements of the text, and the audience should be able to apprehend the setting early on in the text. The setting can frame, influence and shape the characters, events and action. In drama, the costumes, props and stage or set design are often critical in establishing the setting. See also Depiction, Description, Drama, Fiction, Narrative, Novel. DC, JM
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Read out aloud the first paragraph/s of a short story or novel. Or view the opening scene/s of one or more films. Identify the ways in which the composer establishes the setting (description, evocation, visual images etc). For prose fiction texts, students draw their interpretation of the setting – using symbols if appropriate. Compare the representations. Speculate on the intended audience. Note any aspects of the setting that are unfamiliar or unexpected.
∼ When responding to a text, students can change the setting of the original text (e.g. alter the physical setting and/or the time period). Transport characters to another place and time to explore the impact of this on the meaning of the text.
∼ If using film, focus on the filmic techniques employed in the opening scenes to establish the setting (close-ups, wide angle shots, panorama shots, light, dark, sound, colours, music etc). Explore the connections made between the characters and the setting and the impact of this on our attitudes towards and response to characters.
∼ When studying drama, have students transport the setting, characters and plot into a contemporary setting. Use models such as Shakespeare Retold (ABC, 2007).
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S Shakespeare There are more resources about William Shakespeare (1564-1616) than any other English author or, indeed, than any other author in recorded history. There are more than 59 million Shakespeare entries listed on Google alone, for example. There is a universe of information and published commentary – historical, biographical (see especially Peter Ackroyd’s Shakespeare: The Biography, Vintage Books, London, 2005), literary critical, psychological, forensic, and so on. It is not possible, therefore, to canvass the subject of “Shakespeare” comprehensively within an entry of such brevity. Perhaps there are two fundamental principles that should be acknowledged and understood when studying Shakespeare. First of all, he was an actor and he wrote to earn a living within theatre. Indeed, it cannot be repeated often enough that William Shakespeare wrote his plays to be acted – not to be swotted over by generations of unwilling students forced to worship at his shrine. He was an actor who became a writer of plays. His texts should always be read as scripts to be enacted. Shakespeare would draft and redraft the texts of his plays in the light of the contexts within which he was working. For example, a number of his early and mid-career plays feature a rambunctious character – like Falstaff in Henry V, the Porter in Macbeth, and Bottom in Midsummer’s Night Dream. His shaping of these earthy, comedic, often coarse characters was influenced by the personality and qualities of Will Kempe (d.1603), who was a clown who became a superb comedic star of the collection of actors working alongside, and eventually for, him. When Kempe left the company in unhappy circumstances that kind of character became far less prominent in Shakespeare’s plays. The fact that he had such a superb actor in Richard Burbage gave Shakespeare the confidence to create such astonishing characters as Hamlet, Richard II, Macbeth and King Lear. In the later plays we find a strong presence of music. This was a direct consequence of a talented singer/musician joining Shakespeare’s later company. He did not divide up his plays formally into Acts and Scenes until Shakespeare’s company acquired the Blackfriars Theatre. Up until then the Globe Theatre and its large scale predecessors were open-air venues. Blackfriars, a large theatre completely enclosed, provided Shakespeare with the stagecraft flexibility that enabled him, among other things, to separate Acts and Scenes more formally on the stage. And, as is often pointed out, the early scripts he wrote were often amended, shortened, lengthened and so on as a result of performance. The second fundamental principle is that he was, in every sense of the words, a literary genius. He had a taste, a smell, a feel for language unparalleled in the history of the English language. He was a remarkable inventor of words – something like 1700 words entered the language via Shakespeare’s pen. He was an astonishing poet. An undeniable indicator of his genius is that all of his sonnets and all of his plays retain their salience, vibrancy, and relevance today. At the same time it can be conceded that some of his comedies today lack some of the punch and verve they probably had in Elizabethan theatres. But his tragedies, his English history plays, his plays set in ancient Greek and Roman contexts, tragic-comedic works like Measure for Measure, and Merchant of Venice as well as epic poems like The Rape of Lucrece and Venus and Adonis still retain their literary power today. Shakespeare’s plays continue to enjoy sell-out houses all around the world. It is not unusual, for example, for a Shakespeare play or plays to attract the season’s largest audiences in London’s West End or the theatres on the south side of the Thames. The modern rebuilding of the original Globe Theatre has ceased to be merely a tourist attraction and is now a vibrant open-aired venue in high demand not only for Shakespearean plays, but also for other prominent dramatic works. When Shakespeare is taught well, school students typically progress from an initial lack of interest/ boredom - even outright hostility - to a level of engagement, enjoyment, and wonder that they did not previously anticipate. The Shakespearean play then enjoys what the American literary critic Ford Maddox Ford once described as “the unearned increment”. Because the play ‘enters’ the classroom bogged down with the weight of minimalist, if not hostile expectations by the students, their unanticipated more positive response once they have come to grips with the play in meaningful ways gives to the play a boost that has not been earned by itself but which has been generated by the students’ shift of perception. See also Drama, Globe Theatre, Shakespeare in the classroom. PB The English Teacher’s Handbook
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S Shakespeare in the classroom There is an abundance of print and web-based resources for teaching Shakespeare. These include: Berchervaise, N. (ed.) (2003) Constructing Shakespeare on Screen, Sydney: Phoenix Education. Brown, M (ed.) (2008) Experiencing Shakespeare, Sydney: Phoenix Education Garfield, L. (1994) Shakespeare: The Animated Tales, London: Heinemann. Garfield, L. (1998) Shakespeare Stories II, London: Gollancz. Gibson, R. (1998) Teaching Shakespeare, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Leach, S. (1992) Shakespeare in the Classroom, Buckingham: Open University Press. Mallick, D. (1984) How Tall is this Ghost, John? Adelaide: AATE. Mellor, B. (1989) Reading Hamlet, Scarborough: Chalkface Press. Michaels, W. (1986) When the Hurly Burly is Done, Sydney: Phoenix Education Press. Shakespeare Workshop Series (a wide range of practical resources for teaching many of Shakespeare’s plays), Sydney: Phoenix Education. The Globe Theatre: The Folger Shakespeare Library: See also Comedy, Drama, Globe Theatre, Shakespeare, Shakespearean theatre, Tragedy. JM
Shakespearean theatre In English theatre, William Shakespeare (1564 – 1616) remains one of the most significant influences. It must be remembered that when he was writing the concept of a theatre was a very recent innovation. The first theatre in London was built in 1576. Play-going in Shakespeare’s day either occurred at Court or, for the mass of people, in disreputable areas outside London at theatres such as The Globe. Performances were very interactive events in theatres which could take up to 2000 people. And Elizabethans were loud and active audiences. Performances occurred on thrust stages, with little or no scenery and in the daytime. Thus, a very different audience/performer interaction and dynamic occurred compared to the way Shakespeare is often played today. See also Drama, Globe Theatre, Shakespeare. JH
Short story A fictional prose narrative text that is considerably shorter and often less complex than a novel or novella. Like other forms of prose fiction, a short story generally contains a character/s and structural features of narrative (such as a plot, setting, complication, climax and resolution). Short stories grew out of the oral story-telling tradition and are similar to extended anecdotes. Although the length of a short story is usually between 1000 and 8000 words, there are many exceptions to this. Usually, a short story is a work that can be read in a single ‘sitting’. The conventions of narrative are frequently modified and altered by modern writers as they experiment with the traditional narrative forms and techniques. Typically, the short story contains fewer characters than a novel, with a straightforward plot that often relies on a single or a few events or incidents. The short story grew out of traditional oral forms such as fables, folktales and anecdotes. There are many anthologies of short stories that can be used as resources in English. These include: Adams, P. (ed.) (2008) Exploring Short Stories: Volume 1, Sydney: Phoenix Education. Adams, P. (2008) Exploring Short Stories: Volume 2, Sydney: Phoenix Education. Bernhardt, S. (2007) Storyweavers, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. Bernhardt, S. (2007) Storywizards, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. Keyte, B. and Baines, R. (eds.) (1987) A Slender Thread: An anthology of short stories, Melbourne: Nelson. Manh, E. (1998) Sharing Fruit: An Anthology of Asian and Australian Writing, Melbourne: Curriculum Press. See also Fiction, Imaginative re-creation, Literature, Narrative, Novel, Reading, Writing. JM 262
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S Sibilance A language device that is a form of consonance where sibilant sounds are strongly emphasised: sh/ s/ch/j. For example, in Robert Frost’s (1874-1963) poem “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening”, there is extensive use of sibilance (especially repeated ‘s’ sounds) to create the soft, almost eerie sound, evoking the feeling of snow falling in the dark woods. Even the title of this poem uses sibilance to produce this effect. See also Language, Poetry. JM
Signifier/Signified The terms “signifier” and “signified” derive from the linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure (18571913), who proposed that language could be broken up into two parts; the utterances of a language (parole), and the system of signs that allow those utterances to have meaning (langue). He then postulated that this dichotomy could be understood at the level of the single word; there is a difference between the word used to communicate (signifier), and the world to which the word refers (signified). de Saussure suggested that the link between the two was in fact fairly arbitrary, as the variety of languages would suggest. Instead, de Saussure suggested that language has meaning only insofar as one signifier differs from another signifier. We know ‘cat’, for example, because it differs from ‘mat’. This suggestion is in direct contrast to the more traditional assertion of linguistics; that a word is ontologically linked to its referent. See also Structuralism. SGS Reference: de Saussure, F. (2005) “Course in General Linguistics”, in Literary Theory: An Anthology, eds. Rivkin, J. & Ryan, M. , 2nd edn. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Simile (Latin: ‘like’) A figure of speech that is related to metaphor. Where a metaphor describes one thing ‘as’ another such that the two things are synthesised, a simile describes one thing being ‘like’ another. Similes are very common in imaginative texts and in everyday communication. Examples of similes from literary texts include: O my Luve's like a red, red rose That's newly sprung in June; O my Luve's like the melodie That's sweetly played in tune. (Robert Burns, 1759-1796, “A Red, Red Rose”) She walks in beauty, like the night Of cloudless climes and starry skies; And all that’s best of dark and bright Meet in her aspect and her eyes… (Lord Byron, 1788-1824, “She Walks in Beauty”)
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Examples from everyday communication include: ‘she runs like the wind’; ‘he eats like a horse’; ‘as brave as a lion’; ‘as dry as a bone’; ‘as white as snow’; ‘fits like a glove’; ‘as bright as a button’; ‘eyes like a hawk’; ‘as clean as a whistle’; ‘swims like a fish’; and ‘as bold as brass’. See also Comparison, Language, Metaphor, Symbol. DC, JM
∼ Students collate a bank of similes from everyday contexts. ∼ Students select the most recurring or intriguing of these and research their origins. ∼ The bank of similes can also be used to create aleatoric poetry.
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S Sitcom A humorous, formulaic television show usually centring on the life of a family, a group of friends or on a workplace. Portraying under-developed characters, delivering lines of dialogue which become synonymous with the individual character, these shows introduce an obstacle which is overcome by its conclusion with harmony being restored. Sitcoms reveal the values and concerns of their respective eras and sometimes promote specific ideologies and practices. An example was the late 1960s, early 1970s sit com The Brady Bunch which promoted particular family values through the depiction of a ‘democratic’ approach to family life through family discussions and voting on issues. Longrunning shows such as My Family, Friends, Everybody Loves Raymond, Hey Dad! and Seinfeld portray everyday issues and aspects of modern life, often satirically. See also Comedy, Media. DC
Sketch (Greek: ‘unprepared’) A short, descriptive piece of prose commonly found in newspapers and magazines. Another meaning is a brief dramatic piece often used in a theatrical revue as a curtainraiser. DC
Skills Model Influenced by the work of the behavioural psychologist BF Skinner (1904-1990), this model centres on drilling the skills of reading, talking, listening and writing to eliminate errors. Behaviourism was concerned with observable indications of learning and the ramifications of this for teaching. One result of this approach was the production of graded reading books for the classroom. Critics of the model point to the absence of contextual considerations in language use: such as how usage varies according to context and the needs and interests of the students. The model has been criticised for failing to embed language experiences within meaningful pedagogical contexts. See also Models of English. JM
Skit
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
(Old Norse: ‘to shoot’) A brief satirical theatrical sketch or piece of writing which caricatures a person, style of writing, performance or interpretation. Close to parody and burlesque, skit is common in musical revues in which famous people are lampooned. DC In small groups, students are given a scenario. Students decide on how best to perform this scenario to convey meaning, without using spoken language. The whole class then interprets the skit. Examples of scenarios:
∼ A person walking a dog is attacked by a magpie. The dog runs off and the person seeks help from a stranger.
∼ A person at a supermarket checkout ‘express lane’ overhears two people in front arguing about how many items they have in their trolleys. The person intervenes to try to resolve the dispute.
∼ A person is stopped by the police for speeding and is asked for a driver’s licence. The person does not have the licence and tries to explain that a bag-snatcher stole her bag ten minutes ago at the shopping centre.
Slang (Old Norse: ‘war’) Highly colloquial language common to everyday speech. In 1756, Toldervy described slang as the special vocabulary of low, illiterate, or disreputable persons. It probably originates from the Norwegian slenja-keften ‘to sling the jaw’, ‘to abuse’. See also Dialect, Language, Register. DC
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S Slice of life (French: ‘tranche de vie’) Refers to the raw, factual and non-evaluative representation of life in a literary work as exemplified in the literature of Émile Zola (1840-1902) and other French naturalistic writers during the late 18th century. See also Naturalism, Realism, Stream of consciousness. JM
Slogan (Gaelic: ‘army’, ‘cry’) A distinctive or topical phrase used in advertising and politics. In Australian federal politics, the famous slogan of the Australian Labor Party’s 1972 campaign was “It’s Time”. In the 2008 USA elections, the Democrat’s slogan was “Yes, we can.” Slogans are often used in advertising to identify consumer brand names - Nike’s “Just Do It” being one example. See also Film, Image, Language, Logo, Media, Multimedia, Representing, Visual text. DC
Social media Media forms, online technologies and methods whereby people become both audience and producer. The technology being employed enables people to share opinions, insights, experiences and perspectives. Examples of social media include MySpace, Facebook, Twitter and YouTube. JH
Sonnet (Italian: ‘little song’) A lyric poem of 14 lines, written in iambic pentameter. Depending on the type of sonnet, the 14 lines are organised in stanzas. The conventions of the form were established by the Italian poet, Petrarch (1304-74). It was originally a poem (or a cycle of poems) about idealised love. The theme of love and the expression of emotions continued to be the distinguishing feature of this form. Typically, the first two quatrains establish a problem or situation, and the final quatrain and couplet (or sestet) resolves this. Sonnets were a popular form in the 16th century, performed by sonneteers. The sonnet was further developed by Edmund Spenser (1552-1599) and William Shakespeare (1564-1616), both of whom changed some of the conventions of the Petrarchan sonnet. The Petrarchan sonnet idealised the concept of love and the object of love; it used extravagant images and hyperbole to represent the lover, beauty, pain and suffering; it dealt with the experience of rejection; and elevated love as an exalted, spiritual experience. Shakespeare challenged these conventions: Sonnet 130, “My Mistress’ Eyes are Nothing Like the Sun” for example, subverts the Petrarchan convention of listing the lover’s qualities in effusive and elaborate terms. The sonnet was later developed by Victorian and Romantic poets such as Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806-1861), Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828-1882), William Wordsworth (1770-1832), Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822), John Keats (1795-1821) and Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844-1889) who each experimented to some extent with the form. Twentieth century poets such as Wilfred Owen (1893-1918), WB Yeats (1865-1939), WH Auden (1907-1973), and Robert Frost (1874-1963) all wrote well-known sonnets. The thematic focus of these, however, is distinctly different from the sonnets of Petrarch and Shakespeare in that they do not deal exclusively or in many cases, even obliquely, with romantic love. The major versions of the sonnet can be summarised as follows: Version
Features
Petrarchan
14 lines, Iambic pentameter 2 quatrains (with a rhyme scheme of abababab) and a sestet (with a rhyme scheme of cdcdcd)
Spenserian
14 lines, Iambic pentameter 3 quatrains (with a rhyme scheme of abab, bcbc, cdcd, ee)
Shakespearean
14 lines, Iambic pentameter 3 quatrains (with a rhyme scheme of abab, cdcd, efef) and a couplet (with a rhyme scheme of gg)
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S Shakespeare’s Sonnets: This Powerful Rhyme, edited by Ken Watson and Millard Dunn, (Sydney: Phoenix Education, 2005) is valuable resource for teaching and learning about sonnets, with a wealth of strategies and examples. See also Genre, Poetry. JM
Song
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A lyric poem that was originally written to be set to music. Songs have been part of the oral tradition of cultures throughout history and since the 20th century, songs have been an integral part of popular culture. Using songs in English is an effective way of exploring popular culture. Songs can also be utilised as resources for engaging students in poetry, language study, drama, fiction and a wide range of other types of texts. DC, JM ∼ Folger Shakespeare Library, K-12 Teacher section: ∼ A range of lesson plans are provided that use popular songs and music as part of the study of Shakespeare. These practical approaches engage students in dynamic ways with the language and ideas of Shakespeare and include:
∼ “M.C. Bard: Hip Hop and Shakespeare” ∼ ∼ Research, individually, in pairs or in small groups: • • •
the songs of an era to reveal the concerns/issues of that era: e.g. the American protest movement of the 1960s. Songwriters and their themes – compare and contrast the songs of Stephen Foster, Woody Guthrie, Bob Dylan and Kurt Cobain. Explore the artistry in selected songs by Tracy Chapman, Joni Mitchell, Woody Guthrie and Pete Seeger.
Speaking See Talking and listening.
Spectator and participant See Language, Talking and listening.
Speculative fiction A broad and somewhat controversial term to describe texts that blend science fiction, horror and fantasy. More recently, this type of fiction has included an eclectic mix of elements of cyberpunk, space opera, dystopia, and apocalyptic fiction, to name a few. As the term suggests, speculative fiction speculates on the world and what might be – or what might have been. Robert A Heinlein (1907-1988) is often attributed with the invention of the term with his 1948 essay “On Writing of Speculative Fiction”. Some of the common features of speculative fiction works include futuristic settings - usually in other worlds, or if set on Earth, include alien visits and lost civilisations; the inversion of the laws of physics that allows incredible feats and occurrences; and the question ‘What if…?’. For example, the question ‘What if…a Nazi sympathiser defeated Franklin D Roosevelt in the 1940 presidential election?’ is explored in Phillip Roth’s (1933-) The Plot Against America (2004). This book is also classified by some as an ‘alternative history’ which is considered as a sub-genre of speculative fiction. Speculative fiction films include the Mad Max series (1979-85), The Matrix (1999) and The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951). See also Fantasy, Fiction, Film, Genre, Literature, Novel, Science fiction. DC
Speech A subgenre of rhetoric and a type of nonfiction text. Also used interchangeably with ‘talk’ – one of the six language modes in English. As a type of text, a speech is generally designed to be delivered orally by a speaker, addressing an audience (known, unknown, actual and/or virtual) and adheres 266
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S to a set of conventions particular to rhetoric. Persuasive language, figures of speech, repetition, crescendos and diminuendos, rhetorical questions and a clear, precise structure are features of the form. As an oral form of communication, a speech also depends on the oratory skills of the speaker: the use of tone of voice; pitch; pauses; body language (such as, for example, hand gestures, eye contact and physical movement). Importantly, the context and setting for delivery and the use of audiovisual and other aids also influence the substance, purpose and quality of the speech. Speeches are regularly included in an English program (students’ own speeches and the analysis of the speeches of others), addressing the need for communicative competence in this mode. Unfortunately, class speeches can become banal unless students are encouraged to develop rhetorical skills that engage the audience, rather than merely rely on written notes to present a spoken version of a quasi-essay or narrative. For practical strategies for speeches, see Talking and listening. See also Debate, Nonfiction, Rhetoric. JM
Spelling Spelling is the basic skill of learning the correct order of letters within words. English spelling is made more complicated because, unlike Italian (for example) where symbols and sounds are consistently similar if not identical, there are many inconsistencies in the English language between letter and sound. Many of these are the products of the power of English over its history to assimilate the words and sounds of other languages. Some idiosyncrasies are the product of great shifts in both phonetic and phonemic representations – such as occurred during what is known as the “Grimm Vowel Shift”. History has played a role in ‘distorting’ any assumed rules of relationship between letters and sounds. A classic example is the effect of the Norman invasion (1066). In the subsequent period, Norman handwriting traditions overrode Old English/Anglo-Saxon traditions of calligraphy. Norman handwriting style was cursive, sloped to the right, italic, and did not permit parts of any letter being higher or lower than the rest of the letter - as is the case, for example, in contemporary handwriting in English of the uncapitalised (lower case) letters such as ‘b’, ‘d, ‘j’, “p”, and ‘t’, for example. Norman calligraphy meant that English words like ‘wimmen’, ‘luve’, ‘sunne’, ‘Cuventri’ and so on, became almost illegible. The letter ‘i’ in ‘wimmen’ became submerged in a muddle of squiggly lines; the same was true for the letter ‘u’ in the four other words. So to make things legible, the Norman writers simply replaced the ‘offending’ vowels with an ‘o’: thus today those words are spelt ‘women’, ‘love’, ‘son (the celestial ‘sun’ has a different history) and ‘Coventry’ (the change from ‘i’ to ‘y’ is another story). The notable thing is that despite the changes of spelling instituted in the 12th century, these words and the other words which were subjected to this process continue to be pronounced today (with the ‘i’ and ‘u’ sounds) exactly as they obviously would have been pronounced prior to 1066 – with phonetic/phonemic exactitude. The only way to explain these idiosyncrasies of subsequent phonetic/phonemic disjunction is by history – not by some artificially constructed phonic/phonemic ‘rules’. Over time quite a few people have tried to transform spelling practices by making everything simpler. One of the most famous of these was the great dramatist George Bernard Shaw. To illustrate what he considered to be the absurdities of English spelling, he pointed out that ‘fish’ could be spelt ‘ghoti’: ‘gh’ as in ‘rough’; ‘o’ as in ‘women’; and ‘ti’ as in ‘nation’. There are no easy shortcuts to becoming a skilled speller – it requires rote learning; learning and utilising ‘rules’ that have validity; recognising and remembering phonetic/phonemic cues; a lot of reading; a lot of writing; and assistance through correction. See also Language, Literacy, Phonetics, Writing. PB
Spoonerism Named after Dr WA Spooner (1844-1930) of New College, Oxford, the term refers to the accidental misplacement of initial consonant sounds such as ‘blushing crow’ for ‘crushing blow’ and ‘wellboiled icicle’ for ‘well oiled bicycle’. Dr Spooner allegedly said to a student: “You have hissed all my mystery lectures; you have tasted a whole worm; you must leave at once by the town drain.” DC The English Teacher’s Handbook
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S References: Cuddon, J.A. (1991) Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, 3rd edn. London: Penguin Books. Holman, C. H. (1976) A Handbook to Literature, 3rd edn. Indianapolis: The Odyssey Press.
Spy genre As a genre, spy (or espionage) fiction is similar to the thriller, action and adventure, and political fiction and film, in that mounting suspense and tension, with well-constructed characters operating in a fast moving plot, are at the core of the genre. The Spy (1821) by James Fenimore Cooper (17891851) is an early example of the genre, with Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities (1859) acclaimed novel in this genre. These novels were followed by William Le Queux’s (1864-1927) Guilty Bonds (1890), A Secret Service (1896), England’s Peril (1905) and Spies of the Kaiser (1909). The Scarlet Pimpernel (1905) by Baroness Orczy, was set in the French Revolution, with Joseph Conrad’s The Secret Agent (1907) and Under Western Eyes (1911) both notable examples of the genre, the latter dealing with double agents. Erskine Childers’ (1870-1922) The Riddle of the Sands (1903) provided a background of technical expertise which was to become a convention of the genre. John Buchan’s (1875-1940) The Thirty-Nine Steps (1915) entertained audiences during The Great War. Eric Ambler’s (1909-98) Epitaph for a Spy (1937) depicts an ordinary man on a holiday becoming caught up in a web of intrigue. Somerset Maugham (1874-1965) published the Ashenden in 1928, presenting spies as ordinary people doing their jobs. The Cold War and beyond spawned a series of spy fiction authors such as Grahame Green (190491) who wrote The Quiet American (1955), Our Man in Havanna (1959), A Burnt-out Case (1961), The Comedians (1966) and The Honorary Consul (1973). Ian Fleming (1904-64) created the hugely popular James Bond series which included titles such as Casino Royale (1953), Moonraker (1955), Diamonds are Forever (1956), From Russia with Love (1957), Dr No (1958) and Goldfinger (1959), all of which have been adapted into films. Len Deighton’s (1929) and John Le Carré’s (1931) fiction provided a more realistic vision of espionage with depictions of corruption, depravity, betrayal and the like. A proliferation of titles since the 1950s has seen success for Robert Ludlum (1927-2001), Frederick Forsyth (!938-), Tom Clancy (!947-), Desmond Bagley (!923-1983), Jack Higgins (1929-), and Anthony Horowitz (1956-). Films in this genre include the James Bond films, as well as The Holcroft Covenant (1985), Sea Wolves (1981), The Fourth Protocol (1987), The Russia House (1990), Firefox (1982), Clear and Present Danger (1994), The World is Not Enough (1999), Mission Impossible (2000), The Good Shepherd (2006) and The Bourne trilogy: Identity (2002), Supremacy (2004) and Ultimatum (2007). Similarly, the genre is represented in video games, and in popular television series such as, for example, Spooks (BBC, 2002-2009) which has a homepage that includes an interactive section:
Stage The stage is any space that actors perform on for an audience. The conventional types of stages in western theatre are: ∼ proscenium stage or end on stage, where the audience sits in front of the stage and views the action as if through an invisible fourth wall ∼ apron stage, the area of the stage in front of the proscenium arch often covering the orchestra pit if the musicians are not needed ∼ thrust stage has a platform extending out into the audience who usually sit around the three sides of the stage ∼ theatre in the round has the audience sitting on all sides of the performance space. Arena theatre (performances in large stadiums) is a form of this type of theatre ∼ avenue stage has the audience sitting on two sides. It is also called alley stage because the space is like an alley between the audience 268
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S ∼ found stage is often created by street theatre performers. The space is marked out by the
performer in an informal way to create a stage.
Stage geography Backstage
Upstage Right
Upstage Centre
Upstage Left
Centre Right
Centre Stage
Centre Left
Downstage Right
Downstage Centre
Downstage left
Audience
Note that left (in English theatre known as prompt) is on the actors’ left as they face the audience and right (OP, opposite prompt, in English theatre) is on the actors’ right. This is important when reading stage directions in a play script. If the stage has a slope from downstage up to upstage then it is known as a raked stage. JH
Standard Australian English A definition of Standard Australian English appeared in the National Statement of English produced by the Australian Education Council as part of its National Curriculum, published in 1994. Australian English is the national variety of English in Australia, distinguished from other national varieties, such as British and American English, chiefly by pronunciation and vocabulary. It comprises standard Australian English, which is the variety used in schools, and a number of colloquial varieties. Students have any one of these varieties as their home language. While respecting students’ home languages, English teachers have a responsibility to teach the forms and usages generally accepted in Australian English. The development of increasing proficiency in the uses of standard Australian English should be treated as an extension of, and an addition to, a student’s home language. The goal should be to ensure that students develop an ever-widening language repertoire for personal and public use. It is important to note the implicit recognition in this statement that so called non-standard English does not equal ‘sub-standard’ English. Indeed, valuing variations on standard English is seen as a vital principle in extending and enriching students’ language repertoire. See also Accent, Dialect, Language. PB Reference: Australian Education Council (1994) A Statement on English for Australian Schools. Melbourne: Curriculum Corporation.
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S Standards This word is used in a variety of contexts. Loosely, as in sweeping generalisations like ‘standards of behaviour are falling everywhere’. Or much more specifically: two examples are ‘standardsreferenced assessment’ and ‘professional teaching standards’. In both cases the ‘standards’ are explicitly articulated. In the former, students are assessed against ‘standards’ of achievement that have been made explicit, based on a syllabus or a set of articulated outcomes. For example, following the McGaw review of the NSW Higher School Certificate in the late 1990s, assessment moved from a norm-referenced base to a standards-referenced base. Standards of performance were classified into five bands. Students were assessed on their achievement in terms of the articulated standards. Thus, for example, it is theoretically possible (though highly unlikely) for 90% or more of all candidates in one HSC course to achieve the top band (Band 6). Under a normreferenced regime, driven by the normal distribution curve, this would be impossible. As far as the latter use of the term is concerned, in recent years there have been professional and political pressures for professional teaching standards to be defined and used in accreditation and monitoring teacher performance. For example, following years of research and trialling, the NSW Institute of Teachers has developed standards of accreditation for teacher education graduates entering the profession, standards of competence, standards of accomplishment, and standards of leadership. See also Assessment. PB
Stanza (Greek: ‘stopping place’) A structural unit of a poem made up of several lines. Typically, the structure of a stanza is repeated throughout the poem and the stanzas may be made up of three, four, five or more lines. The lines of poetry within a stanza may or may not be of regular length and may or may not involve the same rhythm and rhyme. A common type of stanza is the quatrain – a stanza made up of four lines. Stanzas are usually structural devices that allow the composer to explore and develop ideas within units, similar to paragraphs in prose. Each stanza may take up and explore a particular aspect of the theme of the poem. See also Poetry, Quatrain. JM
STELLA (Standards for Teachers of English Language and Literacy in Australia) A set of standards for teachers of English and literacy developed by the AATE and ALEA. These standards are subject-specific, describing the knowledge, understanding, skills and values of beginning and accomplished teacher in English and literacy. Importantly, these standards are framed in terms of the breadth and scope of the discipline of English and the cross-curriculum teaching of literacy. Details of the standards and the STELLA project are available at:. JM
Stereotype (Greek: ‘solid type’) A standardised, conventional and over-simplified way of categorising, describing and labelling ideas, concepts, people, events, fictional characters and images. Stereotypes are pervasive in culture, texts and the media and reflect the values and attitudes of social groups in their thinking about and perceptions of others. Stereotyping people, characters, situations, ideas and images reduces their complexity, unique identity and difference to a more onedimensional and generalised form. In texts, stereotyped characters are often ‘flat’ characters who are easily recognisable as ‘stock’ characters: e.g. the clown, the villain, the good fairy, the wicked witch, the damsel in distress, the charming prince. Stereotyping can occur on the basis of race, gender, nationality, appearance, economic status, religion and age: e.g. ‘all teenagers are binge drinkers’; ‘French people are romantic’. In everyday language contexts, stereotypes proliferate and can be pejorative labels (negative stereotypes) or affirming labels (positive stereotypes): for example, ‘nerd’; ‘bogan’; ‘hooligan’; ‘bookworm’; ‘cricket tragic’; ‘women can’t read maps’; ‘Afro-Americans are great dancers’; and ‘men can’t multi-task’. Visual texts in the media (especially in advertising) also often exploit the use of stereotypes. See also Image, Media, Gender. DC, JM 270
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S ∼ Picture books and fairy tales are valuable resources for exploring the concept and
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representation of stereotypes.
∼ For example: explore the representations of character in The Princess and the Perfect Dish (L Gleeson, R Greder) and The Paper Bag Princess (R Munsch), comparing these with representations in fairy stories such as “Cinderella”, “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs” and “Rapunzel”.
∼ Discuss the ways in which stereotypes are challenged or promoted in these texts, comparing these representations with students’ experience of stereotyping in their own lives.
∼ Audit magazines, popular networking websites and other media to identify the prevalence and nature of stereotyping (on the basis of, for example, gender, race, religion, age etc) and examine the ways in which such stereotypes reflect and sustain productive or damaging cultural assumptions and values.
Stock character Similar to a stereotyped character, a stock character is often part of the convention of a particular genre. Stock characters are common in drama (especially in burlesque and pantomime), fairy tales and many films genres, such as for example, westerns, spy and action and adventure. Examples of stock characters include the white knight or charming prince; the rescued princess; the villain; the intrepid action hero; the gull, the cuckolded husband; the fool or clown; the wicked stepmother and the beautiful heroine. See also Character/Characterisation, Conventions, Stereotype. JM
Stock response A response to a text or experience that is under-developed, predictable, immediate or imitative. A stock response is often an appropriated response which is not adequately supported by the responder’s considered interpretation of the work. See also Analysis, Evaluation, Interpretation, Developmental model of reading literature. JM
Story (Greek: ‘narrative’) Often used interchangeably with ‘narrative’. A story is a representation of events, people, places and experiences, structured by a composer and presented by a narrator, speaker or composer to entertain, inform, persuade and communicate ideas, concepts, values and beliefs. In one sense, all texts and experiences constitute a form of story. Barbara Hardy argues that narrative, like lyric or dance, is not to be regarded as an aesthetic invention used by artists to control, manipulate, and order experience, but as a primary act of mind transferred to art from life…I take for granted the ways in which storytelling engages our interest, curiosity, fear, tensions, expectation, and sense of order. What concerns me here are the qualities which fictional narrative shares with that inner and outer storytelling that plays a major role in our sleeping and walking lives. For we dream in narrative, daydream in narrative, remember, anticipate, hope, despair, believe, doubt, plan, revise, criticize, construct, gossip, learn, hate, and love by narrative. In order really to live, we make up stories about ourselves and others, about the personal as well as the social past and future. (Hardy, 1968: 5) Story is at the centre of English: stories of the self, stories of others, stories throughout time, stories represented through an almost endless range of forms and media. Telling, hearing, interpreting, reflecting over, enjoying, analysing, connecting, creating and sharing stories constitute much of the process and substance of English education. Gregory explains that: telling and consuming stories is a fundamental and universal human activity. From the time we are born the sound of story accompanies us like the collective heart beat of humanity, The English Teacher’s Handbook
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S and none of us rejects the opportunity to enlarge ourselves by "trying on" the lives and feelings of fictional characters. We may not all consume a steady diet of what college catalogues sometimes call "great books," but our interactions with stories in one form or another - in commercials, TV programs, movies, song lyrics, sermons, legends, fairy tales, novels, dramas, and so on - is constant and ongoing. (Gregory, 1998) Pedagogy in English relies on the principle that students’ stories (their experience, language and ways of thinking and organising that experience) are the foundations for learning. In the 20th century, the concepts of story and narrative were the subjects of critique and theorising by structuralist critics (narratology). See also Author, Fiction, Heteroglossia, Literature, Narrative, Narratology, Narrator, Novel, Reading, Short story, Writing. JM Reference: Gregory, M, (1998) “Ethical criticism: What it is and why it matters” Style, Northern Illinois University,. Hardy, B., (1968), “Towards a Poetics of Fiction: An Approach through Narrative”, A Forum on Fiction, 2:1, pp. 5-14.
Storyboard A series of framed sketches which are used to visually outline a film sequence. Storyboarding is a tool used in planning film production and consists of comic-strip-like drawings of individual shots or sequences, with annotations or descriptions provided for each drawing or frame of things such as camera angles and/or movement. See also Drama, Drama as a learning medium. KS
Stream of consciousness A term coined by William James in 1890 (The Principles of Psychology). It is a narrative and filmic technique that aims to capture the complexity and inner world of a character. It is similar to inner speech and interior monologue in that it seeks to reveal the ‘consciousness’ – the unmediated thoughts, feelings, ideas, memories and insights - of the character. This can often lead to a narrative that is a seemingly chaotic, unedited and randomly unfolding, reflecting the inner workings of the character’s mind. It is akin to a linguistic recording of the consciousness of the character. For this reason, texts employing this technique can be difficult to read, due to the lack of expected conventions of structure, form and sequence.
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Stream of consciousness is more common in modern texts, with the exemplar of this technique being James Joyce’s Ulysses (1922). Other examples of the use of stream of consciousness include: Virginia Woolf’s Mrs Dalloway (1925) and To the Lighthouse (1927); and William Faulkner’s The Sound and the Fury (1929). Stream of consciousness can also occur in diaries, poems and drama. See also Author, Autobiography, Diary, Language, Narrative, Narrator, Persona, Point of view, Realism, Writing. DC, JM James Moffett’s Active Voice: A Writing Program Across the Curriculum (Boynton/ Cook, 1981, 1992) includes an activity that draws on the technique of stream of consciousness. “Spontaneous Memory Monologue” requires the writer to reflect on an aspect of the landscape that reminds them of a past experience. Writing expressively, students record all the memories, sensory perceptions and responses that come to mind during this reflective process. Moffett also provides practical strategies for developing this expressive writing into a polished piece of ‘poetic’ writing.
Reference: Moffett, J. (1981) Active Voice: A Writing Program Across the Curriculum, New Jersey: Boynton Cook.
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S Street theatre A type of theatre performed in outdoor, informal settings by buskers or established companies. How performers mark the performance space varies with the setting and the style of performance. The performances are usually highly visible and distinctive in order to attract and maintain an audience. Street theatre is one of the oldest forms of theatre as can be seen by a study of the medieval passion plays. See also Drama. JH
Stress Refers to the emphasis placed on part of a word with more than one syllable. Stress is central to metre in poetry with the stress patterns imbuing the lines with rhythm. Stress can alter the emphasis in pronunciation – for example: kilometre or kilometre; research or research. It can also alter the meaning of a word: convict and convict. See also Accent, Language, Metre. JM
Structuralism Structuralism began as a linguistic movement in the 1950s, prompted by the work of Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913). de Saussure suggested that language could be broken into two essential parts: langue, which is the speech utterances of a language; and parole, which is the system, or set of rules, which enables these utterances to make meaning. de Saussure believed that the proper emphasis for linguistic study was not parole, but langue, since to gain an understanding of the rules that allows a language to signify allows one to gain an understanding of the cultural system that governs a language. If one can see the rules by which a language operates, then one can also understand when the rules are intentionally broken, and so begin to see a complex system of cultural and linguistic interactions. Structuralism posits that we have internalised structural categories which allow us to sort and interpret the sensory phenomena of the world around us. According to this theory, these internalised categories give us a way of analysing all kinds of phenomena in the humanities and social sciences. This theory, that seemed to explain how certain things came to carry certain meanings, offered to make the whole world known and knowable. Structuralism moved into the world of literary criticism with the work of the anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908-), linguist Roman Jakobson (18961982), and the literary critics Roland Barthes (1915-1980) and Tzvetan Todorov (1939-). Structuralist literary criticism adopts a radically different posture from what had preceded it; rather than assuming the precedence of the content within a text, structuralists deliberately gave precedence to the form, since the form would tell them not about the text per se, but about the world that enabled the text to have meaning. Critically, structuralists were not as interested in the particular text so much as what that text had to say about the world that produced it; whether the text upheld or transgressed the particular system it operated within. One of the important assumptions of structuralism is indeed about the nature of meaning; if meaning proceeds from a system of signs, then meaning itself is socially constructed, not ontological. See also Signifier/ Signified. SGS References: Eagleton, T. (2003) “Structuralism and Semiotics”, in Literary Theory: An Introduction, 2nd edn. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 79-109. Rivkin, J. & Ryan, M. (2004) “Introduction: The Implied Order: Structuralism”, in Literary Theory: An Anthology, 2nd edn. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 53-55.
Structure (Latin: ‘to build’) The patterns and organisational features that shape a text. Structure is often determined by the genre or conventions of form associated with a particular type of text. For example, the structure of a conventional narrative is dictated by the need for a beginning, middle and end, and by the requirements of plot, sequence and character. Poems may be structured in terms of stanzas. Plays may be structured in terms of acts and scenes. Language devices and techniques can also be employed to invest a work with structure. For example, the repetition of symbols, metaphors and imagery can contribute to the overall structure of a text. The English Teacher’s Handbook
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S Structure is generally associated with the form of the text, although the content of the text is ultimately inseparable from the formal means of representation. Structure also refers to the linguistic structure of language, the relationship between the reader, the text and the context, and the system of signs in language, all of which have been theorised by structuralists. See also Code, Conventions, Structuralism. JM
Student-centred learning Shares the principles of ‘learner-centred’ pedagogy; Inquiry method; Discovery approach; Processoriented approach; Values clarification approach; and Constructivist model. Describes a pedagogical and theoretical approach to teaching and learning that values and explicitly incorporates students’ personal interests, language, strengths, opinions, and responses. Studentcentred pedagogy is informed by a knowledge of how students develop cognitively, affectively and socially. In English classrooms, student-centred learning is facilitated through a workshop, experiential and activity-based approach; opportunities for student choice in, for example reading and writing tasks; a classroom environment that values the ways in which knowledge and understanding are socially constructed; and explicit teaching so that students can see purpose in learning make connections between this learning and their own lives. Student-centred learning seeks to nurture curiosity, inquisitiveness, wonder, empathic intelligence, discovery and a sense of selfworth through meaningful learning and achievement. The work of James Moffett (Teaching the Universe of Discourse, 1978) along with that of other key figures in English education during the 1970s and 1980s, marked a substantial shift in English pedagogy to a student-centred model of teaching and learning. See also Constructivism, Cooperative learning, Experiential learning, Group work, Learning-centred English, Learning styles, Pedagogy. JM
Style Refers to the aesthetic and/or language techniques employed in a text to invest it with a particular quality and distinctiveness. The style of a text can refer to the effect of the formal dimensions of the work, the tone, mood, perspective, point of view, narrative voice and the thematic focus or emphasis. Composers have distinctive styles that render their work unique. This may be achieved through their repeated use of certain genres, language, subject matter and distinctive voice. JM Subject The term has several meanings in English. The simplest meaning is that associated with the content, thematic focus, character, or ideas in a text. In some poststructuralist critical theories, the term subject refers to the subjective position of the responder; the constructed identity of the individual as ‘subject’; and the process of the responder being ‘subjected to’ the influence of the text, context and culture; and conversely, the process of subjecting the text, context and culture to critical analysis. Subject also refers to a curriculum area and is often used interchangeably with Key Learning Area. The history and development of English as a subject have been and continue to be well documented (see, for example, Brock, 1984, Green and Beavis, 1996; Sawyer, 2002, ), as have the debates about what constitutes ‘subject’ English. JM References: Brock, P. (1984) A history of the development of English syllabuses in NSW Secondary Education 1953 - 1976: A "continuum" or a "series of new beginnings"?, PhD Thesis, University of New England, Armidale. Green, B. & Beavis, C. (1996) Teaching the English Subjects: English Teaching and Curriculum History, Geelong: Deakin University Press. Sawyer, W. (2002) Simply growth?: a study of selected episodes in the history of Years 7-10 English in New South Wales, PhD Thesis, University of Western Sydney, Sydney.
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PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Subjective writing and response usually refers to intensely personal, expressive writing and response which relies on the particular beliefs, convictions, dreams and ideals of the writer/responder. It often takes the form of narrative and description (for example, stream of consciousness). Subjectivity may also refer to the composer’s autobiographical presence in the work or the construction of a persona whose feelings and emotional responses are specific to the character as represented by the composer. Objectivity is generally associated with an approach to writing and the analysis of texts which seeks to efface the emotions, affective responses, personal views, sentiments and the apparent attitudes of the composer and responder. Such activity aims to be free from personal bias, in favour of ‘impersonality’, but the extent to which any use of language is or can be free from personal bias is a highly contested notion. Indeed, poststructuralist approaches to language reject the notion that any language or its use can ever be objective since it is endlessly contingent upon cultural conventions, values and context. See also Active and passive voice, Author, Affective learning, Impersonality, Poststructuralism. DC, JM
∼ Select two texts such as, for example, a diary entry or blog and a scientific, medical or legal report. Students read both texts, noting the use of the active and passive voice, point of view, fact and opinion, intended purpose and audience, tone and mood. Discuss the differences between these two texts, exploring the extent to which each is subjective or objective.
∼ A small group of students performs a skit for the whole class. The skit should dramatise an incident that involves some action. Half the class then writes a ‘factual’ report on the incident. The other half of the class writes a diary entry, story, poem or other ‘imaginative’ text. Compare the versions of responses to the same skit and examine the extent to which each version relies on the personal bias, perspective, choices, and interpretations of the writer.
Subtext The covert or implicit meaning behind or operating beneath the surface, literal level of a text or situation. The participants in the text or situation may or may not be aware of the subtext. Subtext as a term is interchangeable with ‘hidden agenda’. Interpretations of the subtext of a text or situation are often subjective and contestable. See also Subjectivity/Objectivity. JM
Surrealism (French: ‘beyond realism’) Partly drawing on the work of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and the Dadaists, and as a reaction against the realism that preceded it, surrealism emerged as a philosophical movement in France in the 1920s and found expression in art and literature. Surrealism is characterised by a rejection of realism, logic and rationality, exploring instead the experience of dream-states and representations of the unconscious mind. Aleatory and automatic writing were favoured by surrealist writers, allowing for the random flow of ideas, experiences and insights ‘beyond the real’ to be captured, juxtaposed and represented in unexpected ways. Surrealism influenced French film and some music in the 1920s and 1930s. In the visual arts, the work of Spanish artist Joan Miró (1893-1983) typifies the surrealist techniques and philosophy. See also Aleatory/ Aleatoric, Automatic writing. JM
Syllabus (Latin: ‘label’) The pedagogical and often theoretical details of what is included in a course of study. A syllabus is the fine-grained documentation of a course within a curriculum. In English, a syllabus sets out the rationale and aims of the course; the theoretical principles; the purpose and intended The English Teacher’s Handbook
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S candidature; teaching and learning requirements; values; links to other learning areas; links to workplace and vocational learning; outcomes; standards; content; assessment and often pedagogy to support implementation. A syllabus in English is typically shaped by the stage of student learning: for example, K-6 English syllabus; 7-10 English syllabus and 11-12 English syllabus. Taken together, these documents constitute the formal expression of the English curriculum. The development and substance of an English syllabus is often highly contested due to the enduring debates about what is of value and significance in English. The process of shaping, selecting and defining the components (from content to process and theory) in a course of study is frequently subjected to public scrutiny to an extent that is not so evident in other curriculum areas. That such scrutiny continues to occur is evidence of the ways in which subject English is regarded as the primary site for the ‘transmission’ of a culture’s dominant values, beliefs and ‘cultural heritage’. Ultimately, it should be the role of the English teaching profession, in collaboration with other educators, curriculum bodies and discipline experts, to determine the nature of a syllabus document and implement this in daily classroom practice. See also Assessment, Curriculum, Lesson plan, Outcomes, Pedagogy, Programming, Unit of work. DC, JM
Syllogism (Greek: ‘inference’) An argument that relies on the principles of logic and deductive reasoning. A syllogism proceeds on the basis of connecting two premises which leads to a third premise, called a conclusion or a proposition. The premises are referred to as a major premise, a minor premise and a conclusion. For example: ‘All dogs are carnivores’; ‘Benji is a dog’; therefore ‘Benji is a carnivore’. JM
Symbol (Greek: ‘throwing together’, sign’, ‘token’) An image, object, word or sound that comes to represent something else through association, convention and deliberate analogy. A symbol is a form of metaphor, and is often used to associate an abstract idea or concept with concrete phenomena. Symbols abound in texts as they do in the media and everyday contexts. There are particular symbols that recur in texts such as, for example: ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
Love and beauty: the rose; gold; the heart; a ring; the dove. Life: tree; ocean; light; circle; mandala. Death: darkness; Underworld; skull and crossbones; cross. Birth: flowers; seeds; Spring; eggs; light; sun.
See also Archetype, Image, Metaphor, Language, Representation, Simile. JM
Synecdoche (Greek: ‘taking up with, interpreting together’) A metaphor in which a part is mentioned to signify the whole or its opposite. These are common in everyday speech and poetry. For example, the expression ‘all hands on deck’ signifies that all sailors are immediately required on the deck of a ship or that everyone needs to contribute to a task at hand. See also Metaphor. DC
Synthesis (Greek: ‘bring together’) Refers to the dialectic between a thesis and antithesis that results in a new thesis. A synthesis is a bringing together of two or more things, elements, ideas or concepts. In literary criticism, synthesis refers to the drawing together of key aspects of an analysis to provide a cohesive and detailed evaluation of the whole. See also Antithesis, Thesis. JM
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S Systemic-functional grammar (SFG) A model of grammar developed by Michael Halliday (1925-), the most well-known component of a broad social semiotic approach to language called systemic-functional linguistics, originally articulated by Halliday in the 1960s. The term "systemic" is used to refer to the view of language as "a network of systems, or interrelated sets of options for making meaning" (Halliday, 1994:15). The term "functional" is used to indicate that the approach is concerned with meaning. Systemic-functional grammar is concerned primarily with the choices that are made available to speakers of a language by their grammatical systems. These choices are assumed to be meaningful and relate speakers'/ writers' intentions to the concrete forms of a language. Traditionally the ‘choices’ are viewed in terms of either the content or the structure of the language used. SFG seeks to present a view of language in terms of both the structure (grammar) and the words (or lexis). The term "lexicogrammar" is used to describe this combined approach. Meanings in systemic-functional grammar divided into three broad areas, called metafunctions: the ideational, the interpersonal and the textual. The ideational is grammar for representing the world. That is, the propositional content, which would include statements like, ‘The sky is blue’. The interpersonal is grammar for enacting social relationships such as asking, requests, asserting control, or ordering. Thus the interpersonal is very much about interaction between human beings, society and culture. Finally, the textual is grammar for binding linguistic elements together into broader texts (via pronominalisations, grammatical topicalisation, thematisation, expressing the newsworthiness of information, etc), or more simply, the rhetorical structure of a text. What is a subordinate clause? What is an independent clause? These are the kinds of questions that deal with the textual element of meaning. Systemic-functional grammar deals with all of these areas of meaning equally and within the grammatical system itself. See also Functional grammar, Grammar, Language, Literacy. PB Reference: Halliday, M.A.K. (1994) Introduction to Functional Grammar, 2nd edn. London: Edward Arnold.
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T Tabloid Refers to a daily or weekly newspaper which covers local interest news stories, sport, crime, business, politics, classifieds as well as social events, gossip and entertainment items. Tabloids use a smaller format than broadsheet newspapers and are often accused of sensationalism, due to the focus on sex scandals, political bungling, sporting achievements and even bizarre stories such as alien abductions. In Sydney, Australia, the number of tabloids has decreased with a narrowing of media ownership. Over the years, The Sun and The Daily Mirror have disappeared, leaving The Daily Telegraph as the sole Sydney tabloid. In London, The Sun, The Daily Star and The Daily Mirror continue the tradition of tabloids. See also Media. DC
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Create a tabloid, either on paper or online, giving different groups responsibility for different areas of the paper. The tabloid can be based on a text being studies, with news stories, horoscopes, classifieds, notices etc based on the characters and events in the text.
∼ Compare and contrast broadsheet and tabloid (audit them for content: how many pages/lines/square centimetres are devoted to different topics). Who owns the papers, what is the readership? What does this tell us about our society’s wants, needs, interests and abilities? Compare print and online versions of both forms of newspaper. JW
Talking and listening Two of the six language modes (along with writing, reading, viewing, representing) that are central to teaching and learning in English. The modes are typically integrated and dependent on one another in classroom activities. In his work on oral communication, Andrew Wilkinson affirmed the pivotal role of talk in the development “not only of the human ability to speak, not only of the human ability to communicate, but the human ability to develop cognitively” (Wilkinson, 1975: 431). The pervasiveness of the written word and visual images, and the tendency to privilege reading and writing in English and other curriculum areas in education, means it is possible to undervalue the central role of talking and listening in student learning. It has been more than four decades since Wilkinson and others argued on the basis of extensive research that writing and reading could not be pedagogically segregated from talking and listening. Importantly, research in the field has demonstrated that too often, the talk of the classroom is predominantly that of the ‘textbook’ and the teacher: language that is easy to copy, but is not easy for learner to reflect on or contest. Abundant student talk, however, is active, immediate and living, thus facilitating new learning and the synthesis of ideas and knowledge. 278
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T The work of Douglas Barnes in the 1970s highlighted the role of spoken language in classroom dynamics, finding that the privileged talking space of the classroom was typically dominated and controlled by the teacher (Barnes, 1976). Optimal learning can occur if the talking space is democratised and students have abundant opportunities to use language, not merely through immersion in reading and writing, but through meaningful talking and listening. Barnes identified two kinds of teaching, each one characterised by its approach to the role of talking; the view of the learner; the view of learning and knowledge; and the communicative relationship between teacherstudent. Transmission Teacher • •
• •
•
Sends knowledge ‘down a tube’ to the students. Relies on what Freire termed the ‘banking’ model of knowledge: it exists as a body of content to be transmitted by the teacher, regurgitated by the student and then assessed for accuracy. Memorising and accumulating content knowledge is central to this model. Teacher corrects and regulates learning, according to an established set of principles about what counts in the discipline. The learner is a ‘tabula rasa’ (‘blank slate’).
Interpretation Teacher •
•
•
•
Regards knowledge as something that is dynamic and depends on the learner’s capacity to organise thought, synthesise ideas and make sense of new information by assimilating it into and connecting it with their existing knowledge. The teacher values the capacity of the student to interpret and reshape information through talk and other communicative interaction. Teacher facilitates and opens up opportunities for learning, new knowledge and ways of thinking. Believes that the learner is equipped with capacities to understand systems of communication and knowledge Learning is recursive and reflexive.
(Barnes, D. (1976) From Communication to Curriculum. Harmondsworth: Penguin. pp. 144-145)
In an effective English program, there is an explicit understanding that students learn best when they: ∼ encounter a supportive learning environment that offers purposeful, relevant, challenging and
stimulating language activities ∼ are given a degree of choice and agency and opportunities for developing an increasing
sense of responsibility for their learning ∼ value the coherence between the language of school, home, community, workplace and media, and ∼ are provided with abundant opportunities for purposeful talk as a means of developing literacy skills across the modes and as an important pre-writing, pre-performance, prereading language experience (Reid, et al 1990). It is therefore important to plan for opportunities in English where students are both: ∼ Spectators: using language to contemplate and reflect on what has happened or what might
have happened; to improvise, imagine, fill in the gaps and so on, and ∼ Participants: using language to interact with others, get things done, and conduct day-to-day life. (Britton, Language and Learning, 1970) Developing Talking and Listening Skills
Practical Strategies
Describing and explaining
processes, events, excuses, instructions, places, things, people, decisions
Retelling and recalling
stories, experiences, incidents, jokes, memories, movies
Reporting
hypothetical and actual events, results of group discussions, experiences
Exploring
ideas, texts, evidence, stimulus materials
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T Skills
Practical Strategies
Narrating
stories, experiences
Problem-solving
negotiating resolutions to actual and hypothetical conflicts in texts, school, society
Predicting, speculating, theoris- from a range of texts, excerpts, stimulus materials ing Generating questions
about texts, themes, characters, issues
Classifying, collating, ordering, ideas, questions, issues, actions, characters, events sequencing Role-playing
characters, stereotypes, hypothetical situations
Interviewing
characters, writers, famous and invented people, in hypothetical workplace situations
Panels
characters, authors, issues, themes
Hot-seating
characters, writers, famous and invented people
Discussions and conversations
focusing, reflecting, analysing, hypothesising, musing, between peers, between student and teacher, about texts, events, experiences, issues
Music
as a stimulus for creative talking-into-writing
Staging a play
chosen or written by students
Dramatic presentations
of poems, scenes, dialogue, excerpts
Debates
issues, themes, laws, current affairs
Banquets and dinner parties
based on texts, events, themes
Casting interviews
for famous people or classmates for characters in plays, novels, poems
Mock Trials
text-based, invented
Prepared speeches
on topics, themes, issues, events
Pre-writing
exploring and articulating ideas, themes, issues, perspectives
Conferencing during writing
with peers and teacher
Recording
stories, narratives, conversations, ads, news, interviews, speeches
Using mobiles
protocols, reporting emergencies, getting information
Questioning games
‘Who am I?’, Celebrity heads
Listening for pleasure, meaning and critical understanding
poetry, stories, music, prose, famous speeches, parliament, mystery sounds, recordings
Listening for rhythms and rhymes
poems, songs, rhyming games
Improvised skits and speeches
using lines from plays as triggers: e.g. “To be, or not to be…”
Rehearsed readings
individual and choral
Dialogues
from texts, invented contexts
Music-story activities
create a story or poem to suit a piece of music and vice-versa
Media
mock press conferences, creating radio ads, interviews, news
Spontaneous talks
‘one minute’ sales talk for common objects, ‘what if...?’ games
Evaluating
responses, writing, stimulus materials, projects, presentations
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T See also Constructivism, Cooperative learning, Experiential learning, Group work, Language, Learning-centred English, Literature Circles, Reading, Representing, Viewing, Writing. JM References: Barnes, D. (1976) From Communication to Curriculum. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Britton, J. (1970) Language and Learning, Harmondsworth: Penguin. Reid, J., Forrestal, P. & Cook, J. (1990) Small Group Learning in the Classroom, Melbourne: Heinemann. Stratta, L., Dixon, J., & Wilkinson, A. (1973) Patterns of Language: Explorations in the Teaching of English, London: Heinemann. Wilkinson, A. (1975) Language and Education, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Tautology Generally refers to the unintentional and needless repetition of words which do not contribute to clarity of meaning. An example is ‘He wrote an autobiography of his life’. A common tautology is ‘unique and original’. DC
Technique (Greek: ‘art’, ‘craft’) The skills, craft and method required in composing a text. The composer’s technique is synonymous with the processes, approaches and selections made in producing a text. All texts are shaped by techniques: these range from formal techniques of structure and the use of conventions, to language techniques such as figurative language, dialogue, allegory, allusion and paradox. The quality of the composer’s technique is considered to be a measure of the quality of the text. TS Eliot (1888-1965) remarked that in an effective text, the “art conceals the art”. In other words, the technique of the composer is so skilful and accomplished that the text appears to have been composed effortlessly. JM
Television See Media
Tense (Old French: ‘time’ and Latin: ‘tempus’) A category of the verb or verbal inflections, such as present, past and future, that expresses the temporal relations between what is reported in a sentence and the time of its utterance. The two simple tenses are the present as in ‘She walks’ and the past as in ‘She walked’. To signal future tense, auxiliaries are used as in ‘She will walk.’ At times an auxiliary phrase of two, three or four words is required to indicate tense accurately, for example, ‘He used to be driven to work’; ‘He will have to be driven to work’. See also Language, Point of view, Writing. JM Reference: Wheeler, P.M. (2000) Mastering Words, 3rd edn. Sydney: Longman.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Use the first lines of famous novels for:
∼ Group writing. Each student is given a blank sheet of paper with one of the first lines on it. They have 1-2 minutes to continue the story (time length depends on age of students). The story is then passed to the next student to continue for 1-2 minutes and so on, until the teacher decides on an appropriate point to conclude. The teacher should also write with the class. Once the story has been completed, they are returned to the original writer who then may read it to the class; edit it or reshape it into another form for publication. The strategy is an enjoyable activity, emphasising the concept of a ‘community of writers’. It develops awareness of voice, audience, purpose, tense, narrative structure, dialogue, narration, plot, climax, resolution, sequencing and character.
∼ The first lines may be used as exemplars for students’ developing understanding of crafting openings to their own stories. First lines can be used for analysis of, for instance, language; audience; engagement; point of view; tone; and narrative style.
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T Novel
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
A Tale of Two Cities
Author
First Line
Charles Dickens
It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity...
Brave New World Aldous Huxley
A squat grey building of only thirty-four storeys. Over the main entrance the words, Central London Hatchery and Conditioning Centre, and, in a shield, the World State's Motto, Community, Identity, Stability.
Catch-22
Joseph Heller
It was love at first sight. The first time Yossarian saw the chaplain he fell madly in love with him. Yossarian was in the hospital with a pain in his liver that fell just short of being jaundice.
Crime and Punishment
Fyodor Dostoyevsky
At the beginning of July, during a spell of exceptionally hot weather, towards evening, a certain young man came down on to the street from the little room he rented from some tenants in S--Lane and slowly, almost hesitantly, set off towards K---n Bridge.
Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone
J.K. Rowling
Mr and Mrs Dursley, of number four Privet Drive, were proud to say that they were perfectly normal, thank you very much.
Heart of Darkness
Joseph Conrad
The Nellie, a cruising yawl, swung to her anchor without a flutter of the sails, and was at rest.
Nineteen EightyFour
George Orwell
It was a bright cold day in April, and the clocks were striking thirteen.
Northern Lights
Philip Pullman
Lyra and her daemon moved through the darkening Hall, taking care to keep to one side, out of sight of the kitchen.
The Awakening
Kate Chopin
A green and yellow parrot, which hung in a cage outside the door, kept repeating over and over: "Allez vous-en! Allez vous-en!"
One Flew Over the Ken Kesey Cuckoo’s Nest
It was a dark and stormy night.
A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man
James Joyce
Once upon a time and a very good time it was there was a moocow coming down along the road and this moocow that was coming down along the road met a nicens little boy named baby tuckoo…
Pride and Prejudice
Jane Austen
It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.
Mark Haddon The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time
It was 7 minutes after midnight. The dog was lying on the grass in the middle of the lawn in front of Mrs Shears' house. Its eyes were closed.
The Hitch-Hiker's Guide to the Galaxy
Far out in the uncharted backwaters of the unfashionable end of the western spiral of the Galaxy lies a small unregarded yellow sun.
Douglas Adams
Tension The term coined by American poet Allen Tate (1899-1979) to describe the integrity and unity of a poem, in which the general and particular, connotation and denotation and aspects of abstraction and concreteness are resolved. The term came about by the removal of the prefix from two terms in logic: intension, based on the abstract attributes of objects which can be properly named by a word; and extension which refers to the specific object named by the word. DC 282
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T Text (Latin: ‘version’, ‘composition’) Any communication that involves or depends on language. Texts include written, spoken, visual, dramatic and non-verbal communications through one or more media such as print, sound, film, performance, media or multimedia. A text is not a naturally occurring phenomenon: it is constructed by a composer who makes deliberate decisions about the purpose, audience, form and content of the text. Such decisions are shaped and influenced by a range of factors including the values, ways of thinking, material conditions and context of the composer, codes and conventions, purpose and the nature of the audience, and the wider cultural context from out of which the text emerges. In English, texts have been differentiated in the following ways: ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
Literature (novels, poetry, short stories, drama) Film, Media and Multimedia (including visual texts) Nonfiction Everyday and workplace texts.
In practice, these categories are fluid: for example, ‘literary’ texts can embody elements and features of other types of texts. Texts rely on a set or sets of conventions and shared textual practices that are adopted and adapted continuously. These conventions not only shape the text, but also provide cues for the reader, viewer, audience and writer about how to read, view and create such texts. The interrelatedness of texts, through allusion, appropriation or similarities in form, content or both, is referred to as intertextuality. In English, students engage with the full range of texts as composers and responders: responding to others’ texts as readers/viewers and composing texts with an increasing understanding of the role and significance of purpose and audience in the shaping of meaning. See also Code, Convention, Genre, Literature, Types of texts. DC, JM
Text list A text list generally refers to a list of texts that are either prescribed or recommended for study. A prescribed list of texts for study, often referred to as prescriptions, indicates that a certain number of texts must be selected from the prescribed text list. A text list may also refer to recommended texts for study. Such a list may be developed by a state curriculum authority and means that schools are not obliged to select texts from the list, but may do so if they wish. A text list of recommended texts may also be developed by individual schools or teachers for local use, based on the needs, interests and abilities of those students. Such texts lists are often developed for in-school reading programs such as ‘DEAR’ (Drop Everything and Read). See also DEAR, Text, Text selection. DC
Text selection Refers to the selection of prescribed texts, often referred to as prescriptions, from a list authorised by a curriculum authority as part of the course of study for an external credential such as the NSW Higher School Certificate (HSC) or the Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE). Specific text requirements are often integral to the successful course completion, such as the mandatory study of prescribed prose fiction, nonfiction, poetry, drama and Shakespearean drama texts. Text selection may also refer to the selection of texts from a list of recommended texts developed by a state curriculum authority. This means that schools are not obliged to select texts from the list, but may do so if they wish. Similarly, text selection may refer to school or individual teacher-developed text lists, from which students select texts appropriate to the task being undertaken. Text selection is a crucial part of planning and programming in English. There are a number of useful guidelines for selecting texts for a range of age groups, abilities and interests. Text selection should always account for the needs, interests and abilities of the students in a particular class. Consider: ∼ ‘why’ you choose certain texts ∼ ‘how’ you choose certain texts ∼ the place of student taste and choice in an English program The English Teacher’s Handbook
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T ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
the balance of types of texts (literary, nonfiction, film, media, multimedia) the balance of perspectives (Australian, Indigenous, multicultural, gender and so on) the pedagogy applicable to the range of types of texts selected, and intertextuality in the selection of texts and resources.
State and territory curriculum authorities provide guidance for the selection of texts. The following websites supplement those resources by providing additional material for consideration in text selection. DC
Textual integrity Referred to in the New South Wales Board of Studies English Stage 6 Syllabus (1999) as “the unity of a text; its coherent use of form and language to produce an integrated whole in terms of meaning and value” (Board of Studies, 1999: 145). Textual integrity requires awareness of all the constituent elements of a work, their interrelatedness, and in particular, authorial intent and the response of the reader/viewer. The concept of textual integrity can be seen to have its roots in the New Critics’ notion of ‘organic unity’: in an effective literary work, the parts contribute to the aesthetic and literary quality of the whole. See also New Criticism. DC, JM Reference: Board of Studies, NSW (1999) English Stage 6 Syllabus, Sydney: Board of Studies.
Theatre of the Absurd The term coined by Martin Esslin in his book Theatre of the Absurd (1961) and refers to plays that present a world which is confused and bewildering. The movement had its roots in plays that emerged in France in the mid-20th Century. Absurd plays often contain qualities of hyper reality and defy the conventions of the so called ‘well-made play’. Some playwrights who are often grouped under this umbrella term include: Samuel Beckett, Arthur Adamov, Eugène Ionesco, Jean Genet, Harold Pinter, Tom Stoppard, Friedrich Dürrenmatt, Fernando Arrabal, Edward Albee and Jean Tardieu. See also Drama, Well-made play. JH
Theatre superstitions Many theatre people are very superstitious. Here are some of the common theatre superstitions in western theatre: ∼ Good luck. It is considered very bad luck to wish anyone involved in a performance good luck.
Instead, actors and others say ‘break a leg’. ∼ Whistling. It is considered very bad luck to whistle backstage. This derives from the fact that in
earlier centuries sailors controlled the ropes that moved the scenery and they signalled to each other by whistling. ∼ Macbeth. It is very bad luck to say Macbeth, or quote from Macbeth, in a theatre. Theatre people refer to Macbeth as the Scottish play. It is, however, appropriate to say ‘Macbeth’ outside a theatre. ∼ Wearing green. Many theatre people believe it is bad luck to wear green in a theatre. If a person breaks any of these ‘rules’ the usual remedy is that the person must exit the theatre, spin round three times, swear, spit and then request permission to re-enter the theatre. JH
Theme (Greek: ‘proposition’) The principal ideas and subject matter of a text that are interpreted by the responder in the act of engaging with the text. Texts may have more than one theme. A theme is often an organising feature of a text, influencing character, plot, narrative technique, form and structure. Programs in English often contain units of work that are thematically based, enabling 284
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T students to experience a wide range of texts and experiences that are unified or cohere within the particular thematic framework. The possibilities for thematic units of work are endless and are designed on the basis of the needs, interests and capacities of a particular class. Examples of thematic units include: ‘identity’; adversity and challenge’; ‘survival’; ‘fantasy worlds’ and ‘relationships’. See also Drama, Fiction, Narrative, Poetry, Unit of work. JM
Thesis (Greek: ‘placing’) In English, a thesis may refer to: 1. an argument that sets out a proposition about a text or idea 2. a sustained critical, scholarly and/or research-based study completed as part or full requirements for a postgraduate degree, and 3. one of the three elements of logic – thesis, antithesis and synthesis. See also Antithesis, Argument, Dialectic, Synthesis. DC, JM
Thriller Closely allied to the mystery story, detective story, gothic novel, ghost story, and spy fiction, the thriller is characterised by excitement and suspense and includes a greater array of possible plotlines, as opposed to the ‘whodunit’ which is based on the solution to a mystery, usually a murder. The thriller can encompass adventure, espionage, deductive reasoning and murder, and the hero is often ruggedly masculine, although women are becoming more common in this genre. The hero must overcome the plans of the antagonists which are usually enacted on a grand scale: for example a coup de tats, mass murder, political assassination or terrorism. The settings for such adventures are often spectacularly extreme locations such as mountain peaks, the Arctic or Antarctic poles, deserts, oceans, cities and so on. The quest of the hero involves a fast-moving plot in which explosions, car chases, gunfire and general mayhem claim the lives of other characters and sometimes that of the protagonist himself/ herself. Writers such as Geoffrey Household (1900-88), Dash ell Hammett (1894-1961), Raymond Chandler (1888-1959), Agatha Christie (1890-1976), Leslie Charters (1907-93), Dennis Wheatley (1897-1977), Hammond Inns ((1913-98) Len Dighton (1929), John Le CarrÈ (1931), Frederick Forsyth (1938) and Robert Ludlum (1927-2001) are just some of a plethora of writers whose works can be classified as thrillers. The thriller is also a very common film genre. Some commentators classify the thriller genre into subsets such as the action thriller, conspiracy thriller, psychological thriller, medical thriller, supernatural thriller, legal thriller, political thriller and spy thriller. Examples of films in this genre include: All the President’s Men (1976); The Bourne Identity (2002), The Bourne Supremacy (2004); The Constant Gardener (2005); and The Bourne Ultimatum (2007). See also Fiction, Film, Genre, Literature, Novel. DC
Tone Refers to the mood, ambience and feeling generated and communicated by and within a text. Tone is created through the use of language and language devices and often reflects and conveys the attitude or perspective of the composer. The tone may reflect the attitude of the composer to both the subject of the text and the implied reader of the text. The tone of a work may be, for example, ironic, satirical, cynical, arrogant or congenial. Tone is often a subtle and complex quality of a text and depends on the responder’s capacity to be attuned to the nuances of language and meaning. See also Atmosphere, Mood, Point of view, Style. JM
Tragedy (Greek: ‘of the goat’) Tragedy portrays a world in which a hero or heroine, often of exalted status, confronts adversity and is eventually defeated by a combination of personal flaws, or the intervention of ‘gods’, nature or other external forces. In modern tragedies, however, the protagonist The English Teacher’s Handbook
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T is usually an ordinary person (e.g. Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman, 1949). The term has its origins in Greek theatre and is most often a genre associated with drama. In Poetics, Aristotle (384-322 BC) set out a theory of tragedy, defining it as: an imitation of an action that is admirable, complete (composed of an introduction, a middle part and an ending), and possesses magnitude; in language made pleasurable, each of its species separated in different parts; performed by actors, not through narration; effecting through pity and fear the purification of such emotion. The playwright Arthur Miller (1915-2005) once described the tragic feeling as that which is evoked in us as an audience when we are in the presence of a character who is willing to give up his or her life in order to secure one thing: their sense of personal dignity. So often in Shakespeare’s tragic plays, for example, the protagonist’s downfall results as a consequence not so much of his or her ‘weakness’, but of a so-called ‘tragic flaw’. The protagonist makes a fatal mistake, frequently when their reason is overshadowed by passion or impetuosity. In tragedy, the human mistake cannot be redeemed; all mistakes exact a very heavy price, not only for the protagonists, but often for the innocent people around them. Indeed, one of the pressing questions that tragedy poses is ‘why do the innocent suffer for that over which they have had no control?’ In Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra, for example, characters such as Eros, Iras and Charmian die because of their loyalty and proximity to the two tragic protagonists. The concept of the ‘scapegoat’ or ‘sacrifice’ is linked to the origins of the word ‘tragedy’ meaning ‘goat song’ or ‘song of the goat’. In the tragic universe, ‘time’ becomes the great enemy. As the tragedy proceeds, the choices narrow and the escape routes for the characters close off, until the only means of restoring personal dignity and honour is through death. Structurally and thematically, tragedy often hinges on the crucial choices or decisions made by the characters. Once a ‘fatal’ choice has been made, the plot moves inexorably towards the death of the protagonist. See also Antagonist, Drama, Protagonist. JH, JM
Transformation
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The result of adaptation and/or appropriation. For example, Jane Austen’s (1775-1817) novel Emma (1816) undergoes a transformation at the hands of film director Amy Heckerling (Clueless, 1995) who adapts and recontextualises the 19th century novel and thus transforms it generically as well as culturally, socially and historically. Margaret Atwood’s Good Bones (1992) is a collection of short stories, sketches and creative pieces that transform stereotyped characters, familiar stories and themes for the purposes of satire and parody. See also Adaptation. MP, JM ∼ If students are studying, or are familiar with, Hamlet, read Margaret Atwood’s short story, “Gertrude Talks Back” available at:
∼ ∼ Explore the ways in which Atwood transforms aspects of Hamlet by giving voice to Gertrude. The language is conversational and the point of view challenges the traditional interpretations of Gertrude as a character. Discuss the purpose of this, the effect and the ways in which it contributes to interpretations of Shakespeare’s play.
∼ Use this story as a model for students to compose their own transformations, taking one aspect or character from a familiar text and composing a piece from an alternative point of view.
Travel writing A broad genre of nonfiction writing that includes prose, faction, travelogues, itineraries, travel guides, travelblogs, travel reviews, memoirs, diaries and journals. See also Genre, Nonfiction, Writing. JM
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T Travelblog ∼ Students individually or in small groups can create their own travelblogs on this
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free site: www.travelpod.com
∼ The site includes sections for blogs, photos, and mapping a journey. It also provides links and hyperlinks to sites that provide information about places around the globe. It can be accessed by others and is interactive. This site can also be used to create a travelblog for a character in a text being studied in class.
A Coin’s Life: ∼ Collect coins from different countries. Each student creates a character profile for the coin (personifying it with a name, age, country of origin, etc). They can then work in pairs to interview one another ‘in role’. This can be used as a stimulus for creating an itinerary, travelogue, diary entry or travelblog for the coin. These can be collated to form an anthology of travel writing, accompanied by visual images.
∼ Use the picture book Letters from Felix (Annette Langan) about a girl’s toy rabbit that travels around the world, sending letters home to his owner, Sophie. The letters are included in this picture book. This can be used as a model for students to create their own picture book based on a text being studied, or create their own from other stimulus.
Trilogy (Greek: ‘set of three’) Refers to a group of three novels, plays or films and more recently, video games, which are generally linked by a common theme and characters. Originally the term referred to a group of three tragedies presented by individual playwrights at the drama festivals in Athens in the 5th century BC. A recent example of a novel trilogy is The Border Trilogy, by Cormac McCarthy (1933-): All the Pretty Horses (1992); The Crossing (1994); and Cities of the Plain (1998). DC
Trope (Greek: ‘turn’) Generally any rhetorical or figurative device that is used to associate one thing with another. A trope is often part of the convention of a genre. The Middle Ages saw a development in its use through the interpolation of words or music into the plainsong settings of the Roman Catholic liturgy. The canonic elegy uses tropes extensively – tropes for fertility (e.g. flowers) and resurrection (e.g. light). The final stanzas of Percy Bysshe Shelley’s (1792-1822) “Adonais” (1821) provide an example of the elegiac trope of literary inheritance and immortality whereby the power that accompanies the deification of the deceased is finally absorbed by the mourner: 54 That Light whose smile kindles the Universe That beauty in which all things work and move,... The fire for which all thirst; now beams on me, Consuming the last clouds of cold mortality. 55 The breath whose might I have invoked in song Descends on me. See also Metaphor. DC, JM
Types of texts The following table is not designed to be exhaustive. Instead, it can be used as a guide to the great variety of types of texts that students can create, engage with, critique and enjoy in English. The types of texts listed here may be sub-categories of broader genres, or genres in themselves. See also Genre. JM The English Teacher’s Handbook
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T Journal
Letter
Resume
Confession
Banner
Anecdote
Memo
Conversation
Directory
PrÈcis
Description
Dialogue
Response
List
Schedule
Application
Editorial
Email
Placard
Novella
Summary
Commentary
Fact sheet
Prayer
Manifesto
Monologue
Case study
Newspaper
Recipe
Slogan
Rebuttal
Newsletters
Poster
Novel
Itinerary
SMS
Review
Ballad
Manual
Questionnaire
Bulletin
Song
Cinquain
Voice bubble
Directions
Demonstration
Haiku
Ode
Travelogue
Debate
Poem
Sonnet
Dirge
Prospectus
Blog
Limerick
Ubi sunt
Epigram
Guide
Transcript
Epic
Epithalamion
Acknowledgement
Dictionary
Shape poem
Elegy
Story
Article
Webquest
Graffiti
Epitaph
Affidavit
Biography
Children’s book
Pun
Eulogy
Autobiography
Brochure
Acrostic poem
Minutes
Advertisement
Broadsheet
Caption
Gloss
Play script
Announcement
Headline
Myth
Memoir
Forecast
Blurb
Folk tale
Catalogue
Interview
Essay
Caption
Cartoon
Parody
Obituary
Charter
Fairy tale
Dramatic monologue Joke
Postcard
Instruction
Legend
Biographical sketch
Record
Time-line
Magazine
Lyric
Guess who
Notes
Certificate
Petition
Diary
Request
Pamphlet
Greeting
Proclamation
Thumbnail sketch
Crossword
Mind-map
Log
Sermon
Menu
Notice
Synopsis
Reference
Testimonial
Puzzle
Booklet
PowerPoint
Manifesto
Critique
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U Unit of work Part of a teaching and learning program. Programs are made up of a series of sequenced units of work, and units of work are implemented through a series of sequenced and integrated lesson plans. A unit of work is a standard means of organising, structuring and implementing an English syllabus in order to integrate the language modes and types of texts. Units of work are generally designed prior to the teaching and learning cycle and aim to cater for the needs, interests, capacities, and the intellectual, social and linguistic readiness of the students for whom it is intended. Units may also be designed through consultation with students. A unit of work generally runs for a period of 2-6 weeks. Sometimes, a unit may run for 8 or 9 weeks, although this is unusual, particularly with primary and junior secondary classes. Flexibility in planning and programming is crucial in order to continuously cater for the learning needs of students. There is a range of types of units of work and many online resources available for assisting in the development of units of work. A useful site is the Tasmanian Education English resource site:
Sample of types of units of work Theme or topic-based
• • • • • • • • • • •
‘Me, Myself, I’ – Exploring individuality ‘Stranded’ – endurance and adventure ‘Survival of the Fittest’ – war and peace Heroes, heroines and villains Australian icons Migrant experience The Writer's Imagination “The News, the Net and the Media” “Look and Listen” -Stories from the Local Community 20th century Heroes Depictions of the Female Heroine
Text-based
•
Novel, film, poetry, drama, short story, non-fiction, etc
Genre-based
• • • • • •
‘Tales From the Grave’ – supernatural, horror ‘Whodunit?’ - Crime/detective/mystery genre Autobiography Comedy and Satire ‘Slick Flicks’ – film Media – soap operas; reality TV; sitcoms
A feature of language
• • • • •
Advertising Creative writing ‘Hook, Line and Sinker’ - Rhetoric Propaganda Censorship
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U Project-based
• • • •
Production and performance Web-based composing and representation Filmmaking Script-writing
A unit of work usually includes the following components: Component
Requirement
Component
Requirement
Unit title
Identify the focus for the unit.
Class, students, length
Situational details.
Rationale
An overview of the reasons the unit of being taught to meet the needs of students, individually and as a class.
Outcomes
Identify the syllabus outcomes to be addressed in the unit.
Content
Provide details of the content (texts, topics, themes), referring to syllabus requirements where appropriate.
Pedagogical approaches
Identify the key pedagogical approaches to be utilised during the teaching and learning cycle (include, for example, small group, whole class, pairs and individual work; learning styles; and activity-based, problem-solving or workshop approaches etc).
Practical activities
Describe the main focal activities of the unit and scope and sequencing of lessons.
ICT
Describe how technology will be embedded in the unit.
Resources
Professional readings; stimulus materials; ICT resources; wide reading/viewing lists for students; other relevant materials to be used in implementing the unit.
Assessment
Detail all assessment tasks – assessment for, as and of learning. Clearly link to outcomes and learning activities.
Evaluation
Describe the strategies to be employed to evaluate the unit.
See also Lesson plan, Program. DC, JM
Utilitarianism The 18th century theory of ethics established in England by Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) which judged the value of an ethical position by its usefulness to society. Bentham rejected the notion of Rousseau’s ‘social contract’ and sought something more basic as the core for social action – ‘Utility’. He labelled his moral theory ‘Utilitarianism’ by which he meant that the highest moral good is ‘the greatest happiness to the greatest number’ of people. Therefore, an action is useful if it contributes to this condition, and is not if it does not. He promoted the view that good and evil are based on pleasure and pain. Therefore, every act must be considered together with its consequences, and these can be measured by the intensity and duration of the pleasure it produces minus the pain which attends it. Bentham believed that a calculus of pleasure and pain could be determined. Individuals pursue pleasure and therefore the ‘good’, and avoid pain and with it evil. All social institutions, including the economic ones and especially the state, should be guided accordingly. The theory was advanced and modified in the 19th century by John Stuart Mill (1806-73) who sought to define ‘happiness’ in qualitative rather than quantitative terms. See also Models of English. DC
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V Valediction (Latin: ‘farewell’) A farewell poem or speech spoken by or to the person who is to depart. A wellknown poetic valediction is John Donne’s (1572-1631) “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” (1633). JM
Values Refers to the: ∼ personal, cultural and ethical positions that students bring to the study of language and texts ∼ pedagogy that encourages the articulation and development of these ∼ principles that inform evaluations which assign worth and significance to language and texts
by students and others, and ∼ values that are operating, promoted or prominent within and through texts and language.
All activity in English can be said to be value-laden in that any engagement with and use of language assumes and requires a set of values. At the most basic level, teachers make explicit their values through the selection of texts and the pedagogy employed to teach these texts; in their attitude towards learners and learning; and through the modelling of language in use. The range of activities, approaches and language experiences offered to students also reflects the values of the teacher and, ideally, takes account of and includes the values of the students. Within a group of individuals in an English class, there will be a variety and diversity of values. Metacognition strategies assist students in clarifying, articulating, and possibly modifying their values, weighing these against the values of others, and developing a framework for recognising the plurality of values that exists in a group or broader cultural contexts. The study of values in English necessarily requires engagement with ethical issues: what is spoken, read and viewed and why; who is advantaged or disadvantaged by such activity; who/what is excluded and included in texts and discourses and why; how are competing values negotiated; and what are the ethical considerations in the production and dissemination of language and texts? When students engage with and respond to texts, and create their own, they can be encouraged to explore the values that are informing their perspectives. The process of evaluating and assigning value to texts, deciding on hierarchies of value and justifying these judgements, is a crucial endeavour in English in the senior years, but can also be addressed with younger students. See also Ethical criticism, Evaluation, Literature, Rhetorical criticism. JM
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1. When studying a text, students may be encouraged to ask:
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
Would you like to be friends with this character? Why/why not? Does one of the characters remind you of someone you know? Explain why. Did this text challenge your values or ways of thinking? How? In the course of this texts, do any of the characters change? How and why? What were the crises and challenges faced by the characters and how did they deal with these?
∼ What are the values evident in the text – are the innocent rewarded? Are the 2. 3.
4. 5.
villains punished? What elements or aspects of the texts seem to be promoted (e.g. material success; relationships; physical strength; intellectual acumen; passive compliance etc)? Select a topical and perhaps controversial issues in the media (e.g. stem cell debate, cloning, censorship, binge drinking). Students research a range of media reports and collate the evidence for and against, making explicit the value systems that they can detect in the media reports. These may be informed by religion, age, race, gender, language background, sexuality and so on. Explore the ethics of journalism by debating the issues of ‘revealing sources’, ‘on the record’ versus ‘off the record’ and confidentiality. Students are given a scenario that asks them to consider how they would react to a friend disclosing something confidential that seems to have significant implications for the safety of the friend or others. How would students deal with this situation?
Verisimilitude (Latin: ‘likeness’) A term associated with realism in literature, film and other texts, it refers to the quality of mimesis, or the capacity of the artistic work to mirror, represent and reflect external ‘reality’. The concept of verisimilitude in art has been questioned by structuralist and poststructuralist theories, since, according to these theories, ‘reality’ is culture-bound and it is therefore impossible to authentically capture a form of enduring, universal or eternal ‘reality’ in art. See also Realism. JM
Vernacular (Latin:. ‘domestic’) The language specific to the individual’s/group’s particular context. It is a term often associated with dialect and region-specific language. It is also used to describe colloquial language of everyday communication in informal contexts. In 1982, Australian poet Les A Murray published The Vernacular Republic: Poems 1961-1981 which explores issues of national identity and themes of ordinary, quotidian life, celebrating the ‘vernacular’ qualities of rural Australian people and communities. See also Accent, Dialect, Language, Register. JM
Victorian period The period in England under the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901). The early decades of the Victorian period were marked by relative peace, political stability and increasing economic prosperity. The period is celebrated for the ‘rise of the novel’ as a popular genre. Bridging the Romantic period that preceded it and the modern era that followed it, the Victorian period saw a movement towards realism in fiction by the end of the century, especially in the grim portrayals of life in the novels of Charles Dickens (1812-1870), Elizabeth Gaskell (1810-1865) and Thomas Hardy (1840-1928). Also writing at this time were the Brontë sisters, (Charlotte, 1816-1855; Emily, 1814-1848; and Anne, 1820-1849), William Thackeray (1811-1863), Wilkie Collins (1824-1889), Anthony Trollope (1815-1882), George Eliot (1818-1880), Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809-1882), Beatrix Potter (1866-1943), Robert Browning (1812-1889), Elizabeth Barrett Browning (18061861) and Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844-1889). JM
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Viewing One of the six language modes in English (along with writing, reading, talking, listening and representing). See also Conventions, Film, Image, Media, Representing, Visual text. JM
Villanelle (Italian: ‘rustic’) A poem with an intricate stanza and rhyme scheme: five stanzas of three lines each are followed by a quatrain. From a composer’s point of view, the form of the villanelle is considered difficult and complex. An example of a villanelle is the Dylan Thomas (1914-1951) poem “Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night” (1951). DC
Visual literacy Contemporary culture is highly image-based. The study of visual texts (e.g. film, multimedia, television, photography, paintings and other media such as, for example, advertising that relies on visual images) occupies a central place in the English education. Innovations in technology have seen a burgeoning of multimodal texts relying, for instance, on print, sound and visual elements. Accompanying the broadened definition of ‘text’ has come a range of theoretical and pedagogical developments and approaches to enable teachers and students to build knowledge and understanding of, and skills in reading, analysing, interpreting, evaluating and creating visual texts. The capacity to engage in such learning requires visual literacy: the awareness that, like printed texts, visual texts are constructed in particular ways, to serve particular purposes and address particular audiences. Like print texts, visual texts operate according to (or against) sets of conventions and (visual) codes. In their acquisition and application of visual literacy skills, students learn to ‘read’ visual texts as they would ‘read’ print texts – alert to the range of ways that texts operate and viewers interpret, discriminate and critique in order to come to meaning. For explanations of the technical terms, codes and conventions of visual texts, for an approach to analysing a static image, and for strategies for teaching film and media see Film, Image, Media, Multimedia, Visual text. JM
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Using the table of Film and Visual media terms (see Appendix), analyse these images. Apply the appropriate terms to describe the techniques employed by the composer to shape the image (e.g. shot, angle, composition, lighting, focus, frame, perspective, point of view).
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Images reproduced with permission, © Paul Manuel, 2008
Visual text Any text that communicates through visual media. Visual texts include images, films, visual arts, symbols, performances, body language, logos, comics, and any multimedia, multimodal or other texts that include visual images. Visual texts are pervasive in culture and are part of the range of texts studied, created and critiqued in English. See also Film, Image, Visual literacy. JM Visual image analysis (Based on the image below or any other image)
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Examine the structure of the image:
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∼ What perspective is evident in the image? Is the image taken from above (implying that the viewer is ‘looking down’ on the subject); from below (inferring a position of superiority of the viewer); or front on (implying a commonality between viewer and subject, inviting involvement)?
∼ Where is the eye drawn to? The middle, bottom, sides or top? Often the ‘real’ of an image is at the centre or bottom, and the ‘ideal’ is at the top (indicating aspirations).
∼ Are we drawn to view the image from left to right, right to left, bottom to top, top to bottom, centre to left, centre to right etc? Western convention assumes we read ‘left to right’, so visual images often deploy this strategy to invite the viewer to focus on a particular part of the image.
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Positioning and framing ∼ Where are the subjects positioned in the frame of the image? What is the relationship between the subjects/objects in the frame? Does one subject dominate? What is the effect of this?
∼ What are the ‘vectors’ in the image? Are the subjects looking or ‘gazing’ at something or someone else in the image, or something beyond the frame?
Distance, lighting and modality ∼ Is the image a close-up, long-shot or medium-shot. The distance of the image implies the extent to which the viewer is ‘involved’ or invited to engage with the image.
∼ Are there symbols, archetypes, icons or familiar objects in the image? Do these trigger associations with other images, ideas and experiences?
∼ What is the lighting in the image? Are there shadows and highlights, flat lighting or spotlighting? What is the impact on this for the viewer?
∼ How does the composition of the image contributed to the overall impact? ∼ What is the modality of the image? Is it a ‘real’ image, an action shot, a manipulated image or a combination of these? Is the image focused or blurred?
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∼ Does the image have a caption or headline. The eye is drawn to the printed part of the text initially. If there is printed text, how does this contribute to the visual image?
Analysing covers (books, CDs, DVDs) (Also a pre-reading/viewing and prediction activity) Students work in pairs with a book, CD or DVD cover. Without looking at any part of the book/CD/DVD except its cover, discuss the following:
∼ The title: what does it imply or suggest? ∼ Visual image (see Image for analysis scaffold). What does the visual image suggest about the content of the text and the intended audience?
∼ What is the time period or century when the text may be set? ∼ What country or place is indicated from the cover? ∼ Does the cover indicate who the central character/s may be? ∼ Does the cover indicate the genre or thematic focus of the text? ∼ What does the publication information indicate about the text? ∼ Is there a blurb on the front or back? What does this contribute to the cover? ∼ What is the most eye-catching or appealing aspect of the cover? ∼ Is there an obvious relationship between the images and the printed text? ∼ How is colour, perspective, light and positioning of subjects used to compose the image?
∼ What is the layout of the cover? ∼ Are there advertising and/or logos on the cover?
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V
Reproduced with permission, © Tommy Murphy, 2008
Vocational education An across the curriculum focus which emphasises the connections between knowledge, understanding, skills and values and their application in workplace and other settings. In English, vocational education outcomes are addressed through the broad engagement with, and creation and study of, language, literature and other texts. The range and breadth of experiences in English contribute in a functional way to students’ vocational needs, although such experiences are not limited to the merely utilitarian or immediately ‘relevant’ demands of a particular workplace. Rather, the knowledge, understanding, skills and values acquired in English are intended to equip all students with the confidence and capacity to live fully, purposefully and productively in their personal, social and working lives. See also Workplace texts. DC, JM
Voice The distinctive persona, narrator or speaker in or of a text. The voice is integral to the effective communication of ideas and meaning and is shaped by language, tone, point of view, narrative technique and the composer’s style. The concept of voice in texts is associated with the idea of a controlling consciousness shaping the way the persona, narrator or speaker communicates/speaks through the text to the reader/viewer/audience. The voice of a text is not the same as the composer’s voice: voice, like character and tone, is a constructed feature of the text and is achieved through the use of language and form. The narrator/s and character/s within a text also have a ‘voice’ which is shaped through narrative description, dialogue and other techniques to represent personality and ways of thinking. Some characters in texts have a stronger and more prominent voice than others. The term voice carries with it connotations of authority, with a powerful voice within a text engaging and persuading the reader/viewer to ‘willingly suspend disbelief’ and enter the world of the text. See also Character, Film, Hierarchy of discourses, Implied author, Narrative, Narratology, Narrator, Persona, Point of view, Tone. DC, JM
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W Well-made play An old-fashioned term referring to a formula for a play generally ascribed to Eugene Scribe (1791-1861). Many 19th century plays fit this genre. The well-made play is logical. In the exposition, information is supplied to the audience, followed by action and suspense. Usually the protagonist experiences a number of complications rising to a climax followed by a dénouement or resolution of events. JH
Western A genre of fiction, film and television largely set in the western states of the United States of America, usually in the period between the Civil War and approximately 1890. The genre dates back to James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) who wrote about life in the frontier. Francis Bret Harte (1836-1902) co-established Overland Monthly which provided an avenue for his stories and those of other western writers. Harold Bell Wright (1872-1944), Zane Grey (1872-1939), Eugene Manlove Rhodes (1869-1934) wrote popular western fiction. These novels depict the conquest of the wild frontier, life with the Indians, cowboys, isolation, cattle-rustling, gun-fights, lawlessness, justice, prospecting and so on. Conflict between Indians and settlers or the United States Cavalry was usually central to the plotline, as was the roaming gunslinger coming to the rescue of those in need and battling renegade cowboys. Western television shows, such as for example, Bonanza and Gunsmoke, were popular from the 1950s, depicting the values of honour, family and sacrifice. Later shows in the 1960s and 1970s took a more cynical view by emphasising the brutality and primitivism of life, often inverting the hero/antihero roles. See also Genre, Fiction, Film. DC
Whole language What has been called a ‘whole language’ approach to reading, like many innovations and developments in education, commenced as a reaction to existing ‘exclusive’ methods of teaching reading, such as a heavy emphasis on teaching only phonics, or on only ‘look-say’, or only on a kind of ‘word-by-word’ approach. Opponents of ‘whole language’ approaches sometimes describe it mistakenly as “whole word”. As properly understood, ‘whole language’ involves a whole range of strategies in developing the whole range of skills that students need to acquire and develop in order to become competent readers. Whole language emphasises the importance of the context within which words (and their ‘sub-units’ of letters and syllables) are situated in texts. A whole language approach involves motivating the students to read; providing them with texts that engage their interest; ensuring that the students have plenty of opportunities to read; developing the students’ phonemic/phonetic relationships skills; and concentrating on understanding and responding to meaning in texts. Students are encouraged to search for cues/clues to arrive at the meaning of words in context, and how they should be sounded. As with many educational approaches and strategies, some claiming to be teaching whole language can distort the original emphases and advocate extremist either/or positions – such as, for example, The English Teacher’s Handbook
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W that the teaching of phonetic/phonemic skills should be avoided or minimised. Opponents of whole language approaches often caricature them or mistakenly define them as “whole word” approaches – but this ‘strawperson’ phenomenon is by no means limited to this area of English in education. See also Bullock Report, Language, Literacy, Phonics, Reading. PB Reference: Goodman, K. S. (1986) What's whole in whole language? Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Wide reading program “Wide reading was one of the most obvious advances and one of the more accessible teaching methods advocated by the post-Dartmouth ‘new English’.” (Tucker, 2004: 205) English programs, for every year and stage of schooling, should include three kinds of reading experience for all students: 1. Whole class or shared reading experiences Every class needs an in-depth reading program through which students are encouraged to reflect upon texts and to develop their skills the in critiquing and appreciation of literature: ∼ the class novel, short stories, drama, poetry etc ∼ reading aloud to students – e.g. serialising a book, reading a poem by a chosen poet each day for a week. 1. Small group or pairs reading experiences Every class needs opportunities for individuals and groups to choose from a wide range of texts and to share and refine responses within these more intimate settings: ∼ within a thematic unit, have students choose from a range of relevant fiction and nonfiction – groups will form accordingly based on interest and selections ∼ allow groups to explore a composer’s oeuvre – novelist, poet, dramatist, journalist, etc ∼ alongside the class novel, for example, students may also be reading a range of other literature and texts that are relevant to and expand upon the reader’s experience. 1. Individual reading experiences Every class needs a wide reading program in which students select books freely for silent reading for pleasure or as part of Literature Circles in which the sharing of one’s enjoyment is a voluntary act: ∼ students self-select material to read during time that is specifically set aside for personal reading – this can form part of the student’s reading contract, or reading log, or Literature Circles ∼ such reading can form the basis of book reviews, sharing, and further reading. For an extensive range of suggestions for a wide reading programs, see Ernie Tucker (2004), “Wide reading” in Re-Viewing English in the 21st Century eds. W Sawyer and E Gold. See also Children’s Literature, Literature Circles, Picture books, Reading, Text selection, Young Adult Literature. JM Reference: Tucker, E. (2004) “Wide reading” in Re-Viewing English in the 21st Century, eds. W. Sawyer & E. Gold, Sydney: Phoenix Education.
Willing suspension of disbelief A term coined by S T Coleridge (1771-1834) in 1817 to describe the concept of the responder’s willingness to accept the ‘fiction’ and illusion of imaginative texts, embracing the constructed work (its characters, events, setting, action etc) as ‘real’. The responder voluntarily agrees to enter into the imaginative world created by the text, complying with the artifice of form and content in order to become immersed in the world of the text. The capacity of the responder to suspend disbelief, to maintain this disbelief throughout the entire text, and be caught up in the fictional world relies on the effectiveness of the composer’s use of techniques such as, for example, characterisation (and consistency of this); narrative structure; and what has been termed ‘textual integrity’. This concept has been challenged by critical approaches that advocate resistant readings of imaginative texts. See also Alienation effect, Fiction, Illusion, Imagination. JM 298
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W Wit (Old English: ‘to know’) This term has shifted in meaning over the centuries and formerly meant ‘knowledge’. In the Middle Ages it denoted ‘intellect’ and ‘inner senses’ as contrasted with the ‘the five outer senses’. In the Renaissance, it came to mean ‘wisdom’ or ‘mental activity’. In the time of the metaphysical poets, the term meant ‘fancy’ as relating to the imagination and the individual’s creative powers. Though its meaning was debated widely during the Neoclassical period, ‘wit’ is generally held to mean the intellectual capacity and talent to make unexpected associations between disparate words or ideas, resulting in a clever or humorous effect. Often, wit is a verbal demonstration, while humour need not be. See also Language, Writing. DC
Workplace texts Any text that is related or relevant to a workplace. These may include reports, brochures, briefing papers, catalogues, invoices, databases, PowerPoint presentations, spreadsheets, business cards, logos, resumes, forms, reviews, summaries, memos, emails, letters and job advertisements. In English, students study a range of these types of texts and language in units of work that situate such texts – their purpose, audience and conventions – within meaningful contexts. For example, when studying a film, play or novel, students may create resumes, emails, letters and job advertisements in role as a character/s. Students also learn about these types of texts through units of work that focus on the language of the workplace or the commercial world (media, advertising etc). The pedagogy of group learning and collaboration in English also equips students with the work-related skills, attitudes and values relevant to effective communication and team-work. DC
Writing development (Developmental Models of Writing) James Britton and the team he led at the London Institute of Education in the 1970s developed a model of writing based on the work of Jean Piaget (1896-1980), Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) and James Moffett. From their study of a large number of written texts from students aged 11-18, the team developed the concepts of audience and purpose to identify the necessary foci of attention as writers shape their writing. They then calibrated the linguistic features of writing present as writers’ progress developmentally from writing close-to-self to writing for distanced audiences. In formulating a developmental model of writing they acknowledged the fundamental importance of familiarity with narratives and a wide range of writing models in developing writing competence. See also Language, Writing. RA
Writing Since the 1960s, a great deal of research and scholarship has been devoted to understanding how to optimise students’ knowledge and understanding of, and skills in, writing. The predominant models of writing in English pedagogy have emphasised writing as a process and the development of writing skills as a complex and recursive endeavour, requiring collaboration between an expert teacher and engaged, active students. Over the past five decades, there have been a number models for teaching writing and these can be summarised (although inevitably over-simplified) as follows: 1. Writing as process requiring the writer to move from the ‘pre-writing stage’ through a drafting and editing stage, to publication. The process of writing demands careful attention to the craft of writing and the centrality of the purpose and audience in writing. The teacher is an informed, supportive and interested mentor, intervening to provide the writer/s with the necessary knowledge, understanding and skills to (Murray, 1980) 2. Writing as a process is a developmental experience, with the writer moving back and forth through stages of the writing process in order to shape and publish a product. Writing requires a communal environment that values the art and craft of writing, the experimentation and growing confidence of the writer, and the centrality of the writer’s voice. (Graves, 1983)
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W 3. Writing requires “4 essentials”: ‘Writing is important”; “Writing is a craft”; “Writing is mainly learned by writing”; and “Writing is intended for readers”. “Abundant reading and purposeful talk interweave continually with the writing.” (Walshe, 1980) 4. Writing requires a knowledge and understanding of the genres of writing. The conventions and structures of the range of genres of writing must be mastered by students. This involves an understanding of the social purpose of texts, and the ways in which power relations are inscribed in certain prevailing genres. This model emphasises a knowledge of the form over content. (Christie, in Sawyer, 2004) Contemporary English syllabus documents are informed by a range of assumptions about writing that include the following: ∼ Students learn best by doing, not by merely examining principles. Teachers offer an abundant and engaging range of writing tasks for meaningful purposes and real audiences. ∼ Purpose and audience shape all writing. Teachers make this clear to students before expecting them to write. ∼ We not only learn to write, but we write to learn. Writing is a means of discovering, connecting, clarifying and communicating what we know and who we are. ∼ Writing is a process, not a ‘one-shot-act’ to produce a product for the teacher. ∼ Students can learn to serve as their own editors. ∼ The writing situation involves four elements: the writer, the reader, the ideas and the craft. “I (writer) intend to persuade you (reader) of the importance of X (ideas) and will do so in Y form (craft).” (Walshe, 1980) ∼ Respond first to the message and second to the form. Form follows function (not the reverse). What is being written will shape how and in what form it is finally presented. ∼ Students must see that writing provides a means by which they can explore themselves and their world more closely and, by doing so, come to a greater understanding of both. ∼ The teacher must model being a writer and write with the class as much as possible. ∼ The teacher provides models of good writing by immersing students in others’ writing. ∼ The teacher must help the students to understand writing as a process and provide many authentic opportunities for sharing and publishing students’ writing. ∼ Teachers must monitor students’ writing and show them how they are growing as writers. Every writer needs a writing partner – a caring, patient, helpful person to share in the journey. ∼ Reading and writing are not binary opposites (i.e. reading as passive reception and writing as active production). Both are part of the same process of actively re-writing everything that is read and actively re-reading everything that is written. Students learn to read texts from a writer’s point of view and write texts from a reader’s point of view. ∼ The continuum of writing begins with reflection and culminates in publication. ∼ As students move from expressive to poetic writing, there is an increasing distance between the audience and the speaker – between the “I” and the “you” of the writing. ∼ Confidence in expressive writing leads to growing confidence in transactional and poetic writing. Transactional language • •
In this mode, we use language to get things done. It has a more formal function, to persuade, to theorise, to record, to inform, to instruct and to argue a case or point of view.
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Expressive language •
•
Students write themselves into understanding and meaning through this mode. This uses language which is personal or “close to the self”.
Poetic language •
•
Writing becomes more speculative, with increasing distance between the audience and the “I” of the text. Imaginative, argumentative, theorized writing.
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W Transactional language •
•
Transactional writing requires a knowledge of the audience and select and shape language accordingly. Assists students in developing a command of register and rhetoric.
Expressive language •
•
This mode can be used as the foundation to move into the more demanding functions of transactional and poetic writing. Language varies according to function: e.g. a letter to a friend is expressive. A letter to an insurance company is transactional. A letter constructed as part of a story or literary work is poetic.
Poetic language • •
•
The audience may be known, unknown or implied. The purpose of the writing is to entertain, offer aesthetic experience, represent ideas, emotions and ways of thinking in imaginative forms. Conventions of genres may be required to compose in this mode.
Examples of expressive, transactional and poetic writing Transactional
Expressive
Letter to get something done Review (book, film, etc) Essays (argumentative, expository) Posters Interpretations Lists Directions Instructions Interviews / News stories
Type of Writing/ Focus Descriptive Writing a) People
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Letter in a novel Poems Stories Visual representations Plays Songs Dramatisations Scripts Character monologues Multimedia creations
Activities
• • • • •
b) Places
Letter to a friend Journals Stream of consciousness Personal responses Reading logs Notes Monologues Emails, sms, MSN, discussion boards Character profiles
Poetic
• • • •
Skills and Resources
Describe people: teacher, doctor, plumber, Use models, e.g.: baker, footballer, broker, painter, musician Ted Hughes’ poetry Dickens Describe the person sitting next to you in the Hardy bus/train Browning’s poetry Describe your favourite or least favourite ad, Pictures TV character, website, song Music Describe your favourite animal Postcards Make jottings about a character you have Film excerpts imagined Documentaries Paintings Describe a scene in a painting, postcard, Webpages drawing to capture its essence I am a giant octopus carried out into the sea • Observation • Recognition of uniqueness, that is too cold differences, contrasts I am a creature from Jupiter. I’ve landed near • Surface and symbolic the sea. characteristics Describe the view from your bedroom window, early morning in summer, dusk in winter, • Description and evocation twilight in autumn • Aims at sharp detail and accuracy •
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W Type of Writing/ Focus c) Objects/ Sounds
Activities • • •
Activities/ Emotions
•
•
•
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Contrasts
• • • • • • • • • • •
Fantasy
• • • • •
Narrative
•
•
• • • • •
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Skills and Resources
Write the script for an ad for a potato, a new suntan lotion, new no-burn candles Describe your mobile’s ringtone without others being able to hear it Describe the impact of your favourite song or piece of music on you
•
•
Use as a basis for story writing and other imaginative writing Develops language skills and recognition of differences between literal, abstract, emotive, rhetorical, sensational and figurative language
Describe someone who is angry, shy, embarrassed, delighted, afraid, miserable, enthusiastic, excited (what are the features of these emotions?) Describe what it feels like to ski, float, take off in a plane, ride a bike through the sand, eat ice-cream, shape clay Describe what it feels like to be late, early, stuck, betrayed, cheated, surprised
• •
Describe a room before/after a party A tree on a sunny, windy, raining, foggy day Bush before and after fire An old person and a baby The ocean and the desert Wealth and poverty A cat asleep/awake Fire/water Night/day Classical music/rap music Walking/dancing
•
Develops precision in description
•
Moving towards figurative use of language. Understanding of symbol, metaphor, simile etc through activity-based and embodied learning Resources – pictures, music, ads, objects – can be simple and supplied by both teacher and students
Describe life in a world without paper, electricity, mobiles, clothes, McDonalds Use Picasso and Dali paintings as a stimulus to describe a dream What is your ideal day? Who is your fantasy friend? Take extracts from fantasy fiction and recast it
•
Word cache and writing derby – free-write for 1, 2 or 3 minutes on a person, place, experience, thing (from own experience of from a text) Use titles, pictures, photos, music, book covers, ads, opening sentences of novels, opening lines of poems or songs, headlines etc as stimulus Take an actual incident and turn it into a story (Kelly gang, war, news items, mystery) Spontaneous memory monologue technique Use flashback, stream of consciousness Finishing stories read in class Creating ghost chapters, missing chapters, new
•
•
•
•
• •
•
Memory and observation Honing skills of defining and evoking, showing rather than telling Use photographs and pictures as stimulus
Developing concept of fantasy Allow scope for representation Link to popular media representations
Developing confidence in writing through memory, observation, experience Stress origins, derivations, intertextuality, form, organization of ideas
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Activities • • • • •
Creative
•
•
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
• •
• •
•
•
• • •
• •
•
•
• •
Skills and Resources
Prepare a for/against list on the topic of censorship, stem cell research, cloning Create a dialogue between two people with opposed points of view about a text or topic Write a newspaper editorial or blog on a controversial topic or issue Contribute to a web discussion or blog on a topical issue Use the Benton advertisements to debate issues such as media censorship
•
Stress on structuring ideas, distinguishing between fact and opinion, sequencing ideas, using evidence and shared conventions
Stimulus from pictures, music, objects, characters, topics, experiences, guided experiences, literature, film, media Stimulus by models – poems, stories, plays, media, etc Interview other writers Spontaneous Memory Monologue (Reflect on something in the landscape that triggers memories) Symbols – rocks, plants, gloves, sticks, etc Imagine you are … a piece of fruit, a force of nature, a season, a body of water, a landform, a tree, a building, a coin, a musical instrument, a car, a country, etc Find a photo or photos from stages in your life. Using the poem “The Album”, use this photo to reflect on the what, where, when, how, why of that picture Draw a silhouette of your friend’s face and vice-versa. Use this to stimulate writing about ‘you’, also using the poems as a stimulus if you wish .. create your own poem with visual images Write interview questions for interviews with characters from texts Speak for the city street, speak for the still lake, your bedroom, your dog Translate a known work into another form – a poem into a news story, a news story into a poem, a dialogue into a poem … Change the ending of a text Draw something you were afraid of as a child – then share and discuss with a partner – then read “The Day I Met the Devil” – short story Imagine you are the person in the picture – what is your life like? Write about it in diary, letter or narrative form Use the first line of a novel, a poem, a headline, a play, or anything, and continue the story – individually, or around the class Round the group writing Group collaboration on a poem or other piece of writing
•
Allow for lots of choice and scope in substance and form. Lots of pre-writing talk, time for revising, opportunities for discussion of writing process, publication Develops confidence and control over language Values the capital that students bring to the classroom in terms of memory, experience, observation Experiential, student and learning centred approaches Workshop approaches Students’ literature and texts valued as part of the continuum of all texts
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•
• •
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W Type of Writing/ Focus Creative
Activities • • •
• • •
Factual
• • • •
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
•
•
• • • • • •
Point of view
• • • • • •
Transactional
• • • • •
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Skills and Resources
Haiku, shape poems, acrostic poems Add a missing piece to the story, film or poem Change one thing about the story – a nursery rhyme or a fairy tale – move it forward in time, alter the conditions, the setting, the characters Complete the ending of a story “The New Axe Handle” Write letters exchanged between two characters Rewrite the story from another point of view – e.g. a minor character Write a report on media events Compile lists and catalogues Describe an experience or event from history Take a picture and present a point of view, or argue for an ad/film being (un)censored Instructional writing – giving directions, describing an object to the class without them being able to see it Examine propaganda posters and materials – identify how facts have been distorted. Rewrite the material to provide a more factual representation Detail a scene or an object as a forensic investigator for use as evidence in a case Statement of family background, family tree Inventory of advertising on tv, radio, print, web Present the relevant facts about a fork, a sock, a cricket ground Factual report on a dog’s life, teenagers, house next door Write a classified ad for something you want to sell on E-Bay
•
Interview people on a topic/issue Express a point of view in response to an article in the paper Give opinions on crime, drugs, public education Write a day in the life of someone you know Write a report on an incident from two points of view Tell the story of a Sunday morning spent by an old man, a baby, a child, a journalist, a surfer
•
Developing an understanding of the concept of ‘voice’ and the organization of ideas for public contexts
Plan an itinerary for a dream holiday – send emails, letter to hotels, postcards to friends Send an email to all your friends breaking to them some important news Write a letter to the Editor of your local newspaper Post a comment on an on-line at a news site Apply for a job
•
Conventions of letters, emails, reports, forms, workplace texts etc Need for coherence and clarity Clarity of message is central
•
•
• •
Distinguishing fact from opinion. Recognising the role of factual writing in communicating ideas Is there such a thing as fact?
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W See also Composing, Creativity, Genre-based model, Imaginative re-creation, Language, Literacy, Reading, Spelling, Talking and listening, Writing development. JM References: Britton, J. (1970) Language and Learning, Harmondsworth: Penguin Britton, J. et al. (1975) The Development of Writing Abilities (11-18), London: Macmillan. Graves, D. (1984) A Researcher Learns to Write, NJ: Boynton Cook Graves, D. (1983) Writing: Teachers and Children at Work, London: Heinemann Moffett, J. (1981) Active Voice, NJ: Boynton/Cook. Murray, D. (1982) Learning by Teaching, NJ: Boynton/Cook. Sawyer, W. (2004) “Seminal books on English teaching” in Re-Viewing English in the 21st Century, eds. W. Sawyer & E. Gold, Melbourne: Phoenix Education. Sawyer, Wayne, (ed.) (1995) Teaching Writing: Is genre the Answer?, Springwood: AEN. Smith, F. (1982) Writing and the Writer, London: Heinemann. Walshe, R.D. (1980) Every Child Can Write, Sydney: PETA. Walshe, R.D., March, P., & Jensen, D. (1986) Writing and Learning in Australia, Melbourne: Dellasta/OUP.
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Y Young Adult Literature In recent decades there has been a burgeoning of what has come to be known as Young Adult Literature (YAL, also known as adolescent literature and by the pejorative term ‘Adult Lite’). As a distinct category and sub-genre, Young Adult Literature has been, particularly since the 1980s, an increasingly significant component not only of secondary English, but also of the commercial world of publishing and the academic world of research, scholarship and literary criticism. It was only in the 1980s, for example, that prescribed texts for study at senior secondary level in English began to include Young Adult titles. Prior to this, syllabus and prescriptions documents were characterised by a predominance of ‘classic’ adult texts. While young adult texts were certainly read in English before the last decades of the 20th century, they did not have the status and recognition within the curriculum that is now evident from a mapping of Australian English syllabus documents. In Australia, the development of Young Adult Literature has involved an ever-widening scope and breadth of titles and a concomitant broadening of the prevailing themes, issues, characters, perspectives and forms written for a specifically adolescent audience. The works of writers such as Colin Thiele (1920-2006) and Ivan Southall (1921-) are examples of ‘early’ Australian YAL. But over the last three to four decades, the innovations in the subject matter and approach in Australian YAL have been significant. Many of the most popular texts push the boundaries of what was once considered appropriate for adolescents. These texts are characterised by a starkness, realism and at times confronting brutality that has not been typical of YAL in countries such as, for example, the UK and USA. Issues and themes explored in Australian YAL include youth suicide, youth homelessness, incest, drug use, domestic violence, murder, dysfunctional relationships, homophobia and gay rights, sexuality, physical and emotional deprivation, and sexual, physical and psychological violence. Indeed, YA fiction now covers the whole gamut of themes and concerns relevant to both adult and so-called teen cultures. It is therefore increasingly difficult to categories the intended audience for YAL. Some have argued that the audience for YAL ranges from the very early teens to the mid to late twenties. A prevailing concern for writers of YAL is the extent to which they engage with the ‘darker’ themes of contemporary teen and adult culture and thereby open up spaces for adolescents to engage with legitimate and authentic representations of their often complex lives. Or the extent to which they shield adolescents from the realism of the quotidian world they inhabit. A survey of the most popular adolescent fiction titles indicates that young adult readers are drawn to engage with representations that thoughtfully and honestly deal with experiences that are ‘front and centre’ of so many teenagers’ lives. Robert Protherough argues that: The presentation of fiction in schools is not just an academic exercise if the quality of narrative is intimately related to the quality of life. The ultimate importance of the fiction we read to children or put in their hands lies not in any ‘moral’ it may convey, but in the fact that through it young people are helping to develop a sense of themselves and of their shifting place in the world as they grow up. (Protherough, 1983: 22) 306
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Y One of the few features distinguishing adult from young adult fiction is the necessary presence of an adolescent protagonist or narrator in the latter and the use of language (in dialogue, inner speech and narrative voice) that closely mirrors the language and discourses of adolescents. YAL is also characterised by a fast-paced narrative, crises and conflicts (often with adults or within institutions), and protagonists who confront and move through painful experiences, all within contexts that are in some measure familiar to the contemporary adolescent. Also typical of Australian YAL is a representation of some enduring and more contemporary Australian themes such as, for example: the distinction between the city and the bush; the search for identity through connections with the Australian landscape; Indigenous history and experience; cultural values and structures embedded in concepts such as egalitarianism, ‘the fair go’ and resistance to authority; and multiculturalism. The importance of YAL in English cannot be underestimated. Research with Australian teenagers counters the mythology that too often underscores public debates on teenagers’ reading practices and preferences that teenagers do not read. The most recent research with almost 2000 Australian teenagers, between 11 and 18 years, provides evidence that young people are choosing fiction for leisure reading, but these selections are always not made as part of an English class reading program. (Manuel & Robinson, 2002, 2003). We know from research in the UK and USA that: ∼ Reading for pleasure declines as students move through secondary school. ∼ Academic reading replaces reading for pleasure for a majority of students in senior secondary school. ∼ Reading becomes closely associated with school-based learning and assessment. ∼ There is a decline in reading associated with the kinds of reading required of adolescents and the ways such reading is managed. ∼ Motivation to read closely correlates with the degree of student choice. ∼ Significant growth in the publication of YA fiction over the last 2 decades. ∼ Series are exceptionally popular. ∼ Particular authors dominate the reading preferences of 11-14 year-olds. ∼ Reading preference shaped by gender, ethnicity, socio-economic status. Key findings from the Australian Teenagers’ Reading Choice Project (Manuel and Brindley, 2010) show that: ∼ More than 80% of the participants had a favourite book (almost exclusively imaginative ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
literature in the form of fiction). More than 40% of participants had read their favourite book at least twice, while 17% had read it 3, 4, 5 or more times. While 81% had a favourite book, 90.5% had a ‘worst ever’ book. In 21% of cases, the English teacher had been the source of the ‘best book’ experience. In more than 75% of cases, the English teacher had been the source of the ‘worst book’ experience. For 11-14 year olds, reading a book emerges as the third most popular leisure activity, along with being with friends and using the computer. Females prefer Fantasy, Mystery, ‘Other’, Detective and Action /Adventure. Auto/biography, Travel, Romance and Science Fiction are the least preferred for females. Action /Adventure, Fantasy and Mystery are the overwhelming favourites for both males and females. Preferences and antipathies are diverse, reflecting diversity of taste and interests. Most ‘favourite’ books have emerged from beyond school reading.
∼ Least popular genre and the one most identified as being ‘never read’ by males and females
is Romance.
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Y ∼ Reading imaginative literature in the form of fiction is maintaining its place as a leisure
activity in the lives of 11-14 year olds. ∼ Australian YA fiction figures prominently in ‘favourite’ books. • • •
There are strong discontinuities between school reading and self-selected reading. The role of pedagogy and appropriate text selection in promoting enjoyment or in undermining it is pivotal in English. Major sources of positive reading experiences for males and females are family, friends and personal ownership.
‘Favourite book’ titles (Australian) for females include the following: John Marsden – Tomorrow Series (1994-1999); The Ellie Chronicles (2003-2006) Robin Klein – Came Back to Show You I Could Fly (1989); Polly Pollard’s Scrapbook (1989); Hating Alison Ashley (1984) Isobelle Carmody - The Gathering (1993) Tim Winton – Lockie Leonard (1990-1997) Paul Jennings – Round the Twist (1991); The Gizmo (1995) Morris Gleitzman – Once (2005) Jackie French – Hitler’s Daughter (1999) Emily Rodda – Deltora Quest (2000-2005) Margot Clark – Mango Street series (2003) ‘Favourite book’ titles (Australian) for males include the following: Paul Jennings - Goosebumps series Morris Gleitzman – Once (2005), Boy Overboard (2003) Matthew Reilly – Scarecrow (2003) John Marsden - Tomorrow series (1994-1999) Emily Rodda – Rowan of Rin series (1994-2004) See also Fiction, Literature, Novel, Popular culture, Reading, Wide reading program. JM References: Manuel, J. & Brindley, S. (eds.) (2010, forthcoming) Teenagers and Reading: Literary Heritages, Cultural Contexts and Contemporary Reading Practices, Adelaide: Wakefield Press/AATE. Manuel, J. & Robinson, D. (2003) "Teenage boys, teenage girls and books: Re-viewing some assumptions about gender and adolescents' reading practices", English Teaching: Practice and Critique, Vol 2, No.2, September, pp. 66-77. Manuel, J. & Robinson, D. (2002) "What are Teenagers Reading? The Findings of a Survey of Teenagers' Reading Choices and the Implication of these for English Teachers' Classroom Practice", English in Australia, 135, pp. 69-78. Protherough, R. (1983) Developing Response to Fiction, Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Youth culture Refers to the distinctive, collective cultural practices of youth (often categorised as being between the ages of 15 and 25) – which include dress, language and music – to construct identity. Disillusionment with and rejection of the norms of society are often central to youth cultures. The depiction of youth by advertising and the media is frequently negative, perpetuating the division between youth and so-called mainstream society. Punk rockers, skinheads, hip-hoppers, surfies, bodgies and widgies have all gained attention over the years. Often, youth groups have deliberately set themselves apart from society and even competed against other groups such as in the activities of the Mods and Rockers in the early 1960s. Movies such as The Wild One (1953), Rebel Without a Cause (1955), Quadrophenia (1979), and The Delinquents (1989) depict the rebellion and disillusionment often associated with youth cultures. See also Popular culture, Young Adult Literature. DC, JM
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Z Zone of proximal development (ZPD) One of the most helpful concepts for educators wishing to attune to students’ readiness to learn is Lev Vygotsky’s (1896-1934) concept of the zone of proximal development, or zo-ped. Vygotsky argued that one cannot understand a child’s developmental level unless one considers two aspects of it: the actual developmental level and the potential development. The psychologist Jerome Bruner (1915-) developed the notion of ‘scaffolding’ to explain how a teacher can structure tasks in an empathic and sequential way which supports students as they move through their zone of proximal development and achieve intellectual success. A skilled teacher can assess students’ actual developmental level and provide challenges within their reach, or their zone of proximal development. Such assessments need to take into account both cognitive and emotional readiness for undertaking challenges. An example of this concept can be found at My Read (www.MyRead.org, 2003), a resource package for reading in the middle years. MyRead advocates a number of strategies for supporting and guiding the reader vis-‡-vis selection of reading material. One such strategy explicated in this resource is based on a Vygotskian learner-centred paradigm wherein the teacher and learner are engaged in a dynamic and integrated exchange in the learning enterprise. An overview of the strategy highlights the way in which the teacher and student move through various domains with an ebb and flow of teacher instruction and support balancing the evolving autonomy and increasing agency of the student (DEST/AATE/ALEA, 2003): Teacher chooses material for teaching purposes
Reading material negotiated and matched to student needs
Student chooses reading material
I DO (teacher)
I HELP (teacher)
YOU DO (student)
YOU WATCH (student)
YOU DO (student)
I WATCH (teacher)
See also Constructivism, Learning-centred English, Pedagogy, Reading, Scaffolding. RA, JH, JM References: Bruner, J. (1966) Towards a Theory on Instruction, Harvard: Harvard University Press. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978) Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. MyRead, (2003) DEST/AATE/ALEA,.
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Appendices
Notes on Editors and Contributors The initials at the end of each biography below are those noted at the end of entries throughout the book that have been written by this contributor.
Editors Jacqueline Manuel is a Senior Lecturer in Secondary English Education in the Faculty of Education and Social Work at the University of Sydney. She is Co-convenor of the Arts, English and Literacy Education (AELE) Research Network and coordinator of Secondary Curriculum Methodology in the Faculty. She has a Bachelor of Arts with Honours Class I in English, a Diploma in Education and a PhD in English Literature from the University of New England (1991). Her research, publications, teaching and scholarship are in the field of secondary English education. She has co-authored/edited five books in the field of secondary English, the most recent being Drama and English Teaching: Action, Imagination, Engagement, with Michael Anderson and John Hughes, published by Oxford University Press in 2008. She is coeditor of Re-Visioning English Education: Imagination, Innovation, Creativity, (Phoenix Education, forthcoming, 2009). She is on the international editorial advisory boards of five research journals. She is currently a Member of the NSW Board of Studies; has been a member of the NSW Higher School Certificate English Examination Committee (Standard and Advanced); is Chief Examiner of these English courses for 2009; and is a founding co-editor of the AELE Research Network journal, Illuminations. JM
Don Carter is Inspector, English, at the NSW Board of Studies and is a member of the Arts, English and Literacy Education (AELE) Research Network. He has a Bachelor of Arts (English/History/Drama) and Diploma in Education from the University of NSW; a Masters of Education (Curriculum Studies) from the University of Sydney and a Master of Education (Honours) in Literacy/ESL from the University of Wollongong. Don has worked for the Department of Education and Training as an ESL/Multicultural education consultant in the Metropolitan South-West and South Coast Regions, providing a wide range of professional development opportunities for teachers. He has extensive teaching experience in both government and non-government NSW schools as an English, History and Drama teacher and has been a Head Teacher, English, in both systems. He joined the Board of Studies in 2002 as Senior Project Officer, Cognitive Science, and then became the Senior Curriculum Officer, English. Don has worked as a Senior HSC marker; an HSC examination assessor; convenor of the Association of Independent Schools’ Professional Development Committee; a local interest group (LIG) facilitator for the introduction of the current HSC; is a founding co-editor of the AELE Research Network journal, Illuminations; and coeditor of Re-Visioning English Education: Imagination, Innovation, Creativity, (Phoenix Education, forthcoming, 2009). DC
Contributors Roslyn Arnold has been Dean and Head of School in the Faculty of Education at the University of Tasmania. Prior to that she was Head of School and Pro-Dean in the Faculty of Education, and Deputy Chair of the Academic Board at the University of Sydney where she spent most of her academic career. Currently she is an Honorary Professor at the University of Sydney and the University of Tasmania. Her publications include Timely Voices, Writing Development: Magic in the Brain and Empathic Intelligence: Teaching, Learning, Relating. Her research interests include interpersonal dynamics, English Education, drama in education and the teaching of literature. She is completing an MBA in Higher Education at the Institute of Education, University of London. RA
Paul Brock AM, is the Director of Learning and Development Research in the NSW Department of Education and Training; Adjunct Professor in the Faculty of Education and Social Work, University of Sydney; Honorary Research Fellow, University of New England; Honorary Associate in The Centre for Values, Ethics and the Law in Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Sydney; member of the Arts, English and Literacy Education (AELE) Research Network; and Vice Patron, Motor Neurone Disease Association NSW. For over three decades Dr Brock has researched and published extensively in the field of English in education: literature, language and literacy. His most recent books are Reform and Resistance in NSW Public Education: Six Attempts at Major Reform 1905-1995 (Darlington Press, 2008)
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co-authored with John Hughes; and A Passion for Life (ABC Books, 2004). He has been extensively involved in the development of English curricula at both state and national levels, and was a Director on the Board of the Australian Children's Television Foundation. He has been an advisor to a series of Federal and State Government Ministers for Education. He is a Fellow of the Australian College of Educators and a Fellow of the Australian Council of Education Leaders. In 2006 Paul was made a General Member of the Order of Australia “for service to public education, particularly as an adviser and author in the areas of strategic policy development, to maintaining high standards of teaching and professionalism, and to people with Motor Neurone Disease”. PB
Robyn Ewing is Professor of Teacher Education and the Arts and Acting Dean, Faculty of Education and Social Work at the University of Sydney. Her research has particularly focused on the use of drama as quality pedagogy with authentic texts to develop students' critical literacies. Her research has included working as an academic mentor in a range of Sydney schools alongside classroom teachers. She was recently the Lansdowne scholar at the University of Victoria, British Columbia where she lectured on the imperative of an Arts-led curriculum. Teacher education, especially the experiences of early career teachers and the role of mentoring, sustaining curriculum innovation and evaluation, inquiry and casebased learning, and the use of arts-informed inquiry in educational research are also current research interests of hers. Robyn was President of the Primary English Teachers Association from 2001-2006. She has co-authored two books: Teaching, Challenges and Dilemmas with Susan Groundwater-Smith and Rosie Le Cornu and Beyond the script Take 2: Drama in the classroom with Jennifer Simons. In 2006, she edited Beyond the Reading Wars: Towards a balanced approach to helping children learn to read. Her new book, Curriculum and Assessment Storylines will be published in 2009. RE
Kelly Freebody is a Lecturer in the Faculty of Education and Social Work at The University of Sydney. Her teaching and research interests include drama, secondary English, literacy, social justice and qualitative research methods, particularly Conversation Analysis and Membership Categorisation Analysis. Kelly's PhD investigates the use of drama pedagogy to explore students' interpretations of, and interaction with, notions of socioeconomic status. KF
Sarah Golsby-Smith is a high school English teacher who, through participating in lively conversations in her classroom, became interested in the way readers make meaning. This led to an interest in philosophical hermeneutics, and in particular ethical criticism and the emerging American iteration of rhetoric dubbed "the new rhetoric." She completed her doctorate in 2007, which investigated the reading patterns of the 1999 Stage 6 English syllabus and finally suggested this "new rhetoric" as an alternative pedagogy that NSW might pursue. Sarah has taught at Cherrybrook Technology High School and at St Andrew's Cathedral School. SGS
Jowen Hillyer is a Lecturer in English Curriculum in the Faculty of Education and Social Work. Prior to her appointment, she was a Head Teacher of English/HSIE and a classroom teacher in NSW government schools. Jowen has worked in disadvantaged areas of South-Western Sydney and in rural NSW. Her doctorate research focuses on the engagement of boys in disadvantaged schools with an emphasis on middle years’ writing. JW
Kathryn Hodgkinson has been working in the film and television industry since 2003. Her roles have been as diverse as working as a Production Manager with world-renowned production house NHNZ (formally National History New Zealand), teaching / coordinating the film & television department at Aoraki Polytechnic in Dunedin, and managing high profile international film festivals in both Australia and New Zealand. Kathryn has also produced/directed and filmed a number of promotional films, and documentaries. The most successful of these, Out of the Blue, was produced as part of her postgraduate Diploma in Natural History Filmmaking and Communication (University of Otago, Dunedin, NZ), which she completed in 2004. The documentary depicts the wildlife of the Otago Peninsula in New Zealand. Her passion for wildlife and genuine interest in the Otago Peninsula also inspired her to produce the photographic book Otago Peninsula: Path to the Sea, (Reed Publishing 2007). Kathryn is currently in the midst of researching material for her next film venture. KH
John Hughes is an Honorary Senior Lecturer in the Faculty of Education and Social Work at the University of Sydney where he researches and lectures in English and drama/theatre pedagogy. He has published 34 refereed articles, 30 chapters in books, four edited books, and 12 professional books on arts education. In 1997 he was selected as one of four international master teachers of drama at the International Drama/Theatre and Education Research Institute in Canada. He was Chair of the Shakespeare Globe Centre Australia's Education Committee 2001-2006. For many years John was educational consultant to Opera Australia and the Australian Ballet. John is currently engaged in action learning projects with schools on the Northern Beaches. With Jacqueline Manuel and Michael Anderson he is editor of Drama and English Teaching: Action, Imagination, Engagement, Oxford University Press, 2008. JH
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Wenche Ommundsen is Professor of English Literatures and Associate Dean for Research at the University of Wollongong. She has published extensively on multicultural and diasporic literature and theory, including five edited collections, the most recent of which is Cultural Citizenship and the Challenges of Globalisation (2008). Her current research projects include 'Building Cultural Citizenship: Multiculturalism and Children's Literature' and 'Globalising Australian Literature', both funded by grants from the Australian Research Council. Wenche is the coordinator of the Multicultural subset of AustLit, the online Australian Literature Resource. WO
Marilyn Pretorius is Head of English at SCEGGS Darlinghurst and is an experienced and dedicated educator. She has been closely involved in the NSW English Stage 6 syllabus since its introduction in 2001 and has written numerous articles and units for the HSC Advanced and Extension 1 Courses. She was a Senior Marker of English Extension 1 from 2001 - 2006 and is currently the Supervisor of Marking for Paper 1 Section 1. She has also been the Association of Independent Schools Convenor for Professional Development, English since 2003 and has organised six conferences to further the sharing of resources, ideas and networking for the wider community of English teachers. MP
Karen Stapleton is currently the Secondary English Curriculum Consultant at The Association of Independent Schools of NSW. She presents professional development courses and individual school consultancies for English teachers. Karen has over 25 years professional experience in schools and education institutions. She has been a classroom teacher, Head of English, Deputy Principal and Supervisor of Marking for English Extension 1. As Senior Curriculum Officer, English, at the Office of the Board of Studies Karen was involved in the development of the English Years 7-10 Syllabus. She was also Project Manager for English Stage 6 Prescriptions (2004-2008) and was a member of the Advisory Committee responsible for drafting the new Prescriptions (2009-2012). Karen has also written and contributed to a number of textbooks for secondary English teachers. KS
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Film and Visual Media Terms Term Aerial shot
Definition Camera shots of the ground area, landscape or earth filmed from any elevated position to show location or perspective: for example, shots from a helicopter, aeroplane, balloon, hang-glider or model aircraft. Cameras can be used hand-held or mounted to the airborne structure and operated by hand, activated automatically, or by a remote control device. KH
Camera angles
Refers to the position of the camera in relation to the subject being filmed. The angle from which the camera takes the shot has an important effect on what the viewers see and on the impact of the shot. The camera angle, or where the camera is placed, is important as it indicates point of view: ie from whose perspective we are seeing the action, such as the character, audience or director. The five basic camera angles are overhead, high angle, eye-level (or eye-line), low angle and undershot. KS
Camera movement
Used to help define and create meaning in shots. As the camera moves the way things appear in the shot changes and so different meanings can be created and different responses can be elicited from the audience. The main camera movements are zooming (in and out), tracking, panning and tilting. KS
Camera speed
The speed of the camera’s movement can be used to create special effects, emphasise particular actions and enhance meaning. Slow or fast motion and the use of freeze-frames (a still image created by stopping the film in the middle of the action) are common variations on normal camera speed. KS
Close-up
A camera shot when only a part of an object or person is seen on screen or in the frame; usually a head, or head and shoulders only, shot. KS
Compositing
A term used to describe a variety of methods of digitally combining and layering multiple images and text to form a composite shot, which appears as a single image and gives the illusion that all the different elements used are in fact part of the same frame. Compositing is used extensively in film title sequences to create a complex visual shot where multiple images and written text coexist. KS
Composition
Composition is the control and placement of all the visual elements in a single frame of film. It refers to the deliberate arrangement and relationship of all the visual elements within a frame. Whereas the mise-en-scene of a shot encompasses all elements that are placed in the frame, the composition refers specifically to how they are placed: ie. the way the elements are positioned within the frame is the composition of the shot. The composition is also dependent upon the choice of lens and includes the camera angle and movement. KS
Crosscutting
An editing technique that allows the film to alternate between two different actions or scenes that are occurring at the same time but in different spaces. See also ‘intercutting’ and ‘parallel editing’. KS The basic device of editing film is a cut, which is the splicing together of two shots. It is the most direct and immediate editing device for introducing new screen information. One shot is followed immediately by a straight cut to another shot. A cut can be used to insert other relevant material into the film flow or maintain continuity of action. Between scenes or larger narrative units, called sequences, the cut can also mark a rapid transition between one time and space and another. A cut has both utilitarian and aesthetic value in film editing. A cut allows the use of different types of shots without disrupting the action. The use of cuts as transitions, rather than dissolves, fades or wipes, can affect the pace of the film. Some other common types of cuts are crosscuts, cutaways, jump cuts and J and L-cuts. KS
Cut
Cutaway
As the name implies, a shot that does not focus on some detail of the shot before or after it but cuts away from the action at hand. It is a single shot inserted into a sequence of shots that momentarily interrupts the flow of action, usually introducing a pertinent detail. It is the interruption of a continuously filmed action by inserting a view of something else. It is usually followed by a cutback to the first shot. The most effective cutaways are those that have some logic to them, are related directly to the scene. It may be, for example, a shot of an object that generally informs or reminds the audience of something it needs to know such as the clock ticking down on the bomb hidden beneath a car or the train that is rapidly approaching the station. KS
Deep focus
A style of cinematography that uses both wide angle and small lens apertures to keep objects in the extreme background and foreground simultaneously focused. KS
Depth of field
Refers to the amount of space in front of and behind a subject that is in focus in the shot. With a shallow depth of field the subject is on a blurry background. A long depth of field allows for many subjects at different distances to be in focus. KS
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Term
Definition
Dissolve
An editing device that allows for a gradual transition, or overlap, of shots as one scene finishes and the other begins. Both the end of the outgoing shot and the beginning of the incoming shot are briefly seen on the screen simultaneously. In traditional filmmaking the dissolve came to be the accepted technique for indicating substantial geographic leaps, a passage of time, a flashback or dream, or to show what the character is thinking. Dissolves are used to suggest a special relationship between the scenes that dissolve into one another; a relationship closer than one that would be suggested by a fade or cut. KS
Dolly
Used for creating tracking shots, the dolly is a wheeled device for mounting a camera to allow it to move smoothly (usually along rail-like tracks called ‘dolly tracks’). KS
Dubbing/Dub/Dup
Mixing multiple sound components for example dialogue, sound effects, wild sound and music into one soundtrack. It also refers to substituting one dialogue or language with a new one, for example, from German to English. ‘To Dub’ or ‘Dup’ refers to duplicating from one tape to another (usually from a master tape). KH
Editing
The process of joining shots and sequences of film: it is the arrangement of time, parallel movements and cuts to scenes and transitions of shots. Editors will use different ways of splicing shots together, including the use of special effects and transitions, to create a single continuous film. Common transitional devices are the fade, dissolve, washout and wipe. KS
Establishing shot
In popular or ‘dominant’ cinema, the opening sequence is traditionally regarded as an ‘establishing’ shot: a long, wide angle view of an area or open space is often given before the camera goes in closer to establish and identify the more specific location of a film story or scene. Later in the film establishing shots may be used to establish the setting for the sequence and action to come. KS
Eye level (or eye- This shot occurs when the camera is level with the object or figure. Like a normal eye-view of the line) shot scene, it is used to suggest reality. It is often a shot that shows us what a character is seeing. KS Fade
A transition device for moving from one scene or sequence to another in a film. Fades can suggest a passage of time, or a journey, or a new location. The scenes each side of a fade have a special relationship that would not be conveyed by a simple cut. A fade-out occurs when the image on the screen fades to black to end the scene and then the following scene suddenly appears (or cuts in). This gives a feeling of finality and separation to the scene just ending and introduces the new action in a dynamic, attention-getting way. Alternatively, a scene may gradually fade-in from black giving a slower, more contemplative movement from scene to scene. KS
Fine cut
The third and final stage of the offline editing process in which all sequence of images and sound are ‘locked off’. It is the completed version of a film, as it will be released. KH
Flashback
A technique used to alter the chronological order of the narrative. The viewer is taken back in time through the disclosure of a previous event, scene or sequence. Flashback can disclose the thoughts and memory of a character or return to earlier events to show their relationship to the present. KH
Focus
Refers to what is in focus in the shot, or what isn’t, and relates to the depth of field of a shot. A narrow depth of field is where the object in the foreground is in focus; a pull focus describes the change in focus from one object to another. KS
Frame
In film, the camera captures a particular image as if it has placed a frame around it. The frame constitutes the borders of the image or shot within which the subject is composed. KS
Freeze-frame
A still image created by stopping the film in the middle of the action and holding it for a time so that it appears like a photographic still. KS
High angle shot
This shot is taken when the camera is above and looking down on the scene or object but not directly overhead. The main effect is to make the object or character look small, vulnerable and/or lacking in power. It can also be used to follow a character or the action at a different speed. KS
Insert shot
A close-up of some detail from the main action or scene; it is a shot of part of a scene filmed from a different angle and/or focal point from the main shot. Inserts cover action already captured in the main shot, but emphasise a different aspect of that action due to the different framing and camera angle. For example, a sequence such as a medium shot of a gunfighter in a street, could include an insert shot of his fingers on the trigger of his gun, an insert of the town hall clock ticking and a return shot of the gunfighter’s face. An insert is different from a cutaway in that the cutaway is of action not covered in the main shot. KS
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Term
Definition
Intercutting
A term frequently used interchangeably with ‘parallel development’, intercutting is an editing concept derived from the film’s ability to move (or cut) back and forth among narrative elements occurring at the same time. It is also sometimes referred to as ‘crosscutting’. KS
Intertitles
Traditionally associated with silent films, intertitles presented printed information or dialogue to the audience about the images that appeared before or after the intertitle. This technique of providing written information on screen was retained from silent films and adapted for use in ‘talkies’. Intertitles are now used in films in different ways and for different purposes: they can, for example, provide exposition or commentary on the action, or identify the setting, place and/or date of the action: e.g. the prologue information given at the beginning of Star Wars or Blade Runner and the place/year provided during the opening sequences of Witness. KS
Iris shot
Refers to the expansion or contraction of a small circle within the darkened frame to open or close a shot. An iris-in shot is when an existing image moves into a circle that rapidly decreases until it disappears. An iris-out shot is when the image moves out from a small circle, increasing in size until it fills the frame and then a new shot takes its place simultaneously. The iris shot can be used as a transitional device as well as a means of altering the shape of screen images and of isolating dramatic material or action. It can also be used to link images thematically, such as in Contact when the iris-in shot of the computer screen transforms into an iris-out shot of the character’s eye. KS
J-cuts (and L-cuts)
These are examples of split edits. When you create a J-cut or L-cut you are deliberately creating an ‘out of sync’ condition between the audio and video tracks. The effect is a ‘carry over’ or ‘pull over’ of sound from one scene to another. For example, in Dead Poets Society the cries of the birds as they fly up into the sky transform into the voices of the boys descending the stairwell who we see in the next shot. This audio overlap draws attention to the contrast between the freedom of the birds and the confinement of the boys. KS
Jib arm
A mechanical arm that is supported on a dolly, tripod, or other device, which is counterweighted to hold a camera for an increased range of motion. KS
Jump cut
Refers to an editing device where there is no direct correlation between the two spliced shots. Basically, it denotes two shots that are cut together with a jump in continuity, camera position or time. Jump cuts can also be used to show us the beginning and the end of an action, but not the whole. KS
Juxtaposition
In film, a term that refers to the deliberate, expressive arrangement of contrasting cinematic elements such as the visual and aural, the editorial arrangement, a montage of individual shots or narrative time elements. Commonly the term refers to the editing process whereby two contrasting shots or images are cut together to create a particular effect. KS
Lighting
How a shot is lit is an important element of filming as it can create a mood for the audience and affect the audience’s interpretation of its meaning. Key lighting represents natural light as it casts shadows. High-key and low-key lighting are terms used for describing the quality of illumination and the intensity of the lighting in the frame. Usually high-key lighting is used to highlight the central subject. High-key lighting has bright, intense illumination. Low-key lighting has the opposite quality. It is more diffuse and shadowy. There is less general illumination in the shot giving heavier shadows and a more atmospheric quality. Other effects can be created through use of: • back lighting where the light source is placed behind the subject to create a darkened effect on the subject (or create a silhouette) • fill lighting where the lights are used to create or remove shadows • spot or pencil lighting which focuses sharply and directly on the subject • side lighting where only half the character’s face or object is lit and the other half is in shadow • chiaroscuro lighting, a type of film imagery where the artistic arrangement of dark and light shades in a scene is used for dramatic effect. KS
Long shot
A film shot which includes the whole human figure and part of the surrounding environment. An extreme long shot will is often used to depict the whole panoramic view for the audience. KS
Low angle shot
A shot taken when the camera is below or looking up at the object or character.It is commonly used to suggest the power or dominance of a character or iconic object in the shot. It can also be used to create a caricature. KS
Medium shot
A film shot which includes half the body and a small part of the background. KS
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Term
Definition
Mise-en-scene
This term encompasses the overall design of the film and the mise-en-scene can help the viewer identify a film’s genre and context. The term means ‘placed in the scene’ or ‘put in the scene’ and refers to what is put into the frame or the modification of space. It refers to all that appears in a frame, every visible element in the frame, how these elements are related to each other and how we see these elements: ie. what appears before the camera including performers, setting, lighting and décor. It can also include camera movement and action. When analysing a film’s mise-en-scene consider the following elements: • the set; the interior or exterior setting/environment/backdrop • props • costumes, make up and hairstyles • actors, body language and position in frame (in Western culture the viewer tends to ‘read’ left to right across the screen) • lighting; coding of colours • camera angle and shot type • diagetic sound.
Noddy shot (noddies)
Typically used to cover a cut in an interview or when using a one camera set-up. How is this done? The interview subject is shot for the duration of the interview. At the end of the interview shots are then taken of the interviewer listening and responding (or nodding) to the subject. The noddy shots are then edited into the interview during post-production. KH
Overhead angle shot
This shot is achieved when the camera is overhead or directly above the object or scene; the shot is usually taken from a height with the camera facing down. A number of effects can be created: objects or characters looking small or vulnerable; moving scenes can look mechanical/predictable; a city can look like a maze or ants’ nest and a character can appear lost; we can follow character or object at different speed/pace. KS
Pan
A shot in which the camera moves horizontally across the frame following the action from one side of the screen to the other; the camera moves from side to side on its tripod. This movement gives a sense of a wider perspective or shot; the sense of our eyes ‘panning’ across a large scene to give us a sense of the scale or details of the view. KS
Parallel editing
Often achieved through crosscuts, parallel editing is the linking-up of two sets of action that run concurrently but are interdependent within the narrative. KS
Perspective
A technique that invests an image with the illusion of depth, volume and distance and provides an image with a sense of more than a single dimension on a flat surface. This picture is an example of the use of ‘one-point’ perspective, where the image represents a sense of depth and distance viewed from a single point. Computer games are good examples of the use of perspective to generate the illusion of three dimensions. JM
Point of view
In film, this is the position or perspective from which an action or subject is seen. It relates directly to where the camera is placed or positioned to capture the shot. In screenplays or storyboards it is often cited as PoV. KS
Producer
The person who manages all the business and financial aspects of creating, making and distributing a film or television project. The producer is generally involved right from the start and either conceives, develops or purchases the original idea, and is the first point of contact for anyone attracted to the project. They are responsible for calculating the costs, pitching the idea to financiers and negotiating deals with prospective distributors or broadcasters, for hiring key cast and crew, and for supervising the entire production. KH
Production
Either refers to the entire film or television process, which includes all the relevant stages of development, pre-production, production, post-production, distribution that are required to create, make and release a film or television production. Each stage will vary somewhat depending on the type and size of the production; however the general concepts will work for any production. Production also refers to the ‘stage’ in the production process in which footage is actually shot, also known as ‘principal photography’ whereby all the main/lead actors are filmed. It can also include costuming and rehearsals, final script changes, and the preparation of shot lists, call sheets, and releases. KH
Rough cut
Once the selected takes have been logged and quickly assembled, a ‘rough cut’ of unpolished clips are arranged in sequence and script order to approximate the desired length, structure and general look of the film. Although the ‘rough cut’ may go through a series of necessary changes, it should at least resemble the final product. KH
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Term
Definition
Rushes
The unedited raw footage from a shoot. The term originates from film where the shot negative was immediately sent to the film lab at the end of each day and processed over night (in a rush) for the director, producer and editor to view the following morning. From the rushes they are able to ascertain how the shoot is going and evaluate what scenes need to be re-shot and what pick-up shots may be necessary. KH
Scene
A section of film within which a narrative action takes place. The term ‘scene’ is often used interchangeably with ‘shot’ but it may actually be composed of one or more shots. KS
Score
Refers to the original music composition for a film which is generally recorded after the picture has been edited. KS
Screenplay
Sometimes called the script, the screenplay for a film is the literary description of scenes, characters, dialogue and action. The writers of screenplays usually conform to an industry standard which has identifiable layout and design features as well as other specific conventions: e.g. dialogue is centred on the page, action is written in present tense, scenes are numbered and labelled as interior or exterior. It is also normal for a number of versions of a screenplay to exist for an individual film such as a pre-production screenplay provided for a director/actor to consider, a shooting script and a post-production script that identifies changes made in production. KS
Screen shot
A webpage captured from a website on a computer. JM
Sequencing
A sequence in a film is a series of scenes (or shots) unified by a shared action or motif. Sequences are the larger narrative units of the film. A sequence is created by the putting together of a series of shots to form a continuous scene or piece of action to create a particular sequence of the narrative in film. The order and presentation of the shots in a sequence can also be used to enhance the meaning as with the use of flashback, dream sequences, time variations and deliberate juxtaposition of shots. KS
Set
The place or location used for a specific scene or shot in a film. The screenplay will identify whether it is an interior or exterior set for a scene. KS
SFX
An acronym for ‘special effects’ (sometimes cited as FX). ‘Special effects’ is a term used to describe a range of technological additions to the film to manipulate or alter what has been filmed. The additions may be visual and/or aural. Many special effects are now computer generated and may involve the use of montage, compositing or a virtual camera. KS
Shot
All that is recorded on film from the point at which the camera begins (‘action’) until it stops rolling and filming (‘cut’): it refers to a continuous and unedited image of any length. The choice of lens fitted to the camera determines the shot size or the amount of the scene which is included in the frame. A shot can be filmed from a variety of camera angles, and single frames can be selected, edited and sequenced to create the most meaning. ‘Shot’ and ‘scene’ are often used interchangeably but a ‘scene’ can be comprised of one or more edited shots. KS
Shot reverse shot
Consists of a sequence of a minimum of two shots. For example, the first shot is of a person's face. The second shot is a reverse shot that shows who or what that person is looking at.This may then be followed by a reverse shot showing the first person again. This is commonly used for dialogue between two characters when the camera appears to switch back and forth between each speaker giving the audience a view of each of them and their reactions. KS
Slow motion
Also known as ‘Slow Mo’, refers to a camera effect in which time appears to move slower than normal. The process is commonly achieved by either running film through a camera at faster than normal speed then projecting it at normal speed - or by repeating frames. Slow motion can be used to emphasise a dramatic moment or assist in making make a fast action more visible. KH
Soundtrack
All that we hear in the film. As it is an audio-visual medium the soundtrack is an element that cannot be neglected when studying film. Sound in film can be categorised as: 1. Diegetic sound: sound whose source is identified by the film image such as the ringing of the telephone that can be seen in the shot; what sounds the characters can hear and is natural within the shot. 2. Non-diegetic sound: sound the characters cannot hear, that is put in the film for the audience only; sound that does not have its source in the film image such as a character’s voice-over which is addressing the audience or mood music only the audience can hear. Some sound which appears at first to be diegetic, such as tyres screeching in a car chase, may also be deemed to be non-diegetic when the sounds have been exaggerated or enhanced from what is natural in order to create a greater impact on the audience.
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Term
Definition
Soundtrack (cont.)
The following audio elements are part of the soundtrack of a film: dialogue and voices silence sound cues (consider how sound elements can take you over the cut between shots into the next or previous scene or sound that emanates in the following scene is brought forward to the previous scene) sound effects which are commonly used to set a scene or support a visual image. music synchronous sound (that which matches the images on the screen and is ‘in sync’ with what we are seeing) OR asynchronous sound (that which does not correlate to the visual images: e.g. a voice/dialogue we can hear but is from off the screen/out of the frame or as with a J or L-cut). KS
Special effects
See SFX
Treatment
A synopsis of a screenplay written in the short story form. Written in the present tense it summarises the dialogue and describes only what an audience would see and hear. It can also be a ‘puff piece’ designed to sell the script rather than give comprehensive information about content. KS
Tilting
The camera moves up or down to follow moving objects to reveal a scene or object which is too big to fit in one frame. KS
Tracking
The camera moves forward or backward through the shot or space, parallel to the action. This is often done by placing the camera on rail-like tracks (or ‘dolly tracks’) to allow smooth movement. The effect is that the camera seems to flow with the action or has a similar movement. It also allows the camera to get ahead or behind the action to give a different perspective. KS
Undershot
This shot is taken when the camera is directly beneath the object or figure, often suggesting extreme power or danger or creating a dramatic effect: e.g. in a Western the undershot of stampeding cattle and horses, or a runaway stagecoach. KS
Voiceover (VO)
An example of non-diegetic sound, it is the voice of someone addressing the viewer to describe or comment on the action or characters. The voice-over may be that of a character who appears on the screen and gives the viewer their commentary or thoughts on the action. In addition, the voiceover may be used to relate to the viewer what a character may be reading or writing. Alternatively, the voice may not be of a person seen in the image but who is acting as a narrator in the film. The voice-over can also be used to develop characterisation as the viewer deems them to be reliable or unreliable; this is often dependent upon whether their comments are seen as credible or not. For example, in the opening sequence of What’s Eating Gilbert Grape? The images we see reinforce what Gilbert is telling us whereas in Clueless the opening images contradict what Cher is saying about her being an average girl. In The Usual Suspects the voice-over in the beginning is used to dupe the viewers for the ‘sting’ at the end of the film. KS
Washout
An optical transition similar to the fade but unlike the fade-in, where the image fades to black, in a washout the image suddenly starts to bleach out or to colour, until the screen becomes a frame of white or coloured light. A new scene then follows. KS
Wipe
A transitional device that occurs when one shot moves across the screen from left to right or from right to left and appears to wipe away the preceding shot. A wipe is usually used to effect a change of scene without a slowing of dramatic pace. A wipe that is achieved by using objects or characters to wipe out a shot or scene is known as a natural wipe. KS
Zooming
The movement of the image according to focal adjustments of the camera lens; it gives the visual impression of the moving towards or away from a particular object but without the camera actually being moved physically. The camera lens may zoom in or zoom back to adjust the size of the object or image being seen: it is a means of making objects appear closer or further away. A zoom can sometimes be used to create a similar effect as a tracking shot. KS
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Professional Associations Country Australia
Association Australian Association for the Teaching of English: AATE
Website http://www.aate.org.au/
(Links to state and territory English teacher associations) United Kingdom
National Association for the Teaching of English: NATE
http://www.nate.org.uk/
New Zealand
New Zealand Association for the Teaching of English: NZATE
http://www.nzate.co.nz/
United States of America
National Council of Teachers of English: NCTE
http://www.ncte.org/
Canada
Canadian Council of Teachers of English Language Arts: CCTELA
http://www.cctela.ca/
South Africa
South African Council of English Education: SACEE
http://www.sacee.org.za/
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The English Teacher's Handbook, A to Z Book · January 2009
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The English Teacher’s Handbook A to Z edited by
Jacqueline Manuel & Don Carter
The English Teacher’s Handbook A to Z First published in Australia in 2009 Phoenix Education Pty Ltd PO Box 3141, Putney NSW 2112, Australia Phone 02 9809 3579 Fax 02 9808 1430 Email [email protected] Web www.phoenixeduc.com Copyright © Jacqueline Manuel and Don Carter All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 (for example a fair dealing for the purpose of study, research, criticism or review), no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written permission. Copyright owners may take legal action against a person or organisation who infringes their copyright through unauthorised copying. All inquiries should be directed to the publisher at the address above.
ISBN 978 1 921085 94 9 Cover design by Kate Stewart Printed in Australia by Five Senses Education
Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Paul Brock for extensive proof-reading and editorial advice throughout the duration of the book’s development; Colleen Cook for meticulous editing and proof-reading during the final stages; Ken Watson for ongoing editorial advice; Paul Manuel for permission to print photographs; and Tommy Murphy for permission to print photographs. We also gratefully acknowledge Paramount Studios for permission to use the copyright movie poster of Babel and Classical Comics for permission to reprint an excerpt from the Romeo and Juliet education guide. We have endeavoured to seek permission to use any material which may be in copyright. In some cases we have been unable to trace sources, or have not received replies to requests for permissions. We welcome any information which would enable us to acknowledge these sources.
CONTENTS
Introduction
1
A to Z
3
Appendices Notes on the Editors and Contributors Film and Visual Media Terms Professional Associations
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310 313 319
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Dedication We dedicate this book to Tony Adams (1933-2008), John Dixon and Ken Watson. Superb teachers, scholars, researchers, writers, pathfinders, and lifelong advocates for English teaching and learning of the highest quality.
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Introduction This book represents an attempt to capture a sense of the profound richness, scope and depth of English in education. It is not our intention to provide an exhaustive list of pedagogical strategies or literary terms, nor to cover in extensive detail the expansive range of theoretical principles and conceptual frameworks that have contributed to the evolution and development of English in education. Rather, the book offers teachers an accessible compilation of the major concepts, research, ideas, pedagogical approaches, historical movements, theories and debates that have informed and continue to inform teaching and learning in subject English. The entries selected are not intended to advocate any one particular point of view, theory, model or position. It is anticipated that the entries in this book will act as a springboard for teachers to investigate specific areas of interest more fully. This book is being published at a time when English, as an academic discipline and as a schoolbased subject, is once again the focus of public scrutiny: the work of teachers and the experiences of students are regularly misrepresented or partially reported in the public domain. It is not uncommon, for example, for English to be reduced to a set of basic literacy skills or knowledge about a canon of literature. We believe it is therefore important to re-emphasise the intellectual, pedagogical and historical underpinnings and scope of the subject, and to identify the corpus of knowledge, concepts, processes and practices which will not only be helpful to pre-service and practising teachers, but will also reassert what is central to the subject and to teaching and learning in the subject in the 21st century. We have deliberately included entries on the historical influences on the development of English in education. This is based on our firm belief that all practising teachers need to know and understand the roots of their professionalism and the accumulated wisdom that continues to shape their craft. As Reid observes, “Ours is a forgetful era, often oblivious to ways in which past cultural practices have shaped the foundations of much that we think and do.” (Reid, 2004: ix) It is not enough to be ‘up to date’ with the latest classroom pedagogical strategy or the latest commercially produced resource. It is vital, as a profession, to understand where the ‘latest trend’ or school of thought is situated in the evolution of the subject. It is our belief that effective practice relies on a deep knowledge of the history of English in education; an ability to identify and articulate clearly the beliefs about English teaching which underpin classroom practice; an understanding of how learning occurs in diverse classrooms and other settings; and how these beliefs reflect (or do not reflect) the major principles and theories of the subject. Subject English draws theoretically and pedagogically on other disciplines such as, for example, drama, visual art, music, film and media studies. Thus, a number of the entries and practical strategies highlight the continuities between English and these other fields. We believe that English is the “palace for thinking, imagining, creating, feeling, knowing and expressing” (de Bono, 1996:44). At its core is the commitment to students’ affective, creative, imaginative, intellectual, social and embodied learning and development. As teachers, we seek to begin where students are at, moving them forward to explore new horizons that are made possible and understood through authentic engagement with, enjoyment of and critical attention to language, literature and other texts. We believe that students are not merely ‘spectators’ but also ‘participants’ (Britton, 1975): actively ‘making and doing’; creating and critiquing; discovering and synthesising; and weighing up and evaluating the experience of others, and representations of this experience, in the light of students’ own growing and deepening understanding of themselves and the increasingly complex world they inhabit English is far more than a set of skills that can be transmitted or a body of knowledge that can be packaged and delivered in a one-size-fits-all model of curriculum. English does not merely educate students about the ‘what’ of knowledge, understanding, values and skills. Importantly, it strives to equip students with the ‘how’ of thinking and knowing, the ability to use language accurately and appropriately in a range of contexts and to reflect on and critique this language use. Such holistic The English Teacher’s Handbook
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teaching and learning cannot be atomised into discrete elements, for every encounter with language – our own and others’ – draws on the senses, the intellect, the emotions and the spirit. Such endeavours support, inform and encourage students’ curiosity and their thirst for and right to meaningful learning. Such endeavours aim to develop in all students the desire and ability to engage with and understand the ways language works to shape the personal, imaginative, creative, intellectual, ethical, social, cultural and critical dimensions of human experience. It is through sustained immersion in language, literature and other texts that English attends to the greater questions of values, meaning and purpose in human experience. Through enlightened teaching, English education, as “the meeting point of experience, language and society" (Dixon, 1967) may build resilience, empathy, increased social awareness and a sense that attention to the inner life is at least as compelling and primal as attention to the outer life. As with other well-established subjects, the specialised discourse/s of English in education reflects its complexity, uniqueness and intellectual, scholarly depth, as well as its ability to shift with corresponding developments in theory, research and pedagogy. This complexity and uniqueness can partially account for why English, as a discipline and school-based subject, is often misunderstood by the wider community and non-specialist commentators. Developments in the pedagogical practices of English teachers reflect advances in research and our understanding of how optimal learning occurs. But these developments may also at times reinforce the distance between what we do as educators and what the community understands about our work. In publishing this book, we have drawn on the expertise, knowledge and scholarship of English teachers, researchers, other educators and specialists in the fields of drama, film and media. The entries contributed by these experts are identified throughout the book by way of initials at the end of the entry. It is impossible to complete a publication such as this without reference to and recognition of seminal works with a similar purpose: in particular, Wayne Sawyer, Ken Watson and Anthony Adams’ English Teaching from A to Z (1989); JA Cuddon’s Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory (1991); MH Abram’s A Glossary of Literary Terms (5th edn, 1985); C Hugh Holman’s A Handbook to Literature (1976); and Wayne Sawyer and Eva Gold’s Re-viewing English in the 21st century (2004). We are indebted to the scholarship evident in these books and acknowledge their importance in the development of this publication. As editors, we have aimed for an informed eclecticism in the decisions about what to include and to omit in terms of theory and pedagogy. These decisions have been partly pragmatic due to the limitations of space, and partly based on the recognition from research evidence that this informed eclecticism distinguishes effective teaching and learning in English. For this reason, the range of practical strategies included here should be considered contextually, as part of the integrated approach to teaching, learning and progression in English 7-12 that is advocated in this book. We have sought to reflect the integrated nature of the subject by indicating related entries and further reading where appropriate. It should also be noted that the length of an individual entry is not intended to indicate the importance of that entry in relation to other entries. Our purpose in publishing this book is to contribute to the continued professional development of teachers. It can be utilised as a reference; a resource; a stimulus for further reading and research; and a useful companion in day-to-day teaching. It is almost inevitable, given the contested nature of English education, that aspects of this book may fuel further debate about what constitutes teaching and learning in secondary English. As editors, we welcome such informed, collegial debates and consider them as the lifeblood of informed professionalism. Jacqueline Manuel and Don Carter April, 2009 References: de Bono, E. (1996) Serious Creativity, NY: Harper Collins Publishers. Dixon, J. (1967) Growth Through English, Huddersfield: OUP and NATE. Reid, I. (2004) Wordsworth and the formation of English Studies, Surrey: Ashgate Publishing.
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A Abridgement (abridged version)
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Refers to an adapted work that has been reduced and/or condensed from its original form. Novels are often abridged for production as audio texts. Novels written for an adult audience are regularly abridged for children and young adults. Mao’s Last Dancer by Li Cunxin (2005), for instance, has been abridged for younger readers under the title The Peasant Prince (2007). William Shakespeare’s (1564-1616) plays are abridged in a great range of other forms from comic strips to narratives. Tales from Shakespeare by Charles and Mary Lamb, illustrated by George Soper (London: Tiger Books, 1990) is an example of an abridged version of a number of Shakespeare’s plays. JM Utilise abridged versions of texts as a pre-reading or pre-viewing engagement activity. For example, use the graphic novel, Macbeth (Classical Comics, 2008). Remove the dialogue and/or speech bubbles from the visual text. Students work in small groups or pairs to interpret the graphic sequences and provide a succinct overview in prose of the storyline and descriptions of the main characters and key events. And/or, have students add brief captions and speech bubbles to the visual text. Comic versions of Romeo and Juliet, for example, are available with speech bubble text or no text (downloadable for classroom use at: www.classicalcomics.com/education/N_RJ_2009.pdf See sample page below, reproduced with permission). After sharing responses, provide the original images/comic strips to compare with students’ versions. This is a previewing/pre-reading activity that can clarify the plot and dialogue to enable access to the full Shakespearean text
Abstract A succinct overview of a longer piece of writing (e.g. a thesis, article, or conference presentation). An abstract usually precedes the full text of a paper. Its purpose is to provide the reader with a succinct overview of the key focus, methodology and findings which are detailed in the full text. An abstract may typically range between 100 and 500 words and is used to index articles for research databases such as, for example ERIC (Education Resources Information Centre). Abstract (as an adjective) is also used to refer to language, experiences, ideas and concepts: for example, love, death, joy, sorrow, compassion and empathy. See also Language. JM
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A Accent The stress placed on a syllable within a word or a word within a phrase. Stress patterns contribute to the rhythm of a text, particularly the rhythm of poetry and the sound of spoken language. Reading out aloud is the most effective way of building an awareness of the stress patterns in a text. Accent is also used to refer to the distinctive varieties of pronunciation that have developed over time according to geographical location, social conditions and contexts. Most places where English is spoken, for example, have accents that are particular to that country or geographical location (e.g. Australia, America, New Zealand, Ireland, England, Scotland). Within these broad country-based categories, there can be many variations on the ‘standard’ accent. In the simplest sense, all speakers have an accent when their spoken language is compared to that of someone from another context or place. For example, an English accent can be further defined according to the district or region: Cockney (East London); Geordie (North Eastern England); Liverpudlian (Liverpool); or Mancurian (Manchester). Accents are not only associated with geographical regions: accents may also be associated with hierarchical judgements about socioeconomic status, education, class, ethnicity and identity. Variations in accent can also be attributed to the speaker’s conscious (or otherwise) adaptation to the context in which they are communicating.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
When an accent operates in conjunction with distinctive grammatical patterns, sayings and word choice, it is referred to as a dialect. See also Dialect, Metre, Register, Rhythm, Stress. JM Students can learn about stress, rhythm and sound, and the ways these operate in language to create mood, tone and meaning, by engaging in drama and oral performance. Select a poem or song that has a strong rhythm (for example, folk ballads, rap music). Students use their bodies and voices (feet, hands, clapping, pitch and loudness of voice etc) and if appropriate, musical instruments, to read/perform the poem/song with a focus on making the stress and rhythm prominent. Students may also transpose the original text into prose form, comparing the prose version with the original version. This activity can lead to an analysis of the effect of stress patterns on the meaning of a text. Students work in pairs to collate a data bank of common acronyms used in digital and online communication (e.g. SMS, email, MSN), analysing when, where, how, why and by whom such acronyms are employed. JW
Acronym An abbreviation made up of the first letters of a group of words. For example: ACT (Australian Capital Territory) and STELLA (Standards for Teachers of English Language and Literacy). Acronyms are employed for the purposes of brevity in written and oral language. In specialist disciplines and other contexts, such as, for example, science, education, business, technology and medicine, acronyms are part of the discourse. Understanding and using these acronyms require the specialist knowledge of the discipline or context and can therefore function as both an aid and an impediment to effective communication. Acronyms are increasingly common in popular culture and everyday communication through media and digital technologies. Corporate advertising, for example, often relies on the use of an acronym in conjunction with a logo to ‘brand’ their products (for example, ‘KFC’/Kentucky Fried Chicken; ‘IGA’/Independent Grocers Alliance). Digital communication abounds with acronyms that are both adopted and created by users. The language of Short Message Service (SMS), email, and other online communications heavily depends on and is shaped by an abundance of acronyms. This enables users to communicate effectively with brevity and also enables groups of users to create and shape their own particular language. JM
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A Acrostic poem A poem that is structured by using successive letters of a word to begin successive lines of a poem. The poem does not have to rhyme. An interactive tool which provides students with guided activities to compose and learn about acrostic poetry is available at:
Act
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
A structural unit within a play. Within an act, there may be further divisions into scenes. An act usually contains action that is distinctive and thereby structured as a unit within the play, through the thematic focus, time sequences or character development. Scenes and acts are often marked by the exits and entrances of characters, changes in the set, lighting and mood, or the use of a device for closure such as a curtain. Some dramatists during the Elizabethan period adopted the five-act structure of the classical Greeks and Romans. From the 20th century on, experiments with form and structure have seen the conventional five-act play give way to three-act plays and plays that do not necessarily adhere to traditional divisions into acts and scenes. JH, JM Students develop an understanding of the structure of a play by engaging in the following activities:
∼
Complete a character grid that indicates when each character is present. The grid should contain spaces for each act and scene. Different coloured pens/ pencils can be used for each character. This enables students to readily see which characters dominate particular acts and scenes.
∼ Applying Freytag’s pyramid, students can diagrammatically map the action of the play, deciding on which acts and scenes are the climactic points, and so on.
Example of a Character Grid for Hamlet Character
Act 1 Scenes
Act 2 Scenes
Act 3 Scenes
Act 4 Scenes
Act 5 Scenes
Hamlet Ophelia Gertrude Claudius Polonius Rosencrantz Guildenstern The Ghost Laertes Horatio Marcellus Barnado Francisco
Action and Adventure A genre of fiction, film and computer gaming that includes a range of sub-genres: for example, disaster, espionage, crime, thriller, survival, superhero, adventure comedy, swashbuckler, and military. In action and adventure texts, there is an emphasis on plot with fast-paced, continuously unfolding action. With the rise of the novel in the 19th century, adventure fiction became increasingly popular, and drew on the genre of the Medieval Romance. Typically, the story is set in a realistic environment with the action taking place across a number of locations.
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A
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
The characters are often strong male heroes with exceptional physical, intellectual or other abilities that equip them to overcome adversity and confront life-threatening situations. The hero frequently meets a woman and there is a turn in the plot that separates them. The remainder of the adventure involves a movement towards their eventual reunion. There is often an emphasis on plot over intense character development in both action and adventure. These texts frequently include violence (sometimes graphic violence); intrigue; suspense; female love interests; cars; weapons; high technology devices; and military apparatus. Action and adventure films are extremely common and enduring in their popularity: many blockbuster Hollywood films of recent decades attest to the continuing appeal of this genre. Computer games and interactive fiction regularly draw on the conventions of action and adventure. See also Fiction, Film, Genre. JM Visit the Internet Movie Database (www.imdb.com). Students survey the movies in the “Top Movies” list, identifying how many of these are action and adventure films. Compare the popularity of these films with films in other genres. Students select one or more action and adventure films that they are familiar with. In small groups, students write and submit a review to the IMDB site, using the models of online reviews provided on the site.
Action research Research that is initiated and conducted by a teacher/s that focuses on improving pedagogy and educational outcomes for students. It is a powerful tool for self-evaluation and is an important component of reflective practice. It enables teachers to engage in problem-solving through identifying an issue and undertaking research within the classroom setting. Action research relies on a cyclical model of identifying a problem or issue to be researched, hypothesising, moment-to-moment data gathering, usually in a classroom or group of classrooms, interpretation of data, theorising and the application of findings in ‘active curriculum’ contexts. While the results of this method of research are not generalisable, the outcomes may significantly contribute to improved teaching practice and learning outcomes for students. Since action research is a teacher-driven activity, it is regarded as an effective professional development tool and problem-solving strategy. JM
Active and passive voice When the subject of a sentence controls or performs the action identified by the verb, this is the active voice. For example: At the conference Professor Smith will present her research on climate change. The subject (Professor Smith), performs the action identified by the verb (will present). The subject is active. When the passive voice is employed, the subject is acted upon. For example: Research on climate change will be presented at the conference. The active voice is the more naturalised mode for oral language and is promoted in writing that seeks to persuade, entertain and engage an audience through the use of a distinctive voice. In scientific writing, the passive voice is more common: the removal of active subjects (I, we, they) from the writing is designed to convey the impression that the information or conclusions presented are ‘objective’ rather than based on personal beliefs, attitudes or bias. The passive voice may also be adopted for rhetorical and persuasive purposes, where the composer deliberately seeks to understate or neutralise a subjective point of view for the purpose of making generalisable (and thereby apparently more authoritative) statements. Conversely, the passive voice may also be used to camouflage the import of a statement. A writer can decide to use the passive voice in order to evade identifying specifically who or what should carry out the action. This can occur in, for example, bureaucratic and legal texts such as reports, policies and legislation. Language written and spoken in the active voice is generally more engaging and often more concise than that written in the passive voice. PB, JM 6
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PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Select:
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
a newspaper editorial letters to the Editor an excerpt from a medical or scientific paper a set of directions or instructions.
Students read the texts, preferably out aloud, and comment on and compare the tone, point of view and ‘voice’ communicated by the texts. What are the language devices employed by texts that present a personal or direct point of view? Is it possible to detect an individual or distinctive voice in the piece? Who is the intended audience? What are the language devices of texts that present information without an explicit individual point of view? Is there a mix of active and passive voice in the piece? What is the effect of this on the reader? Why? Students evaluate the effectiveness of each text, considering the use of the active and passive voice in terms of purpose, audience and meaning.
Adage
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
A concise, memorable saying that contains a recognisable ‘truth’ or observation about the nature of human experience. It is similar to an aphorism, proverb, truism or maxim. For example: “A rolling stone gathers no moss”; “A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.” JM Students keep a record of all the sayings they encounter in conversation and through the media for one week.
∼ Collate these as a class and identify the most frequently occurring examples. ∼ Explore the reasons why these may be more evident in conversations or in the media.
∼ What is the purpose of adages? ∼ Research and discuss the contextual/historical nature of common adages, and the significance of these in terms of registers and dialects.
Adaptation A reworked or altered version of a novel, play or other text. Adaptation refers to a process involving the shift from one genre to another: novel into film; drama into film; drama into musical; the dramatisation of prose fiction; or more rarely, a novel adapted from a film. A poem can be adapted: for example, the poem by Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844-1889), “The Leaden Echo and the Golden Echo” has been adapted to music in a chorus and orchestra ensemble by Elizabeth Maconchy (1978). It is not only texts that are considered classics or canonical which are adapted: contemporary works too can be adapted. Alice Walker’s The Colour Purple (Spielberg, 1985) and Toni Morrison’s Beloved (Demme, 1998) are two examples of contemporary adaptations. “Adaptations are a synergy between the desire for sameness and reproduction on the one hand, and, on the other, the acknowledgement of difference” (Hayward, 2001: 6). The word ‘adaptation’ comes from a Latin word meaning to fit to a new context, and this “recontextualisation is an important aspect of the process that leads, for example, to rewrites of Othello by black writers and women writers” (Fischlin and Fortier, 2000: 3). Deborah Cartmell (in Sanders, 2006: 20) posits three broad categories of adaptation: transpositional; commentary; and analogue. Transpositional adaptation is characterised by layers of change. For example, Baz Luhrmann’s 1996 Romeo + Juliet adapts Shakespeare’s play not only generically (through the medium of film), but also temporally, geographically and culturally. Adaptation in terms of commentary includes adaptations that comment on the politics of the original text. Patricia Rozema’s 2000 film version of Jane Austen’s Mansfield Park makes explicit reference to British colonialism and the use of slaves in The English Teacher’s Handbook
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A Antigua: details which are only implied in Austen’s novel. Finally, the category of adaptation known as analogue involves recontextualisation. For example, the film Apocalypse Now, directed by Francis Ford Coppola (1979), recontextualises Joseph Conrad’s 19th century novel Heart of Darkness from its late 19th century African setting to a Vietnam War setting in the latter half of the 20th century. MP, JM Other examples of adaptations: Novel/story to film: Emma (Clueless) Schindler’s Ark (Schindler’s List) Once Were Warriors Whale Rider The Namesake Romulus, My Father Love in the Time of Cholera Atonement Harry Potter series
Stage/drama to Film: Romeo and Juliet Billy Elliot Death of a Salesman My Fair Lady/Pygmalion Twelve Angry Men Cabaret West Side Story
When studying a text as an adaptation, it is necessary that students are familiar with the original text. This enables students to consider the relationship between the original text and the adaptation, rather than studying the adaptation as a text in its own right (which is always appropriate as a close study). In exploring the process of adaptation, students may consider the broader questions such as, for example:
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ What are the similarities and differences between film and print literature or film and drama/stage?
∼ Discuss how each medium represents: storyline, plot, point of view, tone, mood, sequence of events, narrative structure and character.
∼ What are the features of the medium of production that present challenges to adapting a text to another medium?
∼ In the adaptation of a novel to a film, to what extent does a film have to be faithful to the original literary work (in terms of plot, theme, character, setting, tone and point of view)?
∼ When studying a novel or short story, students work in pairs to storyboard a scene or scenes from the text to adapt to the film medium.
∼ When studying a novel or short story, students can create ‘casting profiles’ for each character, describing the physical features of the character and possible actors to fill the roles.
∼ Students brainstorm titles of novels or other texts that they would like to adapt, preparing a one page proposal for the movie, including a synopsis, casting, suggestions for setting, a soundtrack, the intended audience, the opening sequence and the appealing aspects of the proposed film. Students may then present this proposal orally to the class in role – imagining they are trying to ‘sell’ the idea to prospective producers. References: Fischlin, D. & Fortier M. (eds) (2000) Adaptations of ShakespeareAn Anthology of Plays from the 17th Century to the Present, London: Routledge. Sanders, J. (2006) Adaptation and Appropriation (The New Critical Idiom), London: Routledge
Advertising See Media
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A Aesthetic and efferent reading In The Reader, the Text, the Poem (1978), Louise Rosenblatt (1904-2005) articulated an important distinction between two kinds of reading: what she termed ‘aesthetic’ and ‘efferent’ readings. She used the latter term, ‘efferent’ to describe the process whereby the reader seeks to ‘comprehend’ or ‘carry away’ what the text is saying. This is an information-seeking exercise: what the reader brings to the text, by way of their own past experience, is of minimal importance. When responding to the text in the ‘aesthetic’ mode, however, the reader’s past experience, the associations he or she makes with other previously read texts, along with personal thoughts and feelings, plays a significant role in the reader’s transaction with the text and the resulting ‘meaning’ that the reader comes to. Rosenblatt argued that “in aesthetic reading, the reader’s attention is centred directly on what he [sic] is living through during his [sic] relationship with that particular text” (Rosenblatt, 1978: 25). At the same time, she recognised that in reading any particular text the reader may shift along a continuum between the efferent and aesthetic experience. See also Reader-response criticism. PB References: Rosenblatt, L. (1938 republished 1968) Literature as Exploration, New York: Noble. Rosenblatt, L. (1978) The Reader, the Text, the Poem: the transactional theory of the literary work, Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.
Aesthetic/s (Greek: ‘things perceptible by the senses’) Denotes a mode of experience and knowing that relies on the relationship between the senses and emotion: “one of those distinct categories of understanding and achievement – the aesthetic and creative – is exemplified by the arts: music, drama, literature, poetry, dance, sculpture and the graphic arts.” (Abbs, 1991: 245). The aesthetic experience is not merely one of ‘response’ to a work: it is also deeply bound up in the process of creativity and judgement. As John Dewey argued: The product of art is not the work of art. The work takes place when a human being cooperates with the product so that the outcome is an experience that is enjoyed because of its liberating and orderly properties. (Dewey, 1934: 72) Abbs locates this argument in teaching and learning contexts by asserting that: Responses to art, as art, are sensuous, physical, dramatic, bodily, preverbal. For this reason the often-heard casual remark “Well what’s it do for you?” is aesthetically much sounder that the intellectual question “What is it saying?” or “What did the artist intend?” Premature answers to these latter questions take us quickly out of the aesthetic realm into the documentary and discursive. Too much theory, too much knowledge, in isolation from the aesthetic experience, can block and impede the immediate bodily response, the imaginative indwelling of mind in the pattern of sensation. (Abbs, 1991: 252) The implications of this approach is the need for teachers to encourage aesthetic response to texts prior to the intellectual, descriptive or evaluative acts of engagement that form an essential part of English teaching and learning. Attempts to define art and the concept of beauty have always figured to a greater or lesser degree in philosophy. Plato (c. 428-348 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC) were both concerned with the question of art’s ability to convey truth and knowledge, although the term ‘aesthetics’ did not appear until AG Baumgarten (1714-1762) introduced the term in Aesthetica (1750). For Baumgarten, the term defined the specialised activities of the artist: art is generated from mental representations that are bound up with feelings and the sensuous and as such, ‘beauty’ as an artistic quality and as an abstraction, is a complex concept. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) regarded aesthetic consciousness as an important and unitary element in human experience. Kant believed that aesthetic judgment is unlike theoretical (cognitive) judgment or practical (moral) judgment because it is enacted through individual subjective means. In his Critique of Judgment (1790) Kant argued that the integration of the cognitive and moral aspects of our nature is realised through aesthetic judgement. The English Teacher’s Handbook
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A During the Industrial Revolution in England, a shift in the meanings of the words ‘art’ and ‘artist’ took place. The traditional meaning of ‘art’ referred to any type of ‘skill’, while ‘artist’ meant ‘skilled person’, synonymous with ‘artisan’. The term ‘art’ shifted in meaning to refer to a particular group of skills associated directly with the imaginative or creative arts. The term ‘Art’ with a capital ‘A’ became associated with the representation of a unique category of truth: a truth represented imaginatively through art by the artist. This capacity to represent a truth imaginatively rendered the artist an ‘aesthete’. A distinction was therefore created between an ‘artist’ and ‘artisan’ (or ‘craftsman’). This shift in etymology also reflected a shift in the meaning of ‘genius’: previously the term referred to ‘a characteristic disposition’ but came to mean ‘exalted ability’. A new term – ‘aesthetic’ - thus emerged, embodying the concept of the artist, artistic value and artistic achievement. Literature, theatre, sculpture, painting and music were regarded as part of a single continuum of artistic endeavour, with one form of art linked to another by similar attributes that rendered them distinct from other types of skilled ‘craft’. DC, JM References: Abbs, P. (1991) “Defining the Aesthetic Field” in Aesthetics and Arts Education, eds. R.W. Alexander, A. Simpson & Getty Centre for Education in the Arts, Ithaca: Illinois University Press. Dewey, J. (1938) Art as Experience, New York: Minton Balch.
Aestheticism Refers to a literary movement of the late 19th century which held that art is an end in itself and should not be driven by didactic, political, utilitarian, moral or propagandist purposes. The ‘Arts for art’s sake’ movement embodied a view which stemmed largely from the German Romantics and, specifically, from Théophile Gautier’s preface in Mademoiselle de Maupin (1836). Oscar Wilde (1854-1900), for example, argued for the separation of art and morality. Around the same time, the English Parnassians – Ernest Dowson, Lionel Johnson, Andrew Lang and Edmund Gosse - were involved in this movement but were largely concerned with issues of form rather than with theorising the separation of art and morality. In the late 20th century, philosophical debates about the aesthetic, ethics and morality in art have been advanced by the School of Ethical Criticism and through the work of literary critics such as, for example, Wayne Booth and Martha Nussbaum. DC References: Cuddon, J.A. (1991) Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, London: Penguin Books. Flew, A. (ed.) (1979) A Dictionary of Philosophy, London, Pan Books. Holman, C. H. (1976) A Handbook to Literature, 3rd edn. Indianapolis: The Odyssey Press. Watson, P. (2005) Ideas – A History from Fire to Freud, London, Weidenfeld & Nicholson. Williams, R. (1977) Culture and Society 1780-1950, Great Britain: Penguin Books.
Affective criticism Literary criticism that evaluates the worth of a text on the basis of the feelings or emotions it provokes in the reader/viewer – the text’s ‘affect’. Affective criticism, common prior to the 1930s, was rejected by the New Critics who held that such an approach was flawed due to its over-reliance on the subjectivity of the individual responder. Advocates of Reception theory and Reader-response criticism argue that the reader’s/viewer’s engagement with and response to a text is inevitably influenced by the affective or emotional experience that such an engagement engenders in the responder. See also Affective fallacy, Affective learning, Interpretation, Literary criticism, New Criticism, Reader-response criticism, Reception theory. JM
Affective Fallacy A term coined by the American literary critics WK Wimsatt and MC Beardsley (The Verbal Icon, 1954) to describe what they considered to be the flawed approach to reading in which the reader seeks to apprehend the meaning or judge the value of a work predominantly on the basis of its emotional impact on the individual reader. Wimsatt and Beardsley asserted that “the Affective Fallacy is a confusion between the poem and its results (what it is and what it does)” (1954). They rejected the subjectivity of this impressionistic approach to literary criticism, arguing that subjective responses to texts are not reliable or refutable. Instead, New Critics maintained the ‘iconic’ status of 10
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A the text as a self-contained entity that could be analysed and judged by focusing wholly on the quality of its language and ideas (which, they proposed, transcended the variability of individual emotional response). Later schools of literary criticism exposed the contradictions inherent in the Affective Fallacy, highlighting the ways in which all responses to language (and texts) are necessarily shaped by subjectivity. See also Affective criticism, New Criticism, Reader-response criticism. JM Reference: Wimsatt, W.K. & Beardsley, M.C. (1954) The Verbal Icon: Studies in the Meaning of Poetry, Kentucky: University of Kentucky Press.
Affective learning Learning that legitimates and promotes affective or emotional engagement with language. Affective learning values the knowledge and understanding that emerge from an individual’s personal, felt engagement with texts. Such learning promotes the importance of asking ‘what does this text do for/ to me?’ as part of engagement, creativity and response. Most contemporary theoretical and pedagogical approaches to English education foreground the significance of affective learning in human development; cognition; communication; and response to language and literature. In the 1950s, the American psychologist Benjamin Bloom (1913-1999) developed taxonomies of learning in education and classified three primary overlapping domains: cognitive (knowing); psychomotor (doing); and affective (feeling). The cognitive taxonomy has been the most widely applied (Bloom’s Taxonomy). Affective learning involves feelings, emotions, attitudes, beliefs, values, responsiveness, engagement, enjoyment, intra-subjective capacities and the ability to demonstrate these in a variety of ways. The work of Elliot W Eisner (1933-) advances the centrality of affective learning and the affective domain in education. He defines affective learning in terms of its relationship to cognitive and psychomotor development. The affective domain is harnessed, according to Eisner, through students’ holistic engagement with the arts (through making, doing, knowing, feeling and appreciation). More recently, Terri Lagan has developed a taxonomy of affective learning which includes a hierarchy of affective experience: Bloom’s Taxonomy for Affective Learning and Teaching,
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Books. Eisner, E. W. (2005) Re-imagining schools: The selected works of Elliot W. Eisner. London: Taylor & Francis. LeDoux, J. (1992) “Emotion and the amygdala” in The Amygdala: Neurobiological Aspects of Emotion, Memory and Emotional Dysfunction, ed. A.P. Agglington, New York: Wiley-Liss. LeDoux, J. E. (1998) The Emotional Brain: The Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional Life, New York: Simon & Schuster.
When engaging with a text, teachers and students can ask the following kinds of questions:
∼ Are there incidents, characters, places or dialogue in this text remind you of something you have experienced?
∼ What sorts of feelings does this text (or aspects of this text) provoke in you? ∼ Is there anything in this text that surprises or shocks you? ∼ Have your responses to this text changed after considering the text over time? If so, how and what do you think could account for this change?
∼ How are your responses to this text (or aspects of this text) similar to or different from others’?
Age of Reason A philosophical movement of the late 17th century generated and informed by the work of René Descartes (1596-1650) who has been described as the ‘father of modern philosophy’. Often the Age of Reason is also referred to as the Restoration and Augustan periods, and may be considered as part of the broader movement know as The Enlightenment. The main tenet of this philosophical movement was the insistence on the primacy of reason as the source of all human knowledge and understanding. Learning requires deductive reasoning and should not rely on the validity of knowledge gained through the senses. This period promoted the principles of order, reason, proportion, harmony, correctness, balance, attention to the study of ‘man’ and moderation in all things. The works of John Dryden (1631-1700), Jonathan Swift (1667-1745) Alexander Pope (1688-1744) and Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) exemplify the ways of thinking during this period. The period is also referred to in the study of literary history as the Neoclassical period (c. 16601780) since the writers of the time revered the work of Classical authors and promoted the need for a strict adherence to the rules of form and literary genres. It was during this period that the heroic couplet was extensively utilised in poetry as an ideal form for the expression of Neoclassical principles. Importantly, the role of art was considered didactic, with a moral and instructive purpose in addition to an aesthetic one. The prominence of satire during this period highlights the prevailing belief that literature was a powerful tool for correcting the imbalances of society and the excesses of individuals. See also (The) Enlightenment, Heroic couplet, Neoclassical period, Satire. JM
Aleatory/Aleatoric A term used to describe the creative process that relies on a degree of randomness, accident and chance in the production of a work of art (for example: writing, visual art and music). Aleatoric composition can be regarded as an experimental technique, characterised by the desire to construct a work of art from a random gathering of words, letters, images, sounds, phrases, ideas, or other components. The works of William S Burroughs (1914-1997) are examples of how this technique has been employed to produce art. JM
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A ∼ Using a magazine or newspaper, students work in pairs to select headlines, evocative phrases and emotive words. These are gathered together to form another text. The selection process involves discussion of sequencing; the relationship of the part to the whole; form; conventions; point of view; tone; voice and perspective.
∼ There are a number of commercially available resources that allow students to create aleatoric and other kinds of writing. One example is the ‘fridge magnet’ poetry resource, with hundreds of words printed on individual magnetic backing strips. These can be used by students to create poems, and students can also design and produce their own such resources.
Alienation effect Also known as “Verfremdungseffekt” (V-effekt). A term invented by the playwright Bertolt Brecht (1898-1956). Brecht espoused the need for ‘distancing effects’: devices to discourage the audience from empathising with or identifying with the characters. According to Brecht, the audience’s ‘willing suspension of disbelief’ rendered their response too dependent on feelings and emotions, thereby hindering the potential for detached reflection. The alienation effect formed part of Brecht’s politically driven concept of ‘epic theatre’: theatre that deliberately draws attention to the artifice of events and characters, with the action designed to separate and alienate the audience from the events occurring on stage. Brecht argued that in order for the audience to critically respond to, judge and learn from the thematic material and political imperatives of the play, they needed to be more detached from the characters and action and be reminded that they were watching a constructed performance. Many of the characters in Brecht’s plays are flawed and unappealing thus reducing the potential for the audience’s uncritical empathy. The alienation effect is intended to remind audiences that the play is a representation of past events: to reinforce the notion that meaning is contingent upon a range of fluid variables. If the audience could be distanced from an immediate emotional identification with particular characters, Brecht argued that the audience would be more likely to apprehend and understand the significance of the play’s ideas, conflicts and injustices and hence be emboldened to enact change in their own lives and in the world around them. See also Drama. JM
Allegory (Greek: ‘other’, ‘speaking otherwise’) An allegory is similar to a metaphor, in that one subject, idea, experience, character, concept or event is represented in terms of another. While metaphors are generally concise, an allegory is sustained throughout a novel, play, poem or other text. An allegory can be regarded as a symbolic representation: it has both a literal, surface meaning and also symbolic meanings. Often these meaning have an ethical or moral dimension. George Orwell’s Animal Farm (1945), for example, is an allegory of the politics and history of Stalinist Russia. The animal characters in the novel are representative of historical political figures. Through the fictional storyline and the use of satire, this novella exposes the themes of corruption, power, class and the manipulation of ideologies for personal gain. Allegories often also depict characters as embodiments of abstract concepts, such as, for example, vice, virtue, greed, ignorance, love, hate, envy, and hope. Allegories are commonly employed in literature, music and in the visual arts, such as painting and sculpture. They are generally understood as rhetorical: as a form of rhetoric, they seek to persuade their audience to adopt a particular point of view, political stance or moral perspective by appealing in the first instance to the imagination. While fables and parables generally contain a single moral ‘lesson’, allegories are more complex and detailed in their metaphorical representation of human experience. Some classic allegories include: Plato’s “Allegory of the Cave” in The Republic (c. 380 BC); Edmund Spenser’s The Faerie Queene (1590); John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress (1678); George Orwell’s The English Teacher’s Handbook
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Animal Farm (1945); C.S. Lewis’ The Lion the Witch and the Wardrobe (1950); William Golding’s Lord of The Flies (1954); and Philip Pullman’s His Dark Materials (1995). Allegorical films include: Stanley Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968); Olivera’s Una Sombra Ya Pronto Seras (A Shadow You Soon Will Be) (1995); Wachowskis’ The Matrix (1999); and Udi Aloni’s Forgiveness (2006). Examples of allegorical art include: Sandro Botticelli’s La Primavera (Allegory of Spring) (1482); Artemisia Gentileschi’s Self-Portrait as the Allegory of Painting (1622) and Allegory of Inclination (1613-1616); Theodore Gericault’s The Raft of the Medusa (1918); and Pablo Picasso’s Guernica (1937). JM Students explore a visual allegory such as Gericault’s The Raft of the Medusa. Describe in detail the scene being portrayed. Identify the allegorical themes of, for example, the descent into the Underworld. Read the fairy story The Pied Piper of Hamlin. Compare the representations of ‘good and evil’, ‘retribution and punishment’ in both texts, noting the ways in which each text communicates a moral or ethical position.
Alliteration Refers to the repetition of consonants in neighbouring words, particularly at the beginning of words, or stressed syllables. Alliteration is a common language device used for special effect in poetry (for example, Sylvia Plath’s “Daddy”), speech, advertising (for example, ‘Red Rooster’ and ‘Pumpkin Patch’) and occasionally in prose. Alliteration is best understood by reading alliterative language out aloud. Alliteration is a favourite technique used by the media in attention-grabbing headlines: for example, ‘Bureaucratic Bungling’ and ‘Big Bucks’. When alliteration is employed as a structural device in conjunction with stress patterns, it is referred to as ‘front rhyme’. An example of its use in poetry occurs in Gerard Manley Hopkins’ (1844-1889) Spring: What is all this juice and all this joy? A strain of earth’s sweet being in the beginning Eden garden. – Have, get, before it cloy, Before it cloud, Christ, Lord, and sour with sinning, Innocent mind and Mayday in girl and boy, Most, O maid’s child, thy choice and worthy the winning. See also Language. DC
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Students conduct an audit of media and their everyday environment, identifying examples of alliteration in advertising, business names, names of characters in television shows and names of celebrities.
∼ In groups, students analyse the effectiveness of the language by substituting one of the words in the alliterative phrase for another non-alliterative word.
∼ Discuss the impact of this change. ∼ Students create their own business name, pseudonym or character name using alliterative words or phrases.
Allusion Any deliberate reference in a text to a well-known object, person, phenomenon, myth, legend, event, biographical or autobiographical detail or other text. The most common allusions are to other texts, classical myths and historical events. Allusion requires and assumes that there is a common ground (in terms of shared knowledge of cultural codes and cultural experience) between the text and the reader/viewer. Without such common ground, the allusion is rendered ineffective - it will not be recognised by the responder. Some texts include explanatory notes for the allusions made in the text. TS Eliot’s The Wasteland (1922) is a well-known example. 14
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A John Milton’s Paradise Lost (1831) relies heavily on allusions to Biblical stories. Allusions to other literary works, art, music, historical events and people are common in literature. More recently, the use of allusions has become a feature of many films including, for example, Shrek I, II and III (2001, 2004, 2007). The humour, plotlines and characters in these films depend on the audience’s recognition of popular nursery rhymes, fairy tales and other fictional characters beyond the world of the film. Integrating allusions into a text has a range of purposes. It may: ∼ signal the composer’s deliberate attempt to integrate his/her text into a particular established tradition, school of thought or epistemological movement, thereby investing that text with the added significance and meaning that comes with historical, cultural and artistic ‘heritages’; ∼ indicate the composer’s deliberate attempt to break with or critique established traditions by employing allusions in ways that challenge such traditions; ∼ deepen the appeal of the text by employing allusions that call on the responder’s knowledge of intertextuality; and ∼ imbue the text with nuances and layers of subtlety through allusion, rather than through explicit description, reference or explication.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
See also Anxiety of influence, Intertextuality. JM View Shrek I or Shrek II. Students identify allusions to fairy tales, nursery rhymes, myths and popular culture. What is the purpose of using allusions? What particular knowledge and understanding do we require to engage with and recognise the allusions in film? How are allusions employed to deepen the meaning? Is the humour and the meaning dependent upon a knowledge of the allusions? Would this film have been as effective in its use of allusions if it were not an animation?
Alternate rhyme A rhyme scheme in poetry that follows a common pattern of end-rhyme in lines 1 and 3, and a different end-rhyme in lines 2 and 4. In a stanza, this rhyme scheme can be described as an abab rhyme scheme. William Blake’s “The Clod and the Pebble” (1794) employs alternate rhyme: “Love seeketh not Itself to please, Nor for itself hath any care; But for another gives its ease And builds a Heaven in Hells despair.”
JM
Alternative reading: A reading and subsequent interpretation of a text that differs from a dominant, orthodox or received interpretation. Alternative readings seek to generate new perspectives on the text by questioning the validity of the generally accepted meaning of a text. Alternative readings take into account, for example, the context of the production of the text; the cultural assumptions and experience of the reader; the binary oppositions at work in the text; gender and power relations prominent in the text; and the gaps and silences in the text. Alternative readings tend not to challenge a dominant reading but instead, exist alongside a dominant reading. Alternative readings can take the form of alternative re-writings of traditional or well-known texts in order to critique or comment upon the original. One way of introducing this form of alternative reading (and intertextuality and transformation) is to read a fairy tale, such as, for example, “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs”. Then, read alternative versions of this such as Roald Dahl’s rewriting of it in Revolting Rhymes (1982) or Angela Carter’s “The Snow Child”. Students can explore the versions in terms of their representations of gender, romantic love, marriage, ‘happy endings’, and social codes. and can also decide whether these versions constitute alternative or resistant readings of the original story. See also Dominant reading, Interpretation, Literary criticism, Values. JM The English Teacher’s Handbook
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A Reading as ‘other’:
∼ Generate a list of types of people (may be stereotypes: e.g. rock star; homeless person; doctor; newly-arrived immigrant; unemployed person; pensioner; sculptor; sailor). Have these types on role cards.
∼ Students adopt a role, create a brief profile of the role (name, age, likes, dislikes etc).
∼ In pairs, students interview each other in role and then work in pairs to read a text (e.g. poem, short story, fairy tale) in role.
∼ Compare readings. ∼ This activity promotes an understanding of dominant and alternative readings, point of view, persona, and the potential for a range of interpretations of a single text.
Ambiguity A word, symbol, sign, tone, phrase, language or text that has indefinite, multiple, uncertain or alternative meanings. Ambiguities can be accidental or deliberately constructed for effect. Ambiguity is often used to create irony and depth in a text, especially in poetry. Ambiguity is always dependent on context. The English poet and critic William Empson (1906-1984) theorised ambiguity and explained it as “any verbal nuance, however slight, that gives room to alternative reactions to the same piece of language.” (Seven Types of Ambiguity, 1930). Through Empson’s close reading of Gerard Manley Hopkins’ “The Windhover” and George Herbert’s “The Sacrifice”, he “legitimised ambiguity as a positive quality of literary texts.” (Day, 2007). Empson distinguished seven main types of ambiguity: (1) details of language which are effective simultaneously in several ways; (2) a variety of meanings that are resolved by the author into one; (3) two apparently disassociated meanings that are provided in the one word (4) a variety of meanings which act in unison to reveal a complicated state of mind in the author; (5) during the writing process, the author ‘discovers’ his/her idea; (6) when a statement which appears contradictory and requires the reader to undertake his/her own interpretation; (7) a fundamentally contradictory statement which shows that the writer is unclear about what is being said. Jokes, puns and riddles, along with other humorous texts, usually rely on ambiguity. DC Reference: Day, F. (2007) The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism <www.press.jhu.edu/ books/Hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/>
Amplification A language device used to emphasise, highlight and magnify for effect. It may involve the repetition of particular words, images or ideas to attain impact on the audience. Anaphora and epiphora are terms that describe the deliberate repetition of words at the beginning and the end of clauses, respectively, to draw attention to an idea or image and thereby amplify it. “And Death Shall Have No Dominion” (1936) by Dylan Thomas (1914-1953) is an example of how this technique is employed in verse. Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s (1809-1892) “The Splendour Falls” (1850) also uses repetition for effect in the final two lines of each stanza: Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying, Blow, bugle, blow; answer echoes, dying, dying, dying. See also Language, Poetry. JM
Anachronism (Greek: ‘against time’) Any idea, habit, theory, language, custom, artefact, object or perspective that typically is associated with an earlier time and does not suit the context in which it occurs. Something is said to be anachronistic when it is regarded as odd and incongruous because it is out of date. For example: ‘cabriolet’ for ‘cab’; ‘thy’ for ‘your’; ‘thee’ for ‘you’. DC 16
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A Anachrony A technique often employed in narrative and film whereby there is a deliberate distortion of the expected chronological sequence of events. The term analepsis describes the technique of flashback, while the term prolepsis describes the technique of briefly anticipating events, scenes or people that will be more fully explored later in the story. The French Lieutenant’s Woman (1981); Snow Falling on Cedars (1999); Memento (2001); and Atonement (2006), are films that rely on this technique. Examples of print texts that employ anachrony include AS Byatt’s Possession (1990) and Steven Carroll’s The Art of the Engine Driver (2001). JM
Anagnorisis (Greek: ‘discovery’, ‘recognition’) A term coined by Aristotle (384-322 BC) to describe an astonishing discovery by a character or the audience. The term was originally used in the context of Greek tragedy. Aristotle defined anagnorisis as movement from ignorance to knowledge and takes place when the hero/heroine undergoes great struggle and hardship. Anagnorisis can occur, for example, when a character reaches a moment of great insight into his/her true past or identity, or the true past or identity of another character. King Lear experiences anagnorisis in Act III, scene iv when he is on the heath with the Fool, and again in the closing scene when he is confronted with the death of Cordelia. In this way, the experience of anagnorisis is similar to an epiphany. Although this term was initially applied to Greek tragedy, it can apply to a range of other texts in addition to drama texts. Crime fiction and film, for example, generally involve anagnorisis when one or more of the characters discover the ‘truth’. JH, JM
Anagram
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
A phrase/word that has its words/letters jumbled to make another phrase or word. For example: Mary/Army; Shimmer Spoon/Homer Simpson. JM ∼ Students use their own names to create anagrams. ∼ Select well-known business names, celebrity names and names of other public and historical figures. Students create anagrams, aiming to produce anagrams that are ironic, witty or comic.
∼ Students share anagrams, with one or two clues, and others in the group try to decode these.
∼ Visit http://wordsmith.org/anagram/ Students to enter a word, phrase or name and the site provides a list of anagrams.
Analogy A comparison between two things that share a similarity but are otherwise different. It is a figurative device common in poetry. An analogy relies on comparison in order to establish, highlight or infer a relationship between two things and thereby shed light on one or both things more fully (the subject and the analog). In this way, an analogy is a simple form of metaphor or simile. The poem “Nothing Gold Can Stay” by Robert Frost (1874-1963) relies on analogy to explore the concept of change and transience. It draws an analogy between aspects of the natural world, human life and death. Nature's first green is gold, Her hardest hue to hold. Her early leaf's a flower; But only so an hour. Then leaf subsides to leaf. So Eden sank to grief, So dawn goes down to day. Nothing gold can stay. See also Comparison, Language, Metaphor, Simile. DC, JM The English Teacher’s Handbook
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A Analysing a performance A critical response to a play must reflect the fact that the script is only a blueprint for a live performance. The realisation of such an event will require the creative input of a range of talents. The performing arts involve enactments that bond audiences and performers in a shared set of experiences to which both make differing contributions; hence each performance of the same written text is unique. The following is a performance checklist to use when analysing a performance. For each of these areas a description is needed and an analysis of the meanings conveyed. JH Checklist for analysing a performance The space of the performance: the venue
• •
What messages does the theatre itself send to the audience? Look at the architecture? Does it convey the connotation of a formal or an informal audience experience?
The audience
• • • •
What is the audience demographic? How are they dressed? How are they behaving? What is the audiences’ relationship and contract with the performers? Is the audience acknowledged as being there? Is there an expectation that the audience will actively involve themselves or are the spectators only? How is the audience situated re lights? Are they in the dark or are they visible?
Dramatic devices: scenography
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How is space organised? What is the significance of the set? What is shown and what is suggested? What is the relationship between onstage and offstage? Are the scenes indoors or outdoors? How is this created on stage? Are there any symbolic meanings conveyed by the set? How does the lighting on stage create and send meaning?
The characters/actors in • the play • • • • •
Who are the characters? What do we know about the characters? What is their relationship with one another? How do we know? What sort of language do they use? How to the actors bodies relate to the space and to each other?
Focus
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How and when do the director/actors focus the audience on an actor or group of actors? Look at lighting, actor movement or set change for example.
The plot
• • • • • • • •
What is revealed on stage? What is the story? In which genre is the play? Where are the turning points? What themes and issues are explored? What are the ambiguities and what points are explained? Are there sub plots? If so how do they intersect with the main plot? Are there any dominant symbols, images and/or motifs occurring?
The plot
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What is revealed on stage? What is the story? In which genre is the play? Where are the turning points? What themes and issues are explored? What are the ambiguities and what points are explained? Are there sub plots? If so how do they intersect with the main plot? Are there any dominant symbols, images and/or motifs occurring?
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What music and sound effects are used, and when are they introduced? What is the meaning conveyed by music and sound effects? Are dialogue and music integrated? If so, how and to what effect?
Stage props
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What types of props are being used? What is the function of the props? What is the props’ relationship to the space. What is the props’ relationship to the actors’ bodies? Are the props symbolic?
Costumes
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What is the relationship between the costumes and the actors’ real bodies? Do they convey status or time? What is the effect of colour and material? Are they symbolic?
Pace of performance
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The overall pace of the play: is it steady or broken? When does the tempo change?
Cultural aspects
• • • • •
What cultural aspects did you find new and/or confusing? Look at the socio-cultural context and issues. What is the historical context? Are there gender issues. Is there an explicit ideological position presented?
Analysis The process of exploring and interpreting a text that requires particular skills, knowledge and understanding of textual features and conventions and reading practices. An analysis of a text may examine in close detail the integration of ideas and form in order to arrive at meaning. Analysis implies a careful investigation of the parts or components of a text in order to more fully understand the whole. A critical analysis seeks not only to describe, explain and illuminate the meaning and effect of the text, but also to evaluate the worth of a text. The term analysis is common in the lexicon of English education and research. Discourse analysis, document analysis, historical analysis, source analysis, comparative analysis and textual analysis are just some examples of the wide range of types of analysis that are possible when engaging with texts and language. See also Close reading, Interpretation, Literary criticism. JM Some strategies for analysing a poem through a close study of language and ideas.
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First of all, look at the title of the poem. Without formulating too many pre-conceptions about the poem, an initial, deliberate reference to the title may often aid you in your entry into the work. Read the poem aloud at least twice. This can be done individually or with a number of voices. Listen to your voice as you read and try to decide upon the tone of the poem. Does your reading sound urgent and assertive, serious or playful? Does your voice sound measured, formal, conversational, oratory, intimate, gentle or satiric? A great deal of insight into a poem can be gained by noticing the features of your oral reading. How do you feel as you or someone else reads the poem? Do you feel curious, empathic, stunned, embarrassed, bored, confused, amused? Write down your responses using any words that come to your mind. mind Even if your reactions seem to be different from those of others, they are very important in the overall working through and expression of your interpretation of a poem.
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A Having gained some ideas on the tone of the poem, look more closely at the speaker.
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
Is there a single speaker? Are there multiple speakers? Is the speaker addressing a known audience, or the general 'reader'? The poem may be directed at an abstraction like ‘death’ or a season. The speaker may be a voice pondering or meditating. After asking these questions of the poem, inquire about the nature of the speaker and of the person/thing/ experience/audience being addressed.
∼ Is the speaker telling a story, or describing events? ∼ Is the speaker, persona or voice in the text inviting you to adopt particular points of view, sympathies or attitudes?
∼ Perhaps it is offering fresh insights about common, every-day things or experiences, or maybe the poem opens up the new and unusual? Does the poem ask you direct questions or require you to call up your own similar experiences? Is there a setting for the poem?
∼ If so, what information are we given about this, and what bearing does it have on
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
the tone, mood and ideas of the poem? A ballad, for example will usually have a
∼ ∼ setting, while a lyric or short, reflective poem may not. ∼ As you read the poem, notice your initial reactions to the structure. Does the poem consist of one stanza or unit? Or are there several sections? Is each stanza made up of the same number of lines, or does the poem present uneven stanzas? In itself, analyzing the mechanics of structure is of little use unless this can add to our insights about the poem’s meaning.
∼ Alexander Pope, for example, uses the heroic couplet which consists of two, wellbalanced and ordered lines of verse. This liking for a particular structure reflects this poet's thematic concern for propriety, precision and balance. His poetry is a clear example of form following function. You may find that a poem's ideas are presented in units which correspond to each stanza.
∼ Is there punctuation in the poem? If so, where and what is its purpose? ∼ The way in which something is expressed helps to determine your interpretation of what is being expressed. Language
∼ Is the language colloquial or of everyday speech; formal; or a combination? ∼ Are there any words or phrases that strike you as unusual or unfamiliar or that stand out when reading the poem?
∼ Does a study of the imagery, metaphor, symbolism contribute to your understanding of a poem?
∼ Don't be led astray by heavy concentration upon poetic features, such as imagery, rhyme, or personification in isolation from the ideas at work in the poem itself. Remember, features such as imagery and rhythm should be considered not as detachable qualities but as contributing to the whole.
∼ Always try to articulate, either orally or in writing, your responses to a poem on your initial and subsequent readings.
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A Anastrophe A figure of speech that inverts the expected or regular order of words. This technique is employed in poetry to draw attention to an idea, image or action. For instance, TS Eliot (1888-1965) writes of "arms that wrap about a shawl" rather than "shawls that wrap about an arm" in "The Love Song of J Alfred Prufrock" (1917). Similarly, Dylan Thomas’ poem “With the man in the wind and the west moon” employs anastrophe. In ST Coleridge’s “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” anastrophe is evident in the final line of this stanza: He holds him with his skinny hand, "There was a ship," quoth he. "Hold off! unhand me, grey-beard loon!" Eftsoons his hand dropt he. The English poet, Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844-1889) experimented with and exploited anastrophe in many of his poems. JM
Anecdote (Greek: ‘unpublished’) An informal, generally unpublished story that is often an amusing account of an incident or episode, particularly one directly experienced or observed by the story-teller. Anecdotes are generally conveyed in colloquial language by the person who experiences the event or episode, and commonly occur as part of informal conversation and everyday communication. Anecdotes occur in written prose and verse, as well as in film as part of characters’ dialogue. In addition to everyday oral communication, letters, articles, biographies and autobiographies may also include anecdotes to invest the text with colour, interest and ‘personality’. An anecdote differs from a short story in that it communicates a single episode. The term has a long history: C Hugh Holman (1976) cites early examples such as Deipnosophistae of Athenaeus, the Lives of Plutarch, the Anecdotes of Percy and the Anecdota of Procopius. DC References: Cuddon, J.A. (1991) Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, 3rd edn. London: Penguin Books. Holman, C. H. (1976) A Handbook to Literature, 3rd edn. Indianapolis: The Odyssey Press.
Anime The term broadly refers to the shortened Japanese interpretation of the word ‘animation’ referring to animated moving-image films. More specifically Anime (which itself draws heavily on the Japanese printed comic tradition known as Manga) refers to a very specific style of Japanese cartoon-like animation. Anime emphasises particular visual stylistic accents, predominantly in relation to the representation of human characters. See also Manga. KS
Antagonist (Greek: ‘rival’, ‘opponent’) A character or group of characters opposed to the protagonist (main character) in a play. It is often assumed that an antagonist is synonymous with a villain. This need not be the case: just as the protagonist is not always the hero or heroine who prevails in the face of opposition, an antagonist is not always the anti-hero. The antagonist may be a character who confronts and challenges the predominant point of view or action within a text or provides the conflict within the text. Iago, in Othello (Shakespeare, c. 1603) is a straightforward example of an antagonist. Heathcliff, in Wuthering Heights (Emily Bronte, 1847) however, can be seen as both an antagonist and a protagonist. He is both a Byronic hero, driven by passions, and also a protagonist who contributes to the action of the plot through his tumultuous relationship with Catherine. See also Hero/Heroine, Protagonist. JH, JM
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A Anthology
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
(Greek: ‘garland’) A collection of different texts or works that are collated to form a single work, usually created on the basis of an organising principle which may be based on the genre (for example: an anthology of poetry, which was the original kind of anthology; an anthology of short stories; an anthology of letters; or other forms, including musical compositions); a particular historical period, regional location, geographic features or countries (for example: an anthology of Victorian poetry; and anthology of Australian short stories; an anthology of nursery rhymes; an anthology of desert stories; and an anthology of Italian sonnets); gender or ethnicity (for example: an anthology of women’s poetry of protest); themes, experiences or life stages (for example: an anthology of stories of childhood; an anthology of letters from the First World War); or a combination of one or more of the above. JM Students in English can produce an anthology of their own texts, or an anthology of texts created by the class: for example, anthologies of favourite poems with accompanying visual texts; anthologies of short stories written by students; anthologies of writing and representations from students’ portfolios. This is an effective way of developing understanding of purpose, composing for audiences other than the teacher, and publication conventions. Students can create the layout, cover, artwork, introduction and so on. Anthologies can also be published digitally.
Anthropomorphism (Greek: ‘in human form’) The technique of ascribing human qualities (for example: imagination, sentience, speech, physical form or features etc) to animals, inanimate objects or abstractions. Fables often use this technique. Ted Hughes’ (1930-1998) poetry also provides many examples of animals and abstractions being given human qualities: for example, “Wind” and “Hawk Roosting”. This technique is similar to personification and the use of the ‘pathetic fallacy’. See also Pathetic fallacy, Personification. JM
Anticlimax (Greek: ‘down ladder’) An anticlimax occurs when an expected resolution, moment of suspense or other high point of a text or experience is not achieved, falls flat, is disappointingly resolved, or is deliberately avoided or undercut by the composer to dash the responder’s expectations. Narrative, for example, generally follows conventions which include rising action, a turning point/s, a climax in the plot and the resolution of a conflict of problem. The Booker Prize winning novel (and later film), The Remains of the Day (1989) by Kazuo Ishiguro, is an example of a text that deliberately avoids the orthodox sequence of climax and dénouement. See also Climax, Conventions, Dénouement, Narrative. JM
Antithesis A device that relies on a counter statement or opposed position. The terms thesis, antithesis and synthesis are often used in conjunction with one another to describe an original proposition (thesis), its opposite (antithesis), and the resolution of the conflict between thesis and antithesis through some means which enable the formation of a new or modified position (synthesis). The synthesis somehow retains some common idea or element that can be found in the thesis and antithesis. Basic examples of thesis and antithesis include: mortal/immortal; peace/war and freedom/imprisonment. See also Binary opposition, Dialectic, Synthesis, Thesis. DC, JM
Anxiety of influence In 1973, the American critic, Harold Bloom published a book with this title which explored the phenomenon of literary inheritance, legacy and influence, and the impact of this on the writer. Bloom argued that the enormous pressure on writers that emanates from a recognition and knowledge of 22
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A all that has preceded them, leads to an ‘anxiety of influence’. Bloom’s thesis was based on a study of poetry and literary criticism of poetry. The theory posits that poets are so aware of the great history of literature (of which that they are seeking to become a part) that they may be plagued by an anxiety which manifests as uncertainty about what and how they can add to such a ‘tradition’. The anxiety arises when the writer considers how they may appropriate, transform or stand alongside the ‘great’ works of the past. Bloom also argues that literary criticism is itself is caught up in this anxiety in its own practice of comparing poets across time and place. JM
Aphorism (Greek: ‘definition’) A concise, sometimes terse statement of a principle that contains a ‘truth’ or insightful observation about aspects of human experience. For example: “Everything is relative”; “Those who live by the sword, die by the sword.” An aphorism is similar to a maxim, cliché, proverb, adage, dictum or saying. JM
Apostrophe (Greek: ‘turning away’) A punctuation mark that indicates the possessive case. For example: This is Betty’s lunch. The apostrophe is placed before the ‘s’ to denote the singular subject (Betty). The apostrophe is placed after the ‘s’ when the subject is plural as in, for example, Adam attends a boys’ high school. The apostrophe is also used to indicate the omission of letters when one or two words have been abbreviated to form a shorter word or another word, as in can’t (cannot), wasn’t (was not), isn’t (is not). The apostrophe is positioned at the point where the letters from the original word/s have been omitted. An apostrophe is also a figure of speech or literary device whereby there is a direct address to an absent person, an object, idea or abstract entity. John Donne’s poem “Death, Be Not Proud” (1633) is an example of an apostrophe since it directly addresses the abstraction of death. JM
Applied Theatre: Applied Theatre is a portmanteau term for social interventions and policy directions informed by drama theory and theatre methodologies. The field features theoretical and practical approaches informed by social work, sociology, juvenile justice, prisons and medicine (especially mental health). According to Ackroyd (2000) Applied Theatre practitioners share a belief in the power of the theatre form to address something beyond the form itself. A group may use theatre in order to promote positive social processes within a particular community, whilst others employ it in order to promote an understanding of human resource issues among corporate employees. The range of applications is cast, including theatre for education, for community development, and for health promotion. JH Reference: Ackroyd, J. (2000) “Applied Theatre: Problems and Possibilities”, Applied Theatre Researcher, 1,
Appreciation: An understanding and valuing of the qualities of a text, experience or phenomenon. The term has particular relevance to the theory and practice of English education and is central to Elliot W Eisner’s (1933-) concept of educational connoisseurship and criticism. Eisner advocates the importance of art and artistic modes of thinking in education, promoting the crucial need not only for ‘knowing’ but also for ‘feeling’. Howard Gardner’s (1943-) theory of Multiple Intelligences similarly addresses the need for education to attend to the range of ways human beings learn, understand and grow. Against a backdrop of educational practice that has too often foregrounded the technical, behaviourist and formulaic, Eisner’s work re-centres the concept of artistry, appreciation, aesthetic judgement and critical acumen as fundamental to what he calls ‘the basics’ of education. He defines connoisseurship as:
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A the art of appreciation. It can be displayed in any realm in which character, import, or value of objects, situations, and performances is distributed and variable, including educational practice. (Eisner, 1998: 63) To become connoisseurs, students draw upon a wide range of experiences, information, situations and ideas, contextualising these and making connections with the world around and within. Eisner argues that education is not only about connoisseurship, but also about criticism: If connoisseurship is the art of appreciation, criticism is the art of disclosure. Criticism, as Dewey pointed out in Arts as Experience, has at its end the re-education of perception…The task of the critic is to help us see…Connoisseurship is private, but criticism is public. Connoisseurs simply need to appreciate what they encounter. Critics, however, must render these qualities vivid by the artful use of critical disclosure. (Eisner, 1985: 92) In English, students should be immersed in a wide range of language and texts, in meaningful contexts, and engaged in the kind of experiential, imaginative, creative and critical activity espoused in Eisner’s model of arts education. JM References: Eisner, E. W. (1998) The kind of schools we need: personal essays. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Eisner, E. W. (1985) The art of educational evaluation: a personal view. London: Falmer Press. Eisner, E. W. (2005) Re-imagining schools: The selected works of Elliot W. Eisner. London: Taylor & Francis.
Appropriation Involves a process whereby aspects of an original source text are used to shape a new text. Whereas an adaptation may involve a heavy reliance on a source text and requires an explicit relationship with that source text, an appropriation decisively extends aspects of the original text and may involve a cultural shift both in terms of end product and subject. Appropriation may not necessarily involve a generic shift. For example, Tom Stoppard’s 1966 play Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead, is an appropriation of Shakespeare’s Hamlet. Stoppard’s play is an absurdist, existentialist examination of the meaning of life from the perspective of two minor characters from Hamlet, whose commentary on Hamlet’s behaviour renders Hamlet a comic figure and their own absurd position laughable but tragic. According to Sanders (2006: 57) “Seeing things from marginal, or even offstage, characters’ points of view is a common drive in many adaptations and appropriations.” See also Adaptation. MP, JM Reference: Sanders, J. (2006) Adaptation and Appropriation (The New Critical Idiom), London: Routledge.
Archaism (Greek: ‘old-fashioned’) Language (words, phrases, sayings) that is no longer in widespread use. For example, in Australia, the term ‘cove’ referred to the owner or boss of a sheep station and was current from 1870-1910. DC Reference: Partridge, E. (1972) A Dictionary of Historical Slang, Victoria: Penguin Books.
Archetype (Greek: ‘first, original model’) A common term used to refer to an idealised, ‘universally’ recognised, mythologised, abstracted or generic person; stock character; personality; image; symbol; model; phenomenon; or common human experience. Archetypes embody universally recognisable characteristics or attributes and are pervasive throughout the literature and art of diverse cultures and historical periods. Archetypes have been traced back to early forms of visual representation and over time, have been appropriated into print, other texts and popular culture. Some common archetypes are the universal Mother; the villain; the hero/heroine; the goddess; the witch; the seer; the pilgrim; the rose; the Holy Grail; the eagle; the tree; water; initiation rituals; the serpent; transformation; the journey or quest; immortality; colours; mandalas; the Garden of Eden; Paradise; and the Underworld. 24
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A Archetypal themes are common in literature, film and other texts and include the individual on a quest or journey of discovery; creation; birth and death; sibling rivalry; rituals of marriage and burial; and ‘the Fall’. Carl Jung (1875-1961) developed a theory of psychoanalysis based on personality archetypes. Jung’s theory was appropriated and advanced by the work of the literary critics such as Northrop Frye in Anatomy of Criticism (1957). This approach to the study of literature became known as Archetypal (or the related Myth) Criticism. Joseph Campbell (1904-1987), the anthropologist, also identified a whole range of myths and associated archetypes across cultures and investigated the reasons for their enduring prominence. See also Archetypal and Myth criticism, Epic, Hero/Heroine. JM Textual analysis: When reading/viewing and analysing a text in terms of an archetypal model, students may ask the following questions as part of their exploration:
∼ Are there strong images or symbols in the text that are related to archetypes – for example: water, the sea, journeys, the sun, the moon, colours, circles, snakes, gardens, tree of life, desert, paradise, maternal or paternal figures?
∼ Can I identify any archetypal characters or situations in this text? ∼ Does the text allude to or explicitly refer to any well-known myths: for example,
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
creation, immortality, heroic quests, journeys and initiations?
∼ Can I trace symbolic patterns in this text and if so, are they connected to my experience and knowledge of the world today?
∼ What is the purpose and effect of employing archetypes and myths in this text? ∼ Are the myths and archetypes specific to particular cultural contexts? ∼ Do the characters and events in this text remind you of other texts or experiences? Picture Books:
∼ Use books such as The Wretched Stone (Chris Van Allsburg); Cat, You Better Come Home (Garrison Keillor, S Johnson and L Fancher); Tjarany Roughtail: The Dreaming of the Roughtail Lizard and other stories told by the Kakatja (Gracie Greene, Joe Tramacchi and Lucille Gill); The Rabbits (Shaun Tan). Also use Aesop’s Fables. ∼ Read the books by focusing only on the visual images in the first instance. Students identify strong images or symbols from the pictures and discuss the associations, meanings and cultural significance of these. Examine the sequence of the pictures, the composition of each, the visual narrative structure and the tone and mood of the visuals (colour, depth, balance of light and dark etc).
∼ If the book has words, read the story and explore how effectively the visual images represent or support the ideas in the written story. Can the two ‘modes’ (words and image) exist independently?
∼ Explore the representation of cultural myths and archetypes such as, for instance, the journey myth, the quest, the hero. Compare with poems and other stories that contain myths and archetypes (for example: “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner”) References: Campbell, J. (1988) The Power of Myth, New York: Doubleday. Frye, N. (1957) Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays, Princeton: Princeton University Press. Gold, E. (ed.) (1997) Timeless Truths: Exploring Creation Myths and Dreamtime Stories in Years 7-10, Sydney: Phoenix Education.
Archetypal and Myth Criticism A type of literary criticism that examines the archetypes, myths, archetypal themes, symbols, patterns and paradigms in individual texts and groups of texts. This form of criticism has its roots in the philosophy of Plato (c. 428-348 BC) and that of succeeding philosophers who explored the recurrence of ideas, characters and events within and across time and through texts. This approach assumes the connectedness of texts and language throughout history and seeks to identify the continuities between texts in terms of their use and appropriation of archetypes and archetypal The English Teacher’s Handbook
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A themes. Archetypal criticism seeks to explain why certain universal types, symbols, motifs, situations and so on occur in literature, myth, folktales, art and religion across diverse cultures, historical periods and contexts. Carl Jung (1875-1961) proposed that the recurrence of archetypes and archetypal themes can be attributed to a ‘collective unconscious’ of humanity that finds expression in art and other contexts, throughout history. When types and experiences are repeatedly represented and normalised, they become archetypal. Identifying the archetypes in texts can, according to archetypal literary critics, yield meaningful insights into the universal human condition and patterns of human behaviour and psychology that resonate with readers/viewers across time. Notable archetypal literary critics include JG Frazer (The Golden Bough, 1890-1915); Maud Bodkin (Archetypal Patterns in Poetry, 1934) and Northrop Frye (Anatomy of Criticism, 1957). Archetypal criticism gained widespread appeal between the 1960s and 1980s. See also Archetype. JM References: Frye, N. (1957) Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays, Princeton: Princeton University Press. The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism
Argument (Latin: ‘proving’) This term has several applications in English education. Commonly, an argument is a text - written, oral, aural, dramatic or visual - that presents a case or a thesis and provides evidence to substantiate this. The purpose of an argument is to persuade or convince the audience of a particular point of view. An argument is structured in terms of a thesis or overarching position statement and proceeds on the basis of logically supporting this position through careful selection and shaping of evidence. In literature, an argument refers to an explanation that may precede a work, although this version of an argument is uncommon in contemporary literature. An argument also refers to the dialectic within a text whereby the composer sets out a position and proceeds to argue this through the form and content of the work itself. An example of an argument in a literary work is Andrew Marvell’s “To His Coy Mistress” (1650-52) in which the male persona presents a thesis about love and throughout the poem, argues the case in order to convince and compel the subject of the poem to embrace this argument and thereby become his mistress. See also Essay, Rhetoric. DC, JM
Aristotle’s Unities A term coined by the French critic Nicolas Boileau-Despreaux (1636-1711) in Art Poetique (1674) and was based on his interpretation of the writings of Aristotle (384-322 BC). Aristotle was a Greek philosopher, scientist and theatre critic. His Poetics describes tragedy (and unfortunately his work on comedy has been lost). It is important to note that Aristotle was describing great tragedy of his time, especially Sophocles’ work, and not prescribing as the later European neo-classists claimed. According to Boileau-Despreaux, Aristotle proposed that a great play has three unities: ∼ Time: a play should cover no more than 24 hours. ∼ Action: a play should have one predominant stream of action, with few subplots. ∼ Place: a play should not be set in many or diverse physical spaces. In fact, Aristotle only commented on the Unity of Action; he mentioned the Unity of Time but did not refer at all to the Unity of Place. Many great Ancient Greek playwrights (for example, Euripides) did not follow these conventions, and nor did Shakespeare. JH
Article A nonfiction text that may include descriptive, analytical and evaluative material. A feature article is a piece of writing, often in a magazine, newspaper or on a website, which explores in some depth a person, event, situation, theme or idea, following certain generic conventions. A feature article is usually distinguished from a news story by its ‘human interest’ focus. They may be written to inform, entertain, persuade or explore in some detail a person, event, issue or idea. Feature articles are 26
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A usually written using the first person, active voice and draw on anecdote, quotations and interpretations of the subject being featured. They sometimes include visual images. DC, JM
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∼ Select one or more feature articles from different kinds of media (for example: newspapers, magazines, websites).
∼ Read and analyse the articles, comparing the structure, language, tone, mood, images, layout, voice and perspective.
∼ Research other representations of the person, event, issue or idea presented in the feature articles.
∼ Students brainstorm in small groups a series of topical issues, events or people. ∼ Students select one person, event, issue or idea and use this as the basis for their own feature article. They may choose a known person or family member.
∼ Completed feature articles can be published as an anthology, in hard copy or digitally. Visual images may be included and attention should be given to layout and style.
Aside and soliloquy Techniques in drama whereby a character speaks directly to the audience, or speaks in such a way that other characters on stage are not aware of what is being said. It is assumed by the audience that when a character is speaking an aside or a soliloquy, all or most of the other characters on stage are oblivious to it The main difference between an aside and a soliloquy is the duration: an aside is usually brief, whereas a soliloquy is an extended piece. Both asides and soliloquies enable a direct address by the character to the audience. They reveal the 'true' motives, thoughts and feelings of a character: they afford the audience the opportunity to glimpse the inner life of the figure on stage. We share the secrets of which other members of the cast are unaware. Asides and soliloquies also function to position the audience as the confidants with access to privileged information that is vital to a full understanding of the character, action and events.
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Asides and soliloquies are often indicated in the stage directions in the script of a play. They were very common in drama until the 20th century, when the emergence of more naturalistic and experimental forms of theatre dispensed with the perceived artifice of this technique. In addition, the forward thrust stage used during the time Shakespeare was writing provided a degree of intimacy and physical proximity between actors and audience, allowing the frequent use of asides and soliloquies. The proscenium arch stage, however, does not provide the same degree of actoraudience proximity so plays written for this form of stage tend not to include frequent asides and soliloquies. The convention is particularly common in farce and melodrama where the aside is an important dramatic device for heightening the comedy, satire or irony. Asides also occur in everyday communication contexts such as conversations. The equivalent of the aside and soliloquy in film occurs when voice-over techniques reveal the thoughts and feelings of a character. See also Alienation effect, Drama. JM, JH ∼ After viewing, engaging with, performing and reading a play, select one scene in which a soliloquy occurs. (Hamlet, Macbeth and Julius Caesar are good examples.) ∼ Note where the soliloquy occurs in the cycle of action. ∼ Does this character speak soliloquies and asides frequently or infrequently? ∼ What is the purpose of the soliloquy at this point? ∼ What does it reveal to the audience about the inner thoughts and feelings of the character?
∼ Remove the soliloquy from the scene. ∼ How does the absence of the soliloquy influence the meaning and the development of character and action?
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A Assessment The process of judging student achievement in relation to the aims, objectives and outcomes of a syllabus. Assessment requires the gathering of evidence about what students know and can do. Assessment is an integral component of every teaching and learning phase. It should be devised at the time of program and unit planning and regularly reviewed in the light of student learning. The purpose of assessment is to improve student learning; provide accurate information about student development and achievement; utilise this information to build upon, tailor and refine learning opportunities; assist in further planning and programming; and provide detailed reports to students, parents and others about the achievement of individual students. Effective assessment: ∼ is underpinned by beliefs and understanding about how students learn ∼ should be an integral process of course design and not ‘added on’ ∼ requires clarity of purpose, goals, standards and criteria ∼ requires a variety of measures, feedback and reflection, and ∼ is linked to real-world contexts. There is a range of types of assessment, each serving a different purpose, although there is obvious overlap between these. These can be summarised as follows. See also Evaluation, Learning-centred English, Learning styles, Student-centred learning. JM Type of Assessment Formative
Description and Purpose • •
Ongoing assessment during teaching and learning. Provides students with feedback on their progress and assists in shaping and enhancing future learning.
Practical Strategies • • • • • • •
Summative
• •
Assessment that occurs at the conclusion of a unit of work. Designed to assess students’ culminating achievements.
• •
• • • • • •
Diagnostic
•
•
Designed to gather information to identify where students are ‘at’ in their learning. Assists in shaping future learning and individualising pedagogy.
• • •
•
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Write portfolios (use of drafts and works in progress). Participate in discussions. Reading and viewing logs. Use self-evaluations and reflections. Provide abundant opportunities for workshops, discussions, group work, and regular feedback. Ensure students are immersed in a variety of engaging and purposeful activities and thinking. Provide models, facilitate research, encourage portfolio development and self and peer evaluation. Provide clear and transparent information about assessment items. Provide criteria sheets, descriptors, performance indicators and marking guidelines and ensure students are aware of how and why they are being assessed. Allow plenty of time for discussion and drafting prior to submission of summative tasks. Provide a balance in creative and critical responses. Include products of student writing, representations, reading, viewing, talking and listening. Facilitate presentations. Encourage performances Set examinations. Maintain detailed records of individual student progress, participation, attitude and behaviour. Methods of recording development can include: anecdotal records – notes on student work habits, contributions to discussions, interpersonal skills, incidents, notable experiences; criteria sheets with performance descriptors; surveys, interviews.
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A Type of Assessment
Description and Purpose
Practical Strategies
Negotiated
•
Assessment designed in collaboration with students. Teacher’s goals and students’ goals are shared and a meaningful program is devised synthesising the shared learning goals of both.
Assessment for learning
•
Teachers utilise formative assessment to See Formative assessment inform their practice. A critical concept that assumes assessment is a means to learning rather than merely an end-point of learning.
Assessment as learning
•
Students and teachers reflect on the process of their learning as it is occurring, monitoring and refining learning goals. Involves metacognition.
Journals • Provide models and plenty of opportunities for discussion, reflection and group work. • Emphasise the importance of students taking responsibility for learning and development through reflective practice. • Discussions • Reading and viewing logs
•
• •
Portfolios Contracts: Individually, in small groups or as a whole class
Assessment of learning
•
Teachers gather evidence about what students know and can do.
See Summative assessment
Self assessment
•
Students monitor and judge their progress and learning using criteria designed by the students (often in collaboration with the teacher).
• • • • •
Reflective journals Contracts Surveys Logs Metacognitive organisers
Peer assessment
•
Students assess each other according to agreed criteria.
• • • •
Oral presentations Performances Productions Writing
Portfolio assessment •
Students select exemplars from their collated work. Not all work is included. Students select evidence that demonstrates achievement against known criteria (for example: demonstrates progress; addresses outcomes).
• • • • •
Writing portfolios Reading portfolios Digital portfolios Viewing portfolios Representing portfolios
Descriptive assessment
An essential component of effective teaching and learning. Teachers respond to students with descriptive statements and feedback about the student’s strengths and areas in need of development.
• • • • •
Learning journals Double entry journals Conferencing Interviews Discussions
• •
Criterion-referenced assessment
•
•
Norm-referenced assessment
•
Students are assessed against a set of • criteria which describe the specific characteristics of the required task. Criteria are made explicit to students • prior to undertaking the assessment task. •
Utilise a set of criteria which provides students with an explanation of the knowledge, skills and understanding that need to be demonstrated. Portfolios Process and products
Assessment in which students are compared to each other as part of a cohort and ranked according to their relative achievement. The ‘bell-curve’ or normal distribution is a fundamental element of this type of assessment.
Grades and marks are awarded and students are ranked against their peers in the cohort Ineffective if it does not include explicit criteria and standards so students can identify what they have achieved and how they can improve
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A Type of Assessment
Description and Purpose
Practical Strategies
Standardsreferenced assessment
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Students are assessed according to a set See Summative assessment of standards which describe what students know and can do. Students are not compared to one another, as in normreferences assessment.
Outcomes- based assessment
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Students are assessed according to whether or not they have achieved explicit syllabus outcomes.
See Formative and Summative assessment
Formal assessment
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An assessment task that is judged and often assigned a mark of a grade. It contributes to the overall achievement profile and assessment of the student.
• • • •
Examinations Written assignments Summative assessment tasks ‘Products’ that are required as part of the completion of a course of study
Informal assessment •
Assessment tasks which are not assigned marks or grades, but which contribute to the ongoing assessment process.
• • •
Discussions Interviews Observations
Internal assessment
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Assessment that is designed and implemented by teachers within a class/ school context. Students usually receive detailed feedback along with a mark, grade, rank or score.
• • • • •
Portfolios Internal exams Oral presentations Performances Written and multimodal products
External assessment •
Assessment that is designed and managed by a body or organisation external to and independent of the school. Students may or may not receive descriptive feedback in addition to a mark, grade, rank or score.
• •
State and national literacy and numeracy tests External examinations
Reference:
Johnston, B. (1987) Assessing English, Milton Keynes: Open University Press. NSW Board of Studies, Assessment Resource Centre (ARC):
Atmosphere
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
The ambience or mood that is created by language, setting, dialogue, tone, description, images or sound or a combination of these. See also Depiction, Description, Mood, Setting, Tone. JM The following excerpt from Charles Dickens’ Bleak House (1853) describes London on a November winter’s day. After reading this passage, explore the ways in which the writer creates atmosphere through, for example: ∼ the use of descriptive language ∼ repetition ∼ variation in sentence structure ∼ imagery and metaphor ∼ reference to colour, light and the elements ∼ moving from the general to the particular ∼ precision in the depiction of place ∼ denotative and connotative language ∼ binary oppositions ∼ descriptions of the impact of the environment on people and animals ∼ sequencing of descriptions ∼ appeals to the senses (sight, sound, touch, smell, taste).
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Audience
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Excerpt from Bleak House by Charles Dickens, p. 41 (1853, 1979, Penguin) CHAPTER I— I—In Chancery London. Michaelmas term lately over, and the Lord Chancellor sitting in Lincoln’s Inn Hall. Implacable November weather. As much mud in the streets as if the waters had but newly retired from the face of the earth, and it would not be wonderful to meet a Megalosaurus, forty feet long or so, waddling like an elephantine lizard up Holborn Hill. Smoke lowering down from chimney–pots, making a soft black drizzle, with flakes of soot in it as big as full–grown snowflakes—gone into mourning, one might imagine, for the death of the sun. Dogs, undistinguishable in mire. Horses, scarcely better; splashed to their very blinkers. Foot passengers, jostling one another’s umbrellas in a general infection of ill temper, and losing their foot–hold at street–corners, where tens of thousands of other foot passengers have been slipping and sliding since the day broke (if this day ever broke), adding new deposits to the crust upon crust of mud, sticking at those points tenaciously to the pavement, and accumulating at compound interest. Fog everywhere. Fog up the river, where it flows among green aits and meadows; fog down the river, where it rolls deified among the tiers of shipping and the waterside pollutions of a great (and dirty) city. Fog on the Essex marshes, fog on the Kentish heights. Fog creeping into the cabooses of collier–brigs; fog lying out on the yards and hovering in the rigging of great ships; fog drooping on the gunwales of barges and small boats. Fog in the eyes and throats of ancient Greenwich pensioners, wheezing by the firesides of their wards; fog in the stem and bowl of the afternoon pipe of the wrathful skipper, down in his close cabin; fog cruelly pinching the toes and fingers of his shivering little ‘prentice boy on deck. Chance people on the bridges peeping over the parapets into a nether sky of fog, with fog all round them, as if they were up in a balloon and hanging in the misty clouds. Gas looming through the fog in divers places in the streets, much as the sun may, from the spongey fields, be seen to loom by husbandman and ploughboy. Most of the shops lighted two hours before their time—as the gas seems to know, for it has a haggard and unwilling look. The raw afternoon is rawest, and the dense fog is densest, and the muddy streets are muddiest near that leaden–headed old obstruction, appropriate ornament for the threshold of a leaden–headed old corporation, Temple Bar. And hard by Temple Bar, in Lincoln’s Inn Hall, at the very heart of the fog, sits the Lord High Chancellor in his High Court of Chancery.
Audience A group of people (or an individual) who read, listen to, and/or view a text. The writing of texts is shaped by purpose and an awareness of audience. The term ‘responder’ has been adopted in English education discourse to refer to the wide range of ways that we engage with texts, and encompasses the roles of reader, viewer and listener. A number of critical theories give prominence to the role of the responder in the act of interpretation (for example, Reader-response criticism). In composing texts, students require an understanding of the role of audience in influencing and shaping the form and content of the text. It is important when students are composing that they be aware that they are writing, representing, performing and creating for an imagined or an authentic audience. Teachers should help students to be explicit about their purpose and their intended audience as they craft their writing and provide extensive models of others’ writing to illuminate the role of audience in the crafting of language. James Britton (Britton, et al, 1975) developed a framework identifying the range of audiences that shape writing: One important dimension in the development of writing ability is the growth of a sense of audience, the growth of the ability to make adjustments and choices in writing which take account of the audience for whom the writing is intended. This accommodation may be course or fine, highly calculated or totally intuitive, diffused through the text or explicit at particular points. (Britton, et al, 1975: 58) The English Teacher’s Handbook
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A The relationship between the writer, language, audience and purpose is central to students’ movement from expressive through transactional to poetic writing (see also Writing). The role of audience in writing, according to this model, can be summarised as follows: Audience Self Teacher Wider (known audience) Unknown
Examples Journals, notes, logs, reflections Portfolios, writing, performance, reading, representations, oral and dramatic presentations, discussions, assessment tasks, examinations As above, for peers, group work and younger audiences Publication online, anthologies, discussion boards, published texts, letters to the editor, writing competitions etc.
See also Author, Implied author, Implied reader, Reader, Reading, Writing. DC, JM
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Reference: Britton, J. et al (1975) Development of Writing Abilities (11-18), London: Macmillan.
Select a range of types of texts and where appropriate use excerpts from these. If possible and practical, students should not be aware, initially, of the nature of the text (for example: take an excerpt from the novel, rather than use the actual book): ∼ Classic novel ∼ Picture book (such as Shaun Tan’s The Arrival) ∼ Young adult novel ∼ Popular magazine article ∼ Website Popular song Excerpt from a film Read, view, and listen to the examples. Students predict and discuss what audience – or implied reader/viewer - they think the text is appealing to and why? What features of language, style, structure, layout, tone, voice and content etc has informed this view? Compare and contrast the range of audiences; explore assumptions about audience (for example: in Tan’s book – which is aimed at an adult, as well as a younger, audience); and identify some of the techniques employed by each composer.
∼ ∼
Australian literature In the broadest sense, Australian literature encompasses imaginative and other texts created by an ‘Australian’ composer (including Indigenous, Australian-born, expatriate and immigrant); and/or with a thematic focus on, reference to, or interest in, aspects of Australian history, culture, identity, experience, landscape and society. According to Feingold, The Australian literary scene, and Australian literary production, changed considerably over the course of the 20th century. While in the earliest years of the century the Bush dominated both literary and artistic depictions of Australian life – a phenomenon that extended well into the 1950s by the Jindyworobak emphasis on a national culture dependent on the spirit of place – recent decades have seen a rapid broadening of literary expression concurrent with newer notions of what it might mean to be Australian. Women writers have challenged the hypermasculinity of the bushman ethos, and explored other ways of linking self with nation. The explosion of publications by Aboriginal authors has added new voices, new perspectives, even new genres to the literary canon. Australia no longer looks exclusively to Britain for its literary models, nor writes exclusively in reaction to them. (Feingold, 2007: 69) 32
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A The works of many Australian authors, poets, dramatists and filmmakers are regularly included in English K-12. Web resources for the teaching of Australian literature include: Australian Literature Resource site:
Author (Latin: ‘originator’) One who is regarded as the creator a text. Author has come to refer to the writer of a printed text. Over the last decade, the term ‘composer’ has entered the lexicon of English education, since it is a generic term that encompasses the range of ‘creators’ of the range of texts now studied in English. While author, poet, dramatist, speaker, film-maker, photographer, painter and so on, are terms specific to the person/people who create a particular type of text, the term composer covers all of these possibilities. Expressive literary theories, such as those prominent during the Romantic period of English literature, locate the source of meaning of a work in the author/artist rather than the reader, the context, the work itself or a combination of these. In the “Preface” to Lyrical Ballads (1798) William Wordsworth (1770-1850) argued that the poetry is “the spontaneous overflow of powerful feeling” The New Critics reacted against the tendency for criticism to draw on information about the author’s life and times or possible contextual influences to inform the analysis and interpretation of texts. Instead, the New Critics insisted on the autonomy of the text and the importance of a close reading of the text. While this critical approach did not advocate reference to any biographical, contextual material in the study of literature, it did identify a group of exemplary authors whose work was considered to be of such supreme value that it should be ‘canonised’. Importantly, however, FR Leavis (1895-1978), while insisting on the practice of close reading, also believed in the broader social, democratising role of literature in the cultural and moral life of society, albeit in ways that have been strenuously challenged since. Building on the New Critics’ rejection of the notion that meaning emerges from gathering information about the author, in the 1960s the French critics Roland Barthes (“The Death of the Author”, 1968) and Michel Foucault (“What is an Author?”, 1969) interrogated the notion of single authorship and ‘authority’ similarly arguing that it is inappropriate to consider the author as the supreme authority when it comes to meaning. They argued that the term ‘author’ has been valorised to imply a supreme, unitary creator. Removing any sense of the ‘author’ as an ultimate source of meaning opens the text up, according to Barthes and others, to a multiplicity of meanings and allows the reader to assume a more active role in interpreting and meaning-making. Foucault explored the contextual influences on the concept of authorship and emphasised the historically and culturally contingent nature of authorship and the idea of ‘originality’. The authority of the author has also been critiqued by those who argue that there is a hierarchy of discourses such that in any narrative, there is one or more narrative voices, characters and point/s of view, and controlling all of these, at one remove, is the author. The author, then, is seen to occupy a privileged position in the text-author-reader relationship. Recent theoretical approaches regard the concept of a single author as problematic since, it is argued, one person never acts outside the influence of the cultural contexts (and by extension, the codes and conventions of language and texts) within which they write. Reception and other poststructuralist theories reject the notion of an author as the absolute originator of meaning, arguing instead, that meaning is dependent on the reader as he/she engages with the ‘author’ in the process of reading. The English Teacher’s Handbook
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A One of the most effective ways of developing an understanding of ‘authorship’ and its significance in the creation of texts and meaning, is to equip students to ‘read as a writer and write as a reader’: that is, provide opportunities for students to create their own texts and recreate the texts of others, recognising the integral relationship between reading and writing, purpose and audience, originality and inheritance, and intention and meaning. In addition, the concept of authorship can be more fully explored and understood when students have the opportunity for genuinely collaborative writing and production. See also Hierarchy of discourses, Intentional Fallacy, Literary criticism, Literary theory, Reading, Writing. JM Reference: Pope, R. (2003) The English Studies Book: An Introduction to Language, Literature and Culture, 2nd edn. London: Routledge.
Autobiography (Greek: ‘self life-writing’) The life-story of an individual, usually composed predominantly by the individual him or herself. Autobiography, as distinct from biography, is a very common and popular type of nonfiction and can be published in the form of prose, including diaries, and less frequently, poetry. Autobiography is also known as life-writing. Conventionally, autobiography is written in the first-person (‘I’), while biography is written in the third-person (‘he’, ‘she’). This distinction is not fixed, however. The composer selects material and makes subjective decisions about how to represent people, places and experiences. In this sense, both types of text rely on the imagination and intellect of the composer, and both can be considered subjective literary forms. It is rare for an autobiography to focus exclusively on one individual’s life. Rather, the representation of this life depends on the representation of ‘other’s’ lives. It has been argued, then, that autobiography and biography should be considered co-extensive and interdependent forms (Pope, 1998: 179). The earliest versions of autobiography date back to antiquity, with a famous example from earlier centuries being St Augustine’s Confessions (397-399 AD). William Wordsworth’s The Prelude (1850) can be considered a poetic form of autobiography, since it involves a sustained exploration of the poet’s experiences, attitudes, values, beliefs and memories. In this respect, The Prelude legitimised the poetic use of material drawn from the particular individual’s personal, inner life and experience to explore questions of human existence, purpose and meaning. Contemporary autobiography is often very candid and revelatory, blurring the distinction between autobiography and confessional writing. Notable autobiographies include: Peter Abelard’s Historia Calamitatum (11th century); Benvenuto Cellini’s Vita (c. 1556); Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s Confessions (1782); John Henry Newman’s Apologia Pro Vita Sua (1864); David Niven’s The Moon’s a Balloon (1972); and Nelson Mandela’s Long Walk to Freedom (1995). Historically, and until recently, women’s autobiographies, and those by writers from minority groups, have not figured as prominently as they should in the public domain.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Autobiographies are rich texts for the exploration of identity, social and cultural conditions, the relationship between individuals and society, and the process of constructing and representing personal history and reliable ‘realities’. See also Diary, Digital narrative, Memoir, Narrative, Nonfiction, Writing. JM
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1. Select excerpts from a range of autobiographies. Students read these, comparing and contrasting the style, tone and voice. Is the language formal, informal, colloquial, descriptive, expressive or a combination of these? What can we learn about the personality of the author from reading these excerpts? 2. Students research the best-seller lists of nonfiction in Australia and other countries. Identify what proportion of these are autobiography and identify what proportion of the authors are public figures (e.g. sporting figures, politicians, media celebrities). Compare front covers of the best-selling autobiographies of the last 2 years, noting any ‘conventions’ of covers for this genre. Explore titles of as many autobiographies as possible, analysing features of the titles that may indicate the autobiographical
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nature of the text. Read the back cover and blurb of these texts, noting any stylistic and language features that recur (e.g. the use of emotive language; references to journeys, overcoming adversity, challenge and triumph; a heart-warming story; an inspiring story etc). 3.
Read “My Life Story”, a poem by Sheila Greenwald (in Orange Moon, edited by Boomer and McFarlane, 1975). Students generate memories about events, places, episodes and experiences from key stages in their life, modelling the progression from childhood to adolescence used by Greenwald. This can be written as a poem, stream of consciousness or narrative.
4.
Using butchers’ paper and markers, students work in pairs. With the butchers’ paper on the wall, one student stands next to it, side-on, while their partner traces a silhouette of their profile onto the paper. Students then individually reflect on an event or experience from their past. They write every word that comes to mind for one minute about this (timed by the teacher so it simulates a game). After creating this ‘word cache’, students are then given 2 minutes to use the word cache to write non-stop in prose. This is a ‘writing derby’. Using this writing as a stimulus, students fill-in their drawn silhouette with either the words or a poem made up of the words or phrases from their writing, or prose, or a combination of these. Booklets of several pages can be made in the shape of the silhouette if students have more writing and visuals to add to their autobiography.
5.
Visit a digital story website and watch a range of stories, exploring the ways in which each presents aspects of the life of the composer. Are there similarities apart from those of structure, form and use of digital narrative conventions? What makes a story stand out as unique and original?
6.
Students can create their own digital stories. (See Digital narrative).
7.
Writing and representation that draws on each student’s experiences is fundamental to development in English, and is a key principle underpinning effective language pedagogy. (See also Language). Another strategy for engaging students in autobiographical writing is based on the poem “Where I’m From” by George Ella Lyon. The teaching strategies for this activity can be found at:
Reference: Pope, R. (2003) The English Studies Book: An Introduction to Language, Literature and Culture, 2nd edn. London: Routledge.
Automatic writing Writing that is undertaken with no deliberate effort to control or direct the flow of ideas. It is similar to stream of consciousness and aleatoric writing. WB Yeats’ (1865-1939) wife, Georgie Hyde-Lees (George) (1892-1968) engaged in automatic writing and Yeats considered this to be a powerful form of spiritual channelling that contributed to his own creative work and his philosophy as a writer. George’s writing and contributions to Yeats’ work have been under-valued and under-researched in accounts of the latter’s achievements. JM
Avant-garde (French: ‘advance guard’) Describes a movement or type of work that is deliberately experimental with the purpose of innovation in form and/or content. Avant-garde texts are often characterised by their evocative difference from the texts that have preceded them or exist alongside them. See also Modernism. JM
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B Ballad (French: ‘dancing song’) A narrative poem that tells a story, often set to music. It may be based on an event, personality, topical issue or political theme. It can be descriptive, celebratory, satiric, comic or subversive. Structurally, a ballad is often written in stanzas of four lines – a quatrain – with a pattern of rhyme. A common technique in ballads is the use of a refrain or repetition. The repetition of phrases or stanzas makes it easier to commit the ballad to memory and enables the plot or storyline to be apprehended more readily. As an oral form (and often set to music) the ballad has a very long history, with so-called Broadsheet ballads (also known as broadside ballads) widely published and sold in the streets of London in the 16th century. Popular ballads from this time that have descended to the present include “Mary Hamilton”, “Sir Patrick Spens”, “The Unquiet Grave” and “The Three Ravens”. During the Romantic period, ballads were popularised as a form, with their folkloric roots and simple structure appealing to the writers of the time. Wordsworth and Coleridge’s Lyrical Ballads (1798)are an example of the use of the form in the Romantic period.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Literary ballads have remained current since, with many poets using the form to retell traditional stories or to take up issues of social justice and protest (for example, “Dust” by Nicki Rice). Many ballads have been set to music by classical composers such as Robert Schubert and Johannes Brahms, and have been included in operas by composers such as Giuseppe Verdi and Richard Wagner. Ballad is a term that also refers to a type of popular song, usually characterised by the ‘romantic’ quality of the music and focus of the lyrics. See also Poetry. JM ∼ Choose a ballad that is appropriate for the class. Read the ballad out aloud. ∼ In small groups, students are allocated sections of the ballad (based on one event or episode).
∼ Each group creates a visual representation of their allocated section to contribute to a frieze. If ICT is available, this can be done using the computer (digital frieze). Or the representations are presented to the whole class and discussed, focusing on sequencing of the story, key images, symbols, places and characters.
∼ Students explore how the visual narrative can be structured and sequenced to ensure continuity and meaning, by arranging these around the wall, or around the floor..
∼ Students can collate and present their representations as a PowerPoint. ∼ Alternatively, small groups can work on creating a two-minute digital story of the entire ballad, choosing images, voice-over of key phrases (refrains, repeated words etc), and music.
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B Bard (Welsh: ‘poet’) A poet, musician, storyteller or scholar, prominent during the 14th century and beyond in Britain and Ireland. The term comes from the Celtic language. Bards were important in recording oral history and creating and disseminating tales and accounts of historical events, famous people and battles. They were learned men who were well-versed in the traditions and events of the time and the history of their particular tribe, clan or region. By recording such experiences in song and rhyming poetry, the audience was able to more readily remember and learn the songs and poems, thereby acquiring knowledge about history, events and people. Since the 18th century, William Shakespeare (1564-1616) has come to be known as The Bard (of Stratford). The term ‘bardolatry’ was coined after George Bernard Shaw (1814-1855) referred with negative connotations to Shakespeare as the ‘Bardolator’. ‘Bardolatry’ has since been a term used to describe what some judge to be the over-exuberant ‘idolatry’ of Shakespeare - The Bard - and his works. JM
Basic skills This term is sometimes used in a variety of contexts and associated with a variety of meanings.. In general terms ‘basic skills’ are those expected of the vast majority of any complete cohort of students. While the acquisition of the basic skills of Literacy is of fundamental importance in the education of school students, it is axiomatic that developing basic skills is the responsibility of all teachers, not only teachers of English. In the development of their students’ reading skills, for example, teachers of English need to include a focus on such higher order skills as: the capacity to identify and distinguish between sophisticated nuances of meaning; wrestling with complex texts; understanding the subtleties of irony, sarcasm, wit, paradox; the ability to situate later 'meanings' within the contexts of earlier 'meanings'; the sophisticated and sometimes deliberately ambiguous language deployed in more challenging poetry; distinguishing 'points of view' operating within texts; noting and reflecting on differing, sometimes even competing, ' voices'; and so on. PB
Behaviourism Advanced by RF Skinner in the 1950s and based on the work of John B Watson (who is widely regarded as the originator of a branch of psychology called Behaviourism that emerged in the early part of the 20th century). Skinner proposed that children learn language by a process of stimulus-response-reinforcement. As children are immersed in oral language, they acquire their own language competence through this stimulus, and through the responses and reinforcement they receive in the act of communication. Behaviourism stressed the view of the child as ‘tabula rasa’ or a ‘blank slate’ who required behavioural stimulus and response in order to learn. Many of the decontextualised reading programs, such as, for example, Distar, were based on the theory of behaviourism. These are now rarely used in the light of more recent research into the importance of context and meaning in the teaching of reading. Opposing behaviourism was Noam Chomsky (1928-) who argued that human beings are born with an inbuilt linguistic instinct and capacity and are therefore ‘pre-programmed’ to learn language. Chomsky’s Nativist model proposed that all human beings are born with Language Acquisition Device (LAD). Later, MAK Halliday (1925-) was to develop the influential Transactional Model of language that emphasised the significance of social context and purpose in language acquisition and communication. See also Functional grammar, Language. JM
Bell Shakespeare Company An Australian theatre company, founded in 1990 by actor/director John Bell. As a national touring company, it specialises in the works of William Shakespeare and conducts an extensive education program for teachers and students. A number of scholarships have been established such as the Young Artists Endowment, which supports new and emerging actors of Shakespeare. Educational programs such as ‘Actors at Work’ involves visits to rural and remote area schools and communities. See
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B Bias (Greek: ‘oblique’) To have or display a tendency to prejudice. Though generally used as a pejorative term, bias can embody positive connotations, depending on the stance of the individual. For example, in the novel Animal Farm George Orwell (1903-1950) conveys his bias against totalitarianism and in particular, communism, through the use of allegory involving animals and as such, has been a favourite in developed western countries since its publication in 1945. The rise of the periodical journal in Europe during the late 18th and 19th centuries demonstrated bias in favour of democratic ideals in the wake of the American and French revolutions. Notoriously, Adolf Hitler’s Mein Kampf (1923) shows his bias in favour of the Aryan race and his extreme bias against Jews. The job of the polemicist is to promote a particular point of view based primarily on opinion: such writing and commentary is often labelled as biased and can be found in blogs, talkback radio, newspaper opinion pieces, magazines and periodicals. More problematic is the detection of subtle political bias in texts generally and in advertising and news reporting in particular, with accusations of bias made routinely against journalists. More serious examples of bias can be found in totalitarian regimes where the use of propaganda forcibly promotes the biased messages of the State. See also Polemic, Propaganda, Rhetoric, Writing. DC
Bibliography An ordered list of all works cited within a book, thesis or other extended piece of writing that has drawn on other sources. A bibliography includes other books, journal articles, creative works, websites, other articles, and any other source cited or used as a reference to create the original work. Bibliographies are generally organised alphabetically, although subsections of a bibliography may stand as discrete sections within a larger bibliography. A bibliographic work or database is a separate work or digital work that contains a list of references relevant to, for example, a particular topic, theme, subject or author. There are a number of bibliographic styles which set out the format for citations and bibliographies. Two of the more common of these are the Harvard system and the APA system (American Psychological Association). JM
Bildungsroman (German:‘formation novel’) A novel that charts the development of a protagonist from childhood to maturity. Usually portraying a male hero, though not exclusively, these fictional works depict the individual’s struggles, rites of passage and in general, their triumph over adversity. Well-known examples are Charles Dickens’ David Copperfield (1849-50) and Samuel Butler’s The Way of All Flesh (1903). DC
Binary opposition In its simplest form, a binary opposition is a pair of opposed or contrasting concepts, objects, abstractions, phenomena, experiences or ideas. The term gained currency within the context of structuralist approaches to language and the study of texts. Both structuralist linguistics and poststructuralist philosophy were interested in binary oppositions, suggesting that Western thought is based on polarities and bifurcations. We know black is black, for example, because white makes black look black. Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) suggested that much of how Western thought makes sense of itself is through binary oppositions, the primary one being the ‘signifier’ and the ‘signified’. He argued that the binary opposition is the “means by which the units of language have value or meaning; each unit is defined against what it is not”. While de Saussure tended to operate on the pretext that binary oppositions were naturally occurring phenomena, or at least that human beings had a natural propensity to make sense of the world through the rubric of binary oppositions, poststructuralist thought – particularly that of Jacques Derrida (1930-2004) in his first book Of Grammatology – suggested that binary oppositions were not what Derrida calls a “vis-à-vis” or an equal partnership, but a socially and linguistically constructed hierarchy of domination (1978: 41). 38
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B Some of the binary oppositions that poststructuralists have worked with and continue to work with are: ∼ Woman/man ∼ Alive/dead ∼ Black/white ∼ Reader/writer ∼ Inside/outside ∼ Reason/emotion ∼ Theory/practice ∼ Nature/culture ∼ Master/servant ∼ Civilised/primitive ∼ Speech/the written word ∼ Sound/silence This way of knowing aligns with the ‘metaphysics of presence’ – a set of theories that proposes there is a validating reality behind language that gives it meaning. Such theories, most notably those of Plato (Ideas), attempt to find a stable and unchanging place to stand outside or above ‘reality’ in order to survey the landscape from a solid, unchanging footing: to find an ‘essence’ that exists outside the movement of difference and surmounts, transcends and conquers it. The metaphysics of presence privileges one thing over another through binary oppositions that are, in turn, interpreted as hierarchical oppositions. Some of the ramifications of exploring the concept of binary oppositions in the English classroom include (Davis, 2001): ∼ Encouraging us to identify and then think beyond the binary opposition, and to question the
ways in which the binary opposition has been constructed. In a binary opposition, is there a hierarchical opposition at play, and what ideological assumptions support that hierarchy? ∼ Once we begin asking these kinds of questions, the way in which we read encourages
different interpretations. If our understanding of texts is governed by a binary opposition that can be challenged, then by challenging the opposition, we unleash other sets of governing principles which may generate new meanings. See also Postmodernism, Poststructuralism, Structuralism. SGS, JM ∼ A pedagogical strategy that assists in understanding the ways in which some texts
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and responses are influenced by binary oppositions is the ‘Yes, No, But’ activity (see grid below)
∼ A list of ‘black-and-white’ qualities or characteristics can be applied to a text or a character or a person.
∼ The task of deciding which of the oppositions applies more fully to the character leads students to explore the nuances and complexities of reading in terms of binary oppositions, the limitations of this and the subtleties of characterisation and representation. Use the grid below, or create your own. Small groups can focus on different characters, or the whole class can explore the same character at the same time.
∼ As students work through the list, discussing each set of oppositions in relation to a particular character, they can also refer back to the text to find examples and quotes to support their interpretations.
∼ Picture books are an excellent resource for developing students’ understanding of the ways in which binary oppositions may operate to shape meaning and response. Picture books are particularly powerful in that they often rely on both print and visual media. Simple analyses of the colours, shapes, characters and setting of such
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B texts can assist students in recognising the pervasiveness of binary oppositions. This knowledge and understanding can then be applied to other texts such as prose fiction, poetry, drama and film.
∼ When exploring stereotypes in texts and the media, use the template of binary oppositions to highlight the ways in which stereotyping often depends on ‘either-or’ or black-and-white representations.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
This character is:
Yes, No, But…
Assertive
Passive
Generous
Selfish
Extroverted
Introverted
Talkative
Shy
Trusting
Suspicious
Thoughtful
Impulsive
Adventurous
Cautious
Rich
Poor
Honest
Dishonest
Articulate
Illiterate
Good
Bad
Loyal
Disloyal
Industrious
Lazy
Energetic
Placid
Loud
Quiet
Dominating
Deferential
Central
Marginal
Compliant
Rebellious
Happy
Melancholy
Positive
Negative
Optimistic
Pessimistic
Sociable
Aloof
(Adapted from Hayhoe, M. (1988) Creative work ideas for Macbeth. Sydney: Phoenix Education)
References: Davis, W. (2001) “Morning Glory”, The Literary Encyclopaedia.
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B Biography (Greek: ‘life-writing’) A biography tells the story of an individual’s life and is written or created by another person. Biographies are often published as books and films (often also referred to as ‘biopics’), although biographical material may occur in other textual forms (such as, for example, the work of confessional poets). Since a biography draws on the experiences and events of an individual’s life, it is generally classed as nonfiction but may contain fictional elements. Biographies are generally written in the third-person (‘he’, ‘she’), with the purpose of underplaying the significance of the narrative voice in favour of the portrayal of the subject’s life, personality and character. As is the case with all acts of representation, the composer makes choices about the ‘what’ and the ‘how’ of the text, rendering biography as a partial and subjective artistic form. See also Autobiography, Faction, Nonfiction, Writing. JM
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∼ Students select a subject such as a relative, or a fictional character. Conducting
∼ ∼
∼ ∼
∼
research, students develop a profile of the person or character, beginning with descriptions of physical characteristics, age, environment, etc. Students then move on to identify important and interesting experiences, events or situations in that person’s/character’s life. Choosing one or more of these, students create a brief biography of this person/character, for a selected audience. In the role of biographer, students explore the conventions of the form and some of the ethical and other issues involved in biographical writing and representation. Make video recordings, sound recording and take still images, if appropriate. Create a digital narrative based on this research. Construct a timeline of the life of the person/character, selecting significant events and experiences. Use this as the basis for a representation of the life of the subject by using images, imaginative journal entries (based on what the subject may have written), lists of “Top 10 likes and dislikes” or “Favourite Food/Movies/Books/Places/ Hobbies etc” Construct a digital album for the subject, including material from strategies 1 and 2, music, voice-over, hyperlinks, and a reflection statement. Prepare a book proposal for submission to a publisher, detailing the focus of the proposed biography, the purpose, audience, structure, significance, and research required for the completion of the book. Create an oral biography or a video biography.
Black comedy A drama or other kind of text in which potentially tragic events or situations are the subject of wry, dark, laconic or cynical humour. A well-known example of a black comedy is Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot (1953). The characters and situation in this play are so bleak and absurd that the characters themselves derive amusement from the utter hopelessness and pointlessness of their existence. Black comedies are more common in the 20th and 21st centuries in the works of dramatists such as Beckett, Albee and Pinter. Black comedy films include Waking Ned Devine (Jones, 1998); The Rules of Attraction (Avery, 2002) and In Bruges (McDonagh, 2008). See also Comedy, Theatre of the Absurd, Tragedy. JH Black Humour Humour derived from a focus on death, the macabre, absurd, grisly or ghoulish. This kind of humour is often employed alongside satire to expose cruelty, hypocrisy, futility or paradox. Examples include: the film, Dr Strangelove (Stanley Kubrick, 1964) and the novels of Kurt Vonnegut (1922-2007), Joseph Heller (1923-1999) and Tom Wolfe (1931-). The 18th century Irish writer Jonathan Swift’s “A Modest Proposal” (1729) relies on black humour: he proposes, with plenty of satire and irony, that the poverty and hardship of the Irish people at the time could be alleviated if they ate their children. See also Comedy. DC The English Teacher’s Handbook
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B Blank verse: Verse that has rhythm but no obvious pattern of rhyme. Blank verse is also known as iambic pentameter. It was the common verse form for English dramatic poetry and was employed regularly by Shakespeare in his plays. In Shakespeare’s plays blank verse works in contrast to prose. It was often thought that the characters in the main plot spoke in blank verse, while the characters in the subplot spoke in prose. A closer study of the plays, however, reveals the fluidity of blank verse and prose within and across the plot and subplot. See also Metre. JM ∼ Focus on the extract below from Shakespeare’s Richard III. ∼ The extract is an example of blank verse, with most of the punctuation removed. ∼ In pairs, students read the extract out aloud, noticing the cadences of the lines, the pauses, caesura and rhythm.
∼ After reading the extract a number of times, students work in pairs, adding punctuation.
∼ Students compare their version to the original version, noting similarities and differences.
∼ Discuss the effect of punctuation on the performance and meaning of the text. Excerpt from Richard III
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
ACT 1, SCENE 1. 1 [London. A street.] [Enter GLOUCESTER, solus]
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GLOUCESTER
Now is the winter of our discontent Made glorious summer by this sun of York And all the clouds that lour'd upon our house In the deep bosom of the ocean buried Now are our brows bound with victorious wreaths Our bruised arms hung up for monuments Our stern alarums changed to merry meetings Our dreadful marches to delightful measures Grim-visaged war hath smooth'd his wrinkled front And now instead of mounting barded steeds To fright the souls of fearful adversaries He capers nimbly in a lady's chamber To the lascivious pleasing of a lute But I that am not shaped for sportive tricks Nor made to court an amorous looking-glass I that am rudely stamp'd, and want love's majesty To strut before a wanton ambling nymph I that am curtail'd of this fair proportion Cheated of feature by dissembling nature Deformed unfinish'd sent before my time Into this breathing world scarce half made up And that so lamely and unfashionable That dogs bark at me as I halt by them Why I in this weak piping time of peace Have no delight to pass away the time Unless to spy my shadow in the sun And descant on mine own deformity And therefore since I cannot prove a lover To entertain these fair well-spoken days I am determined to prove a villain
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And hate the idle pleasures of these days Plots have I laid inductions dangerous By drunken prophecies libels and dreams To set my brother Clarence and the king In deadly hate the one against the other And if King Edward be as true and just As I am subtle false and treacherous This day should Clarence closely be mew'd up About a prophecy which says that 'G' Of Edward's heirs the murderer shall be Dive thoughts down to my soul here Clarence comes
Bloomsbury Group A group of writers, artists and other professionals who met and socialised in the Bloomsbury part of London in the early 1900s. The most famous member of the group was Virginia Woolf (1882-1941). The group also included Woolf’s sister, Vanessa Stephen (1879-1961), husband, Leonard Woolf (1880-1969), and the novelist EM Forster (1879-1970). They met regularly at Woolf’s home and as part of the social activities, explored literature, art, aesthetics and politics. The Bloomsbury Group, through its writing and dissemination of ideas, exerted a significant influence on the literary, philosophical and artistic landscape of the time and well beyond. JM
Bloom’s Taxonomy A hierarchical schema that is used to classify, measure and evaluate student learning objectives and achievement. Benjamin Bloom (1913-1999), an American educational psychologist, developed this taxonomy in the 1950s. It has since enjoyed widespread application across the curriculum. The developmental nature of the model assumes that students move from one cognitive domain to another in an ever-increasing process of higher-order, incrementally abstract thinking. The model does not include the affective and motor domains, although Bloom did begin to develop these. The diagram below conceptualises the hierarchy of cognitive skills within Bloom’s Taxonomy. See also Affective learning, Developmental model of responding to literature. JM
Applying Bloom’s Taxonomy to Goldilocks and the Three Bears Cognitive Objective
Skill required
Teaching Implications
Knowledge
To recall factual information
What are some of the things that Goldilocks did in the house? • Predictions • Timelines • Character grids • Emotion charts • Maps • Mind maps • Character and plot webs
Comprehension
To demonstrate an understanding of information and ideas
Why do you think the Three Bears left their house unlocked? • Predictions • Ghost writing • Character games • Interviews • Role-play • Translating into another medium
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B Application
To use some previously learned knowledge, skills, or understanding in a new situation/ context
If Goldilocks had gone to your home, what would she have done? • Imaginative recreations • Rewriting (e.g. as a news story, recipe, script) • Translating • Drama, role-play
Analysis
To explore parts of the whole to develop understanding of hermeneutics
What parts of the story are ‘missing’? For example, are there scenes that could be added to the story – what were the bears doing while Goldilocks was in their home? Retell the story from each of the bear’s point of view? Does this change the story?
Synthesis
To bring together ideas How might the story have been different if Goldilocks had met in a new way or dethree horses? How would this story be represented in another velop a new product medium? Use the learning from this story to create another text.
Evaluation
To judge the value of material and ideas
Do you think this text is effective? Why/why not? What sort of audience would this text appeal to and why?
Blurb A short, pithy statement that accompanies and/or describes in précis the content of a fuller text. A blurb usually draws attention to the appealing aspects of the text in order to encourage the potential reader/viewer/listener to explore the described work in more detail. Blurbs are frequently found on book covers, DVD covers, front pages of websites and in promotional materials for creative works, exhibitions and displays. JM
Bricolage (French ‘odd jobbery’) A term that gained currency with structuralist critics and was employed to describe the amalgam and exchange of ideas, concepts and materials to create a new work or develop new ways of thinking and understanding. A bricolage is a work that draws on whatever resources, inspiration and materials are at hand. Roland Barthes (1915-1980), building on the work of Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908 –), describes bricolage as the creative re-combining of components of existing language, culture and texts “with purposes that make sense to users, not just providers.” (Pope, 2008: 13) JM Reference: Pope, R. (2008) Creativity: Theory, History, Practice, 3rd edn. Abington: Routledge.
Broadside Also known as broadsheet, originally a large sheet of paper printed on one side with a ballad or other topical material and sold on the streets. Broadsides were often used to disseminate news of public occasions and controversial and sensational events such as executions, scandals and crimes. A broadside is also a term referring to a lampoon, strident criticism or attack. Broadside ballads were popular in the Britain from the 16th century. A sheet of paper was printed with a ballad, and distributed on the streets. Often the ballads had a social protest theme as in, for example, “The Poore Man Payes for All” (18th century). See also Media. DC
Brochure A printed leaflet or a small booklet that advertises and promotes a product, place, event or service. Brochures are similar to pamphlets in that they seek to convey information in a succinct and appealing manner, usually through the use of printed text and visual images. Effective brochures attend to design elements of layout, colour and balance between visual and printed material. Along with pamphlets, brochures are similar in purpose to a leaflet or a handout but tend to be of higher quality than these other types of texts. Students can experiment with digital brochure templates and compose brochures in response to, for example, issues, themes and texts being studied in class, or compose brochures to promote events. See also Representing. JM 44
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B Bullock Report The Bullock Report (A language for life - Report of the Committee of Enquiry appointed by the Secretary of State for Education and Science under the Chairmanship of Sir Alan Bullock FBA, 1975) was one of the most influential reports on the teaching and learning of English in the 20th century. It was based on a large-scale survey of 2000 schools in England. The report investigated trends and attitudes to English language learning and teaching including oral language, written language, language across the curriculum, the reading process, children with reading difficulties and adult literacy. The Report concluded that “Language competence grows incrementally, through an interaction of writing, talk, reading, and experience, and the best teaching deliberately influences the nature and quality of this growth” (1.10) and “Literature brings the child into an encounter with language in its most complex and varied forms and is a valuable source of imaginative insight. It should be recognised as a powerful force in English teaching at all levels” (9.2). The report remains an important landmark in English education. See also Models of English. PB Reference: Bullock, A. (1975) A language for life - Report of the Committee of Inquiry appointed by the Secretary of State for Education and Science, London: HMSO.
Burlesque (Italian:‘jest’, ‘ridicule’) In drama, it refers to a form of variety theatre that was generally comic, parodic and musical, although some burlesque does not include music. This form of theatre originated in the mid 19th century and was a subversive form of entertainment that satirised, often through bawdy or sexually suggestive comedy, the social mores of the Victorian era. Typically, burlesque featured short pieces with women in dancing choruses, singers, male comedians and female strippers. “Without question, however, burlesque's principal legacy as a cultural form was its establishment of patterns of gender representation that forever changed the role of the woman on the American stage and later influenced her role on the screen…The very sight of a female body not covered by the accepted costume of bourgeois respectability forcefully if playfully called attention to the entire question of the ‘place of woman in American society.” (Allen, 1991: 258-259). In literary criticism, the term burlesque refers to any work that imitates another work, but does so in a satirical or parodic manner in order to produce humour. High-burlesque describes the use of a formal style or genre to represent comic or trivial matters. The incongruity between form and content that results is a mark of the work’s burlesque qualities. The mock-epic takes a seemingly trivial subject and frames it within the conventions of a classic or serious genre. Alexander Pope’s “The Rape of the Lock” (1715) is an example of this form. See also Comedy, Drama. JM Reference: Allen, R. G. (1991) Horrible Prettiness: Burlesque and American Culture, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
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C Caesura (Latin: ‘cutting’) A pause in a line of verse, often occurring in the middle of the line at an unexpected place. This technique is designed to draw attention to the pause, to highlight the ideas or action before or immediately after the pause, and to add texture and interest to the expected rhythm of the verse. JM
Cambourne’s 8 Conditions for Language Learning Brian Cambourne’s model identifies the 8 conditions for optimal learning, where language in context in use is at the core of the meaning-making process: 1. Immersion: we learn to talk, for example, because we are immersed in oral language from the time of birth. 2. Engagement: a productive classroom engages learners in meaningful and relevant learning activities that are connected to and extensions of the ‘real’ world of the students. 3. Expectation: a key condition for learning is to always maintain high expectations of students’ capacities. 4. Demonstration: we need the chance to watch and learn, just like small children watch and learn when they are surrounded by constant demonstrations of language in use. 5. Use: to become successful at something, we have to do it, and do it a lot. Knowing the rules of a game, for example, doesn’t make you a great player. 6. Responsibility: as teachers we need to take responsibility for the sequencing of learning through careful planning and programming. 7. Approximation: this is a crucial condition for learning, but one which is often undervalued by schooling. Often the teacher’s reaction to students’ approximations (‘almost correct’) can be limiting. 8. Response: meaningful responses appropriate to the student’s needs and stage of learning are vital. See also Language, Literacy, Reading, Writing. JM Reference: Adapted from Cambourne, B. (1988) The Whole Story: Natural Learning and the Acquisition of Literacy in the Classroom. Auckland: Ashton Scholastic.
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C Canon (Greek: ‘measuring rod’) In literary studies, a term to denote a group of texts selected for their perceived artistic significance, enduring appeal and cultural value. (Originally, it denoted a criterion, a standard of judgment or the authorised list of the Bible.) These texts are generally considered to hold a privileged status in a particular cultural context. The traditional English literary canon includes a body of texts that have acquired the status of ‘classics’; writers such as William Shakespeare (1564-1616), John Milton (1608-1674), Jane Austen (1775-1817), Charles Dickens (1812-1870) and the Brontë sisters (Charlotte, 1816-1855; Emily, 1814-1848; and Anne, 18201849), among many others. Historically, the English canon began to achieve its definitive state in the mid 18th century as it became more of a form of literary history, with the publication of Samuel Johnson’s Lives of English Poets (1779-81). The canon has become inextricably linked with notions of nationalism, culture and values since the selection of certain texts over and above others suggests a preference for the values that these texts promote. The traditional canon and notions of canonicity have been critiqued from four main quarters: philosophical conceptions of language (post-structuralism); feminism; cultural materialism; and post-colonialism. Not surprisingly, each of these quarters protests against the ways in which a traditional white, male-dominated canon denies the interests of the philosophical ‘other’, the female ‘other’, the ‘other’ bound by class and birth, and the ethnically diverse ‘other’. With the rise of cultural studies and semiotics in recent decades, the traditional English canon has been seen to reify a type of elitism and privilege and as such, can carry a pejorative connotation for a range of literary critics and others. Whether we accept or interrogate these historical choices – and, indeed, whether the traditional choices are in fact representative of the white male – continues to fuel debate. These questions in turn prompt larger questions as to which values we give preference to in order to drive the formation of any canon per se, and the ultimate function and purpose of a canon. The term ‘canon’ can also relate to the accepted works within the overall body of an author’s works such as The Prelude (1850) as part of William Wordsworth’s ‘canon of work’ or oeuvre. See also Evaluation, Literature, Literary criticism, Postmodernism, Structuralism, Values. SGS, DC, JM Critiquing the process of assigning value to texts:
∼ Students work in pairs or small groups to collate a list of all books, poems, digital texts, and films they have read/viewed in English and in contexts beyond school.
∼ Students rank these texts according to their impact on and value to them person-
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
ally.
∼ Student then place these texts in one or more of the following categories: • • • • • • • • •
Literary classic Popular classic Popular Multicultural Women’s Young Adult Digital Best-seller Children’s
∼ Once students have collated and categorised, they discuss which texts have been predominantly part of their school and beyond school experience, and why. This can lead to a discussion about individual texts that have been assigned value and the possible reasons for this.
∼ Which texts from their lists do students value most highly and why? ∼ Which texts would they consider important texts for study in English and why? The English Teacher’s Handbook
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C Caption A succinct piece of writing (often no more than one or two sentences, and as brief as one or two words) that accompanies, comments on and/or adds to the meaning of a visual image. The caption may illuminate or clarify one or more aspects of the visual image, or it may be an ironic, satirical or comic interpretation of the image. Captions, like headlines and breakout sections of a text, are designed to draw attention to the key features of a larger text and do not exist as independent texts. See also Representing. JM
Caricature An exaggerated representation of an actual person or a character in literature, art, film and other texts. Caricatures are usually associated with cartoons and drawings and are used to create humour or satire. In order to stress some individual feature or quality of the character, the caricaturist grossly embellishes that feature or quality. Authors such as Charles Dickens (1812-1870) have also created ‘pen portraits’ of characters that serve as caricatures for their readers. In film, a close-up, low angle or undershot can be used to distort and exaggerate the appearance of a character on screen and create a caricature effect for the viewers. See also Character/Characterisation. KS
Catharsis (Greek: ‘cleansing’, ‘purging’, ‘purification’) A term from Aristotle’s Poetics (c. 335 BC) describing a strong audience reaction to a climactic moment of extreme emotion. The experience of emotional cleansing or release took place when an audience witnessed the dénouement of tragedy. Tragedy enabled individuals to identify with characters and to vicariously experience their torments and the outcomes of their actions and decisions without ever suffering these things directly. Aristotle argued that great tragedy was therefore beneficial because in evoking strong emotions and the subsequent release of these, individuals were ‘purified’ and thereby better able to conduct a virtuous and ‘examined’ life. Catharsis is a term that has been applied to the process of writing. Expressive writing may provide the opportunity for the writer to examine and articulate a concern and seek to solve a problem. Arnold identifies the cathartic value of writing when she observes that “What keeps the writing process going is the writer’s recognition that there is something in it for him or her…This can be establishing a discourse with one’s self and/or another or solving a problem by writing it out.” (Arnold, 1982). JH, JM Reference: Arnold, R. (1982) “Writers, learners and self-esteem”, English in Australia, 62.
Censorship The deliberate suppression, removal or destruction of any material that prevents open access to and public distribution of that material, usually for political, moral and ideological purposes. Debates around censorship are integral to concepts of ‘freedom of the press’, ‘freedom of expression’, democratic freedom and civil liberties. Censorship is often a source of controversy in English (as it is in broader social contexts) and centres on the appropriateness and content of material for use with students. There have been a number of occasions when special interest groups have succeeded in having texts removed from English reading lists on the basis of moral, religious and political objections. Among the list of books most frequently challenged between 1990 and 2000 are the following. Students may review this list and for books with which they are familiar, speculate on why these may have been censored. Scary Stories (Series) by Alvin Schwartz I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings by Maya Angelou The Chocolate War by Robert Cormier 48
The Stupids (Series) by Harry Allard The Witches by Roald Dahl Blubber by Judy Blume We All Fall Down by Robert Cormier The English Teacher’s Handbook
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The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck Harry Potter (Series) by JK Rowling Forever by Judy Blume Bridge to Terabithia by Katherine Paterson James and the Giant Peach by Roald Dahl The Catcher in the Rye by JD Salinger The Color Purple by Alice Walker Go Ask Alice by Anonymous
The Handmaid's Tale by Margaret Atwood The Bluest Eye by Toni Morrison To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee Beloved by Toni Morrison The Outsiders by SE Hinton Flowers for Algernon by Daniel Keyes Brave New World by Aldous Huxley Sleeping Beauty Trilogy by AN Roquelaure (Anne Rice) The Great Gilly Hopkins by Katherine Paterson
Particularly topical in the digital age is the issue of censorship on the Internet. More resources and information about censorship can be found at the “Censorship Pages”:
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Character / Characterisation (Greek: ‘instrument for making’, ‘distinctive’) At the simplest level, characters are people or other beings created in a text by a composer. Characters may be wholly imagined, or they may be based to a greater or lesser extent on actual people. For example, the English poets Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon appear as characters in the first novel in Pat Barker’s Regeneration trilogy (1990). Similarly, Napoleon Bonaparte appears as a character in Leo Tolstoy’s novel War and Peace (1869). Characters spark and sustain the dynamism of the plot, engender empathy or antagonism in the responder, and enact and embody recognisable human qualities and experiences. Literary critic MH Abrams stated “the characters are the people, endowed with specific moral and dispositional qualities, who carry on the action…the sphere of ‘character’ can be progressively widened to include even the thought and speeches in which it manifests itself, as well as the physical actions which are motivated by a person’s character.” (Abrams, 1958: 69). Character may refer to the person who participates in, drives and experiences the action of the text, or to a persona or narrative identity in the text. Indeed, a character in a text may be an object, landscape or entity that is imbued with human qualities. The process of employing techniques to portray and represent a character is referred to as ‘characterisation’.
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C Aristotle (384-322 BC) emphasised the significance of action in developing characters, rather than the significance of the person initiating the action – the agent (pratton). The action is distinct from the ethos of the character which, in the Aristotelian sense, is added later. The actions of the agent reveal the trait/s of that agent as either ‘noble’ or ‘base’. EM Forster (1879-1970) coined the terms ‘flat’ and ‘round’ characters. A ‘flat’ or static character is one who does not change throughout the course of a narrative and a ‘round’ or dynamic character is one who changes or is even transformed through his or her involvement with the events of the plot. Many protagonists are ‘dynamic’ in that they meet and overcome the external and internal struggles and challenges of the plot. An important consideration in characterisation is the narrative point of view. A first person narrator, such as Holden Caulfield in JD Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye (1951) allows the reader to assemble a picture of Holden and his qualities, idiosyncrasies and flaws through his quirky adolescent voice. Holden’s actions, descriptions and accounts of interactions with other characters also clearly establish the social and historical context of the novel. The third person narration in Patrick White’s The Tree of Man (1955) allows the narrator to establish and develop characters through information about the background of the central characters, Stan and Amy. Contemporary theory has argued that a character in a text is constructed to embody, promote, represent or challenge sets of norms, beliefs, values and worldviews. If characters are considered in this way, the responder can be alert to the ways in which characters engender empathy or trigger resistance. The reader/viewer can question why they respond to a character in a particular way (‘do I like/dislike, feel antipathy/sympathy for this character and why?’) and what aspects of the reader’s/viewer’s own values, beliefs, assumptions, cultural context, gender, race, and so on may be significant in shaping this response. Characters are often categorised as protagonists; antagonists; and main, central, minor or supporting characters. See also Drama, Fiction, Flat and round characters, Narrative, Reading, Writing. DC, JM References: Abrams, M.H. (1958) A Glossary of Literary Terms, New York: Chatman. Cuddon, J.A. (1991) Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, 3rd edn. London: Penguin Books.
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Holman, C. H. (1976) A Handbook to Literature, 3rd edn. Indianapolis: The Odyssey Press.
∼ Select an excerpt from a text that rich in its description of a character (e.g. Emma in Jane Austen’s Emma; Tess in Thomas Hardy’s Tess of the D’Urbervilles; Celie in Alice Walker’s The Color Purple). Explore the ways in which these characters are portrayed (techniques of description, dialogue etc). Compare the representations. Students explore what aspects of these characters appeal to them and why? What aspects of the representations are unusual, surprising or unexpected? How is this character different from/similar to familiar people in everyday life?
∼ Provide students with the first few lines of texts that provide a description of, or introduce, a character. Students work on fleshing out the description, comparing their versions with the original.
∼ View films such as, for example, Forest Gump, The Hours, Harry Potter, Faces in the Mob. Explore the ways in which character is constructed through filmic techniques (including voice-over and narration) and how the representations work to elicit certain responses from the viewer.
Chick-lit/Chick-flick Refers to fiction and film, respectively, written, produced and marketed for adolescent and young adult women. The term ‘chick-lit’ was coined by Cris Mazza and Jeffrey DeShell as part of the title of their 1995 anthology, Chick Lit: Postfeminist Fiction. The terms were originally employed ironically and now carry pejorative connotations, highlighting the categorising of this kind of fiction and film as popularist and therefore marginal to more seriously regarded literary works. It is akin to the term 50
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‘poetess’ used in previous centuries to demarcate male poets from female poets, with the latter considered to be less worthy of critical attention. The sub-genre of fiction and film burgeoned in the 1990s with the widespread popularity of texts such as Helen Fielding’s Bridget Jones’s Diary (book, 1996 and film, 2001), Anne Brashares’ The Sisterhood of the Travelling Pants (book, 2001 and films, 2005, 2008), Meg Cabot’s The Princess Diaries (book, 2000 and films, 2001, 2004) and more recently, Lauren Weisberger’s The Devil Wears Prada (book, 2003 and film, 2006). Since the 1990s there has been a flurry of bestselling novels, films and television series targetting a young female audience, exploring the love-life, friendships, material and emotional aspirations and career experiences of mainly white middle-class urban protagonists. See also Fiction, Film, Gender. JM
Children’s Literature Literature that is composed for, selected and read by children and includes a range of genres such as picture books, stories, fairy tales, poetry and drama. It is distinguished from young adult and adult literature by its language, themes, subject matter and style. Children’s literature, especially picture books, fairy tales and nursery rhymes, are increasingly incorporated in secondary English as valuable resources, stimulus texts and texts in their own right. The first children’s book to be written and published in Australia was Charlotte Barton’s A mother's offering to her children (1841). (This book is available as an eBook at http://purl.library.usyd.edu.au/setis/id/barmoth). In 1945 the Children's Book Council of NSW was established, with the national equivalent formed 1959. The establishment of the Children's Book of the Year awards did a great deal to stimulate publication and interest in Australian children’s literature, with a concomitant rise in the literary and critical scholarship in the field. Nancy Anderson has categorised children’s literature as follows: 1.
Early childhood picture books: ∼ Concept books (alphabet, counting, general) ∼ Pattern books ∼ Wordless books
2.
Traditional literature: Myths Fables Ballads and folk songs Legends Tall tales Fairy tales Traditional rhymes Fiction: ∼ Fantasy ∼ Contemporary realistic fiction ∼ Historical realistic fiction Biography and autobiography Informational books Poetry and verse. ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
3.
4. 5. 6.
See also Fairy tales, Literature, Picture books. JM Reference: Anderson, Nancy (2006). Elementary Children's Literature, Boston: Pearson Education.
Chronology In literature, film and other types of texts and communication, the chronology refers to the organisation and sequence of events and actions that constitute the plot. Constructing a timeline of the action of a text assists students in understanding the role of chronology and sequencing and the ways in which these may be disrupted, inverted or otherwise manipulated for a particular purpose and effect. See also Anachrony, Plot. JM The English Teacher’s Handbook
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C Cinéma vérité Roughly translates from Russian to ‘cinema of truth’ referring to a candid style of documentary filmmaking that attempts to convey realism. It includes actual people (not actors) in everyday unrehearsed situations, using authentic dialogue (not a script), natural action and locations, with the minimal amount of crew, equipment and camera work (often hand-held) and is produced on a small budget. Instead of shooting sound and pictures together, the actual conversations and interviews are recorded, the best sound grabs selected with visuals then shot to fit the sound. These elements are later assembled the editing suite. Examples of Cinéma vérité include: West 47th Street (Lichtenstein and Peoples, 2003) and Dont Look Back [sic] (Pennebaker, 1967). The recent bio-pic I’m Not There (Haynes, 2007) can be compared to Dont Look Back [sic] – both films explore the life of Bob Dylan. See also Film. KH, JM
Cinematography Refers to the overall control and design of the camera work that gives a film its particular aesthetic appeal and appearance. The cinematographer governs the operation of the cameras and the control of the shots and characters to create the visual design of the film. See also Film. KS
Cinquain A poem of five lines whose invention is attributed to the American poet, Adelaide Crampsey (18781914). Line 1 has 2 syllables (a subject or noun); line 2 has 4 syllables using a word/s that describe the subject or noun in line 1 (adjectives); line 3 has 6 syllables using words that are verbs relevant to the subject or noun in line 1; line 4 has 8 syllables using words (expressing feelings or a judgement about line 1); and line 5 has 2 syllables using a word/s which can be a synonym for the subject in line 1, or an appropriate word that draws the poem together. An example of a cinquain, by Adelaide Crampsey, is “How Frail”: How frail Above the bulk Of crashing water hangs, Autumnal, evanescent, wan, The moon. There are many types of cinquains including mirror cinquains (a cinquain followed by another cinquain with reversed syllabic form); a reverse cinquain (syllable pattern of 2, 8, 6, 4, 2); and a garland cinquain, which consists of 6 cinquains unified by a common subject or theme. Due the their simple structure and brevity, cinquains offer an accessible form for creative writing in English. In this sense, they are similar to haiku. See also Haiku, Poetry, Writing. JM
Classic Originally referred to the literature and other writing of the Ancient Greeks and Romans, since this writing was judged in succeeding centuries to be exemplary. The more common usage in English education pertains to the identification of particular texts as ‘classic’. The categorisation of texts as classic, contemporary or popular requires value-judgements about the quality and importance of such texts. Like the concept of the traditional English canon of literature, the notion of a classic text is contestable and dependent on personal, cultural, economic, historical, political and other factors. Texts that achieve prominence as classic texts often reflect and embody the values of the predominant culture of the time and arguably continue to appeal to audiences across time and place. It is helpful for students to explore the reasons why some texts have been deemed ‘classic’ during certain historical periods; if, how and why notions of canonicity evolve over time; and the implications of these processes and judgements. One way of considering the differences between texts is articulated in the following broad definitions:
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C Classic: Texts that have been recognised over time as exemplars of their type are referred to as classic texts. The historical perspectives offered by these texts enable students to evaluate the extent to which the values, beliefs and perspectives represented in such texts have shifted, or continue to have currency in their own cultural context. The reasons why some texts continue to be valued – issues of universality, relevance, cultural influences, and gender, for example – can be explored by students as part of their critical engagement with such texts. Contemporary: Texts that are valued in the contemporary context and are considered to be texts which “deal with complex ideas in complex ways”. (A Statement on English for Australian Schools, 1994: 3) These texts are typically composed in language and media that may be more readily accessible to students. They may be compared to classic and popular texts in order for students to evaluate their worth. Popular: Texts whose “main aim is to entertain…and which do not attempt to explore issues and ideas in a complex way.” (A Statement on English for Australian Schools, 1994: 4). Many popular texts may be considered less enduring in their value and appeal than classic or contemporary texts. These broad definitions may function as starting points for a consideration of notions of canonicity, the reasons why some texts are deemed ‘classic’ and the processes of assigning value to texts in a hierarchal manner. Students may also be alerted to the alternative, less freighted use of the term ‘classic’ to denote any texts or experiences in popular culture that has acquired prominent status and widespread appeal. See Canon, Evaluation, Interpretation, Values, Young Adult Literature. JM Reference: Australian Education Council (1994) A Statement on English for Australian Schools. Melbourne: Curriculum Corporation.
Classicism An approach to art that values and promotes the Ancient Greek and Roman models of literature (for example: the epic) and champions the qualities of reason, balance, moderation and proportion in art and in life. The Neoclassical period in literature spanned a century and a half, from the mid 1600s to around 1800. Classicism is often defined in opposition to the principles, philosophy and values embraced by artists and thinkers during the Romantic period. See also Age of Reason, (The) Enlightenment, Epic. JM
Claymation A style of stop motion animation in which characters are constructed from clay or plasticine. The clay characters are then arranged on the set. A film frame is taken then moved slightly again by hand. The next frame taken and so on until the characters appear to be moving by themselves once all the frames are sequenced together and rapidly played back. Chicken Run (Park and Crew, 2000) and the Wallace and Gromit series (Park, 1989 ff.) are examples of claymation films. See also Film. KH
Cliché A saying, image, idea or other aspect of language that has become too familiar, predictable and tired due to its over-use. The term usually carries negative connotations that suggest the saying, image or idea is lacking in originality, unappealing or worn-out. It can be argued that before a saying becomes a cliché it contains an insight or ‘truth’ that is so often quoted that it becomes a cliché. Examples of clichés include: ‘Live and learn’; ‘The devil’s in the detail’; ‘Over the moon’; ‘Great minds think alike’; ‘Bring it on’; ‘That takes the cake’; ‘As sick as a dog’; ‘Go like hot cakes’; ‘At the end of the day’; ‘The fact of the matter is’; ‘Make every post a winner’; ‘All’s well that ends well’; ‘The whole box and dice’; ‘Opening a can of worms’; ‘A storm in a teacup’. See also Adage, Language. DC, JM
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C Over the course of a week, students keep a running record of all the clichés they hear in their daily lives. Collate these in class and discuss the prevalence of clichés, the most frequently recurring clichés, and the use of clichés in media and everyday communication. Explore the reasons why clichés proliferate and their purpose in oral communication. Visit the following website which lists all of the sayings coined by Shakespeare. Identify which of these have become clichés.
Climax The culminating point in the action, plot or sequence of events in a novel, short story, poem, drama or film. The climax is often regarded as the high point of the story, where events and experiences come to a head. This may involve a dramatic incident, a turning point, a revelation or discovery, or the full exposure and resolution of a conflict, problem or event. The action and movement of the story preceding the climax generally lead towards the climax, although this may not always be the case. Some narratives and films are structured such that the climax may occur at the beginning of the story, with the subsequent focus being a retrospective chronicling of what has lead to the climax. Alternatively, the events and actions that follow the climax may be the predominant focus of the text. The climax can occur at the beginning, middle or end of a story or play, or at any other points in the continuum of the narrative or drama. The climax is part of the convention and structure of many types of drama. In Greek and Shakespearean drama, for example, Freytag has identified five ‘sections’: exposition; rising action; climax (or turning point); falling action; and dénouement. It is usually in Act III of a Shakespearean play that the turning point in the action occurs. See also Anticlimax, Drama, Freytag’s pyramid, Narrative, Plot. JM
Close reading A process of close analysis and interpretation of a text, without recourse to information about or critical approaches that rely on details of the author’s life, or social, cultural or historical contexts. Close reading was the pedagogy of New Criticism and entailed a fine-grained study of the form and content of the text, attending to its structural features, its ‘organic unity’ and its impact on the reader. Close reading promoted a ‘personal’ engagement with the text, an alertness to the text’s use of paradox, irony, metaphor and ambiguity in order to develop in the reader the critical skills to interpret and evaluate texts as autonomous artefacts. While the approach required this ‘personal’ engagement, the relationship between the reader and the text, and the reader and the received body of critical opinion about the text, was significantly different to what we now associate with ‘personal’ engagement and ‘personal’ response. See also Analysis, Interpretation, New Criticism. JM
Closure Refers to the resolution and/or completion of the action, plot and conflict in a narrative, poem, film, play or other text. The ending of a text may or may not be satisfying to the reader/viewer/listener. Not all texts (for example, stories) reach closure. Indeed, some contemporary texts deliberately disrupt the expectation of closure (or resolution) and deliberately subvert the traditional conventions of narrative in order to more powerfully represent an idea, perspective or philosophical position. See also Dénouement. JM
Code A set of rules or conventions informing and shaping communication, behaviour, language and texts. Within a particular community, there is a shared recognition and understanding of a code that enables individuals to communicate and make meaning. Codes are dependent upon social and cultural contexts and may vary accordingly. For example, some cultures have codes of behaviour that assume eye contact between people engaged in a conversation is appropriate and signals interest 54
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C and engagement. Other cultures may require different practices when it comes to eye contact in conversation and may interpret direct eye contact as a sign of aggression or disrespect. Textual codes refer to the sets of rules that govern the production and reception of particular types of texts. Film, for example, has a set of rules that are encoded in the text to enable the audience to recognise the text as a film. In responding to the film, we are ‘decoding’ the text according to our understanding of and expectations about the common features and conventions of the form. The French narratologist, Roland Barthes (1915-1980), argued that narrative texts are defined by their use of five interwoven narrative codes: sets of conventions and techniques that engage us in a narrative; that maintain our interest to continue reading or viewing; that we subconsciously recognise; and that enable us to be active in interpreting meaning. His theory set out to define the system by which narratives are created. ∼
Hermeneutic code: the revelation of answers to the questions that the story sets up. As the narrative proceeds, the mysteries or ‘enigmas’ of the story are resolved and the reader can bring together the threads of the narrative to make meaning.
∼ Proairecic code: the unfolding of the action in the narrative whereby one action or event relies
and builds upon another for its meaning. This code, along with the hermeneutic code, relies on the shared assumption that the reader will move sequentially through the text from beginning to end, assimilating the sequenced content and thereby interpreting it to come to meaning. ∼ Semic or Character code: the set of conventions used by the composer to construct a character
through descriptions, speeches and dialogue. ∼ Symbolic code: the structural principles that rely on the use of opposites (or binary
oppositions). The text is structured around these ‘theses and antitheses’, such as, for example, day/night; man/woman; good/evil; reason/emotion. ∼ Cultural code: the shared knowledge and understanding of the way that a particular type of
text works; assumptions about the way the world works; and the recognition of shared values and beliefs that are evident in the text. Barthes describes these five codes functioning together like a ‘weaving of voices.’ He refers to this as the ‘multivalence of the text’ enabling the reader to interpret a text not just as a single narrative or storyline, but as a cluster of potential meanings: “The grouping of codes, as they enter into the work, into the movement of the reading, constitute a braid (text, fabric, braid: the same thing); each thread, each code, is a voice; these braided—or braiding—voices form the writing.” (Barthes, 1974) See also Conventions, Dialogic, Fiction, Heteroglossia, Narrative, Narratology. JM Reference: Barthes, R. (1974) S/Z. Trans. Richard Miller. New York: Noonday Publishers.
Collage (French: ‘pasting things on’) A popular type of text for representing in English. It is based on the artistic technique of drawing together fragments into a single visual work. Students create a collage to express responses to and interpretations of other texts or ideas through visual representation. The collage may be made up of visuals, print and material objects and is generally a stand-alone work. A collage may also be created digitally. In literature, collage refers to the technique of piecing together often disparate fragments or ideas that are apparently unified in a single work. Modernist poetry experiments with this technique in order to explore and question the concept of unity, order and cohesion. The drawing together of fragments through the single medium of production reflects the poet’s attempts to make sense of or comment on the perceived fragmentary nature of human experience. An example of this kind of poetry is found in Ezra Pound’s Cantos (1922 ff.). Other examples of collage poems include: Laurence Lerner’s “Wrong Number” and William Plomber’s “Headline History”. See also Representing. JM
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C ∼ Students create a collage poem using headlines from newspapers, magazines and advertising (based on a topic, concept, theme or idea relevant to the unit of work being taught).
∼ The collage poem can be an amalgam of print and visual text/s. ∼ ICT can be utilised to create and publish students’ products.
Comedy (Greek: ‘village festival’, ‘revel, merrymaking’, ‘to sing’) A wide-ranging term, encompassing but not limited to: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
comedy of manners comedy of morals realistic comedy high comedy and low comedy tragi-comedy courtly comedy comedy of humours comedy of ideas comedy of intrigue comedy of menace romantic comedy sentimental comedy musical comedy domestic comedy satirical comedy farce burlesque slapstick and black comedy.
Although comedy encompasses the sub-categories identified above, many of these are not distinct categories and in fact share a range of techniques to achieve their intentions. The primary purpose of comedy is to entertain audiences. Comedy opens up a comic world that delights in the resilience of human beings in their triumph over adversity, whether potential or actual. It celebrates the human ability to overcome, even if momentarily, the conflict, disunity and strife that is so often inscribed in ordinary life. Comedy artificially manipulates the world to manageable proportions - what could be threatening is reduced through laughter, and the failings and foibles that are common to us all are subsumed by a heartening vision of the potentialities of the individual in society. The comic world usually offers a second chance or a means of redeeming mistakes. This is in contrast to a tragic universe in which human error usually exacts a heavy price. Comedies celebrate, to a greater or lesser extent, the growth of the major protagonists from a state of initial ignorance, imbalance or folly, to a more balanced and educated state. In fact, the idea of balance and harmony is often central to comedy. Comedy differs from tragedy in that it is a lighter form of drama; it relies on dialogue that is of greater substance than farce or burlesque; and generally involves a ‘happy’ ending. In the main, comedy will utilise wit and humour which can centre on a number of elements such as the exaggerated physical and/or personality traits of characters; witticisms conveyed through the speech or dialogue of character in which the character’s deficiencies are made apparent; satirical comments by characters about each other; and social issues or the disparity between a pretence and reality. Comedy appears in each of the literary forms, particularly drama, as well as poetry, prose 56
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C and to a degree, non-fiction. Greek comedy was originally associated with fertility rites and the worship of Dionysus. Aristophanes (c.448-c.380) wrote a series of comedies which combined the elements of social commentary, slapstick, lyric verse, dance, far-fetched plots and extraordinary characters. The Romans devised comedies with stock situations and characters which provided a prototype for the comedies of the Middle Ages, which was basically a poem with a happy conclusion. Both Plautus (c. 254-184 BC) and Terence (190-159 BC) wrote a number of comedies centred on love such as Cistellaria, Pseudolus and Andria and Phormio, respectively. During the Renaissance Latin comedy was rediscovered with an effort to apply the rules of classical criticism to drama and a prevailing view that comedy functioned as a corrective mode, as outlined by critics such as Sir Philip Sidney and George Puttenham. Ben Jonson used comedy to expose the recklessness and corruption of society as in Every Man in His Humour (1598) and Every Man out of His Humour (1599). Shakespeare’s comedies - The Comedy of Errors, The Taming of the Shrew, Two Gentlemen of Verona, and Love’s Labour’s lost - can be described as romantic comedies. Much Ado About Nothing, which may be classified as a comedy of manners, signals an important moment in the development of comedy in that most of this play is written in prose which later became the medium of choice in the 17th century. European influences on English comedy can be identified in Restoration comedy: French influences are evident in Restoration comedy, while Italian influences are evident in Jacobean pastoral drama. Although it is difficult to categorise comedy definitively, early Elizabethan comedy was largely Romantic; Jacobean and Restoration, realistic; and sentimental comedy was dominant in the 18th century due to the revival of the Comedy of Manners that occurred later in that century. Much of the effectiveness of comedy relies on the background knowledge and intellectual adroitness of the reader/viewer in order to appreciate the humour. With the rise of the electronic media in the 20th century, new forms of entertainment such as the sitcom and reality television has seen the development of specific structures/formulae that rely upon comedic elements. The difference between comedy and tragedy is not as easy to define as one might think. There is a saying in the theatre, attributed to Mel Brooks: “Tragedy is when I cut my finger, comedy is when YOU fall into an open sewer and die”. Samuel Beckett (1906-1989) in his play Endgame has Nell declare that ‘Nothing is funnier than unhappiness…’ There is certainly some truth in this observation, especially if we think of slapstick comedy or funniest home movie shows on television. See also Conventions, Drama, Fiction, Film, Media. DC, JM, JH
Comics A popular form of visual text with sequential pictures with or without accompanying text. The visual images are sequenced to provide a ‘comic’ narrative and often include word balloons with speech and dialogue, captions or ironic comments on the content of the visuals. As a medium, the comic was popularised in the 20th century, especially in the form of serialised publication in newspapers. As a graphic, multimodal text, the comic and comic strip, rely on humour and sometimes satire and appeal to a wide range of audiences. Superheroes and superheroines often feature in comics, and there continues to be a crossover between comics, animated film and television. In recent years, the webcomic has emerged as a popular form. Comics can be an accessible and entertaining pathway text for developing readers and can stimulate interest in a range of related texts and types of texts. See also Anime, Graphic novel, Manga, Visual text. JM
Commedia Dell’Arte Commedia Dell’Arte is popular, amusing, improvised theatre that developed in Italy in the 16th century. Each actor had a character, played in a particular mask. Characters included:
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C ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
Arlecchino (Harlequin) - a clown Il Capitano - a cavalier Colombina - a female servant (often paired with Arlecchino) Il Dottore – an old doctor Pantalone – often an old miser Pedrolino - a loyal servant Pulcinella – often is deformed but he could be clever Scaramouche- a rogue and often a coward Tartaglia – often a short-sighted old man with a stutter.
A highlight of Commedia Dell’ Arte was the Lazzi: pieces of comic and/or skilful byplay. JH
Communication The process of sending, receiving, transmitting, interpreting, encoding and decoding information. Communication requires an often complex interaction between the sender, the message, the receiver and the medium through which the information is communicated. If communication is regarded as a simple act of ‘transmitting’ a fixed and unproblematic message to a receiver, who will accept and understand it in the same way that the sender does, then we discount the importance of active interpretation on the part of the receiver and the theories of language and knowledge that argue that meaning is dependent on the capacity of the receiver/reader to make sense of the messages. Douglas Barnes (1976) describes two models of communication: the first is based on the simple concept of transmitting or transferring a package of information, analogous to sending information ‘down a tube’ to the receiver. The second model – the interpretive model - relies on theories of language and knowledge that assume communication is a complex social process requiring a transaction between the sender and receiver where a receiver assigns meaning to what the sender conveys. Effective communication occurs when sender and receiver share a set of understandings about language. Meaning in this model depends on a range of semiotic, contextual, personal and social factors. Communication can occur interpersonally: verbally (talking, writing), non-verbally (through body language, observation, listening, touching, signing); and intra-personally (self-to-self in, for example, diaries, and some forms of art). All language and texts constitute acts of communication. In English, students examine the ways in which the modes of communication operate to make (or mask) meaning. Such examination requires the developing understanding of the codes and conventions of communication as it occurs in an endless array of contexts and for an endless array of purposes. See also Language, Meaning, Talking and listening, Reading, Representing, Viewing, Writing. DC, JM Reference: Barnes, D. (1976) From Communication to Curriculum. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Comparison A technique whereby the composer compares (and possibly contrasts) two things. Often the contrast is made between an abstract experience, feeling or phenomenon and a concrete object. A comparison is similar to but less forceful than an analogy. Shakespeare’s Sonnet number 18, “Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer’s Day” is a good example of the use of the technique of comparison in poetry. See also Metaphor, Simile, JM
Comparative Literature Comparative literature is an approach to literary criticism, where instead of investigating a discrete text for its discrete meaning, critics draw parallels and identify differences between two texts. Historically, there have been two major movements within comparative literature; what are loosely termed the ‘French school’ and the ‘American school’. The French school of comparative literature tended to be more interested in formal comparisons, and is characterised by an empiricist approach to the text. The American school were more interested in using the comparison to identify similar and differing interests and values in the text, to determine what common view of humanity held two 58
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C cultures together or whether indeed a common humanity exists at all. For the American school, which has largely permeated Australian study, the two texts will often come from different cultures or even languages, and so the ensuing investigation is one that deals with different traditions and different perspectives on nationalism. Critics investigate the ways in which the text speaks from and to its culture, and thus the idea of the inherent quality of one culture’s literature over and above another is called into question. Comparatists are also interested in the assumptions according to which comparisons are made: how do we decide what aspect of a text we will compare, and what does that reveal about our own cultural understanding of a literary text? Apart from studying texts from different linguistic contexts and different nations, some forms of comparative literature study can examine two or more texts from different genres, particularly genres that are not equally valued as ‘literary’. A novel may be compared, for example, with a film from popular culture, and thus the same destabilising effect is achieved. In addition, comparative literary study can also be undertaken across different historical periods, with texts composed in the same national and linguistic context. In this case, the interest would be in the morphing of values across time, and the critic’s interaction with the assumptions of both texts. See also Interpretation, Literary criticism. SGS Reference: The American Comparative Literature Association:
Composer (Latin: ‘to put in place’) In addition to its more conventional use with regard to music, it is often used in subject English as a collective noun to include novelists, poets, playwrights, screen and speechwriters, film directors and so on. Here is a word bank to assist students when exploring and articulating what it is that a composer may do in a text. When they are composing their own texts, students can use this word bank as a starting point for reflecting on and evaluating their own and their peers’ compositions. A composer, through a text, may: Demonstrate
Present
Reflect
Reveal
Illuminate
Indicate
Consider
Expose
Explore
Manifest
Contemplate
Explain
Portray
Communicate
Clarify
Display
Capture
Refine
Explicate
Create
Uncover
Critique
Express
Delineate
Enlarge
Amplify
Discern
Apply
Entertain
Stimulate
Inform
Transform
Represent
Compare
Contrast
Suggest
See also Author, Composing, Implied author. DC, JM
Composing The process of creating a written, spoken, visual or other text. In addition to engaging with texts composed by others, students themselves are consistently engaged in composing a wide range of texts in English. This activity of composing is central to the underpinning assumption that English involves students in both responding and making and doing. Students are at once readers and writers, viewers and creators, critics and artists. Ian Reid’s seminal book, The Making of Literature: Texts, Contexts and Classroom Practice (1984) sets out an integrated model of English that argues for a ‘workshop’ approach where students are actively engaged with language and texts. This The English Teacher’s Handbook
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C model is in contrast to what he defines as the ‘gallery’ model which positions students as more passive responders to the texts produced by others. The texts composed by students are considered as part of the continuum of textual practice, contributing to the history and evolution of literary, linguistic and cultural experience. The concept of students engaging in a continuum of making and doing has been embedded in English syllabus documents since the paradigmatic shift in the subject that took place post-Dartmouth. Elliot W Eisner (1933-) similarly argues that students must not only engage in the process of appreciating, but equally, in the process of creating: “the most complex and subtle forms of thinking take place when students have an opportunity either to work meaningfully on the creation of images – whether visual, choreographic, musical, literary or poetic – or to scrutinize them appreciatively… To be able to create a form of experience that can be regarded as aesthetic requires a mind that animates our imaginative capacities and that promotes our ability to undergo emotionally pervaded experience.” (Eisner, 2002: xiii). See also Audience, Co-operative learning, Personal Growth model, Reading, Student-centred learning, Representing, Talking and listening, Viewing, Writing. DC, JM References: Eisner, E. W. (2002) Arts and the Creation of Mind, Yale: Yale University Press. Reid, I. (1984) The Making of Literature: Texts, Contexts and Classroom Practice, Norwood: AATE.
Composition Refers in English education to both a process and a product. Students compose texts in a wide range of forms, media and modes. Composition has traditionally referred to written composition, with English classes being organised around units often titled and dedicated to ‘composition’. Historically, composition has also been predominantly associated with creative writing, although it is now more broadly defined as any act of creating and the text or artefact that results from that process. Composition has a particular meaning in relation to visual texts. See also Film, Representing, Visual text, Writing. JM
Comprehension The ability to decode grapho-phonic, semantic and syntactic cues in a text in order to make meaning. The ability to ‘read’ a text at the basic linguistic level is not an indicator of comprehension: we may be able to read a text fluently but not understand its meaning. Comprehension is a central part of all communication and occurs in a myriad of contexts every day. The capacity to comprehend is influenced by a range of variables including the language competence of the ‘sender’ and ‘receiver’ in the communicative act; the relationship between them; the context in which the communication takes place; the value system of the ‘text’ and the responder; and the responder’s knowledge of the conventions and codes of communicative texts. There are many strategies to assist students in engaging with and comprehending what they read/ view/hear. Traditional approaches to comprehension have involved low-level thinking and questioning that require students to simply recall, retell or summarise information. These types of comprehension exercises often atomise a text into discrete parts and do not address the need for students to read holistically and synthesise the parts with the whole as they interpret what they read. There are many more effective approaches to assessing comprehension that rely on higher-order thinking, interpretation, synthesis and deep understanding. A range of practical strategies for building students’ comprehension skills is described in the entry on Reading. PB, JM Reference: Hamlin, M. & Jackson, D. (1984) Making Sense of Comprehension, London: Macmillan.
Computer graphics In film, computer graphics refers to images (or parts of images on the screen) that have been created electronically (or digitally) on a computer. They are often used for special effects, to manipulate photographic images, or to integrate animated and real images. See also Film. KS 60
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C Conceit (Italian ‘concetto’) A figurative language device that sets out to compare two apparently incongruous ideas, objects or experiences. The creative act of melding in thought and language two diverse things often results in a surprisingly clever and unusual perspective. Conceits are a feature of Petrarch’s love poetry. Conceits were developed by and very common in the poetry of the Metaphysical poets who delighted in displaying the intellectual virtuosity and playfulness of comparing highly unlikely things to produce an often startling and convincing case. John Donne’s poetry provides a wealth of examples of conceit. Two well-known conceits are those in the poems: “A Valediction, Forbidding Mourning” (1633) and “The Flea” (1633). In “A Valediction”, Donne devises an ingenious comparison between the experience of love and a pair of mathematical compasses. The conceit reaches a high point in the final four stanzas of the poem. The argument ‘forbidding mourning’ is served by the extended metaphor of the metaphysical inseparability of the speaker and the subject: Our two souls therefore, which are one, Though I must go, endure not yet A breach, but an expansion, Like gold to aery thinness beat. If they be two, they are two so As stiff twin compasses are two ; Thy soul, the fix'd foot, makes no show To move, but doth, if th' other do. And though it in the centre sit, Yet, when the other far doth roam, It leans, and hearkens after it, And grows erect, as that comes home. Such wilt thou be to me, who must, Like th' other foot, obliquely run; Thy firmness makes my circle just, And makes me end where I begun. The conceit is clearly evident in the final two stanzas where Donne brings the compasses image to its climax. JM
Concrete Poetry Also known as shape poetry or poetry that forms a particular structural pattern that is relevant to the content, title or theme of the poem. See also Poetry. JM
Confessional Poetry A form of poetry that emerged in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s. It is a kind of ‘lifewriting’ that is deliberately inclusive of the private, often gritty, confronting and highly personal thoughts, feelings and experiences of the poet. Confessional poetry absorbs some of the features of diary writing in that it is explores subject matter that had hitherto been considered taboo for expression in poetry. Critics have argued that the ‘unmasking’ of the poet and the removal of the cloak of ‘persona’ or ‘speaker’ has been a powerful rebuttal of the prevailing view at the time that ‘good’ poetry required the effacement of the personality of the poet. TS Eliot’s (1888-1965) concept of ‘impersonality’ in poetry has been directly challenged by the work of the confessional poets. These poets included John Berryman (1914-1972), Robert Lowell (1917-1977), Allen Ginsberg (1926-1997), Anne Sexton (1928-1974), and later, Adrienne Rich (1929-), Sylvia Plath (1932-1963), and Sharon Olds (1942-). See Author, Autobiography, Diary, Poetry, Writing. JM
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C Connotation The meanings of a word, phrase, other text or image that are implied or hinted at but not stated directly. The connotation of a word is a secondary or associative meaning that is additional to its denotative or literal meaning. For example, the word ‘sea’ denotes a body of water. The connotations of the word, however, may include: vastness, discovery, tranquillity, restlessness, fury, etc. Connotative language is highly significant in the shaping of a reader’s or a viewer’s response to a text. Careful selection of language by the writer, for example, can trigger a range of associations for the reader, well beyond the literal meaning of the text. The connotations that are stimulated by words and images are dependent upon the responder’s experience of the world, an awareness of the associations that have been built up around that word as part of the social use of language, and of the context within which they are responding. Connotations are to a certain extent unstable and contingent on multiple variables. A word or text may therefore evoke a range of associations and these may in fact be conflicting. Poetry relies heavily on connotation through the use of figurative language since poetry aims to evoke responses with an economy of words, so the secondary or implied meanings of those words become crucial. Take for example, the opening stanza of “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” (1798) by S.T. Coleridge: It is an ancient Mariner And he stoppeth one of three. - ‘By thy long grey beard and glittering eye, Now wherefore stopp’st thou me?’ If we substitute some of the connotative words in this stanza with less connotative words, the evocative power of the stanza is diminished: He is an old sailor And he stoppeth one of three. - ‘By your facial hair and unusual eye Now how come you are blocking me? See also Language, Reader-response criticism. JM
Constructivism A philosophical framework that conceptualises the: ∼ nature of learning ∼ processes, conditions and pedagogies that facilitate the acquisition of knowledge, skills and
understandings ∼ nature of the learner as an active agent in constructing meaning from incoming information ∼ the process of the learner making connections with prior understandings and knowledge, and ∼ the testing of the new learning by applying it to real-world contexts and situations.
Constructivism – as theory and practice - gained widespread appeal in education in the 20th century. It was influenced and developed by figures as diverse as Giambattista Vico (1668-1744), John Dewey (1859-1952), Jean Piaget (1896-1980), Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934), and Jerome Bruner (1915-), with the latter three figures generally attributed with the development of the theory in educational settings. In English, John Dixon argued that “…at the level of language…we make for ourselves a representational world…making it afresh, reshaping it, and bringing into new relationships all the old elements” (Dixon, 1967: 9). The following table provides an admittedly simplified overview of the key components and principles of constructivism.
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C The Learner
• • • • •
The Teacher
• • •
• •
The learning process
• • • •
• • •
Individual background, language, experience and needs are central to learning Social and cultural interaction, context and experience are central to the shaping and acquisition of knowledge and understanding Learning is an active process with the learner assuming increasing responsibility for learning and their own processes of learning Motivation and confidence emerges from increasing challenge and achievement (intrinsic motivation) Learning tasks should be designed so that they are appropriate and challenging for the needs, interests and capacities of the individual student, building on Vygotsky’s theory of the ‘zone of proximal development’ (1978) Facilitates and guides the learner, designing purposeful learning opportunities for active meaning-making and skills development Understands and applies knowledge of learning styles and individual needs Values and promotes the role of discussion, inquiry, questioning, hypothesising, discovering, speculating, testing and creating new knowledge, and applying this to new situations and contexts Learning activities should promote active engagement, choice and cater for increasing learner independence Learning is scaffolded so that students are supported and guided in activities Learning is an active process of synthesising and making sense of information and experience by connecting it to established knowledge structures and patterns Learning is a social process that depends on the learner’s engagement and interaction with others in purposeful real-life contexts Effective learning environments contextualise learning Learning occurs when there is a balance between structured learning experience and the flexibility to enable the teacher to take advantage of the ‘teachable moment’ when it arises Learning occurs when students are engaged and challenged in appropriate ways with appropriate levels of guidance, scaffolding, information and support Collaboration and cooperation can build knowledge and understanding and occurs in small group learning situations, problem-solving tasks and reciprocal teaching Learning depends on language and according to Vygotsky, optimal learning occurs when talking, making and doing converge (Vygotsky, 1978)
If we view learning in this way, classrooms become places for students to be active and productive (‘making and doing’), rather than merely receiving and regurgitating information. In such classrooms, students are engaged in a reflexive and recursive process that makes explicit the purpose and the nature of the learning activity. Effective teachers of English are discerningly eclectic in their pedagogy, drawing on a repertoire of strategies to cater for their students’ needs, interests and abilities. Such teachers strive for balance between a range of approaches and recognise the need to be both an interpretive and transmission teacher (Barnes, 1976). For example, Nancie Atwell’s writing workshop model exemplifies a constructivist approach to learning that also stresses the need to transmit content by intervening at the point of need. This is achieved through what she describes as the ‘mini-lesson’ – a phase of direct instruction to teach students required skills, knowledge or concepts to enable them to grow and develop as writers. See also Group work, Student-centred learning, Zone of proximal development. JM References: Atwell, N. (1998) In the Middle: New understandings about writing, reading and learning, NJ: Boynton/Cook. Barnes, D. (1976) From Communication to Curriculum, Harmondsworth: Penguin. Bruner, J. (1990) Acts of meaning, Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. Dixon, J. (1967) Growth Through English. Huddersfield: OUP/NATE. Lee, C. & Smagorinsky, P. (2000) Vygotskian Perspective on Literacy Research: constructing meaning through collaborative inquiry, New York: Cambridge University Press. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978) Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
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C Context The web of influences, variables and background conditions which exist outside the text, but which can be argued to have influenced the composer, the process of production of the text, the distribution of the text, and the audience’s reception of the text. Contexts that shape and influence human communication and the meanings of a text include: personal, social, historical, economic, political, cultural, situational, geographical and material contexts of the communicator/receiver or composer/responder. Context may refer to the learning context and the language context. Some literary critical methods and approaches to the study of texts have foregrounded the importance of considering the role of context in the production of the text and in the responses to it. Historical criticism, for example, emphasises the significance of the study of the historical context of the composer and text in order to more fully understand and make meaning from the text. Similarly, Biographical criticism relied on details of the composer’s life and experiences to inform the study of a text. Cultural Studies and Critical Literacy both emphasise the social constructedness of language, knowledge and thought and consider social and other contexts to be highly significant in the shaping of meaning. The concept of context is not unproblematic. Firstly, context is a highly malleable and contested concept reliant upon historical accounts or other mediated records of the time that are in turn dependent on the historian’s purpose, position and perspective. The context of a text’s production is not a single, stable or unified phenomenon: it will always be constituted by a host of differing and even competing perspectives, values, norms and beliefs. Arguably, an authoritative, definitive knowledge of a context is eternally elusive. The context in which Thomas Hardy wrote Tess of the D’Urbervilles (1891), for example, can be researched to more fully understand the moral imperatives and the social, cultural and other conditions of the time that may have influenced the writing of the text. We can speculate on the nature and significance of contextual factors such as, for instance, the social mores and expectations of the time that may have influenced the ideas, style, plot, characterisation, representations of gender and power relationships and dénouement in a novel such as Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice (1813). We can also gather general historical evidence about, for example, the political and economic conditions of the time. But this understanding will be necessarily partial, perhaps contradictory and open to question. Secondly, it is often impossible to gather valid and reliable evidence about the personal context of the composer when he/she created the text. When considering context in the study of texts, it is therefore important to ask the question ‘whose context and whose interpretation of the context are we relying on?’ Thirdly, alongside the context of the text is the context of the reader/viewer: a number recent contemporary critical approaches consider this context be vital in the process of engaging with the text and coming to meaning/s. Context also refers to the context established or shaped within a text. See also Intentional Fallacy, Interpretation, Literary criticism, Reader-response criticism. JM
Contract in English A pedagogical tool that reflects a valuing of: ∼ a level of student-initiated and directed learning ∼ experiential learning ∼ a co-operative relationship between student and teacher ∼ a negotiated curriculum ∼ and negotiated assessment. Contracts in English can range from straightforward agreements between a teacher and a student about a wide-reading program, to more detailed contracts that establish the content and process of student learning. Contracts signal to the student that they are expected to take responsibility for their own learning, fulfil the agreement to achieve or complete the tasks set out in the contract, and 64
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C move towards increasing independence and autonomy in their learning. Contracts also contribute to the development of metacognition skills. See also Constructivism, Student-centred learning. JM
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Contracts can take a number of forms, including:
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
Wide Reading contracts Reading and response contracts Writing contracts Portfolio contracts Contracts for composing and representing and the use of digital technology.
What to include in a contract:
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
Name Title/s and publication details of book/s to be read Reading tactics (see MyRead.org): Pre-reading, during reading, after reading tasks Timeline for reading Possible response tasks Outcomes to be achieved Signatures of teacher and student.
Contrast A technique that seeks to draw attention to the differences between two or more ideas, concepts, situations, events, people, things or qualities. Contrast is frequently used to deepen an understanding of and throw into sharp relief the differences between two contrasting things. Conversely, it can be used to explore the ways in which differences can be harmonised or unified within the context of an overarching idea or theme. An example of this technique is found in Robert Browning’s poems “Meeting at Night” and “Parting at Morning” (1845). JM ‘Meeting at Night’ The grey sea and the long black land; And the yellow half-moon large and low And the startled little waves that leap In fiery ringlets from their sleep, As I gain the cove with pushing prow, And quench its speed i' the slushy sand. Then a mile of warm sea-scented beach; Three fields to cross till a farm appears; A tap at the pane, the quick sharp scratch And blue spurt of a lighted match, And a voice less loud, through its joys and fears, Than the two hearts beating each to each! ‘Parting at Morning’ Round the cape of a sudden came the sea, And the sun looked over the mountain's rim: And straight was a path of gold for him, And the need of a world of men for me.
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PRACTICAL STRATEGY
C To increase students’ skills and understanding in using the language of contrast, have them brainstorm a list of contrasting objects or experiences. Using this list, students create succinct descriptions of each pair, aiming to capture in precise language the essential differences between them. For example:
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
sand/stone summer/Winter velvet/pumice silence/a city street
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
sunrise/sunset bitter/sweet orange/broccoli ocean/mountain
Convention A technique, device, distinguishing feature, structure, method of characterisation, subject matter or elements of literature and other texts that are accepted by both composer and responder as specific or traditional to a particular genre or type of text. Conventions are recurring features of a form that are recognisable by the audience and are appropriated, modified or subverted by the composer. The traditional Shakespearean sonnet, for example, has a set of conventions: 14 lines of verse, an iambic pentameter metre, a rhyme scheme and a thematic focus on love. (See Stephen Spender’s “15 Line Sonnet in Four Parts” for an example of how conventions are deliberately questioned and subverted). The epic requires a questing hero or heroine and a stock of standard phases of the journey. The canonic elegy is characterised by a number of conventions such as the pathetic fallacy; the use of images, myths and symbols such as, for example, flowers, processions and paeans; the valorisation of the deceased; and the metaphorical movement from grief to consolation. (See poems such as Amy Clampitt’s “Procession at Candlemas”, Marge Piercy’s “Burying Blues for Janice” and Anne Sexton’s “Sylvia’s Death: For Sylvia Plath” for examples of how the conventions of the canonic elegy are subverted and redefined.) Although the conventions of a form may not be strictly adhered to, they provide a set of parameters for composing and responding to the text, and for working against the tradition that such texts represent. All texts operate according to a set of conventions shaped by the literary, historical, social, cultural and other contexts within which and from out of which the texts are generated and read. These may be described as textual or generic conventions. These conventions are particularly important in dramatic texts where the audience accepts the dramatic conventions such as, for example, the convention that the audience are ‘spectators’; that they willingly suspend disbelief so that the setting, characters and timeline of the play are accepted as part of the illusion of the drama; that elements of the play such as, for instance, a soliloquy, is a speech that cannot be heard by other characters on stage, and so on. Without these conventions, the process of engaging with a text would be rendered difficult and complex as would the task of composing which usually relies heavily on a knowledge of the inherited conventions of a particular form. See also Code, Drama, Fiction, Film, Genre. JM
Common conventions in Shakespeare’s comedies Convention (dramatic device) Masks and disguise
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Purpose and examples The use of masks and disguise by the characters is part of the artifice of comedy, and although the audience realises the improbability of many scenes relying on disguise, this device enables the characters to manipulate situations and to buy time. It also affords the individual the opportunity to participate at one remove from 'reality'. The masked or disguised protagonist is often able to execute plans more freely than would their 'true' unmasked character. Further, the device of disguise forces questions about the nature of appearance and reality, deception and self-deception. In Twelfth Night, for example, Viola disguises herself as the man, Cesario. The English Teacher’s Handbook
C Convention (dramatic device)
Purpose and examples
Eavesdropping, games/ There are numerous examples of the way in which eavesdropping enables the fighting and the play-within- spread of information in a plot, whilst contributing to or maintaining the elea-play ment of intrigue. Antics like wrestling and sword-fighting are also not uncommon - (Viola/Cesario - Andrew episode in Twelfth Night). The play-within-aplay is a device that calls attention to the whole notion of acting and performance. Often, the interior play will take up and examine a pressing issue of the macro-drama. The most immediate example of this occurs in The Tempest when Prospero directs the masque. Tokens and rewards
In comedy there will often be a token such as a ring, an emblem or a birthmark, that functions either as a symbol of achieved unity and harmony and/or a 'reward' for a character who has overcome ordeals. In Twelfth Night the ring assumes this token-like significance.
Music and song
Music, together with song and poetry, is indeed central to comedy. In addition to their obvious entertainment value, these elements may be seen as thematic correlatives. Music, in particular, is the embodiment of the ideal of harmony and order. Poetry too is a heightened use of language that relies on precision and balance. Both song and verse function to interrupt the dialogue, thus drawing attention to themselves, and also encapsulating a thematic concern in a concise, aesthetically-pleasing and enjoyable way. The Tempest relies to quite a degree on music and song. JM
Cooperative learning: An approach to teaching and learning and problem-solving in English that values the role of collaboration, interaction and intra-subjectivity. Cooperative learning is a key pedagogical strategy in student and learning-centred models of English, since it promotes active student participation; the role of talking, listening, (discussion); a community of readers, viewers and writers; an interpretive community; and the importance of shared endeavour. Cooperative learning also prepares students for beyond-school contexts, such as the workplace, where collaboration and team-work are mainstream practices. Moffett and Wagner (1992) remind us that the “art of conversing is at once a profound social and cognitive activity based on real respect, not etiquette.” Teaching and learning in English assumes and requires an abundance of opportunities for students to engage in collaborative learning situations that are structured, managed and facilitated, but not exclusively controlled, by the teacher. The ‘talking space’ of the classroom is thereby opened up and distributed more equitably than would be the case if the teacher occupied the central role in all learning experiences. There are a number of considerations in establishing and facilitating cooperative learning, and these include managing small and larger groups; ensuring students take responsibility for their role in a group task; the quality of the questions generated and asked during discussion; and the opportunity for teacher and peer-evaluation of the outcomes and effectiveness of cooperative learning experiences. See also Constructivism, Group work, Literature Circles. JM Reference: Moffett, J. & Wagner, B.J. (1992) Student-Centred Language Arts, New Jersey: Boynton Cook
Couplet Paired lines of verse that generally rhyme, have the same metre and are composed as a single unit. There is a range of kinds of couplets that are distinguished by their metre or their place within a poem. The heroic couplet, for example, is a pair of lines of verse written in iambic pentameter. Rhyming couplets are extremely common in poetry and in the language of many cultures. An epigram is a type of text written in a couplet. Following are examples of the couplet: So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see, So long lives this, and this gives life to thee. (From Sonnet 18, “Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer’s Day”, William Shakespeare) The English Teacher’s Handbook
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C In silent night when rest I took For sorrow near I did not look I wakened was with thund’ring noise And piteous shrieks of dreadful voice. (Anne Bradstreet, “Here Follows Some Verses upon the Burning of Our House July 10th, 1666”, 1678) All things human are subject to decay, And when fate summons, monarchs must obey. (John Dryden, “Mac Flecknoe”, 1681) See also Poetry, Writing. JM
Course Prescriptions Refers to a mandated text list set as part of a course of study. Such lists, often referred to as ‘prescriptions’, are found in courses such as English, Drama, Languages and Dance and are usually issued by a curriculum authority. In the past, a prescribed list of texts set for study in English would include poetry, prose fiction and drama texts. More recently, prescribed lists for English have also included film, media, nonfiction and multimedia texts, reflecting changing attitudes to what is considered as a ‘text’ and worthy of study. Proponents of such inclusions cite the popularity of film, media, nonfiction and multimedia texts and a corresponding need to for students to develop knowledge, skills and understanding through engagement with, composition of and response to these texts. The process for developing a prescribed text list generally involves wide consultation with teachers, key groups and the community, following which recommendations are presented to the curriculum authority for final approval. DC
Cox’s Models of English In 1989, British Professor Brian Cox published a report on the teaching of English: English for Ages 5-16, which came to be known as the Cox Report. Drawing on the work of John Dixon (1975), who identified three views of English (Cultural Heritage, Skills and Personal Growth), and The Bullock Report (1975) which added to Cultural Heritage and Skills a further view of English as “an instrument of social change” (DES, 1975), the Cox Report defined five interrelated approaches (or models) that constitute English. The influential Report has since been critiqued and contested (see Marshall, 2000, for a full analysis). The five models are as follows: 1. Personal growth 2. Cross-curricular 3. Adult needs 4. Cultural heritage 5. Cultural analysis See also Models of English. JM Reference: Marshall, B. (2000) English Teachers: The Unofficial Guide. Researching the Philosophy of English Teachers. London: RoutledgeFalmer.
Creatives The collective noun ‘Creatives’ refers to all the participants in a production whose job it is to help realise the play text from the page through to performance. ‘Creatives’ includes the director, the designer, the actors and may also include the writer, if the work is continuing to be developed through the rehearsal process. Depending on the budget there may be many designers - wardrobe, set, sound and lighting - and there may also be original music scored for the production, which would involve yet another ‘creative’: a composer. The term implicitly acknowledges the imaginative and visionary aspects of the different kinds of contributions made by those mentioned above, as generally any production attempts to create a unique interpretation of ultimately a fixed text. JH 68
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C Creativity The process of initiating, developing and/or producing new ideas, concepts, ways of thinking and feeling, knowledge and products. It is a concept that has applicability across the range of cognate and artistic disciplines, and in everyday contexts. Creativity in English refers to the creative ‘process’ of using language to think, feel, interpret, synthesise ideas and compose creative ‘products’ (in print, oral, visual, or multimodal forms). In ancient cultures, and to an extent during the Romantic period, creativity was considered to be a result of metaphysical inspiration or the ‘muse’. More recent scientific research, however, has illuminated the complex ways in which creativity – the creative – is activated, applied and understood in human experience and its integral relationship to the ‘critical’. Pope draws attention to the fact that “the first recorded use of the abstract noun ‘creativity’ is as recent as 1875…Certainly cognate forms such as ‘creation’, ‘creator’ and ‘create’ were around much earlier first with religious and then with artistic senses.” (Pope, 2003: 1). While some periods of history have envisioned creativity as the province individual genius or divine inspiration, more recent theorising has examined its socially-contingent nature, its range of manifestations (including ‘recreation’), and its reliance on a dynamic process of moving from the ‘known’ to the ‘unknown’ (Pope, 2003: 11) A number of educational and psychological theories have also emphasised the relational nature of creativity and the role of creativity in learning, problem-solving, innovation and invention. Strategies such as, for example, brainstorming, representing through collage, creating bricolage, the use of de Bono’s ‘6 thinking hats’, imaginative re-creation, creative resourcefulness, and the use of extensive stimulus to trigger new ways of thinking and knowing have been widely adopted in English pedagogy. While there is a tendency to demarcate the ‘critical’ and the ‘creative’ in English, the distinction between the two is a false one, since any act that requires the use of language to imagine, express, shape or produce something ‘new’, relies on creativity and often, on collaboration. As Carter argues, “linguistic creativity is not simply a property of exceptional people but an exceptional property of all people” (Carter, 2004: 13). Ken Robinson in his address – “Do Schools Kill Creativity?” – makes a compelling case for the crucial role of creativity across the breadth of educational experiences. It is available as a podcast (on the TED – Technology, Education, Design site) at:
Crime/detective fiction and film A genre of fiction that includes murder mystery, ‘whodunit’, thriller, spy, suspense, ‘locked room’, ‘hard-boiled’, criminal and forensic fiction and courtroom drama. Like other genres of fiction, there is considerable overlap between the sub-genres of crime and detective fiction, but the common elements are: ∼ criminal activity including murder, conspiracy, fraud and corruption ∼ intrigue, subterfuge, mystery and deceit ∼ danger, conflict and a clash of value systems ∼ the discovery of motives and evidence ∼ the resolution of the criminal case ∼ retribution, punishment or redemption.
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C It is generally agreed that crime fiction emerged as a popular genre in the early 1900s. The rise of the mass media during the 20th century saw the widespread practice of serialised publication of fiction, with many of the early forms of crime fiction popularised through radio, film, and television. The early work of Edgar Allen Poe (1809-1849) is considered to be a landmark in the development of the genre, with stories such as “The Murders in the Rue Morgue” (1841) and “The Purloined Letter” (1844) being among the most popular at the time. The iconic Sherlock Holmes mysteries (Arthur Conan Doyle, 1887), also originally published in serialised form, stands as a model for later writing within the genre. Around this time, a set of conventions emerged which have since been appropriated and developed by 20th and 21st century writers and filmmakers. Agatha Christie was, and remains, one of the most popular, indeed prolific, 20th century writers of crime fiction whose work has also enjoyed ‘translation’ into film and television. Among her most popular novels are The Murder of Roger Ackroyd (1926), Murder on the Orient Express (1934) and And Then There Were None (1939): the characters of Poirot and Miss Maple enjoy iconic status in crime fiction. Lynda La Plante, similarly popular and prolific, is a contemporary exponent of this genre. Many of her numerous works were written specifically for television. Her novels include Bella Mafia (1991), Civvies (1992), Entwined (1992), Framed (1992), Seekers (1993), The Governor (1995), Sleeping Cruelty (2000) and Royal Flush (2002). There is a vast range of crime and detective fiction and film that can be accessed at the Crime Fiction Database:
Criteria (Greek: ‘to judge or decide’) In English education the term ‘criteria’ is often deployed in the context of establishing standards, defining qualities or characteristics that are used to assess and/or evaluate the quality or effectiveness of a text, performance or other forms of process and product. Criteria are commonly employed to assess student responses and are based on the learning objectives and outcomes that have shaped the nature of the particular task. Marking criteria or marking guidelines set out and describe the cognitive and affective knowledge, understandings and skills that are to be demonstrated. Students should be aware of the assessment criteria prior to undertaking the particular assessment task. See also Assessment, Evaluation. DC, JM
Critical blueprint A model designed by the Australian author Aiden Chambers (1934-) to assist young readers in engaging with responding to literature. This model may be adapted for viewing activities. 1. What happened to me as I read? 2. What influenced my responses? ∼ the book as object ∼ my personal history ∼ my history as a reader ∼ the text alone (how the author tells the story and what the author tells) 3. What does this book ask of readers? (what reader is the author writing for?) 4. Why is this book worth the reader's time? (the qualities of the book itself and the needs of young readers) 5. Background of the book (context, personal history of the author, etc.) See also Reading, Viewing. JM Reference: Adapted from Chambers, A. (1983) Introducing Books to Children, 2nd edition, Boston: The Hornbook.
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C Critical Literacy A form of pedagogy, among many others, that is used within English teaching and learning – although it has also had application in the visual, musical and dramatic arts. Critical Literacy places a focus on the importance of the reader exercising critical judgement, and of being prepared to adopt a healthy scepticism when engaging with texts. It emphasises the importance of becoming aware of and critiquing such factors as the culture within which the text has been written and is being read; any purpose that the author might be pursuing in writing the text; and, in general, enabling the reader to be more informed about the contexts within which reading and writing can take place. Some of the fierce opponents of Critical Literacy, while acknowledging the value of retaining a critical perspective when engaging with a text, nevertheless claim that an ideologically driven ‘critical literacy’ approach can lead to distortion of engagement with and response to imaginative literature. That encouraging the reader to be ‘resistant’ to the text invalidly presumes that the text is there to be resisted. That such an approach undervalues responses such as just enjoying what has been written. Delighting in the content and form of the text. Inhabiting the text. Playing around with ideas and emotions evoked by the text. Advocates of Critical Literacy emphasise what is best described as a political dimension to the acts of communication: arguing for the need for students to recognise dominant, oppressive structures, and then to be able to articulate and work for a better, more inclusive world. Critical Literacy developed from the ideas of educator Paulo Freire (1921-1997) who lived and worked in Central and South America. He sought to raise the consciousness of those he taught to become critical of the ways in which they were immured and trapped in a culture that was essentially oppressing them (Freire, 1985). Freire’s thought influenced many educators, particularly in Australia: among them Peter Freebody, Allan Luke, Wendy Morgan and Ray Misson, who articulated a critical literacy appropriate to the Australian context. For well over a decade the term Critical Literacy has assumed a significant role in the definition of some English curricula. The American critic Robert Scholes published the influential Textual Power in 1985, setting forth the tenets of a critical pedagogy and arguing for the importance of students’ lived experiences and social understanding of the self and the world as pivotal parts of the dynamic of teaching and learning. He argued that: In my view the literature classroom should be the most exciting and productive in the whole school – not because it is a shrine for great works but because it is a place where students experience their own productive possibilities, the place of entry, for them, into the cultural web of textuality: the place where they can see the textual apparatus from the inside and learn how to pull the strings themselves. To make this possibility a reality in our classrooms, we must begin by doing one big simple thing. We must accept as the centre of our enterprise they study of all the forms of sign and symbol that seek power over us or offer us pleasure. (1985: 37) A critically literate reader understands that any one particular text may be open to a variety of meanings; and considers not only what is included in a text, but what has not been included, when exploring and responding to the meaning or meanings of a text. While critical literacy encourages the reader to ‘resist’ what it sees as the intention of the composer to manipulate/position the reader to adopt particular meanings, the concept of the Intentional Fallacy, posited by the New Critics, problematises this approach. The New Critics argued that it is impossible to ascertain with any degree of authority what the composer ‘intended’ to do, unless the artistic work is accompanied by the composer’s explanation (which itself can be subject to critique). In addition, recent debates about the pedagogy of Critical Literacy have focused on the need for a more inclusive view of the reading process and its relationship to the other language modes. The impact of Critical Literacy pedagogy on the aesthetic dimensions of engagement with texts has also been the subject of recent scholarship (Misson and Morgan, 2006). See also Interpretation, Language, Models of English. SGS, PB, JM The English Teacher’s Handbook
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C References: Freire, P. (1985) The Politics of Education: Culture, Power and Liberation, Trans. Donaldo Macedo. London: Macmillan. Misson, R. & Morgan, W. (2006) Critical Literacy and the Aesthetic. Illinois: NCTE. Morgan, W. (1997) Critical Literacy in the Classroom: The Art of the Possible, London and New York: Routledge. Morgan, W. (2004) “Critical Literacy”, in Reviewing English in the 21st Century eds. W. Sawyer & Gold, Melbourne: Phoenix Education. Scholes, R. (1985) Textual Power: Literary Theory and the Teaching of English. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Criticism (Greek: ‘to judge’) Refers to the systematic activity of responding to a text, usually in written form. A critic generally approaches and interprets a text in terms of one or more traditions of criticism, each of which values different methods of and assumptions about criticism, texts, readers and contexts. Recent theoretical criticism has suggested that criticism itself creates texts, and so there is little difference between writing a creative text and writing criticism. See also Analysis, Critique/ Critiquing, Interpretation, Literary Criticism. SGS
Critique/Critiquing (Greek: ‘judgement’) In English, students critique language and texts through discerning and exploring the ideas, language techniques, medium of production, contextual factors and the impact of the text, in order to arrive at an informed critical view and interpretation of that text. In the more formal sense of the term, critiquing a text usually requires a set of critical tools or practices, based on one or more critical frameworks, theories or approaches. The work of New Critics such as, for example, IA Richards and FR Leavis, developed a critical model for the study of literature which sought to validate literary criticism as a disciplined, theorised practice and thereby redeem it from the preceding impressionistic, historical and biographical approaches that had characterised so much of the scholarly discourse prior to the establishment of English as a discrete subject in universities and the school curriculum. Since the mid 20th century, a range of evolving and at times competing literary critical approaches and theories have occupied a central place in the discourses of English education. See also Analysis, Close reading, Evaluation, Interpretation, Literary criticism, Reading, Representing, Viewing, Values, Writing. JM
Cultural Literacy The knowledge and understanding of the ways in which cultural, historical, political, social and personal contexts, values and assumptions are shaped and communicated. In English, students are encouraged to consider the implications of such contextual factors, values and assumptions as they engage with and interpret language and texts and create their own. Cultural Literacy was the title of an influential book published by ED Hirsch in 1987. The book advocated a return to the study of the classics, a shared discourse and common ‘culture’. The appendix to this book listed 5000 dates, events, names, places, terms, concepts and other ‘facts’ that the author considered essential for every American student to know. This view of cultural literacy – which fuelled the standards movement in the USA – is distinct from the view of cultural literacy which is embedded in many English syllabus documents. The latter assume pluralism, the critiquing of culture and an understanding of the ways in which culture is maintained, manifested, influenced and transmitted. JM
Cultural materialism A school of literary criticism that emerged in Britain 1980s, sharing some of the principles of the less politically driven American New Historicism. Cultural materialism is associated with the work of Raymond Williams and is a form of Marxist literary and cultural critique that sets out to resist and subvert orthodox readings of texts for a wider social and cultural purpose. Two prominent Cultural materialists define the approach to texts as one which attends to the historical context; a theoretical method; political commitment; and textual analysis. The term ‘cultural materialism’ refers to the emphasis on ‘culture’ as a shaping force in the creation of texts (in opposition to the view of texts as 72
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C transcendent, autonomous literary artefacts) and ‘materialism’ as the opposite of ‘idealism’ or an idealised view of the text as a naturally occurring reflection of fixed, universal truths. In this way, Cultural materialism represents a rejection of many of the tenets of New Criticism: for example the self-contained, iconic status of the text. JM
Cultural Studies Cultural Studies developed into a discipline – although one that rejected the notion of ‘a discrete discipline’ as valid – in the 1960s and 1970s. Taking its cues from Marxism and Marxist literary theory, Cultural Studies also upholds the notion that texts and the study of texts grow from the hierarchical culture in which they are produced and received. Adopting a Marxist view of the class system, Cultural Studies is deeply suspicious of traditional notions of literature per se, arguing that the orthodox canon protects the interests of the bourgeoisie and the upper class, and that the latter’s emphasis on aesthetic study of magisterial texts acts as a ruse to maintain the status quo. Cultural Studies takes the view that literature is a cultural artefact; far from being an essential piece of art, to be viewed only with aesthetic lenses and to be viewed with awe and respect, Cultural Studies suggested that cultural norms could be protected and espoused through the text. Cultural Studies suggest that texts are gateways to a variety of rituals and systems that make up the hierarchical class system of a particular society, and as such can be interrogated for the ways in which they either uphold or challenge this system. There are, broadly speaking, two positions taken within Cultural Studies as it relates to literary criticism. There are those critics who assume that capitalist forces create and sustain pop culture, such that the working class imbibe messages and values that keep them oblivious to their own incarceration in a system that oppresses them (Theodor Adorno, 1903-1969 and Max Horkheimer, 1895-1973, are among proponents of this view). Alternatively, British Cultural Studies has tended to see mass culture as an example of the ways in which the working class answers back to the mainstream canon through alternative media. As such, ‘pop’ texts become important cultural artefacts to be valued for the ways in which they launch legitimate protest against domination by the bourgeoisie. Thinkers like Richard Hoggart (1918-), Raymond Williams (1921-1988) and EP Thompson (1924-1993) took this view. To further this line of inquiry, the work of Stuart Hall, through the Centre for Contemporary Culture, has examined the ways in which youth in the UK reacted against a media controlled by capitalism and the ruling classes with alternative expressions of self; through dress, music, and dance. In a sense, Stuart Hall takes account of both positions in that he suggests that the working class can subvert the very institutions that oppress them, and thus gain emancipation. Critically, because it interrogates the institution of the traditional literary canon, Cultural Studies challenges the value of the ‘literary’ text over and against the ‘popular’ text. Cultural Studies would maintain that there is no intrinsic merit to the literary text, over and above what the dominant class attributes to it. Because the working class have as much claim to expression and protest, their texts become as culturally important as any other. Thus, for Cultural Studies, the literary canon is a construct to be deconstructed and interrogated for its complicity in maintaining and promoting particular world-views; and there can be no aesthetic distinction between a literary and non-literary text. See also Canon, Culture, Interpretation, Literary criticism. SGS, JM References: Inglis, F. (1995) Cultural Studies, Oxford, UK & Cambridge, USA: Blackwell Publishers. Peel, R. (2004) “The ‘Cultural Studies’ model of English, in Reviewing English in the 21st Century eds. W. Sawyer & Gold, Melbourne: Phoenix Education. Rivkin, J. & Ryan, M. (2005) Literary Theory: An Anthology, 2nd edn. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.
Culture The meaning of the term ‘culture’, like many words in the English language, has changed over time. At the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century, the word culture shifted in meaning as a response to social and political changes. It had meant a ‘general state or habit of the mind’ and was closely allied to the idea of human perfection. It came to mean the general state of The English Teacher’s Handbook
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C intellectual development in a society as a whole. Further, the term became associated with ‘the general body of the arts’ and ‘a whole way of life’ (Williams, 1977: 16-17). Thus, the term now has several meanings, depending on the context in which it is used. It refers to the values, norms, beliefs, ideologies, processes, and products that influence and are influenced by individuals and groups within a given social setting. Culture is created, maintained and shaped by the communicative and relational experiences of human beings (that is, through language), so that patterns of behaviour, ways of thinking and ways of living come to be naturalised (regarded as natural rather than as constructed by the values, beliefs and practices of individuals and groups). Culture is not a single, fixed phenomenon: it is protean, complex and contingent on, for instance, the social practices, power relations and dominant discourses operating within and beyond the group. In English education, the term culture refers to the beliefs, values, ways of living and perspectives that are represented by a text and embodied in the responder. Texts play a significant role in the shaping and evolution of culture, as well as in representing aspects of a particular culture through language and ideas. Culture may also refer to ‘high culture’ which carries with it the assumption that some works of art and experiences are more valuable and worthy of attention and acclaim. ‘Popular culture’ is a term used to refer to any activity, experience or product that is associated with mass entertainment. The Cultural Studies movement has suggested that the term ‘culture’ has become much broader to mean any expression of a particular culture: the whole gamut of signs and systems, procedures and rituals that govern human life in communities (Rivkin and Ryan, 2005). In this sense, texts are cultural artefacts that give us some sense of how and why culture is being re-produced. The term ‘culture’ within the discipline of Cultural Studies, carries with it the sense that a culture is loaded with the hierarchical structures that permit or sanction particular activities, for different segments of that culture. In that sense, the proper focus for the Cultural Studies’ literary critic is not so much the text, but the culture it represents, challenges and speaks to. See also Cultural Studies, Literary Criticism. SGS, DC References: Rivkin, J. & Ryan, M. (2005) ‘Introduction: The Politics of Culture’, in Literary Theory: An Anthology, 2nd edn. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1233-1234. Williams, R. (1977) Culture and Society 1780-1950, Great Britain: Penguin Books.
Curriculum / Curricula (Latin: ‘racecourse’) The term used to describe both a student’s formal courses set for study, and the student’s experience of those courses. The term ‘curriculum’ can refer to both the declared ‘official’ written curriculum – what Goodson refers to as the “preactive curriculum” (Goodson, 1992) – and the “interactive curriculum” (Goodson, 1992). The former is the document created by a formal, centralised body and the latter is what actually takes place as the document is enacted in classrooms. The hallmarks of an effective curriculum are its consistency, continuity and flexibility. Consistency refers to the way in which the learning goals, content, theory and assessment are conceptualised and aligned within and across the various strands that constitute the curriculum. Continuity refers to the need for scope and sequencing in learning experiences. Flexibility assumes the potential to reshape and rework parts of the curriculum in response to student needs and diverse contexts, without the requirement to redesign the entire curriculum. The curriculum as a generic term may also refer to particular subject strands within the broad curriculum. For example: the English curriculum sets out the broad framework for teaching and learning in subject English. Any curriculum embodies and reflects, and can indeed be regarded as a crucible for what is considered to be of value in a particular society and culture. It is informed by views about: what knowledge, skills, understanding, values and attitudes are worthwhile; the learner and the nature of learning; the purpose of formal education; the nature of knowledge; and the desired goals or outcomes of formal education. In this sense, the curriculum is an ideal vision of the kinds of learning, development, skills, understanding, knowledge, dispositions and values that students should experience. Curriculum as a concept and a process, however, is not unproblematic or value-neutral. 74
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C Michael W Apple’s seminal work on curriculum – Ideology and Curriculum (1979, 2004) – explores the relationships between schooling, education, knowledge and power, situating education as part of a society’s broader structures, and political, economic and value systems. In constructing a curriculum, the following questions are among those that typically drive the design process: ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
How will the curriculum be developed (what development model will be adopted and why)? What are the rationale, goals and expectations? Who is this curriculum being designed for? Who will be included in the development process? What will be included in the curriculum and why, and who will decide this? How will the curriculum be structured (e.g. according to learning areas, knowledge, skills)? How will the components of the curriculum be assessed and evaluated? How will the curriculum, assessment, evaluation and pedagogy be aligned? What are the ethical implications of these decisions? How will it be implemented and what strategies can be employed to determine if and how well it is being taught?
Decisions about how the curriculum will be structured and manifested in terms of disciplines is similarly contingent upon what a given society considers worthy and important for the development of an educated citizenry. Plato’s Republic and Aristotle’s Politics set out the writers’ visions of an appropriate curriculum for an ideal state at a time when education became democratised in Ancient Greece (around the 5th century BC). The curriculum established in Medieval universities consisted of the Trivium (‘three roads’): logic, grammar and rhetoric. Logic is the art of thinking; grammar, the art of inventing symbols and combining them to express thought; and rhetoric, the art of communicating thought from one mind to another, the adaptation of language to circumstance. (Joseph, 2002) This was followed by the Quadrivium (‘four roads’): arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy. This could in turn be followed by the study of philosophy and theology. The structure of contemporary Australian curriculum documents, for example, are similarly characterised by divisions into discrete subjects or learning areas. The prominence and relative weighting of each of these in the curriculum reflects what is considered to be of most value in a particular society. JM References: Apple, M.W. (2004) Ideology and Curriculum. NY: RoutledgeFalmer. 3rd edition. Goodson, I. (1992) History, Context and Qualitative Methods in the Study of Education, University of Western Ontaria: Division of Curriculum Studies, Faculty of Education. Joseph, Sister Miriam (2002)The Trivium: The Liberal Arts of Logic, Grammar, and Rhetoric. New York: Paul Dry Books Inc.
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D Dactyl (Greek: ‘finger joints’) A metrical foot in verse. It is defined by a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables (hence the association with a finger joint which has one longer bone and two shorter bones). This metre is the opposite of anapaest metre. Dactylic metre is not common in verse, although it was used by poets such as Lord Byron (1788-1824), Alfred Tennyson (1809-1892), Robert Browning (1812-1889) and Thomas Hardy (1840-1928). Thomas Hardy’s poem “The Voice” (1914) is an example of the use of the use of dactylic meter: Woman much missed, how you call to me, call to me, Saying that now you are not as you were When you had changed from the one who was all to me, But as at first, when our day was fair. See also Metre. JM
Dartmouth Seminar This event, held at Dartmouth College, New Hampshire, USA, between 20 August and 16 September 1966, was the catalyst for a resurgence and reframing of English/Language Arts teaching and learning which sustained its vitality well into at least the late 1980s. Conceived as the first AngloAmerican dialogue or confrontation of ideas on the teaching of English (or Language Arts, as the subject is described in North America) the conference brought together fifty teachers, scholars and researchers. Representatives came from the USA’s National Council for the Teaching of English (NCTE) and the Modern Language Association (MLA); the National Association for the Teaching of English (NATE) in England and Wales; one observer from Canada, and two from Australia. The conference provided the opportunity for serious and collegial contestation of ideas and practices. Some of the most significant developments emerged from the small groups into which participants were placed or placed themselves. One of the most enduring outcomes of the conference was John Dixon’s Growth Through English (1967). In it Dixon described three models of English teaching: ‘cultural heritage’, ‘skills’ and ‘personal growth’. Growth Through English proceeded to explore the theoretical and practical dimensions of the third model, based on Dixon’s synthesis and development of the major themes that were developed at the Dartmouth Conference. Another significant and enduring product of the conference was the establishment of an international English teaching professional body. Initially this was the International Steering Committee (ISC). Eventually this led to the formation of the International Federation for the Teaching of English (IFTE). See also Models of English, Personal Growth model. PB 76
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D DEAR The acronym for ‘Drop Everything and Read’, a reading program that occurs in schools which allocates class time to independent, silent reading. Students bring to class self-selected reading material. The teacher may provide guidelines for the type of reading that can take place in DEAR time. DEAR may occur once a day, once a week, or more or less frequently. The goal of this reading program is to encourage and support students’ development in sustained, engaged reading for pleasure and enjoyment. Reading undertaken during DEAR time is not generally linked to class assessment – an important principle for ensuring the reading in managed and owned by the students themselves. See also Literature Circles, Reading, Wide reading program. JM
Debate (Old French: ‘to discuss, argue’) A formal discussion in which opposing arguments are presented. This may involve a specific motion which is discussed, followed by a vote. In school debates, two teams of four people are assembled to debate a specific proposition. Each team has three speakers and a non-speaking fourth member. One team is designated as the Affirmative and speaks in favour of the proposition while the Negative team speaks against the proposition. An important element of this type of debate is engagement with the arguments and claims of the opposing team in order to refute those claims. See also Argument, Rhetoric. DC
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Debating topics:
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
That teenagers spend too much time on the Internet That school uniforms are worthwhile for all students That education is the key to success That imprisonment leads to more crime That global warming is a beat-up That spectator sports are a waste of time That fast food is killing us That advertising is the opiate of the masses That small is beautiful That cricket is based on a bat and boredom That there will never be equality in society That the car has had its day That rock music is dead That contact sports promote violent behaviour
Deconstruction A term used in literary criticism, philosophy and a range of disciplines in the social sciences. It is best described as a strategy for or a practice of working with language and texts. Deconstruction seeks to destabilise the structures and assumptions on which a text is based, bringing about a ‘trembling’ that shows the internal contradictions in a text, resulting in what Jacques Derrida (1930-2004), called ‘aporia’ – an impasse in meaning, or puzzlement. Deconstruction is best known through the work of the philosopher Derrida and became popular during the 1960s. However, deconstruction (or deconstructive practices) is not monolithic; even within Derrida’s work and across his career, deconstruction shifts with different iterations and interpretations of its practice. Apart from Derrida, other philosophers and literary critics who could be called deconstructionists (although Derrida himself abhorred the idea of deconstruction having a discrete definition or a set of practitioners) are: Paul de Man (1919-1983), J Hillis Miller (1928-), Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (1942-), the Yale School (USA), Julia Kristeva (1941-) and Geoffrey Bennington (1956-). The English Teacher’s Handbook
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D Deconstruction is essentially a philosophy of language, and has been adopted by disciplines across universities; philosophy, literary criticism, architecture, sociology, linguistics, and cultural studies, among others. It is, as Derrida maintains, essentially an ethical posture: ‘deconstruction is always concerned with the ‘other’ of language’ (Kearney, 1984: 123). ‘The other’, according to deconstruction, is the philosophical entity that is suppressed and oppressed by the dominant philosophical reality. For example, in the man/woman dichotomy, the woman is ‘the other’; in the speech/writing dichotomy, writing is ‘the other’ and so on. Deconstruction works to show the ways in which the dominant power structures within a text and within language itself – what Derrida termed the ‘transcendental signified’ and ‘metaphysics’ - in fact need the dominated entity to exist (see Binary opposition). Deconstruction claims to free ‘the other’ from the dominator through its textual practice. Deconstruction suggests that the literary critic’s job is not to find the one true, discrete and immutable meaning in a text, but to destabilise the text so that these hierarchies become obvious. As Derrida explains, “[Deconstruction] does contribute something to literature ... by exposing the philosophical and theoretical presuppositions that are at work in every critical methodology, be it Formalism, New Criticism, Socialist Realism or an historical critique. Deconstruction asks why we read a literary text in this particular manner rather than another”(1984: 124). Jonathan Culler posited that “to deconstruct a discourse is to show how it undermines the philosophy as it asserts, or the hierarchical oppositions on which it relies” (1982: 86). As an approach to texts and language, deconstruction requires the close reading advocated by the New Critics, but with a far sharper recognition of the contextual and ideological forces that shape meaning and a diversity of (possibly competing) interpretations. Critics have levelled at least two key charges at deconstruction that are somewhat contradictory. Some critics argue that deconstruction is relativist, allowing no meaning to be ascribed to anything; while others have asserted that deconstruction is totalitarian in its view that all texts yield ‘aporia’ and in its inbuilt suspicion of power structures. Still more critics have suggested that the two criticisms are interrelated (Valentine Cunningham, MH Abrams, H-G Gadamer, Denis Donoghue, the later Terry Eagleton). See also Interpretation, Literary criticism, Postmodernism, Poststructuralism. SGS
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
When reading/viewing a text you may ask:
∼ What are the values and belief systems in this text and are these promoted, challenged or questioned by characters or other aspects of this text?
∼ Can you see any binary oppositions working in this text – e.g. black/white, male/ female, mind/body, fire/water, physical/spiritual etc.?
∼ How are these oppositions treated in the text? Is one more prominent than the other?
∼ What are the ‘gaps’ in this text? What is missing? (e.g. minor characters’ views, scenes, attitudes, perspectives?)
∼ Whose voice/s or perspective/s dominates this text and why? ∼ If you were to recast this text from another point of view, in what ways would this differ from or align with the original text?
References: Culler, J. (1982) On deconstruction: theory and criticism after structuralism, Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Kearney, R. (1984) ‘Dialogue with Jacques Derrida,’ Dialogues with Contemporary Continental Thinkers, Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Decode The practice and process of obtaining meaning from a language code. Such codes may be linguistic, visual and non-verbal. Decoding language, images and non-verbal communication requires an ability to recognise, understand, interpret and translate the signs and symbols of the particular language code into meaningful expression and communication. Decoding is only one step in the 78
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D process of comprehending and understanding the meaning of language, images and non-verbal communication. It is possible, for example, to decode a particular text at the grapho-phonic and syntactic levels, but not to comprehend its meaning (on a semantic level). Part of the process of analysing a text requires the capacity to decode the generic codes and conventions of the text: for example, the generic codes and conventions of crime fiction or the Shakespearean sonnet. See also Code, Comprehension, Reading. JM
Dénouement (French: ‘an untying’) The unravelling of a plot’s complications at, or towards, the end of a story, film or play. It refers to the final outcomes, solution, finale, conclusion, termination or end. It may be the event or events following the major climax of the plot. See also Anticlimax, Climax. JM
Depiction A particular kind of representation, often associated with visual images such as, for example, paintings and sculpture. A depiction in words is a vivid, evocative and graphic portrayal of a person, place, experience, object or entity. A depiction is not only descriptive, but also generally metaphorical since it aims to capture more than merely the mirror image of something: it requires a degree of imaginative interpretation on the part of the composer. See also Atmosphere, Character, Description. DC, JM ∼ Read out aloud the excerpt below from Leo Tolstoy’s War and Peace. ∼ Students draw their interpretation of the depictions portrayed in the excerpt (the bee, the range of people and places mentioned, the notable objects and actions).
∼ Students in groups then compare their visual representations, discussing how different interpretations have been shaped by the language and imagery of the text.
∼ Discuss how Tolstoy uses language to evoke, expand and deepen the reader’s perception of the bee.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Explore the written text in detail, examining how these language features, tone, mood and the use of metaphor combine to the add depth and uniqueness to what would otherwise be a descriptive passage about a bee. Leo Tolstoy, War and Peace (2007 edn: 1269) A bee settling on a flower has stung a child. And the child is afraid of bees and declares that bees exist to sting people. A poet admires the bee sucking from the chalice of a flower and says it exists to suck the fragrance of flowers. A beekeeper, seeing the bee collect pollen from flowers and carry it to the hive, says that it exists to gather honey. Another beekeeper who has studied the life of the hive more closely says that the bee gathers pollen dust to feed the young bees and rear a queen, and that it exists to perpetuate its race. A botanist notices that the bee flying with the pollen of a male flower to a pistil fertilizes the latter, and sees in this the purpose of the bee's existence. Another, observing the migration of plants, notices that the bee helps in this work, and may say that in this lies the purpose of the bee. But the ultimate purpose of the bee is not exhausted by the first, the second, or any of the processes the human mind can discern. The higher the human intellect rises in the discovery of these purposes, the more obvious it becomes, that the ultimate purpose is beyond our comprehension. Reference: Tolstoy, L. (1868-69, 2007 edn.) War and Peace, Penguin Classics, London: Penguin Books
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D Description (Latin: ‘to copy off, to write out’) In literature, a representation in words, often using figures of speech such as metaphor, simile, contrast, concrete language and alliteration. Descriptive language assists the composer in setting a scene and creating atmosphere, tone and mood. Effective description often relies on precise attention to detail, often appeals to the senses and seeks to evoke in the responder the capacity to imagine the appearance and demeanour of a character, the features of a landscape or setting and the ambience of the scene. See also Atmosphere, Character, Depiction, Narrative. DC
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Describe one of the people in a play, novel, or poem you are reading. Would you like to meet them? Why/why not?
∼ Describe a person who is a bully, a liar, or a cheat. ∼ Describe someone obsessed with sharks, birds, money, combs, chips, ants, stamps, chocolate.
∼ Describe a city street. Speak for it. ∼ Invent a planet. Describe the scenery. ∼ Describe a hospital ward, an airport, a car park, a theatre, a playground, an internet café, concentrating on familiar and/or unique qualities of these places.
∼ Find a rock. Describe it as precisely as you can to distinguish it from other rocks. ∼ Do the same for a shell, or a leaf, or a feather. ∼ Describe a snail, a bookshelf, a wet dog, an egg, a letterbox, or an empty house.
Descriptive criticism A critical approach to the analysis of texts that sets out to describe in detail the distinguishing features of an individual text. Such an approach seeks to avoid reference to broader literary, cultural or social theories. Instead, descriptive criticism focuses wholly on the particular text, delineating its distinctive qualities and features. See also Interpretation, Literary criticism. JM
Deus ex machina Means literally ‘god from a machine’. The term refers to a crane used in ancient Greek theatre to lower an actor playing a god to the performance area in order to solve difficult plot problems in a play. The term now refers to an imposed, and often improbable, solution used to resolve a plot problem. See also Conventions, Drama. JH
Developmental model of reading literature The Australian educator and researcher Jack Thomson (1987) established a model of reading that identifies the processes involved in and the kinds of ‘satisfactions’ experienced by students when they engage with literature. The model is developmental in that it describes the stages of engagement, interpretation and response that students move through as they read. The model is recursive in that students can move back and forth between each stage as they become more immersed in the process of making meaning. The model provides a valuable way of identifying students’ stage of engagement and enables teachers to assist students in moving towards informed and meaningful response to literature. See also Literature, Reader-response criticism, Reading, Wide reading program. JM
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D Thomson’s model (1987: 360-361) Process Stage: Process Strategies: Kinds of satisfaction (requirements for satisfaction at all stages: enjoyment and elementary understanding) 1. Unreflective interest in action
•
Rudimentary mental images (stereotypes from film and television) Predicting what might happen next in the short term
2. Empathising
• •
Mental images of affect Expectations about characters
3. Analogising
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Drawing on the repertoire of personal experiences, making connections between characters and one’s own life
4. Reflecting on the significance of events (time) and behaviour (distanced evaluation of characters)
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Generating expectations about alternative possible long-term outcomes Interrogating the text, filling the gaps Formulating puzzles, enigmas, accepting hermeneutic challenges
5. Reviewing the whole work as the author’s creation
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Drawing on literary and cultural repertoires Interrogating the text to match the author’s representation with one’s own
6. Consciously considered relationship with the author, recognition of textual ideology, and understanding of self (identified theme) and of one’s own reading processes
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Recognition of implied author Recognition of implied reader in the text, and the relationship between implied author and implied reader Reflexiveness, leading to understanding of textual ideology, personal identity and one’s own reading processes
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• •
•
Reference: Thomson, Jack, (1987) Understanding Teenagers’ Reading: Reading processes and the teaching of literature, 1992 edn. Norwood: AATE.
Dialect (Greek: ‘way of speaking’, ‘language of a place’) A distinctive variation in oral language that is specific to a particular region, social group or historical period. A dialect is recognisable through the patterns of vocabulary, accent, pronunciation and syntax that differentiate it from other dialects or the so-called ‘standard’ language. Often, a dialect is maintained through oral communication and may not be evident in written texts. If the language in use is particular only in terms of the pronunciation of words, then it is more appropriately referred to as an accent rather than a dialect. Popular television soap operas, such as, for example, Neighbours, Home and Away and a number of British serials, often incorporate dialect and ‘non-standard’ language, although it can be argued that such ‘non-standard’ language use is indeed ‘standard’ for many people. These programs provide students with a sense of variations in language use and encourage them to become more sensitive to the nuances of dialect and register. Imaginative texts can also incorporate dialect and non-standard usage. For example: Charles Dickens’ Hard Times (1854); a number of Thomas Hardy’s Wessex novels; Henry Lawson’s short stories; Dylan Thomas’ Under Milk Wood (1972); Toni Morrison’s Beloved (1987); and Peter Carey’s True History of the Kelly Gang (2001). The inclusion of dialect in imaginative texts invests the story with an authenticity of characterisation that serves to highlight characters’ distinctive social, cultural, economic, regional or political position. Such distinctiveness is generally central to the plot, ideas and purpose of the text. Post-Dartmouth developments in English have stressed the centrality of valuing the language each student brings to the classroom, since language is integral to identity, learning and relationships. The English Teacher’s Handbook
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D Importantly, non-standard dialect, like, for example, non-standard Australian English, should not be judged as sub-standard or deficient. Indeed, The non-standard social dialects are just as effective types of language for their own environments as the standard dialect is for its environment, All dialects have rules and are properly constructed: it is that the rules may be expressed differently. We have sub-standard language when the rules of a particular dialect – non-standard or standard – are not adhered to. It is not the unsuccessful or erroneous use of dialect. (Eagleson, et al, 1982: 12) Drama as a learning medium is a very effective pedagogical tool for enabling students to actively experiment with embodied language in a range of different roles, contexts and registers. See also Language, Standard Australian English. JM ∼ Below is an extract from Chapter 1 of DH Lawrence’s novel, Sons and Lovers (1913). The scene occurs when two of the characters – Gertrude and Walter – meet at a dance. It exemplifies Lawrence’s use of dialect to represent character.
∼ Students, in pairs or small groups, read the extract out aloud. Or the extract may be read by the teacher.
∼ During reading, students listen for variations in language (dialect). ∼ Identify any unfamiliar words or expressions. ∼ Discuss the meanings of these words and expressions and their relationship to any words or expressions that are familiar to students.
∼ Look closely at the dialogue. ∼ Consider the differences between the language of the characters, Gertrude and Walter, and notice any differences between the characters’ language and that of the narrator.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ From their conversation, language, and the narrative descriptions, what images or perceptions of the characters are evoked? What do we learn about the characters from their conversation and distinctive use of language?
∼ Students may replace the unfamiliar or distinctive language with familiar language. Read the revised passage out loud and compare this to the original, considering how the differences in language shape response to the characters and scene. What is lost and/or gained by replacing the dialect with ‘standard’ English? Extract from Sons and Lovers (2003 edition:13-14) He came and bowed above her. A warmth radiated through her as if she had drunk wine. “Now do come and have this one wi' me,” he said caressively. “It's easy, you know. I'm pining to see you dance.” She had told him before she could not dance. She glanced at his humility and smiled. Her smile was very beautiful. It moved the man so that he forgot everything. “No, I won't dance,” she said softly. Her words came clean and ringing. Not knowing what he was doing--he often did the right thing by instinct--he sat beside her, inclining reverentially. “But you mustn't miss your dance,” she reproved. “Nay, I don't want to dance that--it's not one as I care about.” “Yet you invited me to it.” He laughed very heartily at this. “I never thought o' that. Tha'rt not long in taking the curl out of me.” It was her turn to laugh quickly.
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D “You don't look as if you'd come much uncurled,” she said. “I'm like a pig's tail, I curl because I canna help it,” he laughed, rather boisterously. “And you are a miner!” she exclaimed in surprise. “Yes. I went down when I was ten.”
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
She looked at him in wondering dismay. “When you were ten! And wasn't it very hard?” she asked. “You soon get used to it. You live like th' mice, an' you pop out at night to see what's going on.” “It makes me feel blind,” she frowned. “Like a moudiwarp!” he laughed. “Yi, an' there's some chaps as does go round like moudiwarps.” He thrust his face forward in the blind, snout-like way of a mole, seeming to sniff and peer for direction. “They dun though!” he protested naively. “Tha niver seed such a way they get in. But tha mun let me ta'e thee down some time, an' tha can see for thysen.” She looked at him, startled. This was a new tract of life suddenly opened before her. She realised the life of the miners, hundreds of them toiling below earth and coming up at evening. He seemed to her noble. He risked his life daily, and with gaiety. She looked at him, with a touch of appeal in her pure humility. “Shouldn't ter like it?” he asked tenderly. ‘'Appen not, it 'ud dirty thee.” She had never been ‘thee'd’ and ‘thou'd’ before. The next Christmas they were married, and for three months she was perfectly happy: for six months she was very happy.
References: Eagleson, R. D. et al (1982) English and the Aboriginal Child, Canberra: Curriculum Development Centre. Lawrence, D. H. (1913 republished 2003) Sons and Lovers, Barnes and Noble Classic series, Spark Educational Publishing. Pope, R. (2003) The English Studies Book: An Introduction to Language, Literature and Culture, 2nd edn. London: Routledge.
Dialectic (Greek: ‘art of discourse’) The systematic discussion and examination of an idea orpoint of view. Dialectic is characterised by disputation and logical argument. Socrates (c. 469-399 BC) was famous for his exploration of philosophical concepts through dialectical inquiry. Dialectic assumes that there will be a progression from an initial position to a final position of ‘truth’, based on the gathering of evidence ‘for and against’ and the rejection of opposed ideas. Dialectic also assumes a thesis, antithesis and final synthesis. The German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (17901831) proposed that all human history is defined by a dialectic whereby new knowledge, understanding and ‘truths’ are arrived at by the existence of a thesis, which is challenged by its antithesis. This, in turn, gives rise to a synthesis or new thesis. ST Coleridge’s Biographia Literaria (1817) is an example of a form of dialectic which involves a sustained argument explicated throughout an entire work. See also Antithesis, Argument, Synthesis, Thesis. JM
Dialogue (Greek: ‘to converse’) Paulo Freire (1921-1997) described dialogue as ‘the encounter between men [sic] mediated by the world, in order to name the world’. Common in fiction, drama, scripts, film, short stories, media and everyday contexts, dialogue refers to the communication between two or more people. Dialogue can perform a number of functions. It can: aid in constructing characters and reinforcing aspects of their identities and personalities; accentuate the dynamism of a story by revealing or concealing details integral to the narrative; add authenticity to characters who have The English Teacher’s Handbook
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D been situated within a specific social, cultural and historical context in the narrative; establish and develop relationships between individuals; and highlight the interplay of ideas central to the aim of the composer. Dialogue is a term also used to describe a genre of philosophical, rhetorical or expository writing exemplified by Plato’s Dialogues (4th century BC) and Thomas More’s (1478-1535) Utopia (1516). As part of a communicative mode, dialogue is critical to a number of educational theories, particularly constructivist and experiential approaches, both of which emphasise the centrality of the dialogic process in learning. In the context of education, and particularly pedagogy, the function and purpose of dialogue has been theorised by thinkers such as Paulo Freire (1921-1997), HansGeorge Gadamer (1900-2002), Jürgen Habermas (1929-) and Martin Buber (1878-1965). David Bohm (1917-1992) regarded dialogue as distinct from discussion, with the former being a ‘process of awakening’ to new ideas, solutions and creativity: Dialogue…is a way of exploring the roots of the many crises that face humanity today. It enables inquiry into, and understanding of, the sorts of processes that fragment and interfere with real communication between individuals, nations and even different parts of the same organization. In our modern culture men and women are able to interact with one another in many ways: they can sing dance or play together with little difficulty but their ability to talk together about subjects that matter deeply to them seems invariably to lead to dispute, division and often to violence. (Bohm, Factor & Garrett, 1991) ∼ Students are given or select a character – using visual stimulus (postcards, images of people from magazines etc).
∼ Each student briefly prepares their character profile (name, age, where they live, what era/culture, family, etc).
∼ Students then work in pairs, engaging in a dialogue in role. Use a scenario to guide students in this activity (can be drawn from a text being studied).
∼ After engaging in a oral dialogue, students can work together to shape their
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conversation into a written script.
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
Possible scenarios: Caught in a lift together Meeting online in a chatroom Sitting next to each other on the train/bus/plane. Dialogue scripts can be performed. Take an excerpt from a play that provides a good example of the effective use of dialogue (e.g. Waiting for Godot; The History Boys).
∼ Explore the features of this excerpt to identify the ways in which the text works to shape character, meaning and response.
∼ Construct a brief dialogue between each of the two characters using the scenarios below. Use the setting and the characters’ personal qualities as a basis for the interaction: Setting
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Character 1
Character 2
Scenario 1 Busy shopping mall a few days before Christmas
Middle–aged male; impatient and confident
Teenage male shop assistant; quietly spoken, unassuming
Scenario 2 Crowded peak hour train. Young female listening to iPod
Young female; single-minded and articulate
Young male; outgoing and careless
Scenario 3 Veterinarian practice – an old couple bring in their sick pet
Young male vet; quietly confident and compassionate
Old man; short tempered and volatile
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D When characters converse, the author enhances the reader’s understanding of the conversation by including what is called a ‘tag’. The example: “’Go away!’ Harry shouted” signals ‘shouted’ as the tag and lets the reader know how Harry uttered this sentence. Varying the tags in writing helps to paint a picture of the incident and clarifies the characters’ intentions. The following are some possible tags to use in constructing dialogue. Add to this list: DC, JM asked
said
retorted
replied
snarled
requested
rebuked
snapped
responded
declared
sniggered
sneered
complained
pondered
wondered
exclaimed
offered
cried
enthused
enquired
suggested
called
screamed
yelled
shrieked
Reference: Bohm, D., Factor, D. & Garrett, P. (1991) ‘Dialogue –
Dialogic A term employed by the Russian critic Mikhail Bakhtin (1895-1975) who categorised texts as dialogic or monologic. Dialogic texts present a range of voices and points of view, disrupting the authority of a single, sustained or unitary voice. Bakhtin argued that Dostoyevsky’s novels are dialogic in that they allow a plurality of ‘unmerged’, independent voices to flourish, without the ‘constraining’ control of the author. He posited that the novel as a form is essentially dialogic since it allows for a multiplicity of points of view through characterisation and dialogue. Others argue that the role of the composer as ‘omnipotent’ remains a complex and central one in the creation and interpretation of texts. See also Author, Implied author, Narratology, Narrative, Point of view. JM
Diary (Latin: ‘daily’, ‘daily allowance’) A personal, private written record of the daily experiences of an individual (thoughts, reflections or musings on events, people, places, and so on). Diary is a form of nonfiction, and a type of autobiography. The diary relies on expressive language of the self, with an audience of the self. Diary writing is characterised by its qualities of inner speech, stream of consciousness and an unmediated recording of the flow of daily experience. There is rarely an effort to deliberately select, order and shape such writing. Instead, the diary captures the unedited, direct and unfolding experience of quotidian life. There are several famous examples of diaries (including the diary of Samuel Pepys, 1633-1703) that stand as valuable historical documents, illuminating not only the events, values, beliefs and perspectives of a particular cultural context, but also the idiosyncratic dimensions of the individual interpreting these experiences. Although the well-known diaries are those authored by men, the diary has been a distinctively female form. Women throughout the ages have kept diaries, as records of family and domestic life, and also as spaces for exploring and shaping individual identity. Traditionally, diaries, and especially women’s diaries, have remained on the peripheries of publicly acclaimed and canonised literature. Recent research and scholarship, however, has seen a burgeoning of interest in the diary as a form and a process, (particularly the diaries of women throughout history) and as a manifestation of increasingly popular ‘life-writing’. Features of the diary have been appropriated in fictional texts. John Marsden’s So Much to Tell You (1987) is an example of the fictional use of the diary form. Diaries, and versions of these are now proliferating in digital, multimodal forms. Blogs and networking sites (such as, for example, MySpace and Facebook) can be regarded as versions of the traditional diary. What distinguishes these forms, however, is the broader audience and the medium, the various conventions and codes that shape the writing (and representation, through, for instance, the use of visual and moving images), and the immediacy of the communication of information to a range of audiences. What they share with the The English Teacher’s Handbook
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D diary form is the focus on recording the flow of daily personal experience, the externalising of inner speech and ideas, the construction and often reconstruction of identity and the reliance on expressive language. See also Author, Autobiography, Nonfiction, Writing. JM
∼ Diary entries are an accessible way for students to engage with the inner life and the experiences of a fictional character. Students can ‘write in role’ for a character/s, moving from expressive to poetic writing.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Analyse a series of personal blogs – identifying the form and features of this form of online diary writing. What are the main differences between this form of diary and the traditional print forms? Does the medium influence the substance of and response to the diary? Explore the differences between a diary that catalogues and chronicles ‘external events’ and a diary that focuses more on the inner life and experiences of the writer.
∼ Select an extract from a well-known diary such as the diary of Samuel Peyps (see http://www.pepysdiary.com/about/ for background information and extracts). Examine the content, language, intended audience and voice of the extract. Compare this to a more contemporary diary, such as, for instance, the diaries of Sylvia Plath.
∼ Compare nonfiction diaries with the use of diary conventions in fictional texts. What are the key differences and similarities? What do composers choose to shape texts, or aspects of texts, as diary entries?
∼ Debate the ethical issues involved in publishing diaries. For example, is it ethical to publish the diary of a deceased person? What are the reasons for the publication of such diaries?
Diction The distinctive vocabulary (choice of words and style of expression) selected in an act of oral communication or in composing a text. Diction may be formal, colloquial, abstract, concrete, figurative, literary, demotic, descriptive, poetic or elaborate. Diction contributes to the overall style and tone of the work or the communication and the consequent effect on the audience. Particular types of texts are distinguished by conventions that may include expectations about the kind of diction that is appropriate. A formal piece of writing, such as, for example, an application for a job, would generally not include colloquial, literary or poetic diction. See also Accent, Dialect, Language, Register, Talking and listening, Writing. JM
Didacticism (Greek: ‘skilled in teaching’) Used to describe a work which is intended to instruct through the communication of an explicit moral, ethical, religious or political message. Didactic poetry for example, has a long history from Ancient Greek poetry such as Hesiod’s Works and Days, through to works from the Middle Ages such as Gower’s Confession Amantis (1318). John Oldham’s literary collection Poems and Translations (1694) and Alexander Pope’s “The Rape of the Lock” (1712-14) are examples of didactic poetry. Samuel Johnson’s (1709-1784) didactic romance Rasselas (1759) was written in one week after his mother’s death to defray the expenses of her illness and funeral. It is not only texts for adult audiences that may didactic: fairy tales, parables and other types of children’s literature can also be didactic in their intent. DC
Diegesis Refers to the direct narrative and the created, fictional world of the text that includes all of the characters, setting, action and events. In drama and film, diegesis is the music, sound-effects, voiceovers or any narrative comment on the action. It is the opposite of mimesis. Diegesis is the reporting of any element of the primary narrative. It is about ‘telling’ and reporting rather than about ‘showing’ and ‘representing’. See also Drama, Fiction, Film, Mimesis, Narrative, Narrator. JH, JM 86
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D Difference/Différance Jacques Derrida (1930-2004) coined the neologism ‘différance’ to refer to the movement of meaning in language. Drawing on Ferdinand de Saussure’s (1857-1913) structuralist linguistics, which suggested that words do not refer to meaning so much as to other words (for instance, we know ‘cat’ not because it immutably refers to the four legged creature that is a cat but because it is not ‘mat’). Derrida suggested that meaning never ‘touches down’, so to speak. In this sense, différance is in direct contrast to traditional notions of the way a word or a text means, in that it suggests that words do not neatly refer to a thing or idea, but to other words. Différance merges the two meanings of the French word différer: to differ and to defer. In other words, meaning is difference (in space) and is always deferred (in time). Derrida himself describes différance like this: The play of differences supposes, in effect, syntheses and referrals which forbid at any moment, or in any sense, that a simple element can function as a sign without referring to another element which itself is not present...Nothing, neither among the elements nor within the system, is anywhere ever simply present or absent. There are only, everywhere, differences and traces of traces. (Derrida, 1981: 26). He advances the notion that meaning incessantly moves from one word to another to describe the movement of meaning in entire texts, traditions and across time. This has radical implications for what can be understood as a ‘text’. If différance suggests that meaning never settles, then it also means that a single text never has a single meaning. Derrida asserts that “a ‘text’ is henceforth no longer a finished corpus of writing, some content enclosed in a book or its margins, but a differential network, a fabric of traces referring endlessly to something other than itself, to other differential traces” (Derrida, 1979: 84). According to Derrida, meaning is always ‘to come’ and the task of readers and critics, then, is not so much to secure meaning for a given text, but to ‘trace (the) traces’ of the ‘web’ left behind by the movement of différance. Derrida would see contrary attempts to ‘freeze’ meaning into fixed elements as an act of violence against the delicate movement of difference and he would see this tendency to snuff out the free play of différance as emblematic of traditional philosophy, and by extension, traditional literary criticism. SGS References: Derrida, J. (1979) ‘Living On,’ trans. James Hulbert, in ed. H. Bloom, Deconstruction and Criticism, New York: Seabury. Derrida, J. (1981) ‘Semiology and Grammatology: Interview with Julia Kristeva’, in Positions, trans. Alan Bass, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Differentiation: An approach to pedagogy and learning that has been a hallmark of effective teaching in English. It is driven by a recognition and understanding of individual learning styles, abilities and the need to address outcomes and learning goals according to the diversity of the students in a class. Differentiation is based on theories of how students best engage and learn in English. Differentiated teaching and learning involves: ∼ knowledge of the abilities and capacities of all students and recognising individual ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
differences; configuring and facilitating learning in a range of ways (individual, pairs, small group, whole class); catering for a range of learning styles (such as for instance, those described in Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences model); allowing choice in learning activities and assessment in order to provide an authentic range of ways for students to demonstrate what they know and can do; and devising and implementing learning activities that have purpose and meaning for all students and can be connected to students’ lives.
See also Assessment, Group work, Learning styles. JM
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D Digital narrative Also known as a digital story. A brief, personal multimedia story or narrative produced through digital media. Digital narratives are generally written and told in the first person, in 250 words, with around 12 photos, and run for approximately 2 minutes. Daniel Meadows characterises the digital story as “multimedia sonnets of the people. Digital Stories are best made in workshops where participants come together to share skills and benefit from the assistance of facilitators. A workshop gives its participants courage, for making a Digital Story isn't easy. It can, though, be remarkably empowering and, when imagined as a tool of democratised media, it has, I believe, the potential to change the way we engage in our communities.” (http://www.photobus.co.uk/). For examples, visit Daniel Meadows’ site, Photobus, and The Centre for Digital Storytelling (http:// www.storycenter.org/). Both sites contain examples and resources for creating digital stories. See also Multimedia. JM
Digital texts Any text that is produced, disseminated and/or located and/or stored in a digital form such as, for example, websites, blogs, music, podcasts, vodcasts, other audio files, visual images, film, and email. Digital texts are an integral part of English and are both created and critiqued by students. Digital technology allows for the application of pedagogical strategies that build on and develop students’ capacities to ‘read’, interpret, be discriminating and evaluate the complex discourses and shifting conventions of the digital world in which so many are immersed. See also Multimedia. JM ∼ Students research their use of digital technology. ∼ Keep a log of the types of digital texts they engage with and produce over the course on one week.
∼ Identify the type of digital text; the time spent reading/viewing/writing digital forms; differences in language, conventions and dissemination of various types of texts; considerations of form and content, and the immediacy of communication made possible by these digital forms; ethical practice; censorship; access and equity issues; time spent on online social networking; the major purpose and audience of the writing done by the student in a digital medium.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Students prepare a report on their use and production of digital texts using the familiar ‘star’ organiser: what, when, who, where, how, why.
∼ Students reflect on the outcomes of their research and share these findings with the class.
∼ One particular form of digital text may be further researched by small groups of students.
∼ In exploring issues of cultural expression, students look at the following together with film extracts from A Knight’s Tale and The Cup and the opening sequence of The Guru. ∼
∼ Students explore examples of poor website design: ∼
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D ∼
∼
Discourse Refers to the linguistic, cultural and institutional parameters that invest communication with meaning. A discourse is a system that an individual lives within and oftentimes individuals are unaware of the way that a particular discourse structures what we say and think. Drawn from the work of Michel Foucault (1926-1984), the term ‘discourse’ can also refer to the way in which one discourse may be set up in opposition to another. Similar to the term ‘ideology’, a discourse operates outside of individual will, yet operates on an individual. In order to become emancipated into other discourses, one must become aware of the particular discourse one operates within and in so doing expose the assumptions of that discourse. A discourse can be regarded as a kind of specialist language: there is the discourse of the medical profession, the legal profession, discourses of religion and the discourses of literary criticism. These discourses operate in particular ways to define the nature of knowledge and communication within the discipline, control power relations, and can work to include or exclude participation. Discourses that embody the prevailing values, attitudes and worldview of a society or culture are often referred to as dominant or privileged discourses since the language operates to maintain and serve the interests of particular groups. SGS, JM Reference: Mills, S. (2005) ‘Discourse’. The Literary Encyclopedia. <www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php? rec=true&UID=1261>
Discussion An exchange (usually oral) of ideas, perspectives and points of view about any topic. Discussion is a central component of learning in English, since students require the opportunity to verbally hypothesise, test out ideas, share responses and explore new knowledge through oral language. Discussions may take place in pairs, small groups or whole class configurations. The smaller the group, the more opportunity there is for individual students to utilise the limited ‘talking space’ available in the classroom. Often, such discussions will enable the student to begin the writing process with heightened confidence, focus and purpose. Discussion, then, is an important pre-writing strategy, although it is also an important experience in and for itself in the development of language. Discussion also refers to a particular type of written text that sets forth points for and against an argument, issue, topic or question. See also Communication, Group work, Talking and listening, Writing. DC
Distance In his essay “The Function of Criticism at the Present Time” (1864), Matthew Arnold argued for the importance of a degree of distance or detachment on the part of the responder in order to effectively evaluate and appreciate a text. The concept of critical distance has since become a tenet of a number of literary critical approaches that insist on an ‘objective’ analysis and judgement of a work (e.g. New Criticism). Other approaches to texts contend that affective, subjective and personal response is necessary and indeed unavoidable in any process of engaging with and evaluating a text (e.g. Reader-response criticism). See also Alienation effect, Interpretation. JM
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D Docudrama A fictional theatre, film or television production based on real events and real people. It often focuses contemporary events or well-known figures such as politicians. An example is the TV series America's Most Wanted. See also Drama terms. JH
Documentary A text that draws on and seeks to ‘document’ real-life events, people and situations to create an historically and factually accurate portrayal or reconstruction. A documentary is frequently presented through film, television or other visual media and is intended to inform and educate the audience and/or expose evidence about an event, person or situation. Although a documentary relies on actual historical evidence and is not an imaginative text, it is nevertheless, like all texts, shaped by the composer’s purpose, particular point of view, subjectivity, context, medium of production and choice and arrangement of material. Mike Moore’s Farenheit 9/11 (2004) and Bowling for Columbine (2002) are examples of documentaries that have a strong political agenda. David Attenborough’s Living Planet: A Portrait of the Earth (from 1984) series is another example of a documentary that is less explicitly political but is also designed to educate and persuade the audience to embrace a particular point of view about the environmental issues that are at the centre of the documentary. See also Film, Nonfiction, Representing. JM
Dominant reading Texts can be read in different ways, depending on the personal perspective, beliefs, values and context of the reader and the reading practices and critical lens that the reader employs to make meaning. Different readings of the same text may produce different interpretations and meanings. It is argued that a dominant reading is the particular reading and consequent interpretation which the text and cultural context seem to invite or promote or which has been received as the orthodox and authorised reading. Gunther Kress referred to the reading position as the particular version of reality that the text invites us to adopt. See also Alternative reading, Critical Literacy, Interpretation, Literary criticism, Reader, Resistant reading. JM
Double entendre A figure of speech marked by word/s, phrase/s or other texts that have a double meaning. The literal meaning may be quite distinct from the other suggested or implied meaning. Often, the second meaning of a double entendre is of an indelicate or sexual nature. Like the device of innuendo, a double entendre conveys implied meanings over and above the literal ones and is often a clever or ironic play on words. See also Pun. DC
Double plot Elizabethan and Jacobean plays often include a main plot and a double plot (generally referred to as a subplot). The main plot dramatises the action of a group of characters, often from a particular social class or context. The subplot mirrors the action, relationships and thematic focus of the main plot and dramatises the action of a group of characters who resemble those of the main plot, but who are distinctive in key ways. The subplot often serves to throw light on or contrast with the action of the main plot, thereby enriching and deepening the interest of the play as a whole. Shakespeare’s plays provide abundant examples of double plots. In Henry IV, Part 1, for example, the main plot includes the royal or courtly characters, while the subplot contains scenes and characters from the ‘working class’ world, with many scenes taking place in the tavern. It is rare for a character in the subplot to enter into the main plot, although it is usually the case that at least one of the characters from the main plot will appear in the subplot. Prince Hal, for instance, is part of the main plot and the subplot of Henry IV, Part 1. See also Drama, Plot. JM
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D Drama At the core of drama is the experience of an imagined existence, which may or may not have happened. The portrayal of this experience can range from absorbing imaginative child’s play to complex multi-art theatrical productions. In drama participants enact and audiences experience bodies in space, or as Peter Brook the great director put it, drama is filling up the empty space: ‘I can take any empty space and call it a bare stage. A man walks across this empty space whilst someone else is watching him, and this is all I need for an act of theatre to be engaged’ (Brook, 1968: 1). In schools, drama has three main purposes: the exploration of drama as an art form; drama as a learning medium; and drama for personal development. Drama therapy also exists as a discipline but usually in specialist counselling settings. Also, drama is an engaging form of entertainment. Most drama syllabuses define the following as the key elements, or building blocks, of drama: ∼ Focus - the frame that directs attention to what is most significant and intensifies the dramatic ∼ ∼
∼ ∼ ∼
meaning. Tension - the force that engages the performers and audience in the dramatic action. Space - the personal and general space used by the actors. It focuses on the meaning of the size and shape of distances between actor and actor, actor and objects (props and sets) and actor and audience. Mood - the atmosphere created. Mood concentrates the dramatic action and moves the audience in emotionally appropriate directions. Contrast - the use of difference to create dramatic meaning. Symbol - the use of objects, gestures or persons to represent meaning beyond the literal.
See also Drama as a learning medium, Drama terms, Embodied knowledge. JH Reference: Brook, P. (1968) The Empty Space London: MacGibbon & Kee. DET Curriculum Support for teaching in Creative Arts 7-12 Vol 5 No 1 2000)
values, beliefs and relationships ∼ shaping of tensions and dénouement, catharsis and anagnorisis ∼ concept of viewpoint(s), time and sequence ∼ world through the prism of ‘other’ ∼ ways in which drama and fiction differ in these crucial areas. The English Teacher’s Handbook
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Drama as a learning medium promotes a heightened awareness and understanding of audience and the art and craft of selecting materials, and experimenting with and shaping ideas and experiences through language by becoming the composer, the character or ‘the expert’ (Hughes, 1992; Moffett & Wagner, 1992). Such approaches offer meaningful insights into the structures and conventions that constitute any piece of writing. It epitomises what Ian Reid saw as the essential difference between the ‘gallery’ and the ‘workshop’ approach to English (Reid, 1984). In short, “whereas narrative (as fiction) summarises drama, drama elaborates narrative” (Moffett, 1968: 62). See also Drama, Drama terms, Embodied knowledge, Engagement, Fiction. JM Stages of engagement
Strategies
Whole class, small group, pairs,
Before reading: Getting ready for the text
Enactment of a parallel story, situation or event Identify a key concern, idea, issue or episode of the text. Students generate scenarios set in a contemporary context to build interest in the idea and explore its significance in their own and others’ lives. Alternatively, the teacher can construct the scenario and have students explore this in a range of ways that involves enactment, staging, roleplay and discussion.
SG, P
Visual, aural, tactile stimulus and Mystery Box WC, SG Introduce visual, aural and/or other stimulus connected to the people, places or events in the text. Students hypothesise about the ‘who, when, where, how, and why’ of such items, building a sense of anticipation for the text. For a Mystery Box, collect items relevant to the text in a box, chest or bag. The teacher can describe these items, asking students to draw what they think each item is, before revealing them. Or, students can work in pairs, with one student in each pair taking one item from the box, without the partner knowing what it is (partner can be facing away). Student describes the item, and partner draws it. All items are then returned by each student to the box, while the class watches, in silence, emphasising the dramatic elements of ritual and ownership. Ensuing discussion could focus on the items, their significance and their CSI or Scotland Yard inquiry SG, preIn small groups, students are provided with a descriptive character role sented to WC card, a map and/or visual stimulus, and a brief list of key incidents (based on the actions or events that occur at the beginning of the story of the text). In role (as a group of detectives), students develop possible scenarios for the outcome of the actions and events. Whole-class discussion to follow. Emphasise speculating, inquiring, problem-solving and hypothesising. Sculpting emotions, freeze-frame or tableaux P, SG, preIdentify one or some of the key human emotions explored in the text. In sented to small groups, students are offered one or more of these (on cards, for WC example), and are then required to use their bodies, as a group and/ or individually to represent the emotion. Examples may include: anger, vengeance, wonder, curiosity, confusion, happiness, sorrow, fear, joy. Small groups then present their representation, without words, to the ‘audience’ of the class for comment, reflection and discussion. Each group can represent the same emotion (for comparison), or different emotions, depending on the aim of the task.
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D Stages of engagement
Strategies
Whole class, small group, pairs, individual
Talk show SG or WC Create a talk show theme that is relevant to a key idea or ideas explored in the text. Students take on the roles of host(s), guests, audience and ‘experts’. This can be done as a class, or with two groups. Students are encouraged to create characters in role and perspectives on the theme or issue, thereby experiencing a sense of the other, as well as point of view. Can also be employed during the after-reading, ‘response’ stage.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Parallel texts SG, P, preSelect a short poem that explores a key idea of the text. Students can sented to WC then dramatise the poem, with or without props and music. Alternatively, students may translate the text into a simple playscript, depending on the nature of the poem.
During reading: Immersion in the text
Sequencing and narrative Using the opening scenes or events of the text, divide the narrative into sections. Alternatively, use a single extract from the opening. In small groups, students are given this extract (or one of these excerpts) to explore how this may be staged (setting, characters, lighting, dialogue) for a contemporary audience. What aspects of the text would be selected, shaped and reworked? Ensuing discussion could focus on the conventions of narrative, sequencing of action, the role of time and plot, point of view and narrative voice.
SG, P, followed by WC discussion
Director’s log As the students read the text, they are encouraged to keep a running director’s log (as a variation on a reading log). As they read, students include in their log idea - for instance, for casting characters, setting, costuming and music if they were to make a movie or produce a play of the text. Sections of the text that may be emphasised, deleted or reworked would be included. Ideas will develop and be modified as students continue to read.
I
Drawing, mapping, character trees, character grids, timelines I Encourage students to include in their log drawings, maps, character trees (showing connections between characters), character grids (indicating who is on and off centre stage during each chapter or section) and evolving timelines as they read the text. This encourages an awareness of theatrical devices and staging techniques. It also draws attention to the differences between the dramatic and narrative fiction forms. P, I Ghost scenes, conversations, dialogue and perspectives During reading, students draw attention to missing scenes, action, dialogue and perspectives. They may hypothesise about and speculate on why certain points of view are presented and not others. The notion of voice and point of view could be explored during reading with an eye to if, how and why these shift, evolve or remain static, and the implications of this for the reader or potential audience. Students may also predict dialogue, conversations and narrative voice.
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D Stages of engagement
After reading: Responding to the text
Strategies
Whole class, small group, pairs, individual
Sculpting the characters and themes SG, P Select one or more excerpts from the text (preferably studentgenerated selection) that capture a key moment of incident for one or more of the characters. As one student from the group reads the excerpt, one or more students ‘sculpt’ the character or characters into the scene (or sculpt the theme) and freeze as the text is read as voice over narration.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Scripting SG, P Students in small groups select a significant episode from the text. The episode forms the basis of a script for performance. Emphasis should be on staging, with a focus on character, setting, space, dialogue and dynamics. Many variations on this basic task can be employed for a variety of purposes. Hot spot and hot-seating Students (in role, if appropriate) interview other students in role. Central characters and minor characters can be the focus. Questions should be carefully generated to enable a productive explication of ideas and perspectives.
WC, SM, P
SG And Why game In small groups, students are given two decks of cards, turned face down. One deck of cards consist of Character cards, and each has the name of a character on it (on the face downside). The other deck of cards is the And Why cards, which have a series of questions on them, such as: ‘When your character first appears, what is she thinking, and why?’; ‘Who are the other characters with whom your character is in conflict, and why?’; and ‘What is the key moment in your character’s experience, and why?’ Students, in turn, take one Character card from the deck, and one And Why card from the other deck. They must then respond to the And Why question either in role or out of role. Writing can follow. (Mike Hayhoe, 1988, Creative work ideas for Macbeth. Sydney: Phoenix Education) Interviews and investigations SG In small groups, some students take on the role of, for example, a detective, lawyer, oral historian or journalist. In role, they interview or interrogate the character(s) with a focus on issues such as conflict, motive, action, events and turning points in the narrative. Students can then swap roles. Writing tasks, such as feature articles, journal entries, reports, stories and expressive writing, can follow. Conscience corridor WC Select a key episode from the text that involves a character making a decision, experiencing a crisis or facing a dilemma. One student takes on the role of a character in the text. The class is divided into two groups. Each group forms two parallel lines to create a ‘corridor’. The character walks slowly down the corridor, with the other students verbally seeking to influence the character in making his or her decision. The character must have made his or her decision by the time of reaching the end of the corridor. There is an emphasis on exploring thoughts, feelings and actions of characters.
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Stages of engagement
Strategies
Transformations In pairs, students (or the teacher) should select a significant episode from the text. Students then generate ideas about how this episode could be transformed into another medium specifically for performance, such as a poem, speech or soliloquy.
Whole class, small group, pairs, individual P
Representing without words SG, P Students in small groups select an episode from the text that highlights some aspect of human relationships. The small group then experiments with representing this episode by using body and space. Students are encouraged to think symbolically and metaphorically about character, relationships and feelings. After response: Beyond the boundaries I, P Going beyond the Students, individually or in pairs, create a scene that takes up the text story from where the text ends. Students may develop a short script, or another form of writing that emphasises audience and experiments with time and context. TV interview or documentary SG, P In pairs, students can set up a TV interview with the author of the text, exploring the other texts written by this author. Alternatively, students can create a documentary that explores the genre of the text, such as adventure, fantasy or crime, using digital technology for production and publication.
References: Manuel, J. (2007) “Drama and the Teaching of Fiction”, in Drama and the Teaching of English, eds. M. Anderson, J. Hughes & J. Manuel, Melbourne: Oxford University Press. Hughes, J. (1992) “Enactment of the Expert: Drama and Reading Comprehension”, NADIE Journal, Autumn. Iser, W. (1980) “Interaction Between Text and Reader”, in The Reader in Texts, eds. S. Suleiman & I. Crosman, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Moffett, J. (1968). Teaching the Universe of Discourse. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Moffett, J. & Wagner, B.J. (1992) Student-Centred Language Arts, New Jersey: Boynton Cook. Rosenblatt, L. (1978) The Reader, The Text, The Poem: The Transactional Theory of the Literary Work, Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. Somers, J. (2005) Drama as Alternative Pedagogy, Aims, Learning and Curriculum Series, Discussion Paper 10, Exeter: Nuffield Review of 14–19 Education and Training.
Drama terms The table sets out a list of commonly used drama terms and should be considered in conjunction with the range of practical strategies used in the English classroom. See also Drama, Drama as a learning medium. JH Terms
Definition
Affective space; affective dimension
In drama Improvisation work, this is the safe and supportive atmosphere within the drama space, created by the facilitator that allows students to feel sufficiently confident to take risks.
Alter ego
A rehearsal technique whereby two actors play each character, one of whom represents the stage action and the other the character's hidden thoughts.
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A strategy by which a fictional situation is selected and enacted without addressing the subject directly.
Boundary setting
The process of setting up rules for trust and engagement within groups. Protocols for emotional and physical safety are also negotiated within the group.
Blocking
This is what the director does when she or he plots the movement of the actors, scenery, props etc of each scene in a performance. Note it has a different meaning in improvisation. See also Improvisation.
Bump in
A theatre term for the process of setting up backstage and the stage for the opening of a production. The lighting, the sets, the costumes etc are all put in place. ‘Bump out’ is the process of removing the production from the theatre.
Conscience alley
A form of thought-tracking employing very high tension. The participants face each other in two lines, while the character under scrutiny walks slowly between them, running the gauntlet of their comments.
Debriefing
The encouragement of students to articulate the feelings and observations that have arisen from the drama work, during which process the teacher becomes an accepting and attuned listener who can ask for appropriate elaboration should a student have difficulties with verbalisation.
Director's log
A journal of the directorial decisions taken by the director as part of the production process.
Double intention
An improvisation technique for concealing the real motives of any interaction, used to provide students with character complexity and subtext within improvised drama or video.
Dramaturge
A person who works with a director and/or writer to develop, help refine and/or stage on a play. The dramaturge is often the researcher in the writing of a play or the production of an historical play.
Flats
This is a shortened term for Scenery Flats or scenery on stage, often painted to provide the image of a background.
Fly system
This is the way scenery and other theatrical devices descend or are elevated to or from the stage. Hence to ‘fly in’ a set. They are operated by the stage technical crew and often involve ropes and pulleys.
Freeze-frame
Within a freeze-frame, sometimes known as a 'tableau' or 'still image', actors are arranged in a posture or series of postures representing a particular moment, or moment in a play or improvised drama, and remain immobile for observation or reflection by an audience.
Frozen effigy
A useful technique that starts with a prepared freeze-frame, which is slowly brought to life, one character at a time, allowing the watchers to reflect on or interrogate the details of the situation as they slowly emerge.
Gossip mill
A dramatic method during which students in role mill together in a space and, on a signal from the teacher, stop and instantly share one piece of information or gossip with one other person. This sequence is repeated a number of times.
Green room
This is the room, back stage, where the actors congregate when not on stage. Ironically, green is considered, by many theatre people, to be an unlucky colour so it is almost never painted green.
Hot-seating
The interrogation of a character in a drama or other form of literature, whereby one person takes the 'hot seat', speaking as that character, to provide information, background or advice to the other participants.
Improvised video
Scenario-based rather than script-based improvised dramatic performances recorded on video.
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Still images, simple props and set that are used to create dioramas of events. As the audience observes a particular image, the participants (or a participant) briefly 'come to life' and speak aloud key information.
Masque
A form of theatre for the private entertainment of the aristocracy especially in the 16th century. It often included songs and dance.
Meeting in role
A convention by which students participate in role in a formal meeting. The expectation is that the class will maintain the roles for the duration of the meeting and interact according to the characteristics of those roles.
Monologue
An extensive speech by a solo performer. If it is a revelation of personal thoughts said out loud it is known as an aside or soliloquy (e.g. “To be or not to be…” in Hamlet).
Morality play
Popular religious drama in Europe in the 15th and early 16th centuries. They were dramatic allegories that extolled, usually, Christian virtues. The purpose of such plays was to provide moral instruction to the audience about how to live a virtuous life and save their souls from eternal damnation. One of the most famous morality plays is Everyman (late 13th century, author unknown).
Out of role
Discussion or planning related to shaping or modifying dramatic action. Once the next stage or dramatic event is decided, the students continue the drama in role.
Pageant
(L. ‘scene of a play’) In Ancient Greece, this term originally referred to the portable stage on which plays were performed. The more common usage refers to a dramatic presentation, tableaux, exhibition or scene which is extravagant in costuming and often props. There is generally little or no dialogue in a pageant.
Parallel role -play
Parallel role-plays engage students (and actors in rehearsal) in role activities which parallel a text to be explored. For example, students studying Romeo and Juliet might role-play teenagers from contemporary, rival ethnic gangs, two of whom, from opposing sides, fall in love.
Passion plays
Performances which dramatise significant events in the life of Jesus Christ, based on texts from the Bible, often set outdoors. A famous example is the Oberammergau Passion Play, begun in 1633 and still regularly presented.
Playbuilding
A process of using active, collaborative techniques to create group or self-devised works. A variety of approaches are used including attention to setting, theme, narrative, character, issues and personal experiences. Students use the elements of drama such as tension, moment or symbol to create narrative structures to convey dramatic meaning through the development of various plot structures. Students experience ways to develop different styles of group devised plays by drawing on community sources such as local identities, Indigenous communities, media, government bodies and institutions, libraries or the internet.
Pre-text
In process drama, this is the identified symbol, artefact, image or piece of text that sets up the drama and provides the stimulus for the drama that evolves. A pre-text should define the dramatic world that will be explored and imply the roles for the participants. Reference: O’Neill, C. (1995) Drama worlds, USA: Heinemann.
Process drama
An improvised drama form for active participants with no performance or external audience. It comprises structured role-play techniques, including experiential role-play, combined with other theatrical conventions and rehearsal exercises. JH Reference: O’Neill, C. (1995) Drama Worlds, USA: Heinemann.
Prompt copy
The script of the play that includes all the instructions the director wishes to convey to the actors.
Readers' theatre
The type of theatre where student actors read directly from script. During the performance, the actors stand in front of the audience and do not look directly at each other, even when exchanging comments. Instead, each actor focuses on a fixed point in the audience to suggest this interaction.
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D Resonance
Existing film or video that either thematically or stylistically shares the concerns of the proposed or performed improvisational work.
Role-based scenario
Drama based on improvised performance in a given situation.
Role-card
A card or other document providing key characteristics of the role that a student is to play. It may include contextualised information about the situation, details of events or facts that will be shared while in role.
Role-play
The projection of participants into a fictitious situation and the assumption of attitudes that are not necessarily their own. The role-players accept that they are working in an imaginary context and agree to believe in that context for the purpose of working through a dilemma or issue.
Role protection
The dramatic distance provided by the assumption of a persona, allowing for an authentic emotional response.
Semiotics
The complex systems of visual, aural, physical and gestural languages and other signifiers that are present in live performance. Focusing on a semiotic reading of a play or a performance would draw attention to the effects of such things as light, colour, sound and movement and examine the audience's, actor's, designer's and director's contributions to the theatrical event.
Spect-actors
A term coined by Augusto Boal to referrer to participants in an improvisation who are sometime acting and other time observing others performances. Often switching roles quite frequently.
Still image
A convention by which members of a group use their bodies to make an unmoving image or tableau, capturing an idea or moment in time.
Teacher-in-role
The taking part of teachers in process drama or role-play themselves, as characters within the situation, in order to advance the action, provide a source of tension pose a problem or challenge or control the action from inside without stopping the drama.
Thought-tracking
A dramatic convention by which a character in role can be frozen and asked by the teacher or other students to express what is going on in his or her mind at the particular moment. It can be used within a freeze-frame or frozen effigy. Sometimes called Tapping in.
Verbatim theatre
A playwright interviews people who have usually been part of some heightened or charged experience and from their direct quotes creates a performance. For example, Alana Valentine’s Parramatta Girls. See also Docudrama.
Veridical representation
‘Veridical’ means truthful so a veridical representation is representation of social reality in drama.
Writing-in-role
The students write from the point of view of a character they are developing or playing. Writing-in-role is a rich virtual dramatic experience, by which students play out and negotiate some of their own experiences.
JH
Dramatic irony A technique employed in plays that allows the audience to be privy to more information and knowledge about the plot and action than some or all of the characters on stage. A most powerful example of this occurs in Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex (430 BC). The audience is aware of the fact that after killing his father, Oedipus marries his mother. Oedipus himself is not aware of this truth until the final, tragic dénouement. JH
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D Dramatic monologue A poem in which a single persona speaks. There are several important aspects of this type of poetry that distinguish it from other forms of verse. Firstly, the monologue occurs at a moment of conflict, anxiety or crisis. Secondly, there is always an implied audience: the persona speaks to another person (or people) and the literal thrust of the monologue is that of explanation, direction, deception, self-justification or persuasion. Thirdly, a dramatic monologue presents a character who, in the act of self-expression, unintentionally reveals aspects of his/her character. There is always a discrepancy between the image of self that the persona thinks he/she is projecting and the image that they actually do project. The effect of this is to produce irony. Robert Browning’s (1812-1889) dramatic monologues demonstrate a masterful and innovative handling of the form. With Browning's fascination for the naturalistic impulses of human nature, the subtleties of individual temperament and the relationship between our use of language and our communicated meaning, the dramatic monologue is a particularly appropriate form. It affords the poet the opportunity to create and manipulate characters, personae and masks, while maintaining the immediacy of direct speech. Through the dramatic monologue Browning is able to explore both the complexities of the human psyche and the dynamics of human interaction in a concentrated, focused and intense manner. In addition, the setting or the life-situation exposed in the monologue is of crucial importance to an understanding of the poem. Often the character will be reflecting on a past event. Frequently, the dramatic monologue portrays a human being in the process of seeking to control, dominate or gain ascendency over another. The two poems “My Last Duchess” and “Porphyria's Lover” are particularly striking examples of the form. See also Persona, Poetry. JM
Dreamtime Aboriginal stories of spirituality and creation. “The expression 'Dreamtime' is most often used to refer to the 'time before time', or 'the time of the creation of all things', while 'Dreaming' is often used to refer to an individual's or group's set of beliefs or spirituality” (Australian Museum, 2004). The Indigenous Australia webpages at the Australian Museum site have many stories of the dreaming, available in audio-format:
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Select one or more stories from the Australian Museum site, or other sources. Select a range of picture books or visual images that focus on similar Dreamtime stories.
∼ Read the stories out aloud to the class. Discuss the ideas and images evoked by the story. Discuss connections between the Dreamtime story and myths specific to other cultures and places.
∼ Listen to the music of Garramul Yunupingu: ∼
∼ Students work in groups to create a digital representation of a story or song, using visual images and selected words or excerpts from the chosen text. Students write a reflection statement to accompany their creative work.
Dystopia The representation of an imaginary world that is unappealing, indeed repellent, usually combining threatening and dehumanising perspectives and experiences. Texts that portray a dystopian world often combine elements of fantasy, science fiction, thriller or apocalyptic literature, or an amalgam
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D of these. Such texts present a disturbingly bleak vision of human existence and human relationships in which violence, suffering, misery, fear and hopelessness are the dominant characteristics of society. George Orwell’s novel 1984 (1949) and Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World (1932) are well-known examples of fictional dystopian universes. Ridley Scott’s film, Blade Runner (1982) and George Miller’s Mad Max (1979), are similarly powerful representations of a dystopian realm. The purpose of dystopian texts is to confront and challenge the audience with extreme visions of humanity, thereby encouraging thinking about values, power relations, ways of organising social and personal relationships and the nature of individual experience. Representations of dystopia are in stark contrast to those that portray an earthly paradise or utopia. See also Eschatology. JM
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E Edwardian period Considered to be the period when Edward VII reigned in England, from 1901 (the death of Queen Victoria) to 1910. This period, immediately preceding the First World War, saw an abundance of writing from novelists such as, for example, Joseph Conrad, Rudyard Kipling and Henry James. Thomas Hardy and W B Yeats were also publishing a wealth of poetry during this time. Critics have commented that the literature and drama of this period addressed wider issues of social change, dislocation and a fracturing of the received values and ways of thinking that characterised the Victorian period. With the advent of the War, the Edwardian period is considered with some nostalgia, since the War (1914-1918) had such a dramatic impact on all aspects of social and personal life. JM
Ekphrastic literature Literary texts that are inspired by an actual or notional artwork or artistic representation. Essentially, in both its focus and form, ekphrastic literature is ‘art about art’. The Oxford Classical Dictionary defines ekphrasis as ‘the rhetorical description of a work of art’ while James A. W. Heffernan refers to it as “the literary representation of visual art”. (See http://www.people.virginia.edu/~djr4r/anth_ekphrasis.html) Art about art has a long tradition. During the Renaissance poems described paintings and scenes from nature in order to debate the claims of art and nature and celebrate the triumph of art over nature. Romanticism was also concerned with ideas and questions about art and life and this is reflected in texts such as John Keats’ (1795-1821) “Ode on a Grecian Urn” and William Wordsworth’s (1770-1850) “Elegiac Stanzas Suggested by a Picture of Peele Castle in a Storm, painted by Sir George Beaumont”. Traditionally, ekphrastic texts describe and represent specific artworks but they can do so in a number of ways. Classic paintings such as Jan Vermeer’s (1632-1675) “Girl with a Pearl Earring” and Pieter Brueghel’s (1525-1569) “Icarus” may represent the core of the subject matter of a text, as in Tracy Chevalier’s novel Girl With a Pearl Earring (2001) and WH Auden’s (1907-1973) poem “Musée des Beaux Arts”. Alternatively, real-world artefacts, places or objects may inspire the imagination and literary responses of writers as is the case in Keats’ “Ode on a Grecian Urn”. In some cases the artwork or scene inspiring the text may be a figment of the writer’s imagination, as in ST Coleridge’s (1772-1834) poem “Kubla Khan”. During the 20th century the ekphrastic genre evolved further as art about art began to be combined with the theme of the portrait of the artist. Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891) and James Joyce’s A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916) are part of this tradition and contemporary films such as Il Postino (1994), Pandaemonium (2000), Dead Poets’ Society (1989) and The English Teacher’s Handbook
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Amadeus (1984) are examples that extend the genre further in focus and form. Other possibilities within the ekphrastic genre are reflected in literary texts that comment on their own nature as an aesthetic object or encourage meditations on the aesthetics of writing. An example of this latter form is Italo Calvino’s (1923-1985) If on a Winter’s Night a Traveller (1981). The study of ekphrastic texts is usually geared towards understanding the relationship between visual art and the literature that describes and represents it. A comparative study of art-inspired literature and other texts that explore ‘art’ worlds, ‘art’ movements, ‘art’ works and ‘artists’ can provide us with a heightened understanding of the aesthetic appeal of texts and aesthetic theory as well as insights into ekphrastic literature and possible developments in this genre. Michael and Peter Benton's books Double Vision (Hodder & Stoughton 1990), the companion volume Painting with Words (Hodder & Stoughton,1995) and Picture Poems (Hodder & Stoughton, 1997) all explore the interplay of poems and paintings, with visual reproductions of the art. Ken Watson and Paul Richardson’s Postcards from Planet Earth: an anthology of international poetry (Oxford University Press, 1990) also includes excellent resources for the study of poems and matching paintings. For links to a range of online ekphrastic poems and their paintings see
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ WH Auden’s poem “Musee de Beaux Arts” ∼ Three paintings by Brueghel: The Masscare of the Innocents; Landscape with the Fall of Icarus; Numbering at Bethlehem. Procedure:
∼ In pairs of small groups, students explore and analyse the visual texts (see Image for strategies). Compare the images, focusing on the mood, perspective, colours, people, events and layout. Explore common features and move towards a discussion of the ideas and ‘story’ being represented.
∼ As a class, share interpretations from each group, identifying key points and features of the texts.
∼ Read Auden’s poem out aloud to the class. ∼ Explore the poem, focusing on the way the speaker alludes to, appropriates and connects the ideas from the paintings, and the relationship between the themes of the poem and the themes of the paintings.
∼ Reflect on the way composers use memory, experience, observation and other stimulus as a source of inspiration for their work.
∼ Students explore other art works that have been the source of inspiration for literature.
Elegy (Greek: ‘lament’) A type of lyric poem of mourning on the death of an individual. It may also be a reflective poem on the concept of death and grief. Elegy is one of the oldest poetic genres, originating with the laments of the Greek poets Theocritus (3rd century BC), Bion (3rd century BC) and Moschus (c. 150 BC). Its conventions are based on ancient rituals of mourning and burial. From the work of these Greek poets, it is possible to trace a process of the accretion of meaning and conventions in elegy whereby the death of a shepherd-poet, Daphnis, was poeticised in terms of the death of the dying spirit of nature, Adonis; the poet-shepherd-hero was associated with Daphnis through the use of the pastoral form. Not only was Daphnis the idealised vegetation god, but also the epitome of the artist - the celebrant of the idyllic world of Arcadia. It is this mythic figure who is the precursor of almost every elegised subject in canonised elegies in 102
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E English, providing the fundamental trope by which poets construct versions of immortality. By identifying the deceased with the returning, regenerative capacities of nature ‘he’ is absorbed into a mythology that ensures his – the poet’s - eternality. Typically, canonic elegies require a male poet mourning the death of and deifying a male poet. Despite the fact that the Sappho (c. 630BC) was writing poetry of grief and mourning, invoking goddesses like Aphrodite in her lamentations several centuries before Theocritus, the latter is credited as the ‘father’ of the pastoral elegy. The prominence of goddesses like Aphrodite in the earliest rituals of mourning is indisputable from evidence contained in fragments of writing by women poets of antiquity. But the place and role of these female deities undergo significant transformations within the history of the formal elegiac canon in English; that is, the goddesses that preside over the ceremonies of mourning in poetry like that written by Sappho, have been relocated in peripheral rather than central roles by male elegists throughout the history of the western elegiac genre. Well-known canonic elegies include: John Milton’s “Lycidas” (1637); Percy Bysshe Shelley’s “Adonais” (1821); and WH Auden’s “In Memory of WB Yeats” (1940). Elegies by women poets include: Judith Wright’s “Remembering an Aunt”; May Sarton’s “Letter from Chicago”; Muriel Rukeyser’s “Käthe Kollwitz”; Alta’s “The Vow”; Adrienne Rich’s “A Woman Dead in Her Forties”; Elizabeth Jennings’ “After a Time”; Lucille Clifton’s “harriet/if i be you”; Marge Piercy’s, “Burying Blues for Janice”; Maxine Kumin’s “On Being Asked to Write a Poem in Memory of Anne Sexton”; and Robyn Rowland’s, “The Final Voyage (for Virginia Woolf, 1882-1941)”. See also Dirge, Encomium, Eulogy. JM
Elizabethan age Refers to the period of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603). This period is often regarded as a Golden age which saw the flourishing of literature and the arts – particularly drama – discovery and science. The Elizabethan age occurred at the height of the Renaissance and is often described as a time of harmony, peace and political stability. Theatre thrived and developed during this period under the influence of the great dramatists – William Shakespeare (1564-1616), Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593) and Ben Jonson (1573-1637). Although this period is perceived as a time of harmony, stability and growing prosperity, a great majority of the population in England were still of the working class or poor – and Shakespeare’s plays were written for performance to entertain people from a wide spectrum of society. The majority of the audience for his plays at The Globe Theatre, for instance, were known as ‘penny-stinkers’ or ‘groundlings’– the people who paid one penny to stand in the open area in front of the stage where space was at a premium and rubbish and effluent from the audience was commonplace. The seating was reserved for the wealthier classes and the aristocracy. The theatre of this time was very much part of popular culture, created primarily to entertain audiences. See also (The) Globe Theatre, Shakespeare. JM
Ellipsis A device used in poetry to ensure the economical use of language. Words that may usually be included in a line may be omitted in order to make the line or poem succinct. An example would be, ‘Some lads are wise; some otherwise.’ The words ‘lads are’ have been omitted without changing the meaning of the line. JM
Emblem An image or badge used to represent an individual, family, nation, idea or abstract concept. Examples of emblems include a red cross on a white background for humanitarianism (and this is the symbol the Red Cross); scales as an emblem of the law or justice; and a dove as an emblem of peace. Emblems are common in imaginative texts, and in the media. Emblems are similar to symbols in that they carry strong associations. Symbols, however, are distinguished from emblems in that they are so closely associated with the individual, object or idea that long-standing shared meanings are usually recognisable to a very wide range of audiences. An emblem may operate in a more limited context for a more specific purpose. Flowers – such as the Waratah and Sturt Desert Pea, for The English Teacher’s Handbook
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PRACTICAL STRATEGY
example – are used as emblems of Australian states and territories. See also Archetype, Logo, Representing, Symbol. JM ∼ Create emblems for characters in texts being studied. ∼ For example: a coat of arms for the Capulet and Montague families in Romeo and Juliet. (Note the use of emblems and symbols in Lurhmann’s film adaptation) a car number plate for a character an image accompanied by a caption a profile for MySpace that contains an emblem or symbol representing the character/s.
∼ Students can also research the pervasiveness of emblems in the media and everyday contexts as well as the origins and meaning of emblems associated with nations.
Embodied knowledge Knowledge and understanding that is derived from lived experience through the senses. In English, drama as a medium for learning is a powerful means of enabling students to explore ideas and concepts through embodied experience. Students may, for example, dramatise a poem using only body language and actions. If students are provided with abundant opportunities for active, creative ‘making and doing’ they are more able to embody and apply new knowledge and skills that may otherwise remain abstract. See also Drama, Drama as a learning medium, Experiential learning, Group work, Learning styles. JM
Empathic intelligence A concept formulated by Arnold (2005) to describe a sustained system of psychic, cognitive, affective, social functioning. Empathic intelligence is a way of using various intelligences and sensitivities to engage effectively with others. Such engagement involves, in part, creating a dynamic between thinking and feeling within a climate perceived as caring and affirming. Empathic intelligence is derived from the ability to: ∼ differentiate self-states (both thoughts and feelings) from others’ states through self-
awareness, reflection and applied imagination ∼ engage in reflective and analogic processing to understand human dynamics ∼ mobilise a dynamic between thinking and feeling in self and others to enhance learning ∼ demonstrate enthusiasm, expertise and the effective engagement of others in meaningful tasks ∼ work creatively, guided by observation, attunement and adaptive capacity ∼ demonstrate intelligent caring ∼ use mirroring and affirmation effectively ∼ commit to the well-being and development of self and others.
Empathic intelligence is essentially concerned with the dynamic between thinking and feeling and the ways in which each contributes to the making of meaning. The word dynamic is important because it highlights the psychic energy generated when one mobilises both thought and feeling in creating and understanding experience. When there is intensity of feeling matched with intensity of thought, transforming learning experiences may occur. See Affective learning, Experiential learning. RA Reference: Adapted from Arnold, R (2005) Empathic Intelligence: Teaching, Learning, Relating, Sydney: UNSW Press.
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E Empathic model (Writing) An empathic model of writing recognises that writers’ internalised experiences of self-as-writer can have a very significant effect upon their confidence as writers. Writing teachers can build upon such experiences by affirming positive aspects of the writer’s text, while guiding writers to various models of writing which they might emulate for different audiences and purposes. Likewise, writers’ internalized experiences as readers and observers can provide rich resources for writing and reflection. An empathic model of writing recognizes that to write effectively for different audiences and purposes writers have to be able to imagine how potential readers will respond to their writing and then shape their writing accordingly. The empathic ability to understand one’s own thoughts and feelings, and those of others is a basic tenet of an empathic model of writing. See also Writing. RA
Empiricism (Greek: ‘concerned with experience’) A theory of knowledge that posits that the only way to know anything is true is to experience the world through the senses, as opposed to relying on intuition, reason or logic. In this way, empirical truth is truth that is arrived at through observing the natural world and detailing quantifiable, observable results. Empiricism in the Western tradition began with John Locke (1632-1704), who proposed that the mind was a tabula rasa – a white tablet – and that knowledge is acquired through sense experience and not through anything inherent or innate. The tenets of Empiricism have exerted a significant influence on English and Drama education, since both rely on holistic student engagement and promote experiential, embodied learning. See also Affective learning, Constructivism, Drama as a learning medium, Embodied knowledge. DC
Encomium (Greek: ‘celebration’, ‘praise’) A literary work, in prose or verse or a speech, that warmly and enthusiastically praises and pays high tribute to a person, idea or event. A famous example is “Encomium of Helen” (written in praise of Helen of Troy) by the Greek sophist Gorgias of Leontini (487–376 BC). Another example is Anne Bradstreet’s (1612-1672) elegiac poem, “In Memory of My Dear Grandchild Elizabeth Bradstreet, Who Deceased August, 1665, Being a Year and Half Old”. JM
End-rhyme A poetic device where the syllable/s or words at the end of two or more lines of verse rhyme. This is the most common form of rhyme in poetry. This example, with an end-rhyme scheme of aabb, is from William Blake’s (1757-1827) poem “The Tyger”: When the stars threw down their spears, And water’d the heaven with their tears, Did he smile his work to see? Did he who made the Lamb make thee? See also Poetry, Rhyme. JM
Enactment of the expert Enactment of the expert is a modified version of Mantle of the expert. It involves the students adopting a high-status role, such as professors: and exploring an issue. It is not as sustained or involved as Heathcote’s role activity (see Hughes, J. & Arnold R. (2008), “Drama and the teaching of poetry” in M. Anderson, J. Hughes & J. Manuel (eds) Drama and English teaching: Imagination, action and engagement, South Melbourne: Oxford University Press, pp 88-103). See also Drama, Drama as a learning medium, Embodied knowledge, Mantle of the Expert. JH
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E Engagement In an empathic intelligence model of pedagogy (Arnold 2005) engagement is an: ∼ ability to attract and hold students’ attention, directing it to centred, purposeful interactions with others and with learning materials ∼ ability to mirror the thoughts and feelings of others to enhance communication and commitment ∼ ability to channel teacher-power/authority/charisma for the benefit of students’ learning.
Engagement can be modelled by teachers through their focus on the learning needs of their students, and through their students’ perception of their being wholly present in the processes of teaching and learning. Teachers’ deep engagement in pedagogy is both a source of insight into effective practice and a model for students of a critical element in effective learning. See also Embodied knowledge, Student-centred learning. RA Reference: Arnold, R. (2005) Empathic Intelligence: Teaching, Learning, Relating, Sydney: UNSW Press.
Enlightenment (The) Also known as the Age of Reason, this historical period was characterised by progressive and liberal ideas that emerged in France in the 18th century. The ideas and ideals of The Enlightenment led to the French Revolution and became the core of Western intellectual and scientific thought. It stemmed from the 17th century Scientific Revolution and the ideas of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), John Locke (1632-1704) and Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727). Its basic tenet was the superiority of reason as a guide to all knowledge and human affairs. From this belief followed the idea of unfolding human progress and a challenging of traditional Christianity. Although difficult to pinpoint a starting date, the “Glorious Revolution” of 1688-89 in Britain is sometimes suggested as a trigger. The Enlightenment constituted a way of thinking as much as an historical period and was hugely influential on the cultural and intellectual life of European countries and Britain’s North American colonies. The Enlightenment gave rise to the development of naturalist, empiricist and materialist doctrines as well as strident opposition to the doctrines of the Church. It was not a uniform movement, as denoted by the materialism of the French ‘Encyclopedists’ such as Jean le Rond d’Alembert (1711-83), Denis Diderot (1713-84), Voltaire (1694-1788); the Scottish interest in political economy by figures such as David Hume (1711-76), Adam Smith (1723-90), Gilbert Stuart (1742-86); and the cultural concerns of the Germans, as reflected in the writing of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832), Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803), Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-81), and Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller (1759-1805). Two general principles of The Enlightenment were that virtue consists ultimately in knowledge and that all virtues are compatible with one another. The major ideas were published by Paul Henri d’Holbach (1723-1789) in the Système de la nature (1770) in which he asserts that nature is knowable through human experience and thought and not through the teachings of the Church. Reason was seen as the basis for moral systems. Berlin maintains that the principles of The Enlightenment were: 1. all genuine questions can be answered. If a question cannot be answered, then it is not a question 2. all genuine questions have knowable answers, discovered by methods that can be learnt and taught to others 3. all answers must be compatible with one another, otherwise chaos will ensue – one answer to a question cannot contradict another answer to another question. Therefore, one proposition cannot contradict another 4. deductive reasoning provided the method to obtain all answers. (Berlin, 2001: 21-24) Much of the writing, including poetry in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, imitated writing from 106
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E the period of the Roman Emperor Augustus (27 BS – 14 AD): Horace (65-8 BC), Virgil (70-19 BC), Homer (c. 8th century BC), Ovid (43 BC – 17 AD) and Tibullus (55-19 BC). Such imitation suggested a preference for an urbane and classical elegance in writing and the principles of harmony, decorum and proportion rather than a reliance on emotion and the imagination. See also Age of Reason, Neoclassical period. DC References: Berlin, I. (ed.) (2001),The Roots of Romanticism, The A.W. Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts. The National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Bollingen Series, xxxv: 45. Cuddon, J.A. 1991, Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, 3rd edn. London: Penguin Books Flew, A. (ed.) (1979) A Dictionary of Philosophy, London: Pan Books. Holman, C. H. (1976) A Handbook to Literature, 3rd edn. Indianapolis: The Odyssey Press. Watson, P. (2005) Ideas – A History from Fire to Freud, London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson. Williams, R. (1977) Culture and Society 1780-1950, Great Britain: Penguin Books.
English as a Second Language (ESL)/Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages Students whose native language is not English are commonly referred to as students from ‘language backgrounds other than English’ (LBOTE), students from ‘non-English speaking backgrounds’ (NESB) or ‘ESL students’. These students may be newly-arrived in the country and are beginning to learn English, or students who have been born in the country into a family from a non-English speaking background where English may not be spoken in the home – or at least not regularly spoken in the home. In schools, funding and the development of teaching/learning programs centre on developing English language skills and knowledge. Newly-arrived students may be enrolled in a specialised English centre and then move to mainstream school following intensive English language tuition. Schools often employ ESL teachers who have specialised knowledge and skills in addressing the needs of such students and use a variety of models to accommodate ESL students. These models may involve separate classes comprised solely of ESL students, ESL students integrated into mainstream classes in a team-teaching situation, or withdrawal of ESL students at strategic points of the teaching/learning cycle. Another name for the undertaking of teaching such learners is TESOL – ‘Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages’. DC
Epic (Greek: ‘speech’, ‘word’, ‘song’) An ancient genre of narrative verse. An epic is an extended poem that typically extols the virtues and triumphs of a hero. The hero undertakes a quest or journey, overcomes all adversity, and returns to his home as a transformed superhuman figure. The hero is celebrated as a model, archetype or exemplar of the qualities and moral virtues admired at the time. Originally an oral form, the epic was structured in smaller units or episodes to enable the story to be more easily memorised by the poet or performer and the audience. The earliest known exemplar of the genre is Gilgamesh, a Sumerian epic dating from circa 2700 BC. Other examples are Beowulf (c. 8th-11th century), Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey (9th-8th century BC), Virgil’s Aeneid (c. 30-20 BC), The Tale of Heike (14th century Japanese epic), John Milton’s Paradise Lost (1667), Dante’s Divine Comedy (c. 1304-21), and Ezra Pound’s Cantos (1915-1969). Epic poems (and other epic texts) usually contain six key elements: ∼ The epic hero is a well-known, superhuman figure. ∼ The hero journeys through adverse terrain and situations, often spanning many countries or the
entire universe. Virgil’s hero, Aeneas, journeys into the Underworld and this theme has been taken up by many later poets (for example: Dante, c.1265-1321), novelists, dramatists, filmmakers and artists. ∼ During the quest, the hero demonstrates exceptional courage and bravery to overcome all obstacles in his path and the victory is often marked by a wound or scar of some kind. The hero is often assisted by someone or something as he seeks to secure the prize for his efforts. The English Teacher’s Handbook
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E ∼ The hero encounters supernatural forces such as demons, angels and mythic figures. These may
assist the hero in his quest, or pose obstacles that are eventually defeated. The hero returns with the prize. ∼ The style is formal and elevated. ∼ The epic is told or performed in a formal manner. Epic poems are not common in contemporary literature, although the recognisable elements and archetypes of the epic are apparent in a wide range of types of texts, including novels (for example, Leo Tolstoy’s War and Peace, 1865-1869, and James Joyce’s Ulysses, 1922). Walt Whitman’s “Song of Myself” published in Leaves of Grass (1855) is an innovation of the traditional epic poem, in that the ‘self’ of this poem is not an elevated or heroic figure. The epic hero, along with the concept of the quest, is also very common in popular texts and media, especially in film and advertising, with many cultures and ages creating their own versions of the epic hero/heroine. Several episodes of The Simpsons appropriate, parody and satirise the hero’s journey: for example, the episode titled Homer's Odyssey (1990). The conceptual frame of the ancient epic and the idea of the hero’s quest are very common throughout the literature of many cultures. Students can compare and contrast representations, appropriations and allusions in a wide range of texts from print, film, media, multimedia and nonfiction. Picture books are also a rich source of stimulus for the exploration of themes related to the epic adventure. See also Hero/Heroine, Archetype. JM
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Take sections from The Odyssey (Book XI); The Aeneid (Book IV); and The Divine Comedy (Canto VI, lines 7-57). After comparing the hero’s journey in these texts, read Wilfred Owen’s “Strange Meeting” and identify the ways in which this poem appropriates and represents the idea of war as a journey into the Underworld. As visual stimulus, use the visionary English poet and artist, William Blake’s paintings (e.g. of Dante’s Inferno, Dante Running with the Three Beasts) and engravings representing and critiquing the work of the Ancient Greek poets. Students select compelling lines or sections of each printed text and interweave these to create a new ‘epic’. Visual representations may accompany this.
∼ There is a vast range of resource material online that covers themes of the epic hero and the hero’s journey.
∼ Students can participate in webquests that develop skills in writing, drawing analogies, representing, narrative structures and sequences that are non-linear; and the productive use of ICT. Participation also enhances understanding of myth, archetype, legend and epic.
∼ An interactive webquest that draws on elements of the epic is The Hero’s Journey:
∼ Students can create their own mythical adventures and stories on this and similar sites such as, for example:
∼ Virgil’s The Aeneid webquest allows students to explore gods and goddesses, create photo stories and write creatively:
Epic theatre A type of theatre developed by the playwrights Erwin Piscator (1893-1966) and Bertolt Brecht (1898-1956). The drama is structured after the ‘epic’ style, with a series of episodes, a narrator, songs, and other episodic fragments. Examples of epic theatre are Brecht’s Threepenny Opera (1928) and Mother Courage (1941). The effect of this kind of drama was to ensure the audience did not identify too strongly with the characters and to ensure they were consistently aware that they were watching a ‘constructed’ representation. See also Alienation effect. JH 108
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E Epigram (Greek: ‘to inscribe’) Originally an inscription, this term describes a short, pithy poem, often of a witty or humorous nature. It may also be satiric. Epigrams flourished in the Augustan Age. Hilaire Belloc’s (1870-1953) epigram is an example of the use of wit and irony: I'm tired of Love: I'm still more tired of Rhyme. But Money gives me pleasure all the time. S T Coleridge (1772-1834) cleverly defined the epigram in the following epigram: What is an Epigram? A dwarfish whole; Its body brevity, and wit its soul. See also Poetry. JM
Epigraph A brief inscription such as, for example, a quotation that occurs at the beginning of a longer text. The epigraph may provide a metaphorical perspective on the text’s thematic focus. The epigraph may be written by the composer of the longer text, or it may be a quotation or extract from another source. JM
Epilogue A final speech in a play that may reflect, comment on or sum up the preceding action. Epilogues also occur in prose as a concluding chapter, section or overview of the text. See also Drama, Drama terms. JM
Epiphany (Greek: ‘surprise’) A moment of great insight, awakening, understanding or realisation. An epiphany can occur unexpectedly and often dramatically alters or expands the individual’s perspective on some event, person or aspect of life. Characters in texts may have an epiphany. An example occurs in Patrick White’s The Tree of Man (1955) when Stan, towards the end of his life, “sees God in a glob of spittle”. See also Anagnorisis, Climax. JM
Episodic A technique in narrative in which a series of loosely connected episodes, incidents or events constitute the text, rather than a fully developed, continuous plot. The episodes may be discrete, stand-alone sections that may be connected by a character/s, setting or narrator. An example of an episodic novel is Henry Fielding’s The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling (1749). Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland (1865) can also be regarded as an episodic text. Picture books such as Shaun Tan’s The Arrival (2007) may be considered episodic texts since they do not work through a conventional narrative structure. Rather, they rely on unifying elements such as recurring visual images, page layout, tone and mood, colour and perspective. Any page of such a text can be read as a discrete visual text, but it takes on heightened significance in the context of the whole work. Episodic techniques have been adopted in some multimedia texts such as, for example, hypertext fiction. See also Graphic novel, Multimedia. JM
Epistolary A novel that is made up entirely of letters, usually the exchange of letters between characters in the novel. The epistolary novel was common in the 18th century, and two well-known examples are by the English writer Samuel Richardson: Pamela (1740) and Clarissa (1748). A more recent example is the Australian writer John Marsden’s Letters from the Inside (2001). See also Fiction, Nonfiction. JM The English Teacher’s Handbook
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E Epitaph (Greek: ‘upon a tomb’) A short piece of writing or inscription on a grave/tomb that articulates praise for the deceased. Sometimes writers compose their own epitaphs before their death, as was the case for WB Yeats: Cast a cold eye On life, on death. Horseman, pass me by! It is widely believed that Shakespeare also wrote his epitaph that is inscribed above his tomb: Good friend for Jesus sake forbeare, To dig the dust enclosed here. Blessed be the man that spares these stones, And cursed be he that moves my bones. The epitaph on the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier at the Australian War Memorial reads: An Unknown Australian Soldier Killed in the War of 1914-1918 Epitaphs can also be humorous. For example, the following humorous epitaph appears on the tombstone of the comedian Spike Milligan: I told you I was sick. JM
Epithalamion (Greek: ‘nuptial chamber’) An occasional poem written for a wedding, to honour and celebrate the newly-weds. It was sometimes sung outside the wedding chamber, or recited during the ceremony. It was a popular genre during the Renaissance. Examples of epithalamion include: Edmund Spenser’s “Epithalamion” (1595), WH Auden’s “Epithalamion” (1939) and Dannie Abse’s “Epithalamium” (1963). See also Occasional verse. JM
Epithet (Greek: ‘added’) The addition of an adjective or an adjectival phrase to a noun to qualify, embellish or enrich the description such that it becomes an established and even decorative phrase. Epithets were common in epic poems. Epithets from Homer’s epic poetry include: ‘rose-red fingers’; ‘glinting helmet’; ‘high-hearted’; ‘all-powerful’; and ‘silver-footed’. JM
Eponymous The term applied to a text in which the title includes a part or the whole of the central character’s name. There are abundant examples of eponymous texts (such as, for instance, novels, films, drama, poetry and television programs). For example, Jane Austen’s (1775-1817) Emma is an eponymous novel since the central character’s name is also the title of the novel. The eponymous film Frida (2002) traces the life of the Mexican artist Frida Khalo. JM
Eschatology (Greek: ‘study of the last’) The exploration and depiction of the end of the world. Eschatological texts focus on Death, Judgement, Heaven and Hell. Eschatology is prevalent in religious texts, particularly art works that portray interpretations of the end of the world. An example of an important text with an eschatological tenor is The Sermon of the Wolf to the English (c. 1014) by Wulfstan II (the Archbishop of York and Bishop of Worcester). Sections of Michelangelo’s (14751564) frescos in the Sistine Chapel depict scenes of The Last Judgement. Théodore Géricault’s (17911824) painting, The Raft of the Medusa (1818-1819) had an enormous impact at the time of its exhibition and signalled the beginning of the Romantic movement in art. The art of the Flemish painter Hieronymus Bosch (1450-1516) provides compelling representations of Heaven and Hell. Similarly, Francis Ford Coppola’s 1979 film Apocalypse Now is a powerful representation of eschatological themes. JM 110
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E Essay (Latin: ‘weigh’) A composition which may cover one or a number of topics and promotes one or a series of themes or arguments, usually in prose. Usually serious in purpose and tone, it stems from the Latin word ‘exagere’, which means to weigh, sift, winnow. The essay has a long history, from 3rd century BC with the Characters of Theophrastus, Seneca’s Epistle to Lucilius and Meditations by Marcus Aurelius. Michel Eyqem de Montaigne (1533-1592) is generally considered father of the essay and used the form as a means to offer his thoughts and ideas, discuss matters of experience and convey feelings using a personalised voice. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) generally labelled his works as essays or counsels and considered them as directions for people and are quite didactic and utilitarian in nature. The rise in popularity of the periodical essay in the 18th century through writers such as Richard Steele (1672-1729) and Joseph Addison (1672-1719) saw the circulation of a number of publications such as Defoe’s A Weekly Review of Affairs in France (1704); Female Tatler (1709-10); Tatler (1709-11); Spectator (1711-12; 1714); The Examiner (1710-14); and The Guardian (1713). Addison’s critical essays in Spectator fall into four categories. The first deals with ‘wit’ (April to December 1711); the second category is two essays on the ballad of ‘Chevy Chase’ (May 1711); then papers on John Milton’s Paradise Lost (January to May 1712) and finally, the series ‘On the pleasures of the imagination’ (June to July 1712). Dr Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) wrote a number of essays for periodicals such as Spectator, Rambler and Idler and one of his most famous essays, Life of Addison, provides the reader with insights into his style and preoccupations. Other famous essayists of this era include Charles Lamb (1775-1834), William Hazlitt (1778-1830), Thomas De Quincy (1785-1859) and Leigh Hunt (1784-1859). The popularity of the formal essay in the 19th century was largely due to the rise of the critical magazine such as the Edinburgh Review (1802), the Quarterly Review (1809) and the Westminster Review (1824). Book reviews written as long critical essays covered historical, biographical, scientific, educational, religious, ethical and contemporary events of the era. The formal essay, while varying in length, values unity, structure and insight. It is identical to factual or theoretical prose and literary effect is secondary to serious purpose. Its status in secondary and tertiary education remains prominent in both coursework and examinations. While there are different types of essays such as a discussion or a comparative literary analysis, a standard structure of an introduction, body and conclusion is often used. This structure allows the problem and the stance of the writer to be stated, with a foreshadowing of the major elements of the argument to be outlined in the introduction. The body of the essay requires a full explication of the arguments and ideas of the writer, fully supported by evidence in the form of quotations and relevant information and analysis, while the conclusion affirms the writer’s arguments and may include relevant quotations. Notable essayists include Mark Twain (1835-1910); Hilaire Belloc (1870-1953); Virginia Woolf (1882-1941); Kingsley Amis (1922-1995); Frank Kermode (1919); Susan Sontag (1933-2004); Germaine Greer (1939-); JM Coetzee (1940-); Umberto Eco (1932-); and John Ralston Saul (1947-). See also Analysis, Argument, Composing, Debate, Nonfiction, Rhetoric, Speech, Thesis. DC
Ethical criticism A critical approach that seeks to reveal the moral and ethical systems at work in a text. This approach not only explores the substance of a text: it also examines the ways in which the practice of interpretation and evaluation of literature and other art has ethical dimensions. A story, for example, has the potential to influence the ethical stance, perspective and behaviour of the reader and this potential needs to be made explicit. In this sense, ethical criticism has its roots in the work of Plato, Aristotle and other Greek philosophers, each of whom explored the capacity of art to shape the ethical and moral life – in short, the ways of thinking, feeling and being - of the audience. A story has the potential to produce in the audience moral changes – whether these be ‘good’ or The English Teacher’s Handbook
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E ‘bad’. The role of the ethical critic is to render transparent the ethical positions represented in and promoted through the text and implied by the author, and the ethical position of the reader in responding to the text. The prominent ethical critics of the later part of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century include Wayne C Booth (1921-2005) and Martha Nussbaum (1947-). See also Implied author, Implied reader, Rhetorical criticism. See also Interpretation, Literary criticism. JM
Ethos (Greek: ‘character’) A term to describe the prevailing mood, tone and attitudes generated and conveyed by a text or associated with a character. It was one of the terms developed by Aristotle (384-322 BC) to explicate the conventions of the classic genres, along with: ∼ Mimesis imitation or representation ∼ Catharsis purification or purgation ∼ Peripeteia reversal in the plot or the fortunes of the protagonist ∼ Anagnorisis recognition and revelation ∼ Hamartia a miscalculation or tragic mistake or flaw ∼ Mythos the plot ∼ Dianoia the theme ∼ Lexis the diction or speech ∼ Melos melody ∼ Opsis spectacle See also Conventions, Drama, Drama terms, Mood. DC
Etymology (Greek: ‘study of’, ‘true sense’) The study of the sources and development of words and morphemes. Etymology as an analysis of the structure of language centres on a study of special varieties of language, particularly scientific and administrative language and the language of expository prose. Etymology as the history of words helps to define these same styles by defining an area of English vocabulary that derived from classical languages. DC
Eulogy (Greek: ‘praise’) A formal speech or written work paying tribute to a person or thing. It is usually associated with funeral rituals and is written in praise of the deceased. See also Elegy, Encomium, Obituary, Occasional verse. JM
Euphemism (Greek: ‘fortunate speech’) A word or phrase that is considered as a mild or dignified substitute for another word or phrase that has offensive, uncomfortable, embarrassing or undignified connotations. Widespread in contemporary society, examples of euphemisms include: ‘senior citizen’, for ‘old-age pensioner’; ‘rest room’ for ‘toilet’ or ‘lavatory’; ‘retrenchment’ for ‘sacking’; ‘passed away’ for ‘died’; ‘collateral damage’ for ‘civilian deaths’; ‘anti-personnel weapon’ for ‘a weapon which kills civilians’. Euphemisms are coined and maintain their currency depending on the mores and acceptable language codes of a particular time and place (and age-group). In the Victorian era, for example, it was impolite to refer to the legs on a table or chair, since the word ‘legs’ was a covered part of a woman’s body. The most common euphemisms are those associated with death and sex. See also Language. JM
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E Evaluation (French: ‘to evaluate’) A term with two meanings in the context of English education. 1. The process of engaging with and interpreting texts requires not only description, explanation and analysis, but also a judgement about the effectiveness and value of the text. In this sense, evaluation requires an informed judgement about the worth of the text, based on an informed understanding of the meaning, purpose and form of the text. An approach to texts that moves students from a descriptive and explanatory response through to an evaluative response is based on the questions: ∼ what is being said (not said)? ∼ where is it being said? ∼ who is saying it? ∼ how is it being said? ∼ why is it being said?; and ∼ what is the worth of what is being said? Every act of literary criticism requires value judgements as does every act of engaging with and responding to language and texts. Making explicit the basis of these judgements is central to the development of students’ evaluative skills. 2. In classroom pedagogical practice, evaluation refers to an appraisal of a teaching/learning program, unit of work or student achievement by the individual teacher and/or a colleague at the conclusion of the teaching/learning cycle. The criteria for such an appraisal usually include making a judgement on the effectiveness of the program/unit of work in light of: the specific abilities, interests and learning needs of the students; curriculum requirements as outlined in the relevant syllabus document; teaching and learning strategies; the resources used; the period of time allowed; and student achievement/performance, including the demonstration of knowledge, skills and understanding. An evaluation of a teaching/learning program or unit of work will also involve planning for future student learning based on the conclusions of the evaluation. Sources of evidence for evaluating can include: ∼ the teacher’s ongoing reflections ∼ anecdotal evidence from feedback from students ∼ surveys and interviews ∼ work samples ∼ feedback from other teachers and parents. See also Assessment, Interpretation, Program, Literary criticism, Values. DC, JM
Existentialism A philosophical movement made popular in the 20th century. The figures associated with existentialism were Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980), Simon de Beauvoir (1908-1986), Albert Camus (1913-1960), Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855), and Martin Heidegger (1889-1976). Existentialism claims that morality can never be defined outside the self, or imposed upon the self, but is made by the radically free self. Writers like Sartre emphasised the power of human beings to craft their own characters and destiny, rather than agreeing to an agenda and a set of morals dictated by a governing body. It is the particular attribute of the human being that we are free to be able to choose who we are and what we will do to create society. Sartre and de Beauvoir resisted the idea that morality and goodness were things that could be defined outside the self or institutionalised, and as a result, existentialism has been accused of being morally relativist. That is, if everyone satisfies themselves that they are ‘moral’, then it is possible that all individuals live without reference to one another and social mayhem results; there are no objective rules to follow to ensure society’s safety. On the other hand, Sartre claims that the truly The English Teacher’s Handbook
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E morally fulfilled individual accepts this individual challenge and becomes ‘authentic’. The human being who shirks the responsibility to craft their own character and to take responsibility for their own moral development lives in what Sartre termed ‘bad faith’ – that is, by accepting the moral maxims of an outside governing body and claiming ‘I have no choice’, such individuals are shirking the responsibility of becoming truly human. Therefore, in Sartre’s approximation, we become oriented toward one another the more ‘authentic’ we become. In literature, Sartre’s novel Nausea (1938), Franz Kafka’s novels, Simone de Beauvoir’s novels, and Albert Camus’ novels detail protagonists who are in varying states of responding to this imperative to become ‘authentic’. Some give in to the pressure to acquiesce to ‘Them’, or ‘the Public’ – that is, morality from governing forces and a set of rules – and some become close to the ‘authentic’ state that existentialists pursue. SGS Reference: Cooper, David E. (2002) ‘Existentialism’ The Literary Encyclopedia,
Experiential learning This term carries two meanings. 1. It refers to a model of learning in which students are provided with opportunities to actively explore and inquire, apply knowledge, skills, understandings and values in contexts that are connected to their lives. Experiential learning involves, as Borzak states, ‘a direct encounter with the phenomena being studied rather than merely thinking about the encounter, or only considering the possibility of doing something about it.’ (Borzak, 1981, quoted in Brookfield, 1983). This learning takes place within structured settings such as classrooms and relies on activity-based, learner-centred and inquiry models of pedagogy. 2. The second type of experiential learning is the kind of real-world learning that occurs in everyone’s day-to-day life as part of their ordinary activities. Both types of experiential learning rely on the engagement of the senses and the opportunity to reflect on that experience in order to learn and understand. Experiential learning is based on the ideas of John Dewey (18591952) and emphasises the developmental nature of all learning. David A Kolb and Roger Fry (1984) developed a model of experiential learning based on four elements: 1. concrete experience 2. observation and reflection 3. formation of abstract concepts 4. testing in new situations. According to this model, learning is cyclical, spiralling and reflexive. The principles of experiential learning are embedded in contemporary English education, with its emphasis on students’ direct experience of language and texts; connecting learning to life; ‘making and doing’ as well as responding and appreciating; and the process of moving through stages of engagement to come to meaning and then synthesise new understandings through application to new situations and experiences. See also Affective learning, Cambourne’s 8 Conditions for Language Learning, Constructivism, Cooperative learning, Engagement, Group work. JM References: Brookfield, S.D. (1983) Adult Learning, Adult Education and the Community, Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Dewey, J. (1993) How We Think, NY: Heath. Kolb, D. A. (1984) Experiential Learning, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Explication (French: ‘explication of the text’) The process of explaining a text through a close and formal analysis of the form and content of the text. This method is perhaps best illustrated by Practical Criticism – A Study of Literary Judgement by IA Richards (1929) and Seven Types of Ambiguity by William Empson (1930). See also Analysis, Close reading, New Criticism. DC
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E Exposition: (Latin: ‘a setting forth’) 1. As envisaged by genre theory, an exposition is a factual type of text, constructed by a writer to expound or set forth information or a viewpoint. Its purpose is to persuade the audience with the sequential development of an argument and the use of relevant evidence to support this argument. According to genre theory, an exposition may have specific structural features such as a lead-in sentence to state the topic and capture interest; an introduction which signposts sentences to the issues to be raised; one paragraph per main idea; each paragraph starts with a topic sentence containing an assertion; arguments show logical progression; arguments are prioritised and sequenced; the conclusion summarises content and contains no new information. The language features often avoid the use of the first person; use strong modal verbs such as ‘must’, ‘should’, ‘will not’; and use words expressing certainty such as ‘definitely’, ‘ultimately’, ‘undoubtedly’, ‘unequivocally’. Linking words and phrases which express an accumulation of evidence to support the central argument such as ‘furthermore…’; ‘in addition…’; ‘moreover…’ are commo0n in an exposition.. 2. In Drama, exposition refers to the essential information a dramatist provides to the audience at the beginning of a play about the plot and forthcoming events. An audience needs to know who the characters are and what is happening in a play. It is rare for a character to walk on stage and say to the audience Hello, my name is Hamlet and I’m Prince of Denmark. A playwright needs to give the audience background information about the characters on stage and outline the events which have preceded the action. This is known as the exposition and provides essential information for the audience and for the progression of the plot or action. Such an exposition occurs in Shakespeare’s The Tempest, (1610-11) Act 1, Scene ii, where Prospero explains to Miranda the past events and experiences that have led to their present situation on the island. See also Analysis, Argument, Drama, Drama terms. DC, JM, JH
Expressive criticism An approach to the study and analysis of texts that considers the work of art as an expression of the composer’s personality, state of mind, emotions and imagination. New Critics rejected Expressive criticism as overly subjective and therefore flawed and unreliable as an approach to evaluating the worth and value of a text. The American New Critics, WK Wimsatt and MC Beardsley, coined the term Intentional Fallacy to describe the rejection of the assumption and the idea that the author can be a reliable source of meaning in the study of a text, since the reader can never definitively know the author’s ‘intention’ when the work was created. The Romantic critics, however, who preceded the New Critics, placed considerable emphasis on the composer’s feelings, imagination and emotional transparency in judging the effectiveness, quality and impact of a work. Wordsworth articulated this view when he said: …For all good poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: and though this be true, Poems to which any value can be attached were never produced on any variety of subjects but by a man who, being possessed of more than usual organic sensibility, had also thought long and deeply. (Preface to Lyrical Ballads, 1798) See also Intentional Fallacy, Interpretation, Literary criticism, New Criticism, Romanticism. JM Reference: Wimsatt, W.K. & Beardsley, M.C. (1954) The Verbal Icon: Studies in the Meaning of Poetry, Kentucky: University of Kentucky Press.
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F Faction A type of text that is based on actual historical events and/or people, but shapes these events imaginatively. Faction texts may also be known as historical or nonfiction novels (although the conjunction of ‘nonfiction’ and ‘novel’ is on the surface an apparent contradiction). Although prose fiction often draws on and imaginatively reshapes actual events, people, and places, a faction text relies more heavily on ‘fact’ in its rendering of the story. Examples of faction include: Jean Bedford’s Sister Kate (1982, based on the experiences of Kate, the sister of Dan and Ned Kelly); Thomas Keneally’s Schindler’s Ark (1982); Pat Barker’s Regeneration trilogy - Regeneration (1990), The Eye in the Door (1993) and The Ghost Road (1995) in which the experiences of the poets Siegfried Sassoon and Wilfred Owen and the psychiatrist WHR Rivers are fictionalised; Frank Moorehouse’s Grand Days (1993) and Dark Palace (2000); Peter Carey’s True History of the Kelly Gang (2000); Geraldine Brooks’ People of the Book (2008); and Nick Bleszynski’s Bloodlust (2008). See also Historical fiction. JM
Fairy tale A traditional story or folktale that deals with fairies, witches, dragons, princesses, trolls, goblins, giants, step-mothers, ogres, unicorns, elves, magic, the supernatural and imaginary worlds. Often, the fantastical fairy tale characters engage in some way with ordinary humans. Typically, fairy tales begin with the phrase ‘once upon a time’ signalling that the story will be set in an enchanted realm, far beyond the everyday, but connected to it in some way, even if metaphorically or allegorically. Many familiar fairy tales are remarkably universal in the sense that common elements of a fairy tale are evident across cultures and time. Some have argued that this universality can be explained by the tales’ focus on universal human experiences, myths and symbols. For example, a fairy tale such as Cinderella has been reworked in a variety of cultural and language contexts over the centuries. Visit
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F sense, fairy tales, like fables and parables, may perform a role in social regulation whereby the story supports certain ways of being and thinking, especially when it comes to gender. The characters in the tales who break the accepted codes of behaviour are often punished or labelled as ‘wicked’ or ‘evil’. The tales often rely on archetypes and stereotypes (e.g. the princess in distress, the handsome prince, the wicked step-mother, the lost or abandoned child and so on). For this reason, fairy tales are a powerful stimulus for writers who rework the tales, breaking the conventions and assumptions of the original tale. Such transformations are known as fractured fairy tales. Fairy tales have been subjected to diverse analysis and interpretation within critical frameworks such as, for example, Psychoanalytic criticism, Archetypal criticism, Feminist criticism and Cultural Studies. They have also been adapted to and appropriated in many other types of texts. Disney has produced many animations of fairy tales, and the film Princess Mononoke (1997) is based on folkloric and fairy tale elements. The Shrek movies (2001, 2004, 2007) satirise and subvert the codes, conventions, characters and moral lessons of well-known fairy tales. The three Shrek movies are examples of fractured fairy tales: elements of the original fairy tale are replaced or transformed in order to draw attention to and critique the stereotyping, sexism, racism and assumptions in the original tale. It has become common to use the term ‘fairy tale’ to describe a happy, joyous event: e.g. ‘fairy tale wedding’; ‘fairy tale ending’. Such usage is ironic given the dark thematic focus and unhappy outcomes for many of the characters in traditional fairy tales. Well-known writers of traditional fairy tales include the Brothers Grimm, Giambattista Basile (15751632), Madame d’Aulnoy (1651-1705), Charles Perrault (1628-1703) and Hans Christian Andersen (1805-1875). See also Allegory, Archetype, Children’s literature, Film, Intertextuality, Fiction, Story, Representing, Writing. JM
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Fractured fairy tales:
∼ Select resources such as picture books (The Stinky Cheese Man and other Fairly Stupid Tales, J Scieszka; Cinder-Edna, E. Jackson; The Paper Bag Princess, R Munsch); Young Adult books (Once Upon a More Enlightened Time, JF Garner; The Prince of the Pond, D Napoli); Briar Rose, Jane Yolan, or an anthology of ‘fractured fairy tales’ (such as Jay William’s The Practical Princes and other Liberating Fairy Tales). ∼ Using one or more of these resources, explore the ways in which the composer has recast the fairy tale and the impact of this. Compare this to the original tale.
∼ Students choose one fairy tale from their own memory and re-tell this by changing one or more key elements (e.g. gender; time and setting; sequence; action; outcomes).
∼ Students compare and contrast their fractured fairy tales with the original, focusing on techniques of appropriation and transformation and on purpose and audience.
Fantasy (Greek: ‘to make visible’) Usually depicting a deliberate departure from reality, this term is sometimes equated with ‘fancy’. While there are many variations on the constitutive elements of a work of fantasy, it is not uncommon to find unreal or nonexistent pre-industrial settings in which magic and the supernatural, magical and evil creatures, fantastic artefacts and warring nations are central to the dynamism of the plot. Often based on or extending myths and legends, the characters in works of fantasy, sometimes themselves endowed with magical or supernatural powers, find themselves searching and struggling, battling or enlisting the forces of good or evil to fulfil their quest. In fantasy there are often events and experiences that are impossible or improbable in the ‘real’ world. Suspense, intrigue and mystery often carry the plot. Fantasy texts create a ‘fantasy world’ that contains fantastical elements (supernatural, magic, fantasylands, invented creatures, mystical experiences, myths, legends, monsters) and has a set of rules, laws and conventions for characters to adhere to. The setting, established at the outset, is internally consistent throughout the The English Teacher’s Handbook
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F text. Fantasy does not usually contain graphic horror elements (as in Horror) or a focus on technology (as in Science Fiction). Fantasy, as a genre, is extremely popular with adolescents. Fantasy texts are regularly published as a ‘series’ of novels. Examples of fantasy include: The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings (JRR Tolkien, 1937-1949); The Chronicles of Narnia (CS Lewis, 1949-1954); Peter Pan (J.M. Barrie, 1902); Alice in Wonderland (Lewis Carroll, 1865); Artemis Fowl series (Eoin Colfer, 2001-2008); Harry Potter series (J K Rowling, 1997-2007). In the fantasy film genre, Fritz Lang’s Metropolis (1927), Merian C Cooper’s King Kong (1933), It’s a Wonderful Life (1946) directed by Frank Capra (1897-1991), Star Wars (1977), directed by George Lucas (1944) and The Lord of the Rings trilogy directed by Peter Jackson (2001-2003) have all been influential. See also Fiction. DC
Feminist literary criticism Feminist literary criticism draws its impetus from the broader movement of feminism that protests for the rights of women to be equal to men. In the literary context, feminism takes many forms but is broadly drawn together by the effort to emancipate women from the dominant male rule in society that had ‘silenced women’s voices’ (Rivkin and Ryan, 1997: 184-5). The advent of feminist literary criticism is often placed in the 1960s and 1970s, emanating from the work of Germaine Greer (1939-), Kate Millett (1934-) and Adrienne Rich’s speech to the Modern Language Association in 1970 (Rivkin and Ryan1997: 184-185). However, the roots of this resistance can be traced as far back as Mary Wollstonecraft’s “Vindication of the Rights of Women” (1792) and Virginia Woolf’s A Room of One’s Own (1929) where women theorised about the difficulty of women writing, the way women are portrayed within texts, and how texts written by women are placed within or on the peripheries of a patriarchal canon. Generally speaking, feminism is united in an effort to protect and emancipate the female ‘other’ from the patriarchal reach of the traditional canon. As such, some of the efforts made by feminist literary theory are to expose that patriarchy, and to show the ways in which the patriarchy has either overtly or covertly silenced women’s voices. This done, feminist literary theory takes an essentially ethical posture for social justice in different directions: 1. Some have taken cues from deconstruction and sought to expose the ways in which the feminine ‘other’ has been oppressed within philosophy and within language. Some of these theorists are Julia Kristeva (1941-), Hélène Cixous (1937-), and Luce Irigaray (1932-), whose work is referred to as ‘French feminism’. This brand of feminism tends to assert that ‘the feminine’ is itself a construct and that what is radically other must remain, simply, ‘difference’. Not surprisingly, each of the French feminists (and others within the traditions) strenuously rejected the notion that they should be universally grouped together. 2. Others have taken issue with the canon itself, writing to expose the ways in which the literary canon has been formed to promote men and silence women. Of critical importance in this regard is Elaine Showalter’s work (1977, 2001), where Showalter seeks to resurrect neglected women authors who might have been included in a literary canon if the patriarchy had not been so oppressive. Consequent literary theory in this tradition examines the works of little known-women authors, often working in and around the margins of traditional male authors and their texts, and works to show the ways in which these female-authored texts have value. This type of feminism also works to show the ways in which critical sensibilities are conditioned and created to appreciate work written by men, so as to make the patriarchal canon ‘watertight’. This type of interrogation attempts to consequently invent and promote new feminine critical sensibilities so that we are able to see the literary merit of these neglected texts. 3. Still more feminists deal with the way the feminine is portrayed and depicted within the text itself. Susan Gubar and Sandra Gilbert’s book The Madwoman in the Attic (1979) was seminal in this regard, and helped to show the way in which women had been trapped in what Lacan might call the ‘male gaze’ – “those mythic masks male artists have fastened over 118
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F her human face both to lessen their dread of her ‘inconstancy’ and – by identifying her with the ‘eternal types’ they have themselves invented – to possess her more thoroughly” (Gilbert and Gubar, 2000: 16-17). This type of feminist literary criticism seeks to read these texts with resistance and consequently to show the ways in which men caricature and possess women through oppressive metaphor and image. 4. Other feminists have worked to expose which societal structures work against women, and can be loosely known as ‘material feminists’. One such example is the work of bell hooks, who seeks to expose the ways in which women are systematically shut out of rigid and hierarchical structures of power (1989). See also Gaze theory, Gender, Interpretation, Literary criticism. SGS, JM References: Gilbert, S. & Gubar S. (1979) The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth Century, New Haven and London: Yale University Press. hooks, b. (1989) Talking Back: Thinking Feminist, Thinking Black, Boston, MA: South End Press. Rivkin, J. & Ryan, M. (2004) Literary Theory: An Anthology. 2nd edn. London: Blackwell. Showalter, E. (1977) A Literature of Their Own: British Women Novelists from Brontë to Lessing, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Showalter, E. (2001) Inventing Herself, New York: Scribner.
1. When reading/viewing a text you may ask:
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ How is gender represented and constructed in this text? ∼ What are the text’s assumptions about gender? ∼ What characteristics, responsibilities, freedoms, and desires are attributed to or assigned to each gender in this text?
∼ How are men and women represented in this text? ∼ How do the male and female characters interact and relate to each other in this text?
∼ What are the female points of view, concerns, and values presented in this text? ∼ Would this text be different if the male and female roles were reversed? 2. Select a range of texts by male and female writers that can be paired and read together. Pairing of texts highlights the differences in approach, language, values, point of view and ways of thinking that may not be as evident if each text were to be considered individually. Examples of texts that can be paired are:
∼ Emily Dickinson “I’m Nobody!” / Walt Whitman “Song of Myself” ∼ Charlotte Perkins Gilman “The Yellow Wallpaper” / Edgar Allen Poe “The Black Cat”
∼ HD (Hilda Doolittle) ‘Trilogy’ (The Walls Do Not Fall) / TS Eliot The Wasteland
Fiction (L.atin: ‘create’ ‘to fashion’) Something imagined and invented. Fiction is a collective term for texts that tell a story, usually in narrative form. Fictional texts are distinguished from factual texts in that they ‘made-up’ and nonfiction is based on actual people, places and events. Fiction encompasses the main genres of novels, novellas, short stories, epics, other prose fiction and narrative fiction works as well as oral forms of imaginative storytelling. Although fiction relies on the imagination and creativity to construct imaginary worlds and people, it draws on, and to a greater or lesser extent relies on, elements of the ‘real’ world or cultural context of the composer and audience in representing that world through language. Imaginatively crafting these elements into a fictional form entails selecting, shaping, interpreting, ordering and representing ideas, people, places, events, experiences, and views/of the world. Decisions about the purpose, intended audience, form, structure and language are central to the creative process and involve the composer’s use of formal conventions and codes associated with a particular genre. The English Teacher’s Handbook
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F Fiction as an oral form is as old as story itself and is generally defined as an imaginative text that contains character/s, plot/s, setting/s, and theme/s that are in part or wholly imagined. While the genres of fiction are extensive, the features of one genre may overlap with other genres, and composers frequently experiment with the conventions and features of a particular genre to extend its purpose, form and subject matter. When exploring and studying fiction, it is important that students develop a knowledge and understanding of the ways in which fictional texts are constructed – that is, they ways in which they come to be as artefacts by drawing on a range of cultural, literary, historical and other materials. There is an abundance of resources to support teachers and students in engaging with, responding to and creating fiction. Resources such as Reading the World in Fiction series (eds. Berchervaise et al, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000) and Hayhoe and Parker’s Working with Fiction (1984) provide a wealth of practical strategies that can be integrated into units of work, writing programs and wide reading programs. For further practical strategies see also Author, Audience, Four phases of classroom experience, Literature, Narrative, Novel, Reading, Short story, Text. DC, JM References: Berchervaise, N. & Sneddon, H. (1995) Reading the world in fiction: ideas for teaching fiction, years 7-12, Sydney: Phoenix Education. Hayhoe, M. & Parker, S. (1984) Working with Fiction , London: Edward Arnold.
Film A multimodal media text that is studied and produced in subject English. In their recent book on teaching and making film, Anderson and Jefferson argue that Learning about and learning to make film is important because it raises our consciousness and awareness of life. The power of the lens is its ability to communicate detail, to convey the subtlety of nuances such as the power and meaning of a look. While all of these qualities have important ramifications for learning across the curriculum, we should not necessarily rely on pragmatic arguments. While we would argue that film can and does teach many things that are useful outside film learning itself (literacy, social skills, and so on), that should not be the sole raison d’être for teaching the screen. Film should be taught because it is intrinsically worthwhile as an area of schooling, and ultimately a way for us to understand others, our world and ourselves. The second ‘short answer’ is that we increasingly have no choice. Students are now born into a media-rich world where most of the time they are being recorded and often they are recording. Marc Prensky (2001) calls these students digital natives because they have not had to struggle like their digital immigrant elders to get used to the technology that is swirling around them. (Anderson and Jefferson, 2009: 2) Film as a mode of production and as a broad genre can be categorized, interpreted, understood and made according to a range of criteria: ∼ Sub-genre: for example, thriller, crime/detective, gothic, suspense, western, fantasy, science
fiction, chick-flick, comedy, romance, drama, action and adventure, spy, bio-pic, docudrama, documentary, art-house, film noir, B-grade, and children’s. ∼ Historical period, artistic movement or country: for example, French 1960s, Russian 1970s,
German 1920s, Hollywood 1950s, French realism, expressionism, and neorealism. ∼ Director, producer or studio: for example, Alfred Hitchcock, Steven Spielberg, Ingar Bergman,
Francis Ford Coppola, George Lucas, Jean Renoir, Paramount, Fox, Columbia, MGM, Warner Bros, and Disney. ∼ Technology and means of production: for example, silent movies, animation, celluloid,
computer-generated, low budget, and big budget. Since film is a form that depends on collaboration (between, for example, actors, directors, screenwriters, editors, cinematographers, set designers, costume designers, musicians, producer/s and 120
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E a host of other technical experts), it offers students a rich context for learning about the complex art, craft and aesthetic of film production. The study of film requires the developing knowledge and understanding of the great range of codes and conventions that cue the viewer into the genre, form or style of the film, building expectations about, for example, the film’s characters, plot, action and resolution. Through examining and analyzing the techniques employed, the detail of composition, sequencing, point of view, editing, the intended audience, thematic focus, and so on, students acquire a developing command of the distinctive features of films as media and as forms of culture with specific purposes: “A student who is literate and creative with film is better equipped to realise the potential of film’s capacity to influence as a pervasive and persuasive social medium of communication.” (Anderson and Jefferson, 2009: 58) Importantly, “as students make films, they must understand how to read images so they have the power to work vitally with the art form, and in doing so become more discriminating consumers of the medium...To read the images of film effectively, we believe it is necessary to learn and control the language of film.” (Anderson and Jefferson, 2009: 36) There is a wealth of resources, in print and on the web, to support teachers and students in the study of film, and in filmmaking. (See references below). The following tables provide simplified overviews of the history of film, a framework for analysing film, and practical strategies for teaching film. See Appendicies for a full table of film and visual literacy terms.
A brief history of film Year 1839
Inventor/Movement Louis Daguerre
Innovation Permanent images on metal plates, ‘Daguerrotypes’
Techniques / Characteristics • Images captured permanently • Development from the camera obscura
1888
Louis Le Prince
Strips of film
•
Images sequenced
1891
William KL Dickson (assistant of Recording of sequential Thomas Edison) photographs in a Kinetograph
• •
Peep show device Illusion of a fluid motion
1895
August and Louis Lumiere
• •
Recorded and projected motion pictures for a theatre audience Reality shots
Cinematographe
1902
Georges Melies
A Trip to the Moon (1902) The Palace of the Arabian Nights (1905)
• •
Special effects Fantasy elements
1903
Edwin S Porter
The Great Train Robbery
•
Sequencing and cutting between indoor and outdoor scenes
1908
DW Griffith
The Adventures of Dollie (1908) Intolerance (1916)
•
Innovations in close-ups, long shots, travelling shots, pans and crosscutting Mass audiences for American silent movies, post WWI
•
1920s
German filmmakers
Impressionism The Cabinet of Dr Caligari (1920)
•
Horror, psychological studies, social themes.
1930s
Major Studios, Warner Bros, Universal, MGM, Paramount, (Lasky, Goldwyn, Mayer, Zukor, Laemmle, Warner)
Genre films: gangsters, city life, musicals, comedies, Depression hero (Jimmy Cagney)
•
Genres became associated with different studios
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F Year
Inventor/Movement
Innovation
1930s
French directors – Jean Renoir Sound era
1940s
Capra, Ford, Orson Welles
Techniques / Characteristics
Citizen Kane (1941) The Maltese Falcon (1941)
• •
Skepticism, cynicism Innovations in photography and editing French poetic realism German expressionist imagery
•
Post WWII
Italian Directors (Rossellini, Castinelli)
Open City (1945)
• •
Camera out on the streets Neorealism
1950s
American mass production
Singin’ in the Rain (1952) South Pacific (1955) High Noon (1952)
• • • • •
Emergence of Westerns, and more musicals Science fiction a central concern Major studios lose power Rise of independent filmmakers Technicolour
1960
Stanley Kubrick Dennis Hopper
A Space Odyssey (1968) Easy Rider (1969)
• • • •
More sophisticated audiences Counter-culture voices 3Social protest Post-Vietnam
1970s
Disaster, horror and gangster films proliferate. Woody Allen Robert Altman Francis Ford Coppola Martin Scorsese George Lucas
Special effects: The Godfather (1972, 1974) The Exorcist (1973, 1977) Star Wars (1977)
•
Escapist fantasy, commercially driven African Americans and women filmmakers emerge in mainstream
Internationalism Ingar Bergman and many European, African and South American producers, Spielberg
Epics, disaster, violence, crime, comedy
•
1990s
•
Technology/special effects
A framework for analysing film There are many excellent resources in print and on the web that provide practical approaches to analysing film. (See references below). In practice, film analysis is generally guided by inquiry in three broad areas: Area of inquiry
Guiding questions and topics
Production and distribution
The ‘how’ of the film: 1 how was it produced 2 who were the producers 3 when was it produced and why 4 who was the intended audience and what was the purpose 5 what technology was employed 6 how was it distributed?
Representation and meaning
The ‘what’ of the film: 1 what are the predominant ideas and themes 2 how are these represented through moving images 3 is the film located within a particular genre 4 is characterisation effective 5 how do the setting, dialogue and music contribute to the impact of the film 6 what are the distinctive features of the film?
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E Area of inquiry Reception and evaluation
Guiding questions and topics The ‘worth’ of the film: 1 critical reception 2 popular reception 3 historical, cultural, political, economic, and social contextual influences.
Practical Strategies for Teaching Film Strategy
Pedagogy
Shot-by-shot analysis
Take one scene or scenes from a film and explore it very closely. Look at the shots, music, costumes, lighting, special effects, transitions and so on.
Behind the scenes
Research aspects of the production process of a film, from inception, through development, casting, filming, editing, post-production, soundtracks, etc.
Workshop approaches to scenes – the play – the film
Select a scene from one of the plays and have students prepare director’s notes etc. Compare versions with a film.
Characterisation
Cast characters – word cache, profiles, costumes, symbols.
Symbols
Find symbols for characters within films.
Plot and action sequences
Compare and contrast the play with the film version(s) interpretation of time, place and action.
Ghost scenes
Examine what the film has omitted. Examine what the film has added. Why?
Character games
‘And Why’ – for film and for text versions. Compare and contrast.
Binary oppositions – ‘Yes, But’ character analysis
Light/dark, passive/aggressive, shy/assertive, cold/warm, hero/villain, ambitious/cautious, impetuous/deliberative, victim/agent, good/evil.
Uninterrupted viewing of the film This can be followed by closer analysis of scenes, speeches, character, dialogue, comparing and contrasting play and film. Comparing versions
View several versions (or excerpts of versions) of the same play or film.
Technology in use
Use the internet to explore the ways in which filmmaking techniques can be adapted to amateur productions.
Sequences of productions
Watch several versions of a film in chronological order. Explore the development of cinematic techniques and styles over time. Students can plan the next version.
The language of film
Take one or more of the features of film (lighting, sound, setting, camera angles, lenses, editing, etc) and examine the ways in which this feature operates in a particular film or excerpt.
Heroes and villains
Examine the ways in which the tragic heroes and villains have been presented on film. Characterisation, language, plot, costumes etc.
Shakespeare’s women
Examine the ways in which women in Shakespeare have been represented/ interpreted through film, over time.
Set design
Take one or more films, and explore the set design and its effectiveness.
Culture and politics
Examine the influence of culture and politics (and other forces) on film.
Point of view
For a film, or excerpts, explore the ways in which point of view is used to manipulate audience and response.
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F Strategy
Pedagogy
Openings
Take one or more films and study the way they begin.
Closure
As for openings.
Special effects
Examine special effects to interpret their impact and purpose.
Popular culture
Examine the construction and maintenance of popular culture and the role of film in this.
Thematic focus
Identify a thematic focus – revenge, jealousy, adolescent love, ambition, gullibility, superstition, disguise, fantasy, betrayal etc. Explore how one or more films present this theme through cinematic effects, character, plot, setting and so on.
3 minute adaptation
After viewing a film, try to capture its essence in one, two or three key scenes or moments.
The lives of the directors
Research the great film directors of history. Link this research to the study of particular films and the innovations, techniques, point of view, interpretations of character etc that the director/producer presents.
Children and animals
Examine the role of children and animals in one or more films.
Masks, costumes, props and sym- For one or more characters, explore the way that the film represents idenbols tity and relationships. Turning points
In one or more films, look closely at the ways in which the film represents the turning point scene or scenes.
Church and State/ Public and Private
Study the ways in which these dimensions of life are represented in one or more films.
References: Anderson, M. & Jefferson, M. (2009) Teaching the Screen: Film Education for Generation Next, Sydney: Allen and Unwin. Beale, P. (2001) Films in Focus, Sydney: Phoenix Education Berchervaise, N. (ed.) (2003) Constructing Shakespeare on Screen, Melbourne: Phoenix Education. Howie, M. (ed.) (2003) Big Screen Small Screen, Sydney: Phoenix Education. Watson, K. (ed.) (2000) Film in English, Sydney: Phoenix Education.
Film noir Film noir refers to a particular category of film that is characterised by its dark quality of tone, mood and visual effects. Historically film noir has its roots in the 1940s and 1950s when many Americans were disillusioned with the world, their society and their placement in it and the films they produced at this time reflected this general feeling of despair. Film noir takes a harsh and uncomplimentary look at American life and questions social values and behaviours. When many of these films were released outside of America en masse after World War 2, common filming techniques, characters and thematic concerns were recognised by viewers. The French expressionists, identifying the disillusionment evident in these films, called them ‘film noir’ or black film. Later films, such as Blade Runner (Ridley Scott, 1982), also echo these sentiments and employ filming elements often associated with film noir such as, for example: ∼ scenes which portray a world of dark streets, of crime, corruption and disillusionment ∼ dark and low-key lighting often used to obscure the action and ‘deglamourise’ the world depicted ∼ the effective use of shadow, striped and other distorted or dim lighting techniques; oblique and vertical/sloping lines are used in preference to the horizontal to further create the feeling 124
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F of disharmony and claustrophobia; light enters rooms and casts almost unnatural shadows ∼ the common use of extreme high angle/low angle perspectives to disorient the viewer and ∼ ∼ ∼
∼ ∼
create a mood of uneasiness, alienation and loneliness action which often takes place at night, in the rain or in interior settings; day scenes often have the blinds closed and indoor lighting is always subdued characters who are often corrupt or immersed in the seedy, harsh underworld of crime a ‘hero’ of the film who is often disillusioned with life and his role in it; untraditionally, main characters are rarely given spot lighting; the hero is often cast in shadow, creating a fatalistic and hopeless mood stock characters such as the hard-boiled detective and femme fatale who represent a more cynical worldview themes that are more fatalistic with a general tone of pessimism; the dark and uneasy visual expression of film noir emphasises these themes.
See also Film. KS
Flat and round characters This distinction was identified by EM Forster (Aspects of the Novel, 1927). A flat character is one who does not develop or change throughout a text. A round character does develop and evolve, often demonstrating a marked difference in behaviour, understanding or values at the conclusion of the text. Shakespeare’s comedies frequently contain at least one flat character, and this is usually the character who does not learn, adapt and grow from the experiences of the drama, and is therefore often isolated at the end of the play (for example, Malvolio in Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night). See also Character/Characterisation, Fiction. JM Reference: Forster, E.M. (1927, 1956) Aspects of the Novel, New York: Harvest Books.
Folk literature Genres of literature that have typically emerged from an oral tradition or folklore, reflecting and expressing the culture, rituals, customs, values and beliefs of the time and place. Folk literature includes ballads, proverbs, fairy tales, folk tales, songs, ghost stories, riddles, fables, nursery rhymes, legends and other stories that have been passed down from one generation to the next. Once the literature becomes codified in print, it may lose its folkloric distinctiveness. See also Fairy tale, Legends. JM
Folk tale A fictional text that is not set in any particular time and usually includes elements of fantasy. Besides being entertaining stories, folk tales are often instructive in that they use symbolism, personified animals and humans to exemplify some value, moral, custom or belief central to the culture from which it originated. See also Allegory, Archetype, Fairy tale, Nursery rhyme. JM
Form In English, form is used to describe the structure and technical features of a text. The form is often distinguished from the content, subject or matter of the text, although form and content are ultimately inseparable: form (the how of the text) does not exist without content (the what of the text) and viceversa. The principle of ‘form following function’ is one that underpins much literary criticism and writing pedagogy. See also Analysis, Close reading, Literary criticism, Poetry, Representing, Structuralism, Writing. DC, JM
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F Formalism A school/s of literary criticism the emerged in the early 1900s. Prior to the Russian Formalists and the English and American New Critics, the study of literature was about historical context and the biographical background of the author rather than about the study of language as such. A literary text was not studied as a discrete and defined text, but as a platform to examine the conditions that produced the text. Russian Formalists and the English and American New Critics changed this; they proposed that literature was a different type of text to philosophy, or sociology or biography, and that imaginative literature offered another kind of truth than that offered by the rational disciplines like science. In fact, they believed that imaginative literature had its own internal logic, and that it evolved not in response to the context in which it was created, but autonomously, according to the evolution of literary forms in and of themselves. For Formalists, literature should be considered in terms of what makes a text ‘literary’, rather than for what it might show or teach us about the world it describes. If literature should be studied in order to determine a text’s literariness, then it follows that the attention of the Formalist critic should be on the language and artistic devices that produce the particular quality of the text. Literary devices are what make a text ‘literary’ or not. The two genres that Russian Formalists were most interested in were poetry and prose narrative. In studying poetry, Russian Formalists were interested in what Roman Jakobson called ‘organizational violence’, where poets employed language that did not so much pay attention to grammatical sense as to aesthetic sense. For narrative, Russian Formalists distinguished between what they termed ‘the story’ and ‘the plot’, the chief difference being the order in which the story is narrated, and the story as it ostensibly happened. Russian Formalists were also famous for suggesting that, apart from the literary devices, what made a text literary was its ability to defamiliarise the reader with their world. They meant by this that literature could present something apparently ordinary in such a way that it became extraordinary. See also Literary criticism, New Criticism. SGS Reference: Rivkin, J. & Ryan, M. (2005) ‘Introduction: Formalisms’, in Literary Theory: An Anthology, Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Forum theatre A form of participatory theatre, made popular by Augusto Boal (1931-), the Brazilian founder of Theatre of the Oppressed. Actors create a scene depicting oppression or conflict. Members of the audience are invited to stop the scene at any point and intervene as 'spect-actors', taking the role of one of the characters, to try to resolve the situation of oppression or conflict by the use of some alternative behaviour. See also Drama, Drama terms. JH
Four phases of classroom experience: A pedagogical model commonly applied to the study of texts in English. It consists of four sequential phases of teaching and learning. Phase 1: Getting ready for the text through pre-reading/pre-viewing strategies. Ways of arousing interest, activating or building upon prior knowledge, scaffolding, and encouraging readers to form some initial, tentative hypotheses about and expectations of the text. For example: ∼ a mystery box filled with items relevant to the ideas, action or characters of the text ∼ predictions based on the title, cover or visual images related to the text ∼ parallel experiences of experiences or incidents in the text ∼ the use of an extract ∼ activities setting the scene ∼ an issues discussion ∼ an excursion. 126
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F Phase 2: Getting into the text through engagement strategies. Ways of involving the student in the process of anticipation, retrospection, reformulation and confirmation of initial responses. For example: ∼ prediction of a character’s motivation/personality, a character’s reaction to a particular event, a character’s course of action, a sequence of events, a possible resolution ∼ story maps ∼ character grids ∼ director’s notes ∼ action webs ∼ timelines ∼ reading/viewing journal ∼ open questions ∼ small group discussions of key ideas and elements of the text. Phase 3: Coming back to the text through response strategies. Facilitating, stimulating and encouraging students to return to the story, to refine their understanding, response and evaluation of the text, and shape their own personal interpretation of it. Provide opportunities for reflection so that greater meaning can be brought to the text. There are many strategies for responding to texts, ranging from creative and critical written responses, dramatic interpretations, oral responses, translating the text into another medium or form, drama strategies of hot-seating, panels and so on. Phase 4: Going beyond the text through reflection, synthesis and further textual experience. Encouraging students to recognise intertextuality. Going beyond the text enables teachers and students to take up the issues and experiences represented in the text and to explore them further. Many of the common response strategies can be extended well beyond the text. For example: ∼ use other related texts ∼ explore other works by the same composer ∼ use the text as a springboard for examining broader concepts. The model assumes an activity-based and student-centred approach to English. Phases 2 and 3 are the most widely applied in English classes. While Phase 1 is not always a pre-requisite for Phases 2, 3 and 4, it is an important means of stimulating student interest for Phase 2. Phase 4 – going beyond the text – is a crucial phase for the fostering of scope and sequence in English, whereby students build upon, connect and extend their learning. See also Engagement, Fiction, Film, Literature, Media, Multimedia, MyRead, Poetry, Reading, Representing, Writing. JM
Four roles of the reader Also known as the four resources model. Developed by Peter Freebody and Allan Luke in 1990 (Freebody & Luke, 1990; Freebody 1992; 2004). The four roles of the reader is a model of reading instruction that focuses on the skills that are necessary for a reader to participate in a textbased culture. According to Freebody and Luke, successful readers enlist the following roles: ∼ Code breaker: decoding the alphabetic codes, phonics and conventions of texts. ∼ Text participant: participating in texts by making meaning through comprehending and
composing. ∼ Text user: using different texts for different purposes, understanding language features and
how they relate to social and cultural functions of texts. ∼ Text analyst: analysing how texts position readers, understanding that texts are not
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F The four roles of the reader model has been adopted widely in schools and educational policy, both in Australia and overseas. It is included in the most state governments’ literacy guidelines and curriculum frameworks, the Australian Government’s strategies for teaching reading in the middle years, and is the basis for the United Nations World Health Organisation’s health literacy policy (WHO, 2003). See also MyRead, Reading. KF References: Freebody, P., & Luke, A. (1990). Literacies programs: Debates and demands in cultural context. Prospect: Australian Journal of TESOL, 5:7, pp. 7-16. Freebody, P. (1992) “A socio-cultural approach: Resourcing four roles as a literacy learner”, in A. Watson & A. Badenhop (eds.) Prevention of reading failure, Sydney: Ashton Scholastic, pp 48-60. Freebody, P. (2004) Hindsight and foresight: Putting the Four Roles Model of reading to work in the daily business of teaching, in A. Healy and E. Honan (eds.), Text next: New resources for literacy learning, Newtown, NSW: Primary English Teachers Association, pp 3-17. World Health Organization (2003) Working with Individuals, Families and Communities, Geneva: WHO.
Free verse Poetry that does not have regular rhythm or rhyme. Instead, free verse usually relies on other techniques to imbue it with form – for example, the subject, voice, theme or figurative language. Sometimes free verse will contain lines or sections with patterns of stress, or a discernable metre, but generally, the poetry is not structured according to this convention. Typically, free verse is a series of lines of verse and this distinguishes it from prose. Free verse contains what are often uneven lines, using punctuation, end-stops and run-on lines. Modernist poets developed and exploited free verse, with poems such as TS Eliot’s The Waste Land (1922) and Walt Whitman’s “Song of Myself” (1855) standing as exemplars of this kind of poetry. Other poets, such as, for example, William Blake (1757-1827), Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867), and DH Lawrence (1885-1930) also experimented with this form. Since that period, free verse has become typical of much 20th and 21st century poetry. See also Poetry. JM
Freytag’s pyramid The German critic, Gustav Freytag (1816-1895), devised a structural framework to account for the action and plot development in Greek and Shakespearean five-act plays. See also Anticlimax, Climax, Denouèment, Drama, Drama terms. JM
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F Functional grammar Functional grammar is also known as systemic functional grammar (SFG) or systemic functional linguistics (SFL). The words ‘genre theory’ have also been used to describe this model of grammar developed by Professor Michael Halliday, based on his early research and writing in the 1960s. Halliday was heavily influenced by the work of one of his teachers JR Firth, a British linguist prominent throughout the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s. Halliday’s foundational paper, “Categories of the theory of grammar”, written in England, was published in 1961. In his seminal works, Explorations in the functions of language (1973), and especially Learning how to mean (1975), Halliday developed his theory that there are seven functions of language that children acquire in their early years. Based heavily on the careful observation over time of his own son, Halliday argued that children are motivated to acquire language because it serves certain purposes or functions for them. He described the first four functions as those which help the child to satisfy physical, emotional and social needs. Halliday calls them instrumental, regulatory, interactional, and personal functions. ∼ Instrumental: serves to manipulate the environment, to cause certain events to happen. This is
when the child uses language to express what they want. ∼ Regulatory: The control of events. This occurs when the child uses language in an attempt to
direct others. ∼ Interactional: Serves to ensure social maintenance. This is when the child uses language as a
way of making contact with others and developing relationships ∼ Personal: This is when the child deploys language to express feelings, opinions, and so on,
thereby establishing and developing an individual identity. The next three functions assist the child to relate to and understand the external environment within which they are living and growing: Halliday describes these functions as ‘heuristic’, ‘imaginative’, and ‘representational’: ∼ Heuristic: This is when language is used to gain knowledge about the environment (e.g. 'What
is the tractor doing?') ∼ Imaginative: Here language is used to tell stories and jokes and to create an imaginary envi-
ronment, systems or ideas. ∼ Representational: The use of language to convey facts and information, to make statements,
explain, or report to represent reality as one sees it. Halliday moved to Australia in the 1970s, establishing the department of linguistics at the University of Sydney. Through his teaching there, SFL has spread to a number of institutions throughout Australia. It has spread to other countries from that Australian base. Systemic functional grammar, and its advocates, have been the focus of various battles in the broader controversies about language and literacy in education within what has been termed the ‘Literacy Wars’. Halliday used the term ‘systemic’ to refer to the view of language as “a network of systems, or interrelated sets of options for making meaning” (1994: 15). Systemic functional grammarians see the term ‘functional’ as denoting that their approach is focused on meaning: Systemic-Functional Linguistics (SFL) is a theory of language centred around (sic) the notion of language function. While SFL accounts for the syntactic structure of language, it places the function of language as central (what language does, and how it does it), in preference to more structural approaches, which place the elements of language and their combinations as central. SFL starts at social context, and looks at how language both acts upon, and is constrained by, this social context.
(www.isfla.org/Systemics)
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F However, from the late 1960s until the mid 1990s, the Dutch linguist Simon Dik achieved fame through developing his own theory of what he called ‘Functional Grammar’ which he developed when he was Professor of General Linguistics at the University of Amsterdam between 1969 and 1994 (he died in 1995). His magnum opus was in two parts. The first, The Theory of Functional Grammar (Part I: The Structure of the clause) was published in 1989. The second, The Theory of Functional Grammar (Part II: Complex and Derived Constructions) was published posthumously in 1997. Dik’s construction of Functional Grammar placed an emphasis on what he and his colleagues called ‘natural language’, as well as on compatibility with what this version of Functional Grammar described as the psychological processes involved in the processing of natural language. An explication of Dik’s theory of Functional Grammar can be found at
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G Gaze Theory A theory based on the work of Michel Foucault (1926-1984) and Jacques Lacan (1901-1981) to explicate the ways in which the spectator/audience looks upon the ‘other’: on representations of people in visual images, and the effects of this on interpersonal and intrapersonal experience. The theory was developed by feminist critics who applied the concept of the ‘gaze’ to interpret and critique the relations between men and women. Specifically, feminist critics explore the ways in which the male ‘gaze’ or ‘the look’ positions and regulates women. The gaze is interpreted as more than merely ‘a look’: it signifies a relationship of power between the observer and the observed. (Schroeder, 1998: 2008). The theory has been widely applied to film and media, illuminating the ways in which we view and read visual texts. Daniel Chandler has identified “several key forms of gaze…in photographic, filmic or televisual texts, or in figurative graphic art. The most obvious typology is based on who is doing the looking.” See also Feminist literary criticism, Gender, Image, Visual text. JM References: Chandler, D. (2005) Notes on “The Gaze”,
Georgian poets English poets who were writing at the time of the reign of King George V (1910-1936). The anthologised poetry was typically conventional in form (e.g. the lyric was popular) and pastoral or bucolic in theme. Georgian poets included Walter del a Mere (1873-1956) and Rupert Brooke (1887-1915). Two poets who drew subsequent acclaim for their work – Edward Thomas (18781917) and Wilfred Owen (1893-1918) - were also writing during this period, although their poetry is distinguished from the pastoral Georgian themes by its representation of war and the powerful, subjectively rendered experience of war. JM
Gender Refers to the social and cultural dimensions of male and female identity. It is a term of classification that differentiates the sexes in the same way that classifications of race, age and religion, for example, are employed to group individuals in society. In English, gender is considered as part of the study and analysis of texts. Representations of gender in texts are explored in terms of their constructions of masculinities and femininities and how these reflect, challenge, promote or subvert cultural and social beliefs, values, power relations, ways of thinking and worldviews.
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Feminist literary criticism seeks to expose and analyse the ways in which gender operates in texts to influence, shape and maintain patriarchal structures and power relations in wider society. Part of the work of feminist criticism has been to ‘reclaim’ and give voice to the work of marginalised women throughout history and to interrogate the ways in which dominant notions of canonicity privilege particular ways of thinking, being and viewing the world. For example, many canonic texts represent males as protagonists who are at the centre of the textual world, while females are often represented in more passive, dependent, circumscribed and peripheral roles. Texts are examined for their representation of stereotypes, on the assumption that texts can powerfully influence the values, beliefs and perceptions of the responder and the culture to which that responder belongs. Gender is also important in English in terms of its pedagogical implications. A great deal of research and scholarship in recent decades has centred on the role of gender in learning (particularly when it comes to reading and engagement in English), and the implications of this for effective and inclusive teaching and learning and student achievement. See Feminist literary criticism, Gaze theory. JM ∼ Use excerpts from the following films: ∼ Romeo + Juliet (Luhrmann, 1996) - the scene when Juliet is preparing for the ball,
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
with the Nurse. Juliet’s mother enters the scene.
∼ Radiance (Perkins, 1998). Opening scene. ∼ Faces in the Mob (ABC, 1997). Scenes with the mother kangaroos and their joeys. ∼ Watch the excerpts without interruption. Watch the excerpts again, asking students to be alert the ways in which gender is represented. Compare representations. Examine relationships, dialogue, setting, filmic techniques (lens, angles etc), music, body language etc to identify how gender is constructed and the assumptions about gender that underpin these representations.
∼ Using a list of binary oppositions, examine the characters in a text, considering the extent to which they are represented in terms of binaries such as, for instance: weak/strong; family/career; passive/active; submissive/dominant; collaborative/ competitive; emotional/rational; marginal/central; dependent/independent. Are these differences, as represented in the text, a consequence of biology (sex) or culture (gender constructions)?
∼ Pair a number of texts by male and female writers that have a similar thematic focus. Students compare the perspectives, ways of thinking and values in each text, exploring the extent to which differences and similarities may be due to gender. References: Alloway, N. & Gilbert, P. (eds.) (1997) Boys and literacy: Professional development units, Victoria: Curriculum Corporation. Alloway, N. & Gilbert, P. (eds.) (1997) Boys and literacy: teaching units, Victoria: Curriculum Corporation. Fraser, H. (ed.) (1995) Challenging the text: Critical literacy units for secondary English, James Cook University: Townsville. Martino, W. (1995) Gendered learning practices: exploring the costs of hegemonic masculinity for boys and girls in school. Proceedings of the Promoting Gender Equity Conference, 22-24 February 1995. ACT Department of Education: Canberra.
Genre (Latin: ‘type’, ‘kind’ ‘sort’) Refers to the categorisation of a type of text according to its purpose and its use of particular conventions, codes, forms, modes, setting, characters, structure, techniques or themes. Genre can refer to the broad groupings of types of texts such as, for example, novels, poems, nonfiction, plays, films, media and multimedia. It can also refer to the equally broad categories of, for instance, tragedy, comedy, epic, horror, musical, fantasy, western and crime. Texts are categorised within a certain genre when they adopt, adapt or experiment with the set of recurring conventions and distinguishing features of that genre. Depending on their experience, the reader comes to expect or implicitly recognise certain structural, linguistic or thematic features when they engage with a text composed in a particular genre. 132
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It is important to consider a genre as dynamic and flexible rather than as a fixed, immutable category. Composers regularly experiment with, alter or subvert the conventions of a particular genre in order to extend its boundaries, modify and critique its historical precedents or comment on its inherent system of values and ways of interpreting the world. It is generally understood that genres are shaped by a set of norms that in turn reflect and embody particular social and cultural beliefs and attitudes. Composer may work within and/or against the conventions of a genre in creating a new text. Innovation often occurs when received generic conventions and codes are modified, expanded and transformed. Genres are therefore evolving and permeable categories and can be regarded as contextually contingent forms. Some genres are more prevalent and popular during particular historical periods, reflecting the social, cultural and other contextual factors evident during the time. Examples of this include the predominance of satire and the mock-epic during the Augustan period; the pervasiveness of the lyric poem during the Romantic period; the popularity of the serialised novel during the Victorian era; and the emergence of crime fiction in the 19th century. The major classical genres identified by the Ancient Greeks were tragedy, epic, pastoral, lyric, comedy and satire and writers well into the 18th century were expected to follow the strict conventions of each. However, classifying the hierarchical taxonomy of genres is not necessarily an impartial and uncontroversial process in that genre may be seen as a theoretical conception, as opposed to something that exists objectively. The task of categorising texts according to genre is highly problematic, since genres also contain a myriad of subgenres. For example, ‘alternative worlds’ novels are seen by some as a subgenre of the ‘speculative fiction’ genre. Another problem with ‘genre’ is the seemingly ever-increasing number of genres and subgenres with the burgeoning of hybrid genres such as, for instance, ‘paranormal romance’, ‘space opera’ and ‘ethnographic science fiction’. In the 20th century, a branch of literary criticism known as Genre criticism emerged with the work of Mikhail Bakhtin (1895-1975) and was developed in the 1980s with the work of Carolyn R Miller. Miller and others have examined the socio-cultural contexts that give rise to and influence the purpose of and responses to a range of genres. With the emergence of new media, attention has turned to analysis of new genres that are hybridised, multimodal and sometimes more complex than the traditional print genres. Digital multimodal texts, such as, for instance, websites, do not adhere to the conventions of print texts in terms of form, content, production and dissemination. Within the broad category of digital texts alone, there are multitudes of hybrids and subgenres, each with their own sets of evolving conventions, codes and purposes. See also Codes, Conventions. DC, JM
lyric ballad cinquain
elegy
acrostic ode
sonnet
dirge haiku epic
villanelle dramatic monologue
limerick monody blank verse nursery rhyme
sestina
satire
abstract
concrete
free verse
song
epigram
pastoral
symbolist
anthem
threnody
tanka idyll
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POETRY
Examples of subgenres within the genre of poetry
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G Genre-based approach to writing A pedagogical model which emerged in the late 1980s in Australia that focused on teaching writing through genres (text types) and grammar: genre theory was also known as "functional grammar" and, later, expanded into "systemic functional linguistics" or "systemic linguistics". The genre-based approach to writing gained currency in English syllabuses, particularly in NSW and Queensland, and advocated the principle that learning to write entails the successful mastery of a range of hierarchical genres – their form, codes and conventions. Student achievement in writing was measured against the ability to explicitly appropriate and reproduce generic structures and features. Underpinning the model was the belief that initiating students into the dominant discourses (seen to be represented through dominant genres) of culture would enable them to access (and potentially shape) the power relations operating in that culture. Critics of the model have pointed to the paradox of one the one hand seeking to equip students with the language skills to participate in and influence power relations, yet on the other hand, adopting a pedagogy which limits students to knowledge about and the capacity to merely replicate discourses, thereby undermining the aim of empowering students to challenge and shape those dominant structures. In addition, critics of the model have pointed to the problematic concept of genre, arguing that genre and definitions of genres are themselves constructed (by particular groups to serve the purposes and interests of those groups) and are continuously shifting, contingent and unstable. For a fuller account of the genre-based approach to writing, see Ian Reid, The place of genre in learning: current debates (1989, CSLE: Deakin University). See also Functional grammar, Systemicfunctional grammar, Writing development, Writing. JM
German Idealism Refers to a collection of philosophical theories connected by the view that the mind creates the external world. Four principal types of idealism are: 1. Berkeleian idealism: George Berkeley (1685-1783) held that reality is of the nature of the mind, a set of ideas and nothing more. Universals or absolutely general classes do not exist: they are merely names. Only material particulars exist, though he reduced these to the ideas that exist in the mind. Thus, a material object consists of nothing but ideas, whether in the mind of the individual, or God (who created the individual). 2. Transcendental idealism: also called critical idealism, a term applied by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) to his theory of the external world. According to this theory, objects have no independent existence outside our thoughts; they are merely appearances. 3. Objective idealism: fully developed by Georg Hegel (1770-1831), this type of idealism contends that all that exists is a manifestation of one mind. 4. Subjective idealism: used by Hegel and Marxists in referring to the idealism offered by philosophers such as Kant. What we come to know about objects is constructed by the individuals who perceive them. The opposite view is that of objective or absolute idealism. The German idealist philosophers developed a fresh kind of philosophy intended to protect knowledge and virtue from the dissident dogmas of the late 18th century. Thinkers such as Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803), Johann Fichte (1762-1814), Johann Schiller (1759-1805), Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832) and Friedrich von Schelling (1775-1854) were hugely influential, contributing to the rise of the Sturm und Drang movement in literature: a movement driven by the frustrations of social and economic deprivation in the war-ravaged German principalities in the 1770s. The German idealists influenced English Romantics such as William Wordsworth (17701850), ST Coleridge (1772-1834) and Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822). DC References: Berlin, I. (2001) The Roots of Romanticism, The A.W. Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts. Bollingen Series, xxxv: 45, Washington: The National Gallery of Art. Flew, A. (ed.) (1979) A Dictionary of Philosophy, London: Pan Books.
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G Hausheer, R. (1999) ‘Fichte and Schelling’, in ed. A. O’Hear, German Philosophy Since Kant, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.
Globe Theatre (The) The original Globe Theatre was built in 1599 at Southwark, London by Richard Burbage’s company, the Lord Chamberlain’s Men (which included the young actor and playwright William Shakespeare). The original Globe was destroyed by fire in 1613 during a performance of Shakespeare’s Henry VIII. A canon that was fired during the performance led to the thatched roof catching fire. The theatre was rebuilt with a tiled roof and reopened in 1614. In 1642, The Globe was closed down by the Puritans, as were many other theatres around this time. The Globe was subsequently destroyed again and the location of the original site remained uncertain until parts of the foundations were discovered in 1989. The theatre that now stands near the site of the 1642 Globe is a modern version of the original, and it opened in 1997. The Globe Theatre - now known as “Shakespeare’s Globe” – has a website that provides a range of resources and information about the Elizabethan period, the history and architecture of the theatre, playing spaces, Shakespeare and his plays, the role of music and symbolism, stage design and Elizabethan actors.
Reconstruction of Shakespeare’s Globe Theatre, London, 2007
The forward thrust stage of Shakespeare’s Globe Theatre, London. This stage design enabled physical proximity between actors and audience.
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G Gothic A genre that emerged in the mid 1700s and was later developed by the Romantics and the Victorians. Gothic literature and film combine elements of horror and romance, emphasising extreme emotions, physical and psychological terror, the supernatural, castles, haunted houses, superstition, and settings that rely on atmospheric and elemental phenomena such as storms, thunder, lightning, fire and eerie darkness. The characters are often stereotyped or stock: for example, ghosts, magicians, vampires, madmen/madwomen, werewolves, Byronic heroes, femme fatales, and villains. Examples of Gothic fiction and fiction with Gothic elements include: Frankenstein (Mary Shelley, 1818); Northanger Abbey (Gothic parody, Jane Austen, 1798); “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” (ST Coleridge, 1817); stories of Edgar Allen Poe (1809-1849); Wuthering Heights (Emily Brontë, 1847); Jane Eyre (Charlotte Brontë, 1847); The Picture of Dorian Grey (Oscar Wilde, 1891); and Dracula (Bram Stoker, 1897). The continued appeal of vampire stories, particularly amongst teenagers, is evident in the plethora of young adult gothic fiction, film and television produced from the late 1990s to the present (e.g. the highly popular Buffy the Vampire Slayer - television series, 1997-2003 and film, 1992; and the more recent Twilight - novel, 2005 and film, 2008). These and other contemporary vampire texts rely on female protagonists, extending the conventions and boundaries of the genre, mixing gothic with romance, action and adventure. For practical strategies for teaching gothic texts, see DL Long and T Heller, eds. Approaches to Teaching Gothic Fiction: The British and American Traditions, New York: Modern Language Association of America. See also Genre, Fiction, Novel. JM
Grammar There are few aspects of English that attract such polarised views as the subject of grammar. There are also few aspects of English that are more misunderstood. There are, for example, at least five credible kinds of grammar which, in their various ways, help us to understand how the English language operates to make meaning: ∼ Traditional (originally Latin-based) Grammar ∼ Transformational Grammar; Functional Grammar (based on Halliday's original seminal work which was heavily influenced by the work of one of his teachers J R Firth, a British linguist prominent throughout the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s) ∼ Genre Theory / Systemic Linguistics (based on later developments of Halliday's work) and ∼ the Functional Grammar developed in the latter half of the 20th century by the Dutch linguist Simon Dik. The teaching of grammar in English continues to be embedded in teaching as part of the developing understanding of language in use in context, meeting the needs, interests and capacities of students at each stage of their learning. Grammar in secondary schools is generally taught explicitly at the point of need, either with individuals who are experiencing difficulties, or as ‘mini-lessons’ whereby direct instruction is provided for the whole class when the teacher identifies a particular need. Grammar is taught most effectively within meaningful contexts of purposeful reading and writing, rather than through decontextualised drill. Research has demonstrated the latter to be the least effective means for developing students’ capacities in writing. Indeed, contemporary researchers have stated that “there is no high quality evidence that the teaching of grammar, whether traditional or generative/transformational, is worth the time if the aim is the improvement of the quality and/or accuracy of written composition…the evidence base to justify the teaching of grammar in English to 5 to 16 year-olds in order to improve writing is very small.” (Andrews et al, 2004) See also Functional grammar. JM Reference: Andrews, R., Togerson, C., Beverton, S., Locke, T., Lowe, G., Robinson, A. & Zhu, I. (2004) The
Effect of Grammar Teaching (Syntax) in English on 5 to 16 Year Olds’ Accuracy and Quality in Written Composition: Review Summary, UK: University of York.
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G Graphic novel A synthesis of the comic and the novel. Graphic novels are multimodal texts that employ a range of techniques associated with both the comic and the novel. Like a novel, they are produced in a more durable physical form - hardcover or paperback - than traditional printed comic books. Graphic novels may be a novel-length story, a collection of shorter stories and may include elements of nonfiction. They cover a range of subgenres including horror, fantasy, autobiography, sport, action and adventure, science fiction and romance. Graphic novels in digital and interactive formats are increasingly popular as a form of entertainment, with some television series and movies appropriating graphic novels (for example, Watchmen the film, 2009, translates the graphic superhero text to the screen). The crossover in form and medium (comic/novel/film; print/digital) is an indication of their popularity, not only with younger readers, but also with adults. In this sense, they share the same kind of relationship that Anime shares with Manga. Examples of graphic novels include: Dreamwalker (Isobelle Carmody and Steven Woolman, 2002); The Arrival (Shaun Tan, 2007); and the Sin City series (Frank Miller, from 1991). See also Image, Fiction, Multimedia, Multimodal, Popular culture, Text, Visual literacy. JM
Greek theatre The 5th century BC is thought to be the high point of ancient Greek theatre with the flourishing of works by the great playwrights such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and Aristophanes. The plays were performed in outdoor amphitheatres, actors wore masks and there was a chorus. Plays were part of religious festivals. Features of the amphitheatre included: ∼ orchestra: this was normally a large, circular, level space where the actors performed. ∼ theatron: usually part of hillside overlooking, and often wrapped around the orchestra, where the audience sat. ∼ skene: the building behind the stage. Actors could make entrances and exits through it. See also Aristotle’s unities, Drama, Drama terms. JH
Group work Also known as ‘small group work’. An approach to learning that is underpinned by principles of student-centred, learning-centred and activity-based English teaching and learning. A great deal has been written about group work to provide teachers with pedagogical and theoretical guidance in implementing group learning in the classroom. Group work is a widely accepted approach to teaching and learning in English, with research demonstrating that student learning and achievement is greatly enhanced and strengthened by opportunities to work in small group settings in purposeful and structured ways. Such pedagogy enables students to use language and experience language in authentic ways that build personal and social language skills. It is often the case that students in K-6 classes demonstrate high-level group work skills, yet too frequently these are neglected or undervalued in the transition into secondary classroom contexts. Group work is characterised by: ∼ the configuration of learning in small groups so that students have the opportunity for a greater share of the ‘talking space’ in the classroom (Barnes, 1976) ∼ inquiry, project, problem-solving, and activity-based learning through ‘making and doing’ that enables students to use language to generate ideas, hypothesise, learn from each other, speculate, explore, discover and synthesise new knowledge and understanding ∼ cooperative (or collaborative) learning that places the student as the user of language at the centre of the learning process, valuing the language the student brings to the class and the social nature of learning ∼ the assumption that purposeful talking and listening constitutes core business in the English classroom
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G ∼ a structured context in which individuals work towards learning goals and outcomes (this can
be done as individuals who work on their own and come together in a group setting at key moments, or as collaborative work with assigned roles and tasks) ∼ an approach in which the teacher plans, structures, coordinates, facilitates, guides and monitors learning, but does not dominate the talking space of the classroom ∼ a context in which students work towards increasing independence and confidence as learners and where students acquire skills of metacognition. As Adams and Pearce point out, some teachers “have to control an obsessive, professional fear of something we call ‘irrelevance’…given the right starting point or setting, unsupervised pupils can actually be expected to sustain thoroughly useful conversations.” (Adams and Pearce, 1990: 7). It is the responsibility of the teacher to gradually move students’ talk “in the direction of relevance, of objectivity, of depth, and of reciprocity.” (Wilkinson, 1973: 434). Group work is part of an holistic pedagogy that strives for a balance between: ∼ teacher-directed and student-centred approaches ∼ individual, pairs, small group and whole class configurations ∼ content and process. Effective group learning does not happen by chance. It requires careful planning, implementation and monitoring, and all students need to learn about the processes and expectations of group learning experiences. The approach to group work needs to be thoughtfully managed so that students do not tire of the same, predictable structure and process each time they work in groups. One of the most valuable resources for small group learning is J Reid et al Small group learning in the classroom (1989). See also Constructivism, Cooperative learning, Differentiation, Learnercentred English, Learning styles. JM Principles for Group Work Establish protocols and expectations for group work
In Practice •
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Discuss and document expectations, rules, roles, leadership, group responsibility, seating plans, on-task behaviour, sanctions for non cooperation, guidelines for participation. Consider the size and rotation of the groups. Consider the make-up of groups (friendship, mixed ability, gender etc) Assign roles: e.g. Leader, facilitator, scribe, questioner, summariser. Home groups may design a symbol, logo, crest or emblem etc, to represent their group.
Allow time for students to learn how to learn in groups
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Initial group work should be tightly structured with clear indications of purpose, time limits (e.g. 5 minutes), roles and short focus activities, (perhaps initially working in pairs) and expected outcomes. Expect that it may take some time for students to become accustomed to group learning.
Incorporate opportunities for pair and small group learning on a regular basis
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Students will grow in confidence and competence if group work becomes an integrated part of the classroom experience.
Vary the process
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Ensure that group work is not always conducted in the same way – e.g. the same groups, approaching tasks in the same way, reporting back and so on. Use the strategies below to provide variety in group work, maintain student engagement, and extend students’ capacities and skills.
Employ a wide range and diversity of questions, stimulus and materials
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Equip students with knowledge about the range of types of questions that can be asked (see Questioning) Include opportunities for students to evaluate their own learning and the group process. Allow for choice and negotiation in group learning so students are increasingly taking responsibility for their learning.
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G There are many practical strategies for group work that allow for variety not only in process, but also in structure. Practical Strategy Think-pair-share
Process • • • • • •
Jigsaw
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Buzz
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Fishbowl
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Carousel brainstorming
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Teacher poses a provocative question or stimulus. Students work individually on a response – jotting ideas in note form. Students pair-up and discuss, explore and refine responses. Pairs form groups of four and undertake further discussion, exploration and refinement. Group leader reports to whole class. Quality of discussion depends on quality of the stimulus/question/task. Students are assigned a task in a home group. Once the home group has completed the task, new groups are formed with each person providing an overview of the previous groups’ work. Whole class discussion to conclude. Based on the idea of a short, sharp working-bee, small groups are assigned a task with a limited time for completion. Buzz groups work on a problem, case, scenario, question or statement. Groups report back to whole class. Buzz groups can also operate online. A small group discusses, explores and interrogates a topic seated in a circle in the middle of the class. The class listens and takes notes in response to the fishbowl discussion. Allows for immersion in talking and listening and group work for students who may be initially more comfortable with listening and observing before taking part. Teacher poses 4 open-ended questions. These are posted in the 4 corners of the room. Along with the question, there is a large sheet of blank paper. Teacher reads questions to class and explains expected responses. Class is divided into four groups. Each group is assigned a corner in which to start the carousel procedure. Each group is given a different colored marker. Time limits are given for each carousel point. Stop and start signals given. Students rotate clock-wise, around the room. At each new corner, the group reads the previous group’s responses. Teacher monitors activity. Last group to each question reviews all responses and selects the five best to share with the class. Group leader reports back to whole class.
Simulation
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In groups, students take on a role or address an imaginative scenario.. Readers’ theatre, improvisations, skits and dramatisations are effective ways to simulate.
Thinking hats
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Based on de Bono’s 6 thinking hats. Each student has a different coloured hat (see Talking and Listening) which is assigned a particular role. After students work in home groups, they can jigsaw by having all the ‘red’ hats in one group, all the ‘green’ hats in another, and so on, before returning to a whole class configuration.
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Literature Circles
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A way of engaging students in reading and exploration of texts. Based on student interest and choice. Promotes interpretive community. Important part of a wide reading program. (See Literature Circles)
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G References: Adams & Pearce (1990) in P. Brock, English Curriculum Support Materials, Armidale: UNE Barnes, D. (1976) From Communication to Curriculum. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Barnes, D. Rosen, H. & Britton, J. (1969) Language, the Learner and the School, Harmondsworth: Penguin. Hill, S. & Hill, T. (1990) The Collaborative Classroom, South Yarra: Eleanor Curtin. Manuel, J. (2004) “Connecting voices – effective engagement and pedagogy for oral English” in Reviewing English in the 21st Century, eds. W. Sawyer & E. Gold, Melbourne: Phoenix Education. pp. 73-85. Reid, J. (2002) Managing Small Group Learning, Newtown: PETA. Reid, J., Forrestal, P. & Cook, J. C. (1989) Small group learning in the classroom, Scarborough, WA: Chalkface Press. Wilkinson, A. (1973) “The Concept of Oracy” in Readings for Teaching English in Secondary Schools ed. T. Hipple, London: Methuen.
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H Hagiography Originally this term referred to any religious writing on the lives of the saints and holy figures. In more recent times, it has acquired a further meaning: it is sometimes used to describe a text that treats its subject with strongly biased or unwarranted reverence and praise. JM
Haiku Originally a Japanese poem of three lines with a strict form comprised of 17 syllables: line one contains five syllables; line two contains seven syllables; and line three contains five syllables. Haiku usually takes a single idea, theme, subject, experience or feeling and represents this through figurative language. Haiku is akin to a visual snapshot in words. A haiku can exist on its own, or as part of the cycle or set of haiku poems on a theme, subject etc. See also Poetry, Representing, Writing. JM
Your task? To capture in words what you experience with your senses and
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
your imagination…
Your goal? At least 10 Haiku, using words to celebrate a place, a time, an afternoon…
Presentation? Presentation Calligraphy, pictures, sketches, photos, collages, class anthology, web anthology.
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H Half-rhyme Sometimes also known as imperfect rhyme and slant rhyme. Half-rhyme became popular with late 19th and 20th century poets who sought the aesthetic effect of rhyme and pattern, without the possibility of that rhyme becoming clichéd and predictable. Hence, the endings of lines of verse ‘half rhyme’, as in the following example: Now, when alone, do my thoughts no longer hover Over the mountains, on that northern shore, Resting their wings where heath and fern leaves cover… (Emily Brontë, “Remembrance”, 1845) See also Poetry, Rhyme. JM
Hermeneutics The study of how human beings understand and interpret texts. Hermeneutics is a philosophical, rather than a scientific, exploration of how understanding occurs. It is concerned with how understanding is initiated, how understanding is created across temporal, cultural, gender, and class divides. The discipline of hermeneutics began with the study of scriptures, since this type of study deals with such divides, and as such investigates the ways in which context, presuppositions, questions, and time shape the ways in which readers approach texts. While the roots of modern hermeneutics are found in the philosophy of Aristotle’s rhetoric, modern hermeneutical scholarship began with the work of Freidrich Schleiermarcher and Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911), through to Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), Paul Ricoeur (1913-2005) and Hans-Georg Gadamer (19002002). Hermeneutics uses the concept of the ‘hermeneutic circle’ which is essentially the idea that we read parts that contribute to an understanding of the whole, and so on to new parts, and then on to a new whole, and so on interminably. What modern hermeneutics further contributes to this concept of the hermeneutic circle is that what we understand to be the parts and the provisional whole is also deeply and inescapably conditioned by our rootedness in a language, culture and history. Modern hermeneutics then proposes that reading texts helps to illuminate what kind of language, culture and history it is that conditions our understanding, and as such this illumination in turn helps us to read with more depth and complexity: what Gadamer (1976) called our “horizon” is enlarged. See also Interpretation, Literary criticism. SGS References: Gadamer, H-G. (1976) Philosophical Hermeneutics, trans. 2nd ed. David E. Linge, Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press. Klemm, D.E. (1986) Hermeneutical Inquiry: The Interpretation of Texts, Atlanta: Scholars’ Press.
Hero / Heroine (Greek: ‘protector’) The central character or protagonist in a text. Heroes and heroines were originally exalted, superhuman, godlike or idealised figures in mythology who achieved great feats of courage, endurance or social good. In literature and other texts, they are central characters who face challenges and crises and through their inner strength, bravery, wisdom, perseverance or physical prowess, triumph over adversity, overcome obstacles, achieve remarkable things, and resolve conflicts through their personal agency. In everyday contexts, the terms can refer to valorised public figures or other individuals who are seen to demonstrate exceptional qualities and to fictional characters in comics, movies and television shows (superheroes/superheroines). It is common in the media to refer to sports people as ‘sporting heroes’ (although it is far less common to hear the term ‘sporting heroine’). Other uses of the term associate heroism with bravery in war (‘war hero’). There are many types of heroes/heroines, although there is considerable overlap in types. In film, the term ‘hero’ refers to ‘the real one’. In other words, if a crew member stands in for lighting checks, for example, the second assistant director or the director may ask for ‘the hero’ - the actual 142
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H actor – to return to the set. The term is regularly applied when taking shots with products or objects, where the shots are rehearsed with poor quality substitutes so it does not matter whether they are damaged. Then, for the actual ‘takes’ they bring in the ‘hero’ product or object. The term has broadened within the film industry to mean the actual or final ‘proper’ one, and not the practice version. See also Archetype, Antagonist, Drama, Drama terms, Protagonist. JM Type
Features
Examples
Tragic
Often, but not always, a noble figure or leader who faces challenge, adversity and suffering but is doomed and eventually defeated by character flaws, poor decisions and/or external forces. Requires a reversal of fortune and self-discovery of tragic flaw.
King Lear (Shakespeare’s King Lear); Macbeth (Shakespeare’s Macbeth); Othello (Shakespeare’s Othello); Willy Loman (Miller’s Death of a Salesman)
Willing
Determined, brave, self-motivated; willingly takes on challenges and confronts obstacles; and enjoys the adventure. Can be an ‘ordinary’ figure or crusader.
Batman; Superman; James Bond; Alexander the Great; Superwoman; Marco Polo
Reluctant
Does not choose to participate in challenges; may have self-doubts; hesitant and uncertain about status and the unknown; needs to be motivated and driven by external forces to act.
Frodo, Bilbo and Samwise (The Lord of the Rings); Neo (The Matrix)
Epic/classic
Hero/heroine often based on classical myths and legends; undertakes a challenging journey or quest; overcomes adversity; returns from journey transformed.
Gilgamesh; Beowulf, Odysseus; Achilles; King Arthur; Jason (Golden Fleece); Richard the Lionheart; William Wallace; Joan of Arc
Action
Developed in film and television series; great prowess and physical attributes; tough and intrepid; usually male.
James Bond; Luke Skywalker; Jason Bourne (The Bourne trilogy); Indiana Jones; Lara Croft (Tomb Raider); Lysia (Hercules: The Legendary Journeys).
Romantic
Alienated from mainstream society; rejects social Mr Darcy (Pride and Prejudice); Don norms and values; possesses exceptional attributes; Juan (Byron); Jane Eyre (Jane Eyre); emphasises the inner life rather than action and Emma (Austen’s Emma). adventure; breaks free of society’s moral constraints; emerged during the Romantic period.
Superhero/ heroine
Fictional figures with exceptional powers, strength Superman; Spiderman; and courage; often with a distinctive costume; may Wonderwoman; Captain Marvel; The have a secret identity; takes on extraordinary Fantastic Four; Zorro. challenges for the public good; triumphs over threats, ‘evil’ and arch enemies. Often based on epic/classic hero/heroine.
Antihero
Often the antithesis of the mythic hero/heroine; may be regarded as a rebel or ‘noble’ villain by society; questions authority; audience regards them sympathetically; eventually they may triumph and redeem their position in the eyes of wider society. Similar to Byronic hero. Common in modern and postmodern texts and popular culture.
Frankenstein (Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein); Mephistopheles (Goethe’s Faust); Ned Kelly; Scarlett O’Hara (Gone with the Wind); Lester Burnham (American Beauty); Homer and Bart Simpson (The Simpsons); Shrek and Fiona.
Lone
Often lives in remote or wild natural environments, isolated from social group, eventually re-enters society through heroic deeds.
Indiana Jones; Rambo; The Lone Ranger; Jason Bourne (The Bourne Trilogy).
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H Heroic couplet A pair of rhyming lines of verse, usually written in iambic pentameter. The heroic couplet was refined by Alexander Pope (1688-1744) during the 18th century and was a common structural device in the epic and satiric poetry of the Neoclassical period. The appeal of the heroic couplet was its neat, ordered and clean metrical pattern, and the resulting epigrammatic style that it afforded: Is the great chain, that draws all to agree, And drawn supports, upheld by God, or thee? (From Pope’s “An Essay on Man”, 1717) See also Neoclassical period, Poetry, Rhyme, Satire. JM
Heteroglossia A term associated with the Russian literary theorist Mikhail Bakhtin (1895-1975), who used it to describe the play of conflicting voices evident in any literary text. Bakhtin argued that literary texts are dialogic rather than monologic, referencing many different voices including those that are normally heard outside the mainstream. The play of different and conflicting voices emerges from the speech of the narrator/s, character/s and the author/s. See also Dialogic, Narratology. JH
Hierarchy of discourses In any narrative there are layers of ‘voices’, perspectives or points of view (of, for instance, the narrator/s and characters) each of which is constructed and controlled by the author. In this framework, we can think of the author as the ultimate decision-maker: it is the author who decides what to include, exclude, emphasise or direct attention to; how to present characters through choices about description, dialogue, relationships and significance in the plot; and when to allow the narrator or characters to become privy to knowledge that the audience may or may not have. In this way, the author is at the peak of the ‘hierarchy of discourses’ that operates in a text. The concept was originally set forth by Plato (c. 428-348 BC) as a means of categorising and comparing the range and value of discourses used in speech and writing. See also Narratology. JM
Historical criticism A tradition of literary criticism that preceded, and stands in direct contrast to, New Criticism. Historical critics claimed that in order to understand a text, one had to understand the historical context from which it was produced. For example, historicism suggests that it is impossible to understand Jane Austen’s novels without understanding the social norms that created a society wherein women could not own land. Therefore, an historical critic would set about reading historical texts to illuminate that contextual world and thereby provide a lens for interpreting the literary 144
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H work. New Criticism emerged as a reaction to the preceding practice of relying on historical and biographical details to interpret the meaning of a text. See also Interpretation, Literary criticism, New Criticism. SGS
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Reference: Rivkin, J. & Ryan, M. (2005) “Introduction: Writing the Past”, in Literary Theory: An Anthology, eds. Rivkin & Ryan, 2nd edn. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
When reading a text you may ask:
∼ What aspects of the historical time and place may have influenced the creation of this text?
∼ If it is possible to ascertain, how was this text received when it was first published? ∼ What aspects of the writer’s life and times may have shaped this text? ∼ Does the form and content of this text endure beyond the historical time and culture within which it was originally created?
∼ Do you think that insights into the writer’s life and times help to illuminate aspects of this text?
Historical fiction A prose fiction text that draws or is based on historical events and/or settings and/or people. These novels require a degree of verisimilitude in that they depend on the accuracy of the historical elements that are woven through or form the basis of the fiction. Examples of Australian historical fiction include: Thomas Keneally’s Bring Larks and Heroes (1967); Peter Carey’s Oscar and Lucinda (1988), Jack Maggs (1997) and True History of the Kelly Gang (2000); Kate Grenville’s The Secret River (2006); Jackie French’s Hitler’s Daughter (2001); Morris Gleitzman’s Once (2006) and Then (2008) and Kirsty Murray’s Children of the Wind quartet (Bridie’s Fire, 2003, is Volume 1 of the series) which explores the Irish immigrant experience in Australia. Other examples of historical fiction are Margaret Mitchell’s Gone with the Wind (1936) and Sebastian Faulks’ Birdsong (1993). See also Faction, Fiction, Literature. JM
History play The most famous history plays are those by Shakespeare, based on the historical detail from Holinshed’s Chronicles (1577, 1587). For example, Henry IV, Parts 1 and II; Henry V; Richard II; and Richard III are some of Shakespeare’s better-known history plays. Any play that is set in a particular historical period and draws on actual historical figures and events is referred to as a history play. See also Drama, Shakespeare. JM
Horror A genre of fiction and film intended to shock and frighten the reader/viewer. The genre now extends into magazines, television, web discussion boards and computer games. Horror as a genre often involves murder, mutilation, suicide, insanity, torture, ghouls, ghosts, vampires, zombies, evil entities, possession, and Satanic themes. An interest in and preoccupation with the innermost fears and phobias of the human psyche; the ability of the individual to endure extreme suffering; and a fascination with symbols of darkness and evil have permeated the genre. The horror genre has ancient antecedents in works such as those by Seneca (c. 4 BC – 65 AD) which represent his interest in suffering. Virgil’s (70-19 BC) Aeneid (c. 29 BC), Lucan’s (39-65 AD) Pharsalia (c. 1st century AD), Statius (c. 1st century AD), Silicus Italicus and Valerius Flaccus (c. 14 AD) rely on grisly events and macabre details. The writing of the Middle Ages continued the interest in horror in works such as Beowulf (8th century AD) and Geoffrey Chaucer’s (c. 1340-1400) The Pardoner’s Tale. Its importance is indicated in the development of the short story with its connections to the crime, suspense, mystery, supernatural and gothic genres.
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H According to Cuddon, from the 16th century, ‘Hell’ was relocated from the middle of the earth to the human mind and thus signalled the beginning of the idea of an inner, individual hell: a subjective, psychological hell that is represented as personal and inescapable. Such a representation of hell is evident in John Milton’s (1608-74) Paradise Lost (1667, 1674), Sir Walter Raleigh’s (c.1552-1618) History of the World (1628) and Sir Thomas Browne’s (1605-82) Religio Medici (1642). The Elizabethan and Jacobean writers continued the fascination with madness and suffering that is frequently a hallmark of the horror genre. The popularity of the horror genre receded in the middle of the 17th century but with the advent of the ‘graveyard school of poetry’ in the mid-1740s and its preoccupation with death, corpses and suffering, there was a shift away from the sensibility of the Augustan Age. Horace Walpole’s (171797) The Castle of Otranto (1764) is sometimes considered as a progenitor of the genre, as is The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794) by Ann Radcliffe (1764-1823). The dramatisation of Gothic novels influenced German writers of ‘terror fiction’, known as the Schaurroman. Adelbert von Chamisso (1781-1838) explored psychological states of fear and evil in Peter Schlemihl (1814) and Edgar Allan Poe (1809-49) built on ETA Hoffman’s (1776-1822) work in a range of pieces. His William Wilson (1839) and A Tale of the Ragged Mountains (1844) treated the concept of the ‘doppelganger’ (double-goer), as did Fyodor Dostoevsky’s (1821-1881) The Double (1846), Robert Louis Stevenson’s (1850-1894) Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1886) and Oscar Wilde’s (1854-1900) The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891). Poe also wrote a number of popular horror stories such as The Fall of the House of Usher (1839), The Murders in the Rue Morgue (1841), The Pit and the Pendulum (1843) and The Cask of Amontillado (1846). John William Polidori’s (1795-1821) The Vampyre (1818) was the first vampire story while Bram Stoker’s (1847-1912) Dracula (1897) has become the most widely known vampire novel. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818) has also been classified as science fiction and a philosophical novel, with the character of Lord Ruthven figuring as a model for later vampire fiction. Prominent 19th and 20th century writers of horror include: HP Lovecraft (1890-1936); Ambrose Pierce (c.1842-1913); MR James (1862-1936); Stephen King (1947); and James Herbert (1943). Examples of the horror genre in film include: Rosemary’s Baby (1968); The Exorcist (1973); The Texas Chainsaw Massacre (1974); The Omen (1976); Halloween (1978); The Amityville Horror (1979 and 2005); Friday the 13th (1980); Poltergeist (1982); A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984); and 1408 (2007). See also Gothic, Fiction, Film, Novel. DC Reference: Cuddon, J.A. (1991) Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, 3rd edn. London: Penguin Books.
Humanism A term which has been applied to a variety of ethical, philosophical and intellectual movements: for example, Secular humanism, Christian humanism, Literary humanism, Cultural humanism, Modern humanism, Educational humanism, Philosophical humanism and Liberal humanism. Originally, the term ‘humanist’, from which the term humanism is derived, referred to a devoted scholar of the humanities. Humanism as a generic term has been applied to the historical movement and intellectual culture of Renaissance Europe. The movement sought to counter the philosophy of Medieval Scholasticism by celebrating human achievement, rejecting superstition, and in seeking to dignify and ennoble humankind, it assumed an anthropomorphic view of the human condition. Rather than perceiving human beings as corrupt, fallen and in need of redemption through divine intercession, Renaissance humanists looked to human experience, sentience, artistic achievement and the intellect to shape moral values and illuminate ‘truths’ of existence. At various times since the Renaissance, humanism has been revived in a range of forms, particularly during the 19th century when the onrush of industrialisation, technology and scientific innovation threatened, according to the humanists, the significance of human endeavour and agency. The breakdown of shared moral certainties (influenced in part by Charles Darwin’s The Origin of Species, 1859 and Charles Lyell’s Principles of Geology, 1830), fuelled the 19th century humanism that is 146
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H evident in Matthew Arnold’s influential book, Culture and Anarchy (1869). Here Arnold declared that: Faith in machinery is, I said, our besetting danger; often in machinery most absurdly disproportioned to the end which this machinery, if it is to do any good at all, is to serve; but always in machinery, as if it had a value in and for itself. As far as Arnold was concerned, the salvation of ‘culture’ depended on an immersion in “the best that has been thought and said” – ‘great’ works of literature and art. This position is summed up in his poem “Dover Beach” (1867). Without the certainty of an external moral frame of reference, the speaker of the poem urges a turning towards individual human experience and relationships as the ultimate source of meaning and ‘truth’. Education was seen as a bulwark against the tide of ‘dehumanising’ industrialisation. In his famous book English for the English (1925), George Sampson argued that education had a central role in “preparing children against their occupations”. The legacy of such thinking is evident in the emergence of the Cambridge School of literary criticism in Britain in the late 1920s. FR Leavis (1895-1978), whose work was highly influential in establishing and sustaining the New Critics movement, similarly regarded English education as a ‘civilizing’ force: In new and worsening cultural circumstances, the Cambridge school gave powerful currency to the notion that the teacher, critic and artist had no choice but to oppose the destructive, seemingly inexorable drift of industrial civilisation.” (Abbs, 1992: 12) The impact of New Criticism has been far-reaching in English and can be seen to embody aspects of humanism espoused by some humanists of the 19th century. The term ‘liberal humanism’ came into vogue in the 1970s as a way of negatively categorising New Criticism as a critical approach that was non-Marxist, non-theoretical and non-radical. One of the major criticisms of New Criticism was the view that this approach to literature regarded human nature as unchanging, with the ‘universal’ dimensions of human experience represented in ‘great’, transcendent literature. More recently, the term ‘humanism’ has been loosely applied to a number of philosophical schools that reject religious beliefs and the supernatural in any form, arguing that attention to and action on liberal moral values such as pluralism and social justice should be the priorities of individuals, education and government. See also (The) Enlightenment, Interpretation, Marxist literary criticism, New Criticism. DC, JM References: Abbs, P. (1992) in C. Davies, What is English? Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Arnold, M. (1869) Culture and Anarchy, 2007 edn. BiblioBazaar.
Hyperbole (Greek: ‘overcasting’) A figure of speech which uses exaggeration to heighten effect for emphasis. It is often used in comedy. Hyperbole is used in everyday speech: for example: ‘He’s ancient!’; ‘She couldn’t hit the side of a barn’; ‘I’ve told you a million times – don’t exaggerate!’ The media, particularly current affairs television, often use hyperbole such as ‘Australia’s Worst Driver’ or ‘World’s Worst Father’. DC
Hypertext Electronic texts that have the capacity to incorporate, as part of the complete text, images or text beyond the text being viewed on the screen. Readers of such texts access the extended text through hyperlinks. These hyperlinks are important in their operation and power in creating the hypertext as they allow the reader to navigate through the linked texts which together constitute the whole text. Hypertext fiction uses this non-linear nature of electronic texts to develop the narrative. Hypertexts allow students to be actively engaged in constructing meaning by making choices about where they will navigate to next, thus disrupting the convention of sequential narrative and authorial control over plot, character and narrative development. One example of hypertext fiction is the “Choose your own Adventure” series at
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H Hypothesis (Greek: ‘to propose, suppose’) A premise, theory or suggestion which still has the semblance of the speculative. Many literary works are based on an hypothesis or suggestion: apocalyptic works, for example, are premised on an hypothesis about life and (what is left of society) after a cataclysmic event. This hypothesis may be represented in a vision of the invasion of aliens as in HG Wells’ The War of the Worlds (1898) or in scenarios such as the detonation of an atomic or nuclear bomb. William Golding’s Lord of the Flies (1954) portrays a group of schoolboys marooned on an island after an unnamed global catastrophe and Cormac McCarthy’s The Road (2006) depicts the wanderings of a man and his son in what appears to be a post-nuclear environment. See also Antithesis, Debate, Essay, Rhetoric, Thesis, Writing. DC
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I Icon An exalted image that carries symbolic meaning. Although the term was originally associated with visual art and religion, it has acquired broader currency in popular culture to describe exceptional role models, exemplars or images that are valued because of the qualities they represent. Icons in popular culture can include, for example, elite sports people, actors, advertising logos and even types and brands of food and drinks. In 1954, American New Critics WK Wimsatt and MC Beardsley wrote The Verbal Icon, setting out the principles of New Criticism. As the title suggests, the approach to literature advanced by this critical framework treated the text as a self-contained verbal icon to be revered. See also Archetype, Image, Representing, Symbol. JM ∼ Exploring issues of Australian identity, popular culture, stereotypes and cultural assumptions and values:
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∼ In groups, students brainstorm examples of Australian icons. These may take the form of people (celebrities, sports people etc), places, buildings, objects, animals, food, or other things that have achieved iconic status.
∼ Collate a class list of Australian icons and discuss the inclusion or exclusion of any contested examples. Explore why icons have achieved this status. For example: • Popularity • Association with historical moment/time • Leadership • Advertising/Media • Talent • Endurance • Creativity • Intelligence • Is the status warranted and why? • What is it about these icons that renders them ‘Australian’ as distinct from ‘universal’ or specific to other cultures?
References: Wimsatt, W.K. & Beardsley, M.C. (1954) The Verbal Icon: Studies in the Meaning of Poetry, Kentucky: University of Kentucky Press.
Ideology (Greek: ‘idea’) Generally any system or body of ideas, values and norms directing personal, political and social action, transmitted through a range of cultural practices. It can also refer to principles, laws, beliefs, interests and statutes. As used by Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895), ideology refers to such general systems in that they contain falsehood and The English Teacher’s Handbook
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I distortion created in the main unconsciously. In metaphysics, the term includes all types of ideas and as such, no idea or system of ideas is considered objective and disinterested. The term ideology was made prominent by the Marxist thinker Louis Althusser (1918-1990), in his essay “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses”. Althusser describes ideology as “the imaginary relationship of individuals to their real conditions of existence”. By this he means that an individual views the world through a framework that does not necessarily correspond with reality. According to Althusser, this framework is necessarily an illusion, and is constructed by the bourgeoisie to support its own interests: “that cause is the existence of a small number of cynical men who base their domination and exploitation of the ‘people’ on a falsified representation of the world which they have imagined in order to enslave other minds by dominating their imaginations” (2005: 694). The critical feature of Althusser’s notion of ideology is that it is totalizing. The ‘people’ are so convinced of the true and real correspondence of their ideology with reality, that they will defend against any attempts to emancipate them from the enslaving ideology. Althusser calls this phenomenon the “ideological effect”. In this way, the work of ideology is a closed system since those who are oppressed actually work to keep the ideology intact. Raymond Williams developed a concept of ideology that has been applied to the study of language and texts. Williams suggests that we see every text (or other cultural practice) as the site in which three phases of ideological development can be traced. These phases he calls dominant, residual and emergent (1977: 121-8): ∼ The dominant refers to those aspects of the text which express the socially privileged and
central ways of seeing and saying of its age: the dominant discourses in the present. ∼ The residual refers to those ways of saying and seeing which were once central but have now been superseded and are only evident as vestiges: these were often the dominant discourses of the past. ∼ The emergent refers to those embryonic growth points which exist only as half-formed potential but which may be perceived as precursors of new ways of saying and seeing: these may become the dominant discourses of the future. (Pope, 2003: 109) In Ideology: An Introduction (1991) the critic Terry Eagleton defines ideology in this way: A dominant power may legitimate itself by promoting beliefs and values congenial to it; naturalizing and universalizing such beliefs so as to render them self-evident and apparently inevitable; denigrating ideas which might challenge it; excluding rival forms of thought, perhaps by some unspoken but systematic logic; and obscuring social reality in ways convenient to itself. Such `mystification', as it is commonly known, frequently takes the form of masking or suppressing social conflicts, from which arises the conception of ideology as an imaginary resolution of real contradictions. (Eagleton: 1991: 5-6) See also Dominant reading, Interpretation, Literary criticism, Literary theory, Resistant reading. SGS, JM References: Althusser, L. (2005) “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses”, in Literary Theory: An Anthology, eds. J. Rivkin, & M Ryan, 2nd edn. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, pp. 693-702. Eagleton, T. (1991) Ideology: An Introduction, London: Verso. Pope, R. (2003) The English Studies Book: An Introduction to Language, Literature and Culture, 2nd edn. London: Routledge. Williams, R. (1977) Marxism and Literature, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Idiom A figure of speech or a colloquial metaphor that describes something in such a way that it may not make sense to those who are not familiar with the particular colloquial dimensions of the language. On a literal level, the phrase or saying may seem odd or even nonsensical, but through general usage it acquires meaning and becomes recognised as an idiom within a particular social or cultural group. Examples of idiomatic expressions include: ‘pushing up daisies’ (dead); ‘the real McCoy’ (something that is genuine or original); ‘eat humble pie’ (recognise an error and admit to it); 150
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‘sour grapes’ (feelings of bitterness and resentment at not achieving what was hoped for); ‘foot the bill’ (fully pay for something); ‘forbidden fruit’ (something that is taboo); ‘stone the crows’ (an expression of surprise); ‘strike me pink’ (an expression of amazement); and ‘to call a spade a spade’ (to tell the truth even though this may be confronting or controversial). See also Dialect, Language. JM Create a class database of idioms, drawing on students’ knowledge of the language used in their daily lives, within a range of contexts (for example, family, sporting club, peer groups). Select some of these idioms and research their origins and derivations.
Idyll (Greek: ‘little picture’) A short poem, or section of a poem, that usually idealises or romanticises rustic, bucolic life. Characters may appear in these poems – usually shepherds or field workers, depicted in a state of repose, peace, calm and happiness. The earliest example of this form is attributed to the Greek Bucolic poet Theocritus (3rd century BC), and his Idylls have arguably stood as a model for later poems in this form. Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s Idylls of the King (1885) is a lengthy narrative poem exploring the legend of King Arthur. This poem questions the simplistic depiction of idyllic life by representing warring interior and exterior forces as they are embodied in the characters and actions of the poem. See also Poetry, Writing. JM
Illusion (Latin: ‘deception’) The creation of a fictional, imaginary world within a text that leads the responder to ‘willingly suspend disbelief’ – that is, to accept the illusion of the constructed world as a version of reality. Shakespeare (1564-1616) explores this concept in many of his plays, particularly the comedies such as Twelfth Night (1623). In this play, the idea of appearance and reality, truth and fabrication, honesty and deception are represented through, for instance, the use of masks and disguise (e.g. females dressing as males). Such techniques pose the question: if we can believe the ‘illusion’ created by a film or drama, how do we distinguish illusion in everyday life? See also Alienation effect, Drama, Film, Imagination, Realism, Representation, Willing suspension of disbelief. JM
Image The representation of a sensory experience, idea or object. The term originally referred to a representation of a person by a sculptor. Its importance in the arts lies in its capacity to convey the richness and complexity of experience in words and visual forms. Images may be literal or figurative. A literal image may aim for a sensory representation of the object or sensation, while a figurative image may utilise metaphor, simile, synecdoche, onomatopoeia or metonymy. Students inhabit an image-laden world. In English, students learn to decode the codes and conventions and interpret the purpose of still and moving images, developing an increasingly sophisticated understanding of the role of image in communicating, representing and shaping meaning, attitudes, beliefs and values. See also Film, Representing, Viewing, Visual text. JM
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I Analysing Visual Images Focusing on the movie poster below (or any other image), and using the terms defined in the Film and Visual literacy Appendix, follow these steps in analysing the image.
1. Identify and describe ∼ Identify and describe everything you can see in the image (e.g. objects, figures, elements, vectors, colours, shadows)
∼ How has the image been created (e.g. photograph, drawing, painting, collage)? What materials have been used to create the image?
2. Analyse ∼ How have the things you have identified and described been organised in the image?
∼ What are the relationships between the different elements of the image? ∼ How are the elements of the image positioned (e.g. vectors, balance, shadows, symmetry, asymmetry, height variation, wide-angle, close-up, foreground, background etc)?
∼ How would you describe the mood or tone of the image and what has influenced your view?
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∼ From what and/or whose perspective has the image been constructed? 3. Interpret ∼ Why do you think this image has been created?
∼ Is the image trying to persuade you to regard an object or element favourably or otherwise? If so, why?
∼ Does the image contain any emblems, symbols, archetypes or familiar scenes?
∼ Does the image evoke an emotional response in you? If so, what and how has the image achieved this?
∼ Does this image remind you of, or make reference to any other images (intertextuality and allusions)?
∼ What do you think is the main purpose, audience and theme or idea?
∼ Would this image be understandable in a different cultural context or with a range of audiences?
4. Evaluate ∼ Do you think the image successfully communicates a core idea or theme?
∼ If so, what are the key techniques employed to achieve this?
∼ If not, what aspects and elements of the image are not effective? ∼ How could this image be adapted or transformed for another context?
Poster reproduced with permission, Paramount,
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I Imagery (Latin: ‘making of likeness’) A term with a number of meanings: its literal meaning is a collection of images in a literary work, or a unit of a literary work. It is synonymous with a figure of speech or trope. There are four types of tropes: images which are literal, descriptive and sensory wordpictures; symbols which blend a literal and sensuous quality with an abstract or evocative quality; simile which describes and compares by analogy; and metaphor which describes by implied analogy. The study of the imagery in a literary work may focus on the depiction of the physical world through language use; upon the rhetorical devices and patterns through which the tropes in the work are realised; upon the psychological state which enabled the work to be produced and which may provide its metaphorical and unique meaning; or upon the pattern of images which may reinforce or contradict literal aspects of the story or plot. See also Depiction, Description, Image, Language, Metaphor, Representation. DC, JM
Imagination (Latin: ‘forming an image’, ‘representation’) The capacity to create and form images, ideas, pictures and thoughts with the mind. Imagination is the faculty that enables the individual to create meaning and apprehend new insights; solve problems by imagining them to be otherwise; and deepen understandings of the self and others, with or without direct sensory stimulus from the external world. Imagination is an expression of the inner life that offers the capacity to envision things to be other than they are; to make connections; synthesise disparate phenomena and illuminate experience in powerful ways. John Dewey (1859-1952) in The Quest for Certainty observed that “Every great advance in science has issued from a new audacity of the imagination”(1930: 5). The Imagination in Education Research Group (IERG) promotes the central role of the imagination in teaching and learning and defines Imaginative Education as: a way of teaching and learning that is based on engaging learners’ imaginations. Imagination is the ability to think of what might be possible, in a manner that is not tightly constrained by the actual or taken-for-granted. It is the “reaching out” feature of the mind, enabling us to go beyond what we have mastered so far. Without human imagination, no culture would look the way it does today, and no learner would be able to participate in and contribute to that culture. … the imaginative educator seeks to value and build upon the way the child understands her or his experiences, rather than always focusing on the “adult” way of understanding as the measure of learning. To do this, educators themselves must be imaginative and sensitive to dimensions of learning that they may have never thought of as relevant to education. (IERG: http://ierg.net/about/whatis.html#intro) S T Coleridge (1772-1834) in Biographia Literaria (1817: Chapter 14) presents what is considered to be the most extensive attempt to define the imagination. What distinguishes the Romantic period above all else is the stress placed on the role of the individual imagination as an ordering, unifying and creative force in human experience. During this time Newtonian theories emerged to explain some of the workings of the universe, reducing life to a series of scientific ‘laws’ and ‘matter’. According to Coleridge and his peers, one of the consequences of such a mechanistic view was to deny human beings the capacity to transcend their physical state through an act of the imagination. For Coleridge, the human faculty of the imagination and the artist's mind are considered as active, creative powers capable of apprehending the Platonic ‘ideal’ forms, or truths, through communion with nature. That is, the imagination is like a mirror or inner eye, capable of transforming and resolving external and internal conflicts. But as Pope observes, Imagination is a concept with a complex history and constantly renegotiated meanings so there is every reason to believe that (like the related, equally out-of-favour but resilient term creativity) it will have a valuable future too. (Pope, 2003: 216)
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I Since Coleridge’s efforts to define the imagination, there has been a range of critiques of this view, particularly from poststructuralist critics who have questioned the concept of the imagination as a wholly productive, individually controlled and manifested phenomenon. Is or can the individual imagination, for example, operate outside of the cultural, social, political, economic, historical and other contextual forces that influence and shape language, thought and action? Importantly, it cannot be assumed that the imagination is amoral – that is, an a priori ‘good’ concept, process or phenomenon. There have been and continue to be well-documented cases (and many that remain partially documented) of individuals and groups who ‘imagine’ acts of destruction, cruelty, murder, and torture, and go on to enact such imaginings in the external realm. Personal diaries and digital communications, for example, have exposed the ethical and moral complexity of the term ‘imagination’, with some notorious cases of mass murderers broadcasting their imagined plans and intentions on spaces such as YouTube and MySpace. In the 20th century, the work of Maxine Greene (1918-) and Elliot W Eisner (1933-) has been particularly influential in the development of pedagogies of imaginative education in the arts. Both argue for the central role of the (individual and social) imagination in thinking, feeling, the construction of knowledge, innovation, creativity, aesthetic experience, ethical action, understanding and learning. See also Affective learning, Creativity, Drama as a learning medium, Literature, Reading, Representing, Viewing, Writing. JM References: Eisner, E. W. (1998) The kind of schools we need: personal essays. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Eisner, E. W. (1985) The art of educational evaluation: a personal view. London: Falmer Press. Dewey, J. (1930) The Quest for Certainty: A Study of the Relation of Knowledge and Action, London: George Allen & Unwin. Imagination in Education Research Group,
Imaginative re-creation Originally a creative strategy defined by Leslie Stratta, John Dixon and Andrew Wilkinson (1973) as students adopting “a creative role in relation to the work of fiction” to enable them to “imaginatively re-create the experience of the novelist.” Activities that engage students in both the form and meaning of a text through imaginative re-creation include, for example: ∼ dramatising part of a novel ∼ recasting sections of the novel from a different point of view (e.g. of a minor character) ∼ translating elements, scenes of ideas from the novel into another medium (e.g. into a poem,
script, newspaper article) ∼ film or record an interpretation of aspects of the novel. In the late 1980s, Sawyer, Watson and Adams extended the concept of imaginative re-creation to mean tasks which Encouraged students to ‘get inside’ the text, consider it from different angles [or] extend their understanding of it without resorting to parcels of organised adult information about the text. (Sawyer, Watson & Adams, 1989: 82) Imaginative re-creation now encompasses the wide range of activities associated with engagement and response to a range of texts (and is not limited to work with fiction). Peter Adams (2004) provides a comprehensive coverage of the concept, with a range of practical strategies to support the implementation of imaginative re-creation in English. For further practical strategies for imaginative re-creation with fiction, poetry, drama, film and nonfiction, see Drama, Poetry, Literature, Writing. JM References: Adams, P. (2004) “Imaginative re-creation of literature: a critical examination from the perspective of the 21st century, in Reviewing English in the 21st century, eds. W. Sawyer & E. Gold, Sydney: Phoenix Education.
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I Adams, P. (1992) “Dependent Authorship: Writing from the Inside Out”, in Reconstructing Literature Teaching: New Essays on the Teaching of Literature, ed. J. Thomson, Norwood: AATE. Sawyer, W., Watson, K., & Adams, A. (1989) English Teaching from A to Z, Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Stratta, L., Dixon, J., & Wilkinson, A. (1973) Patterns of Language: Explorations of the Teaching of English, London: Heinemann Educational Books.
Imaginative text Any text that creates a fictional world and/or represents people, places, situations, experiences and events that are wholly, or predominantly imaginary. Examples of imaginative texts include: stories (novels, short stories), poems, films, picture books, plays, nursery rhymes, myths, and many visual arts including paintings. Imaginative texts are both created and read by students in English, with students ‘reading as writers’ and ‘writing as readers’ of imaginative texts across a broad range of genres. See also Creativity, Drama, Fiction, Film, Imagination, Literature, Literature Circles, Novel, Poetry, Wide reading program, Young adult literature. JM
Imagists/Imagism A term describing a group of poets and a type of writing that evolved just prior to World War I. Imagists sought to capture a concentrated and evocative representation of things and experiences. The poetry is often brief and atmospheric and seeks to create a vivid ‘picture’ of the subject. In this way, imagist poetry is similar to haiku. Imagism emerged from the experiments with free verse and valued the use of everyday speech and language in poetry. Prominent writers in this movement included Amy Lowell, HD (Hilda Doolittle) (1886-1961), Ezra Pound (1885-1972) and TE Hulme (1883-1917). An example of an Imagist poem is TE Hulme’s “Autumn”: A touch of cold in the Autumn night – I walked abroad, And saw the ruddy moon lean over a hedge Like a red-faced farmer. I did not speak, but nodded, And round about were the wistful stars With white faces like town children. See also Imagery, Poetry, Representation. JM
Imitation (Greek: ‘copy’) In English studies an imitation refers to a translation and adaptation of a work to create a new text for a contemporary context. The term also refers to the practice of imitating the classics genres – a feature of the literature of the Neoclassical period. Imitation in this sense implies more than a mere copying of the original works: it is an attempt to acieve the excellence of the ancient models, infusing these with the spirit and tenor of the imitating writer’s time. A third meaning of imitation is that associated with Aristotle’s (384 - 322 BC) mimetic view of art: art was considered to hold a mirror to life, capturing ‘reality’ and representing this in a heightened way. See also Drama, Literature, Mimesis, Realism, Representation, Verisimilitude. JM
Impersonality A concept proposed by TS Eliot (1888-1965) in his essay “Tradition and the Individual Talent” (1920). Eliot argued that traces of the personality of the composer should not be evident and should not be the basis for imaginative representation. This concept is in direct opposition to the Romantic view of literature as the expression of the emotions and feelings of the artist. Eliot asserted that: “Poetry is not a turning loose of emotion, but an escape from emotion; it is not the expression of personality, but an escape from personality. But, of course, only those who have personality and
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I emotions know what it means to escape from these things” (1920). See also Affective criticism, Author, Objective correlative, Negative capability. JM Reference: Eliot, T.S. (1920) “Tradition and the Individual Talent” in The Sacred Wood: Essays on Poetry and Criticism, (1997 edn.) London: Faber & Faber.
Implied author A term coined by Wayne Booth (1921-2005), detailed first in his book The Rhetoric of Fiction (Chicago, 1961). Booth makes a distinction between the “career author”, who is the flesh and blood author writing the text, and the “implied author”. Booth explains that the “implied author” is the “sum of all the choices” that the career author makes, and that this “sum” takes on a character all its own. He borrows from Jessamyn Hicks, who explains what it is like to write: “Writing is a way of playing parts, of trying on masks, of assuming roles” (Booth, 1961: 71). In this sense, the overall “presence” we get from a text, that is in essence the sum of the choices that the author has made, becomes like a character in that an examination of the “implied author” gives us a sense of what this “official scribe” values and does not value. As Booth explains, ‘the implied author’ chooses, consciously or unconsciously, what we read; we infer him [sic] as an ideal, literary, created version of the real man; he is the sum of his [sic] own choices” (p. 75). Booth draws a parallel between the “implied author” and the “narrator” and explains that there can be a separation between the two. For example, the complex narration in Joseph Conrad’s (18571924) Heart of Darkness (1902) reveals a disjunction between the implied author’s values and the narration of Marlow. Marlow narrates a kind of admiration for the iconic Kurtz, while the implied narrator establishes some moral distance from the horrific acts that Kurtz engages in. In this way, Booth suggests that careful reading can trace the effect of the implied author and its complex relationship with the narrator. Of the career author, Booth suggests that we can know nothing definitively, and that it is not the task of the reader to pursue the career author. He suggests that we may have impressions of the career author from the implied author, just as when we write letters, we give a sense of ourselves and yet our voice changes depending on the recipient. He suggests that more fertile observations result from an engagement with the implied author. See also Author, Conventions, Hierarchy of discourses, Implied reader, Narrative, Narrator, Narratology. SGS Reference: Booth, W. C. (1961) The Rhetoric of Fiction, 2nd ed. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.
Implied reader A term used by the critic Wolfgang Iser (1926-2007), it is a part of the discourse of the Readerresponse movement. Drawing from Wayne Booth’s (1921-2005) work on the “implied author”, Iser worked to show that the reader was as instrumental in “creating” a text as the author. He explains that “central to the reading of every literary work is the interaction between its structure and its recipient”, suggesting that the text exists, as it were, in between what the author creates (the shape, the offering, the choices that Wayne Booth describes as the “implied author” and then the “total act of discourse”) and the responses that the reader offers to those choices. Iser describes the different types of readers who exist for a text: the ideal reader, the concrete reader, the historical reader, and the contemporary reader. Iser’s “implied reader” is a kind of answer to Booth’s “implied author”, in that Iser suggests that the “implied reader” equates to the invited response to the schematic and structural invitations made by the text. He says that the implied reader is “an expression of the role offered by the text”, and explains that this ‘expression’ occurs in the mind of the reader to such a degree that one might even be able to say that a text ‘exists’, as it were, in the mind of the reader. A unit of work can expose the way in which an implied author may invite the implied reader to respond through aesthetic choices (Iser would actually call these ‘artistic’ choices, rather than aesthetic). For example, the film Shine (Hicks, 1996) offers a very clear invitation to the ‘viewer’ to assemble pathos for David, and enmity for David’s father. Students can then identify key moments in the film where these invitations are made, and can further identify the aesthetic choices that prompt 156
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I such responses. They can then identify the ‘space’ that Scott Hicks, as director, carves out for the viewer to move into. See also Author, Implied author, Interpretation, Reader, Reader-response criticism, Reception theory. SGS Reference: Iser, W. (1978) The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP.
Impressionistic criticism An approach to the study of literature that was prominent prior to the emergence of New Criticism. Impressionistic criticism relies on the personal responses of the reader/critic and does not depend explicitly on a particular critical or literary theory. See also Affective criticism. JM
Improvisation (known also as impro) Drama work during which players do not use a script or fully predetermined scenario, but make up the words and/or action; includes role-play, rehearsal exercises, theatre-sports, stand-up comedy and performance storytelling. For an improvised scene to work the participants must work together cooperatively. There are some key elements: Offer, Yield (or acceptance) and Extend. An actor makes an Offer by speaking or gesturing to another e.g. ‘How is your father?’ For the impro to work the other actor(s) must Yield (or Accept the offer) e.g. ‘Oh he’s fine, he has just been married for the fourth time’ - which is an example of a Yield and Extend. Not accepting the offer is known as Blocking e.g. ‘What father, he’s been dead for 20 years!’ (This term can be confused with the ‘blocking’ a director does during rehearsal of a play). See also Drama, JH
Indigenous education Indigenous student achievement in literacy and English continues to be a priority area in education at national, state and territory levels. Each jurisdiction has a set of policies and professional development programs to assist teachers in addressing the range of needs of Indigenous students through informed pedagogy, resources and increased cultural understanding. In English, it is important to recognise the distinctive and often complex issues which impact upon Indigenous student learning in mainstream classrooms. For many Aboriginal students, their first language in not Standard Australian English. It is therefore vital to recognise the variety of language and cultural backgrounds of students and integrate this understanding into any classroom teaching and learning context. Aboriginal languages are central to issues of identity, place and culture and all teachers should be well informed of the pedagogical and philosophical dimensions of teaching Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students. In addition to the specific pedagogical and other approaches to address the needs of Indigenous students, all English programs should include the study and experience of texts by and about Indigenous experience. Many web-based resources exist to assist teachers in planning and programming for the inclusion of such texts in English: The Macquarie PEN Anthology of Aboriginal Literature: (www.allenandunwin.com/default.aspx?page=94&book=9781741754384) and the AustLit resource site: (www.austlit.edu.au/specialistDatasets/ lackWordsExtraNotesCh3.xml). See also Dreamtime, Legends, Myths. DC, JM
Indij Readers A series of fictional texts for students learning to read which represent the experiences, cultures and perspectives of Indigenous Australians. “All texts are authentic in that the language choices made are to support the purpose of the text: to entertain, inform or recount and not as part of a levelled reading scheme.” (Last, et al, 2004: p. ix). Indij Readers are designed for Indigenous and nonIndigenous students and present authentic stories to engage beginning and older readers in meaningful and enjoyable reading experiences. See also Dreamtime, Indigenous education. DC, JM Reference: Last, A., Rushton, K., McDonnell, N., Bunworth, M., Gilbert, S. (2004) Indigenous Readers: Our Lives, Our Stories, Rockdale: Indij Readers.
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I Inflection A term with two meanings. The first relates to a change in the form of a word to indicate a change in its grammatical function, usually at the end of a word; and a change in the pitch of a word. For example, the word ‘well’ can function as a noun, adjective and exclamation and could be said in a variety of ways. DC Reference: Cuddon, J.A. (1991) Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, Great Britain: Penguin
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) A broad term used to refer to the diverse ways that information is produced and communicated by technological means. In its widest sense, ICT can encompass a great range of media that creates, enables and disseminates information (television, radio, computers, phones, mobile phones, still image and video cameras) as well as the other technological devices and processes that facilitate communication (internet, data projectors, smart boards, wireless technology, storage devices such as flash drives, CDs, DVDs, MP3 players, and other hardware and software that depends on technology). ICT is an integral part of the lives of students and integral to effective pedagogy and learning in English. Increasingly, classrooms are equipped with technology such as smart boards, data projectors and wireless internet. Ideally, such technology should be exploited as a powerful resource for teaching and learning on a daily basis. The possibilities for the application of ICT in English are endless: from integrating images and videos into lessons; accessing information from and analysing websites; collaborative and individual research; composing and representing using ICT; presenting, publishing and disseminating work using ICT; and networking with people and contexts beyond the confines of the classroom. Useful resources for teachers in the implementation of ICT include: Durrant, C. & Beavis, C. (2001) P(ICT)ures of English: teachers, learners and technology. Norwood: Wakefield Press/AATE. In addition to its role as a powerful tool for learning, ICT can also be scrutinised and critiqued in terms of the ethical, social, personal and cultural issues associated with its widespread use. See also Digital texts, Media, Multimedia. JM
Inner speech See Interior monologue, Stream of consciousness.
Intentional Fallacy In 1954, the American New Critics, WK Wimsatt and MC Beardsley published The Verbal Icon, setting out the principles of literary criticism that underpinned their work. In this book, they argue that it is impossible to definitively establish what the author’s intention or implied intention was for writing a work. Therefore, any reference to the author’s intention in the analysis and evaluation of a text is misleading and irrelevant. The Intentional Fallacy became a standard tenet of the New Critics’ method and complemented the view that the text is a self-contained artefact that should be judged according to principles of close reading and textual analysis – with no recourse to information or speculation about the author or the historical context. See also Author, Interpretation, Literary criticism, New Criticism. JM Reference: Wimsatt, W.K. & Beardsley, M.C. (1954) The Verbal Icon: Studies in the Meaning of Poetry, Kentucky: University of Kentucky Press.
Interactive text A text that requires the audience to actively engage in responding to and/or co-creating the text. Examples of interactive texts include computer games, digital stories, hypertext fiction, some bookraps and webquests. See also Digital texts, Hypertext, Multimedia. JM
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A technique employed to record the thoughts, emotions and inner experiences of a character. Two types of interior monologue can be identified: the first is the presentation of the character’s thoughts, emotions and sensations without any apparent structural or grammatical organisation. The second type involves the author selecting, presenting and on occasions commenting on the monologue. Perhaps the best-known example of a fictional interior monologue is James Joyce’s Ulysses (1922). Many films employ the technique of voice-over which is a form of interior monologue in this medium. Fictional and nonfictional diaries are also variations on the interior monologue. See also Diary, Stream of consciousness. JM When studying a text (e.g. novel, play, film or short story), students select a character and a significant episode. As a response strategy, students create an interior monologue to explore the unspoken thoughts, feelings and perceptions of the character. The monologue may be constructed in a range of forms, from a diary entry to a dramatised soliloquy.
International Federation for the Teaching of English (IFTE) The International Federation for the Teaching of English grew out of an international conference on English teaching held at Dartmouth College, New Hampshire, in 1966. As outlined on the IFTE website www.ifte.net (from which this entry has been taken) following this meeting a network of international meetings and publications began to develop, and this eventually led to the formal constitution of IFTE in 1983. Since then a pattern has developed of holding a major international conference in one of the IFTE countries every four years, with a meeting of the executive attached to it. Recent major conferences have been held in New York (1995), Warwick (1999), and Melbourne (2003). Interim meetings have been held in Adelaide (1993), Johannesburg (1997) and Vancouver (2001 & 2005). Ken Watson has written a comprehensive history of IFTE, which is available on the IFTE website:
Interpretation The act of making sense and understanding the meaning of language, a text or experience. Interpretation is one of the outcomes of the process of engaging with and critiquing, explicating, analysing and evaluating language. It is driven by the question: ‘what does this mean?’ Some argue, however, that it is impossible to capture in words the ‘meaning’ of an artistic work. The institutionalisation of the study of literature has, however, spawned a plethora of frameworks, models, theories and approaches that aim to support the reader in acts of interpretation through subjecting the text to rigorous ‘scrutiny’, ‘interrogation’, ‘resistance’ and ‘gaze’. These theories, ironically fuelled by the institutions that many of them simultaneously critique and depend upon, have highlighted the ways in which interpretation is dependent on a range of variables. These include the personal, social, cultural, historical and other contexts of the responder and are shaped by the particular critical theory, lens or lenses that the responder adopts or assumes when engaging with a text. Later 20th century critical theories and reading practices, for example, see the act of interpretation as being shaped by certain sets of assumptions, beliefs, ideologies, conventions and practices that are culturally contingent. Poststructuralist arguments about the instability of meaning have focused on overturning orthodox practices of institutionalised literary interpretation and criticism and have proposed that texts are, ultimately, resistant to any act of interpretation. Yet, ironically, even these theories rely on the act of interpretation in order to reject the notion of interpretation. Such theories aim to equip readers with the tools to analyse language not as something that merely reflects The English Teacher’s Handbook
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I ‘reality’, but something that in fact creates ‘reality’. The following table provides a simplified overview of the differences between critical theories when it comes to defining the act of interpretation. Theory
Nature of Text
Role of Reader
Role of Teacher
Expressive Criticism
An expression of the author’s worldview.
To engage with and apprehend the thoughts, feelings and perceptions of the author as expressed in the text.
Encourage personal engagement and expression of affective responses.
Based on the affective response of the responder. Emphasis on the intentions and perspectives of the composer.
New Criticism Autonomous, selfcontained artistic object. Timeless. Assigned value in relation to other texts.
Close textual analysis of form and content which embeds moral significance. Attention to figurative language, organic unity and literary devices. No recourse to history, context, authorial intention, biography of composer or responder.
Accomplished critic. Teach a particular way of reading ‘Close reading’: valuing skills of language analysis and interpretation. Induct students into ways of reading and interpreting.
Personal response via close reading is mediated by received or authorised interpretations. Little room for alternative readings. Emphasis on skilled discerning reading of the text.
Structuralism
A construct. Defined in terms of conventionally structured genres. Text as a system of signs.
Decode signs, Explicate system of conventions and codes signs and generic of the genre which in conventions. turn allows a reading of the codes and systems that inform human experience .
Interpretation based on considerations of form and structure and a decoding of the system of signs structuring the text.
Readerresponse Criticism
Subjective stimulus. Text depends on the reader for meaning.
Creates unique responses through transaction with the text. Affective and cognitive domains engaged
Facilitator of personal responses. Values and understands process of reading and individual engagement.
Interpretation emerges from the transaction between the reader and the text; the interpretation becomes the ‘poem’ (i.e. the new text created as a result of the reader-text interaction).
Psychoanalytic Criticism
Text is a site for the subjectivity of the reader to find resonance and inscribe meaning. ‘Unconscious’ dimensions of texts open to interpretation.
Enjoyment, pleasure and affective response is valued as a foundation for developing informed critical response.
Move students beyond an immediate affective response to a more informed and developed critique of texts.
Interpretation emerges from an analysis and evaluation of the conscious and unconscious patterns of behaviour, fantasies, fears, dreams, conflicts and motives of characters.
Post structuralism
Site for competing discourses.
Textually constructed subject/reader.
Reader interrogates the text, Provide opportunities for identifies dominant and textual exploration. invited reading positions, explores ‘gaps and silences’ and proposes alternative or resistant readings. Subverts textual assumptions.
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Nature of Text
Role of Reader
Role of Teacher
Interpretation
Rhetorical Criticism
Art as a conscious creation of the artist with ‘implied author’ and ‘implied reader’ providing cues for interpretation.
Explore the implicit world view, values and beliefs of the ‘implied author’. Close reading with attention to ‘authorial voice’, ‘reliable and unreliable narrators’. Explore the rhetorical devices employed by the artist to engage and persuade the reader.
Encourage close reading with attention to the analysis and evaluation of the artist’s use of rhetorical devices. Attention to the text as a ‘constructed’ work, not as merely a simple reflection/ slice of life.
Interpret works through close reading and examination of the ‘implied author’, ‘implied reader’, ‘reliable and unreliable narrators’ and the values, belief systems and world views implicit in the use of rhetorical devices. (Booth, 1961)
Ethical Criticism
Literature as a potential reservoir for the study of the moral and ethical dimensions of human experience.
Explore texts with attention to the values, ethics and ways of thinking that they promote or challenge, and the implications of this for the reader’s contextual experience and own ethical behaviour.
Provides opportunities for exploring and articulating values (self, text, other), and ethical dimensions of social, cultural, personal and other experience.
Reader explores and critiques the text with attention to the value and belief systems, language and power and a developing self-awareness of the significance of these for their own growth, ways of thinking and behaviour.
(Adapted from Corcoran, B., Pradl G., & Hayhoe, M. (2002) Knowledge in the Making, NJ: Boynton/ Cook.) In her influential essay “Against Interpretation” (1964), Susan Sontag (1933-2004) argued that the nature of literary criticism and the rise of literary theory in the 20th century had placed too heavy an emphasis on the intellectual critiquing of art through abstract theoretical frameworks. She contended that such an emphasis threatened the aesthetic and spiritual power of creative works, especially as a bulwark against rampant rationality, materialism and empiricism. Sontag believed that interpretation had become “the intellect’s revenge upon art” and asserted that “in place of a hermeneutics we need an erotics of art.” (Sontag, 1996: 272) See also Literary criticism. JM References: Booth, W. C. (1961) The Rhetoric of Fiction, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Corcoran, B., Pradl, G. & Hayhoe, M. (2002) Knowledge in the Making, NJ: Boynton/Cook. Sontag, S. (2003) “Thirty Years Later…” (1996) in Where the Stress Falls, London: Vintage.
Interpretive community Describes the set of shared assumptions, practices, attitudes and conventions that influence the engagement with and interpretation of texts in a community. The reading practices and beliefs about texts, textuality and response held and enacted by an individual are shaped by the community to which they belong. David Bleich (1975), Stanley Fish (1980) and Robert Scholes (1985) propose variations on the concept of an interpretive community. In English, the concept is generally adopted in its broadest sense to mean the ways in which students within a class learn to read and learn about their reading practices; share personal responses; be open to the testing and modification of these depending on their interactions with others in the class; and understand that ways of reading and interpreting are influenced by the shared conventions, expectations and assumptions of the social group. An interpretive community values the contributions of individual students; rejects a hidden curriculum that assumes there is one way of reading and interpreting texts (a single, authoritative position); strengthens the confidence of students in reading practices and response; and is underpinned by the teacher’s understanding of the reading and response process. The American poet, Walt Whitman (1819-1892) said of reading and response that: The English Teacher’s Handbook
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I … the process of reading is not a half-sleep, but, in the highest sense, an exercise, a gymnast’s struggle; that the reader is to do something himself [sic] must be on the alert, must himself or herself construct indeed the poem, argument, history, metaphysical essay – the text furnishing the hints, the clue, the start or framework. Not that the book needs so much to be the complete thing, but the reader of the book does. (1871) Building an interpretive community in English requires a pedagogy that is student and learningcentred, activity-based and interactive: activities that promote collaborative engagement with and interpretation of texts promote a strong interpretive community. See also Constructivism, Cooperative learning, Group work, Interpretation, Learning-centred English, Literature, Literature Circles, Reading, Wide reading program. JM
Interrogation An approach to language and texts associated with some poststructuralist critical theories. This approach frames the relationship between the reader and the text as one in which the reader ‘interrogates’ the text: the assumptions of the text, the cultural, historical, social and other contextual values informing the text, and the material conditions from out of which the text has been produced. It can be argued that interrogating the text is an extension of the kind of thoughtful, deliberate and active engagement with the text’s form and content that has been central to almost all models of literary criticism since New Criticism. Models that use the term ‘interrogate’, do, however, propose a more explicit political agenda in the act of textual analysis. The term ‘interrogate’ can carry connotations of an aggressive, adversarial relationship between reader and text, since interrogation is typically associated with the processes of criminal law, with unequal power relations and with the protocols of extracting information from ‘suspects’ within tightly structured contexts. Some approaches to reading, such as, for example, Reader-response criticism, have proposed that not only does the reader interrogate the text, but the text, likewise, interrogates the reader. See also Critical Literacy, Interpretation, Literary criticism, Reader, Reader-response criticism. JM
Intertextuality Refers to the idea that every text is in some way related to every other text. Intertextuality infers that all texts are composed from other texts as composers borrow and transform existing texts in some way while also encompassing the notion that readers bring their previous experiences of reading to any text. Author and reader can be said to share a field of discourse during the transmission of a text: through the author’s representation of such things as people, events, objects, attitudes, concepts and values, and the reader’s decoding or re-construction of those representations. Such a process of decoding depends upon the reader’s knowledge of conventions and genres and/or memory of other similar texts that may be related, for example, by context, setting, theme or story. The reader will make connections to elements of the text that seem familiar to them and their interpretation of the meaning of a text will be significantly influenced by the interrelationships between them, the text and the different connections they see existing between texts. The shaping of meaning by both author and reader is thereby guided by intertextuality, cross-referencing and culturally determined reading and writing conventions and practices as no text is deemed to exist in isolation from other texts, and from their conventions and genres. Intertextuality encapsulates the idea that the meaning of a text may be constructed by the author’s inclusion, and/or the reader’s experience and knowledge of, for example: ∼ Specific earlier texts, evidenced by such things as direct references, quotations and allusions ∼ A well-known story existing in a number of versions e.g. legends, myths and fairy tales such as Cinderella ∼ An archetype i.e. a basic model from which copies are made e.g. the quest, the lone survivor, the wandering hero, the lost child 162
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I ∼ Genres and conventions e.g. folk tales, romances, tragedies, crime stories and other genres
which are conventionalised in their content, structures, characters and patterns of represented behaviours, values, morals etc ∼ A particular form of narration or narrative structure e.g. omniscient narrators, multiple narrators, linear or non-linear narratives ∼ Socio-historical or cultural narratives, events or people e.g. citation of or allusion to actual social contexts and times, historical events and/or figures, authentic documents included or referred to within a narrative, or description of specific cultural practices ∼ Other works and texts such as paintings and songs. See also Anxiety of influence. KS
Interview
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A discussion or conversation between two or more people in which an interviewer poses a series of questions to an interviewee/s who then responds to these questions. The purpose of an interview is to elicit information from the interviewee and interviews are usually designed to appeal to a particular audience. Interviews are a standard part of the media. The effectiveness of an interview depends on the nature of the questions, the responsiveness of the interviewee, and the ability of the interviewer to build upon and adapt questions in the light of the interviewee’s responses. See also Drama, Media, Talking and listening. DC, JM ∼ Working in pairs, students select, or are assigned, a picture of a person (or animal or object etc). These may be from magazines, postcards etc. Each student creates a character profile, based on their visual stimulus.
∼ Students then interview each other in role. Students can also be given a scenario or scene to contextualise the activity (e.g. stuck in a lift together; meeting at a party).
∼ This strategy can also be adapted to texts being studied in class – e.g. students in pairs adopt the role of a character in the text and interview each other.
∼ Hot-seating and panels also rely on interview techniques and require astute, informed questioning and responses from participants.
∼ Interviews can be shaped into written responses, including creative responses such as poems, diary entries, letters, narratives and reports.
Intonation
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
(Latin: ‘sounding’) The sound pattern of phrases and sentences produced by pitch variation in the voice and emphasis on particular words. Intonation helps to distinguish between statements, questions and other types of utterances in spoken language. Intonation is an important indicator of meaning. A simple phrase may be interpreted in diverse ways, depending on the intonation. For example: She is a child?/She is a child! See also, Language, Mood, Tone. JM
In small groups, students experiment with different intonations when speaking the following sentences. Prior to this task, students can create a bank of ‘emotions’ that are often present in the intonation of language. For example: anger, fear, bewilderment, confusion, excitement, enthusiasm, disinterestedness, anticipation. ∼ Oh my goodness, she is here. ∼ Pass me the water. ∼ Hurry up or we will miss the train. ∼ It is really a spaceship? ∼ Are we there yet? ∼ It’s time to go.
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I Invective (Latin: ‘scolding’) A harsh attack on someone or something. Invective was common in the poetry of Augustan poets such as, for example, Alexander Pope (1688-1744) and John Dryden (1631-1700). An example of invective occurs frequently in Dryden’s “Absalom and Achitophel: The Second Part”, lines 463-465:
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
With all this bulk there's nothing lost in Og, For ev'ry inch that is not fool is rogue: A monstrous mass of foul corrupted matter, As all the devils had spew'd to make the batter. Students can play with language, become more familiar with Shakespearean language, and create ‘insults’ using the template and words provided on the Shakespeare Insult Kit webpage:
Irony (Greek: ‘dissimulation’) A complex term generally considered to refer to a statement which appears to say one thing but really implies its opposite. Therefore, an ironic comment always implies something different from what it appears to say, though it does not always mean the direct opposite of what it is appearing to say. Sarcasm is a form of verbal irony that is intended to be more directly insulting than irony. Irony can be evident in the tone of a work or it can be employed as a structural device. For example, structural irony is evident with the use of an unreliable narrator. Irony as a technique has a long history from the ancient Greeks, through to the 17th century (when irony was used extensively by writers) to the present day. Many literary works adopt an ironic tone, achieved by a teasing or laconic tone and ironic tension. Ironic tension was highly valued by the New Critics, since it indicated a range of possible meanings and perspectives contained within a single work. Irony can satirise, mock and ridicule and is thus a chief technique of the satirist and in the hands of a skilled artist, can also rebuke mildly. Jane Austen’s (1775-1817) novels exemplify the use of irony as a narrative technique. Many of Thomas Hardy’s (1840-1928) novels depend on ‘cosmic irony’ where ‘destiny’ or ‘fate’ intervenes to frustrate and often destroy the lives of the characters. See also Conventions, Language, New Criticism. DC, JM
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J Jacobean age The period of time in English history marked by the reign of King James I, from 1603-1625. The age is renowned for its drama, particularly that of John Webster (1580-1634) and the later works of William Shakespeare (1564-1616) and Ben Jonson (1572-1637). The drama of this period (which immediately followed the Elizabethan age) is characterised by its technical excellence and its dramatisation of violence, corruption, human weakness and suffering. Webster’s The White Devil (1612) and the Duchess of Malfi (1614) are two acclaimed Jacobean tragedies. JM
Journal writing The Australian educator and researcher Jack Thomson described journal writing in English as “an essential tool of learning” (2004: 304): this can be extended to include the view of journal writing an essential tool for learning. Journals have become a staple of English, along with small group work and students’ use of expressive and informal language to explore new ideas, hypothesise, articulate perspectives, interpret, synthesise knowledge, develop their language and thinking skills, and make meaning. Journals provide a context in which students can use language ‘at the point of utterance’, free from the strictures of formal assessment. They allow students the scope, opportunity and space not only to learn to write by writing about issues, ideas, topics, experiences and texts in immediate, expressive ways, but also, importantly, to write to learn. Through such writing, students can move from raw, unreflected-upon ideas to higher-order thinking, creativity, synthesis, discovery and application of new ideas and concepts to new contexts. There are a number of varieties of journals that can be used in English: ∼ journals that include a range of writing from reflections on learning, exploration of ideas and
texts, responses and scaffolded or guided expressive writing tasks ∼ double entry journals, in which the pages are divided into two columns – one for the student’s writing and the other for the teacher to engage with and respond to this in an informal, supportive and constructive way ∼ reading journals that include initial responses to texts; and learning journals in which students regularly reflect on their progress, learning style and development. If journals are to be used as part of an English writing program, students need to be informed about the purpose and audience. Journals in English are not synonymous with diaries: the latter has a far more personal and intimate function for the individual, with the self as audience. Students need to be aware that the teacher may or may not read the journal and it is not a place for venting about other students or teachers. Usually, journals are not formally assessed. Instead, they may be regarded as ‘process’ journals, and it is the level of commitment to the process that teachers may assess with a ‘satisfactory’ grade. It is also desirable to conduct interviews with students, similar to teacher-student conferences, with the focus on the process of journal writing and the student’s selfThe English Teacher’s Handbook
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J evaluation. Developing metacognition skills is a significant part of the purpose of journals in English. It is important, however, that journal writing, like any other activity in English, does not become too routinised and predictable: if this happens, the effectiveness of the journal as a tool for learning is diminished. See also Metacognition, Reflection/Reflective practice, Writing. JM Reference: Thomson, J. (2004) “Journal writing – an essential tool of learning”, in Reviewing English in the 21st Century (eds) W. Sawyer & E. Gold, Sydney: Phoenix Education.
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K Kabuki theatre Kabuki is a form of traditional Japanese theatre which was a popular people’s theatre. The plays employ an older version of the Japanese language which is not easy for many contemporary Japanese to understand. Actors are accompanied by music from traditional Japanese instruments. JH
Key Learning Area Key Learning Area (KLA) is a term referring to a school subject area as a component of the curriculum. Subject areas were identified by the Australian Education Council and developed by its Curriculum and Assessment Committee (CURASS). In the 1990s, as part of a national collaborative curriculum project, CURASS developed National Statements and Profiles for eight KLAs: ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
The arts English Health and physical education Languages other than English Maths Science Studies of society and environment Technology
The Statements set out the learning areas and the agreed knowledge, understanding, values and skills students acquire within each KLA. The Profiles set out required student outcomes and intended levels of student achievement in each KLA. The national collaborative curriculum project did not proceed to implementation, although the curriculum of Australian states and territories are more or less structured around these (or similar) KLAs. See also Curriculum, National Curriculum. DC, JM Reference: Australian Education Council (1994) A Statement on English for Australian Schools. Melbourne: Curriculum Corporation.
Künstlerroman: (German: ‘artist’ plus Roman ‘novel’) A novel which charts a protagonist’s journey from childhood to maturity, the associated difficulties of a hostile environment and the character’s inner struggles. This protagonist is usually an artist or writer. Sometimes called the apprenticeship novel, such works result in the protagonist gaining an understanding of his/her creative mission. James Joyce’s A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1917) is perhaps the most famous example in the English language. DC
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L Lament A poem of mourning for the loss of a person, a group, or abstraction such as a nation or position. It is similar to a dirge, elegy and monody. JM
Language (Latin: ‘lingua’, French: ‘tongue’) The use and analysis of language in all its manifestations is central to subject English. Language as a system of signs is the basis of all communication and the vehicle through which we make and express meaning. Language as a term has a range of meanings: language as it refers to the common and specific language of a group or nation; language as it refers to systems of signs used to communicate through words (spoken and written), images and behaviour; and language as it refers to particular varieties or styles of language, such as for example, Old English, advertising language, the language of music, or the language of film. All language is shaped by context, purpose and audience and functions in a myriad of ways. It is through language and using language that we: ∼ participate in social contexts, define our identity, make sense of experience, build
relationships, define our place in the world and express who we are ∼ “develop our thoughts, shape our experience, explore our customs, structure our community,
construct our laws, articulate our values and give expression to our hopes and ideals” (Commonwealth Department of Employment, Education and Training, 1990: ix) ∼ recognise and understand the way language operates to include or exclude individuals and
groups and to maintain, challenge of transform existing power structures and social relations ∼ think, feel, reflect upon, question, imagine, create, compose, develop and organise ideas and
make meaning individually and in collaboration with others. Since the 1960s, developments in English education have been driven by new understandings, based on research, of the ways in which students learn, the role of language in learning, and the implications of this for pedagogy and student achievement. A range of often competing theoretical positions and practical models have informed the approach to language teaching and learning in English. The ground-breaking work of John Dixon (Growth Through English, 1967); James Moffett (Teaching the Universe of Discourse, 1968); James Britton (Language and Learning, 1970); Michael Halliday (Explorations in the Function of Language, 1973); Andrew Wilkinson (Language and Education, 1975); Douglas Barnes (From Communication to Curriculum, 1976); Garth Boomer (Negotiating the Curriculum, 1982); Richard Andrews (1994) and others, has had a profound impact on English curriculum in Australia, the United Kingdom and Canada. The seminal ideas about language-in-use, the learner as a social user of language, and the integration of the language modes that emerged in the last four decades of the 20th century have provided a theoretical and pedagogical foundation that continues to inform English teaching and 168
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L learning. These approaches to the use and analysis of language have stressed the fundamental principle that school students best acquire and develop their knowledge, understanding, skills and values in subject English and the English language by engaging in purposeful tasks of language in use in a variety of contexts within and across the domains (or modes) of reading, writing, listening, speaking, viewing and representing: all objectives of English are stated as “ability to do something”: to listen, read, speak and write, and in doing so to interpret, discriminate, communicate, evaluate…(NSW Secondary Schools Board, 1972: 2) A more recent syllabus states that the aim of teaching and learning in English is …to enable students to understand, use, enjoy and value the English language in its various textual forms and to become thoughtful, imaginative and effective communicators in a diverse and changing society. (NSW Board of Studies, 1999: 7) Thus, students are immersed in a rich and meaningful language environment that values the students’ developing language and the language of others – in a wide range of texts and contexts. Language skills are explicitly taught, acquired and used in purposeful ways that are connected to the lives, and meet the needs, interests and capacities, of all students. Teachers aim to consistently model exemplary language use and the enjoyment of language and communication in all its manifestations. The following table provides a very simplified overview of the main developments in language teaching and learning in subject English since the 1960s. The points here should be considered as partial and indicative and serve as stepping-off points for further reading. Development Teaching the Universe of Discourse (Moffett, 1968)
Key ideas and principles •
•
•
• •
• •
Language as a tool for learning
•
(Moffett, 1968; Britton, 1970; Wilkinson, 1975; Barnes, 1976)
• •
• •
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All discourse can be considered in terms of a ‘speaker’, a ‘listener’ and a ‘subject’ (first person, second person, third person, respectively) – the “I – You – It” of communication. Language development occurs when there is increasing distance between the “I” and “You” of the discourse (i.e. speaker and listener/audience) Key stages are: Reflection Conversation Correspondence Publication Each stage requires more distance between ‘self/speaker’ and ‘listener/ audience’ than the preceding one. Increased distance between speaker and ‘subject’ reflects increasing abstraction and capacity to write in ‘poetic’ forms using ‘poetic’ (highly wrought and developed) language. Critical of English as ‘content-knowledge’ to be transmitted to student as ‘passive’ recipient. Critical of studying the forms and rules in isolation from context and purpose. Focus on developing skills in language by using language and forms, rather than being told ‘about’ language and forms. Learners are active participants in and users of language. Learning is recursive. We learn language by using language in a wide range of contexts and through experience of a wide range of texts. Talking (using ‘expressive’, informal, conversational language) is the foundation for developing language skills. Talk is central to learning: hypothesising; testing out ideas; solving problems; telling stories; sharing perspectives; having ideas challenged and/or affirmed; shaping identity (values and beliefs). We not only learn to write, but write to learn. Expressive’ talking is the starting point for students’ development as writers.
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L Development
Key ideas and principles
Language Functions (Halliday, 1973; Britton et al, 1975; Doughty et al, 1973)
Social nature of language; Language and power (Janks, 1993; Scholes, 1985)
Language, rhetoric and ethics (Andrews, 1995; Thomson, 2004)
• • • • •
•
•
•
• •
Language in communication is shaped by purpose, context and audience. Focused exploration of language in use in the classroom. Development of students’ language skills for the range of functions (see Functional Grammar). Language differences should not be regarded as language ‘deficit’. Study of language in context in use requires students to be actively using language and learning about how it operates to communicate meaning. Developing awareness of the relationship between language and power and how identity, power and social relations are mediated by and constructed through language in use. Students learn how culture and social power is shaped, maintained, mediated and challenged through language. Students learn to use “all the rhetorics of their culture” (Andrews, 1994, 1995) to extend and enrich their capacity to use language in the range of social, personal and other ways required. Builds on the socio-cultural model of language and cultural studies. Students acquire the ability to make ethical and value judgements about texts, recognising that these are “partially culturally constructed.” (Thomson, 2004: 19)
Types of Language Abstract
Language that represents ideas, concepts and intangible qualities such as ‘beauty’, ‘happiness’, ‘truth’ and ‘joy’.
Concrete
Any language that denotes or identifies things recognised through the senses of touch, smell, sight, sound or taste. Concrete language is specific and particular, often describing an object, person or event. For example: Her hair is thick and brown. Concrete language aims for clarity of description and in this sense, it is in contrast to abstract and metaphorical language.
Emotive
Language that appeals to the emotions and aims to provoke an emotional response. This kind of language is common in the media (especially advertising) and is a powerful tool for persuading the audience to buy a product or accept a particular point of view.
Expressive
One of the three types of language identified by Moffett (1968). It is the language growing out of personal experience and the expression of this in a direct voice. It is distinct from formal language, in that expressive language is language of the ‘self’.
Formal
Language that occurs in formal contexts and is shaped by the codes, expectations and audience. An essay or a scientific report, for example, uses formal language. Formal language occurs during official ceremonies, important public occasions and often in law courts and some meetings.
Literal
Concrete, exact and precise language to name, denote, identify, describe and explain. Literal language is the opposite of figurative, metaphorical or symbolic language. Imaginative texts typically work through both literal and figurative language, producing two or more layers of meaning – ie literal and metaphorical or symbolic.
Metaphorical
Language that relies on metaphor, either implicitly or explicitly. Metaphorical language is common in poetry and other imaginative texts.
Persuasive
Language that is designed to persuade or convince the audience of a particular point of view. Advertising relies on persuasive language to engage and appeal to the audience.
Rhetorical
Originally the language of speech that was intended to persuade and convince the audience with its power of argument. Rhetorical language has also come to refer to the language and conventions that are used in, for example, speeches. Rhetorical texts are characterised by their use of devices such as repetition, analogy, inclusive language (us, we, they), metaphor, questions, amplification, alliteration and assonance.
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L Sensational
Similar to emotive language, sensational language aims to provoke a sharp and immediate response, capture attention and amplify a topic or situation. Sensational language is common in tabloid newspapers and some current affairs’ television.
Symbolic
Language the draws on symbols to communicate ideas.
Referential
Exact language that seeks to denote, identify and describe things or phenomena in precise and scientific terms. It is the opposite of emotive language.
Phatic
Language that is used to begin and end conversations. Conventional greetings such as “How are you today?” or “Have a good day” are examples of the use of phatic language.
Poetic
Highly compressed, distilled language that usually relies on figurative language such as metaphor, simile, imagery and symbolism and on devices such as rhythm, metrical patterns (although rhythm and metre are not always present), alliteration, assonance, connotation and allusion. Moffett’s model of writing (1968) identified poetic language in the triad of modes (expressive, transactional and poetic) and described poetic writing as the most sophisticated form of writing characterised by an increased distance between the ‘I’ and the audience of the text.
Transactional
Language used to get things done. It occurs as part of everyday communication and in includes questions, requests, instructions, directions and the transmission of information. One of three modes identified by Moffett (1968). Transactional language and writing aims to gets things done.
See also Language Across the Curriculum, Functional grammar, Language in Use, Linguistics, Literacy, Literature, Reading, Representing, Talking and listening, Viewing, Writing. JM References: Andrews, R. (ed.) (1995) Rebirth of Rhetoric, London: Routledge. Barnes, D. (1976) From Communication to Curriculum, Harmondsworth: Penguin. Boomer, G. (1982) Negotiating the Curriculum, Sydney: Ashton Scholastic. Britton, J. (1970) Language and Learning, Harmondsworth: Penguin. Britton, J. et al (1975) The Development of Writing Abilities (11-18), London: Macmillan. Commonwealth Department of Employment, Education and Training (1990)The Language of Australia: Discussion Paper on an Australian Literacy and Language Policy for the 1990s, Canberra. Dixon, J. (1967) Growth Through English, Huddersfield: OUP and NATE. Doughty, P., Pearce, J., and Thornton, G. (1973) Language in Use, London: Edward Arnold. Janks, H. (1993) Language, Identity, and Power, Johannesburg: Hodder & Stoughton. Halliday, M.A.K. (1973) Explorations in the functions of language, London: Edward Arnold. Halliday, M.A.K. (1975) Learning How to Mean, London: Edward Arnold. Halliday, M.A.K. (1994) Introduction to Functional Grammar, 2nd edition, London: Edward Arnold. Moffett, J. (1968) Teaching the Universe of Discourse, Boston: Houghton Mifflin. NSW Board of Studies (1999) English Stage 6 Syllabus, Sydney: NSW Board of Studies. NSW Secondary Schools Board (1972) Syllabus in English: Years 7 – 10, Sydney: NSW Secondary Schools Board. Sawyer, W. & Gold, E. (eds) (2004) Reviewing English in the 21st Century, Melbourne: Phoenix Education. Scholes, R. (1985) Textual Power: Literary Theory and the Teaching of English, New Haven: Yale University Press. Stratta, L., Dixon, J., & Wilkinson, A. (1973) Patterns of Language: Explorations in the Teaching of English, London: Heinemann. Thomson, J. (2004) “Post-Dartmouth developments in English teaching in Australia” in Reviewing English in the 21st Century, eds. W. Sawyer & E. Gold, Sydney: Phoenix Education. Wilkinson, A. (1975) Language and Education, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Language Across the Curriculum (LAC) The English Teacher’s Handbook
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L In the 1970s the notion of Language Across the Curriculum was promoted as a fundamental part of all teachers’ practice – every teacher had a responsibility to nurture language growth in their students by acquiring and implementing appropriate strategies that would engage the learner as an active participant in using language and making meaning, rather than as merely a passive receiver of transmitted knowledge. This movement was built upon the assumptions about knowledge and constructing knowledge that were being developed from research at the time. What this LAC movement did was to herald a shift in the teacher-learner paradigm: the teacher was no longer the solely empowered and privileged one who was the gatekeeper of all subject knowledge because he or she had mastered the discourse this subject knowledge was transmitted through and embedded in. The subject knowledge was hitherto considered to be an inviolable set of truths that were unalterable through time and space. Recent critical theory has promoted the view that knowledge is contestable and therefore fluid, shifting and subject to change and also dependent upon the context and the learner or individual’s frame of reference. Central to this concept is a concern with the ways in which language can be used to acquire knowledge and the ways in which a student’s proficiency with language can be enhanced. The concept holds that we acquire knowledge through the use of one or more of the language modes – e.g. listening, talking, viewing, representing, reading and writing - and thus, all teachers should be aware of the role language plays in learning and seek to maximise opportunities for students to use and reflect on language in all sites of learning. Language Across the Curriculum was prominent in the 1970s and 1980s, following the work of James Britton, Harold Rosen, Douglas Barnes and the findings of the Bullock Report, A Language for Life (1975). More recently, language across the curriculum as a concept has been superseded by literacy across the curriculum, reflecting government priorities and recent research in language development. See also Language, Language in Use. DC Reference: Watson, K, & Sawyer, W., & Adams, (eds) (1989) English Teaching from A-Z. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Language in Use One of the pioneering works in the ‘risorgimento’ of the teaching and learning of English that was accelerated by the Dartmouth Seminar and the publication of John Dixon’s seminal Growth Through English (1967) was Language In Use co-authored by Peter Doughty, John Pearce and Geoffrey Thornton (1973). It was one of the earliest teaching resources that implemented the teaching and learning principles and practices inspired by the ‘New English’. It drew heavily not only upon a much more engaged and personal response approach to literature, but also upon sociolinguistics and a strong sense of the role that language can play in advancing social justice. In particular, the lesson programmes developed in Language in Use addressed and confronted issues of racism, class division, disadvantage and equity. It made a significant impact upon the teaching of English in the 1970s and continues to influence English teaching and learning to the present. Stratta, Dixon and Wilkinson’s Patterns of Language (1973) similarly focused on the conscious use and understanding of language through purposeful and activity-based learning in English. See also Language, Language Across the Curriculum, Language in Use, Literacy. PB References: Britton, J. (1970) Language and Learning, Harmondsworth: Penguin. Britton, J. et al. (1975) The Development of Writing Abilities (11-18), London: Macmillan. Dixon, J. (1967) Growth Through English, Huddersfield: OUP and NATE. Doughty, P., Pearce, J., & Thornton, G. (1973) Language in Use, London: Edward Arnold. Stratta, L., Dixon, J., & Wilkinson, A. (1973) Patterns of Language: Explorations in the Teaching of English, London: Heinemann.
Language modes 172
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L Refers to reading, writing, talking, listening, viewing and representing. The language modes are the vehicles through which language is shaped and communicated. In English, the language modes are integrated and interdependent. Effective pedagogy seeks to engage at least two or more language modes in all classroom activities. Traditionally, the language modes of reading and writing have held a privileged place in English, diminishing the central role of the other modes. Contemporary syllabus documents, however, assume that achievement across and within all language modes will be developed throughout a unit of work as students engage in rich, meaningful language experiences. See also Language, Language in Use, Reading, Talking and Listening, Representing, Viewing, Writing. JM
Learning-centred English A theoretical and pedagogical approach to teaching in English that places the learner and learning at the centre of the educational process. Learning-centred English assumes that each student, individually, and collectively, will be consistently engaged in a wide range of purposeful, contextualised and enjoyable experiences of language in use. The pedagogy of learning-centred English is active, project-based, inquiry-based, experiential and purposeful. Students are regarded as active participants in developing their knowledge, understanding, skills, values and attitudes through making, doing, appreciating, exploring, discovering, critiquing, creating and evaluating. Learning-centred English assumes that progression in English is dependent on the relationship between content and process. R D Walshe’s model of learning-centred English encapsulates these key tenets: JM Problem Artistic Processes
Experience Feel challenged Decide on project
Investigate
Get Insights
Express
Refine
Absorption Engagement Study/ research
Illumination Inspiration or revelation/ ‘flash’
Scientific Problem Process Define as question Plan the inquiry
Observation Exploration stratagems Data collection
Hypothesis Experiment/ Illumination e.g. Draft test precisely Verification or methodical Falsification generalisation; or inspiration Final writing
Problem- Problem/ Solving puzzle Process Define as question Plan the inquiry
Investigation Illumination Collect data ‘Ah-ha” Review Insight(s) Alternatives Think laterally
Writing Experience Pre-writing Process Decide to Ideawrite Recollection Define Research writing-aim Brainstorming Early broad plan
Illumination ‘See a pattern’ ‘Limit the subject’ ‘Get a lead’
Drafting Developing e.g. in paint- Working out ing Crafting prelim. ‘Finishing’ sketching or ‘roughing’
Announcement
Communication Response Show to inti- Appreciamates tion Exhibit widely Criticism Evaluation Publication Perhaps first to Associates, then more widely
Formulation Checking Report Of best Error Demonstration solution Elimination Performance Critical review
Drafting Plan, or further brainstorming; then first draft
Revision Self-editing Redrafting Proofreading
Reaction
Response Acceptance Or criticism
Response Appreciation Criticism Evaluation
Publication Response Show to Appreciaanother tion Read to others Criticism Circulate Evaluation widely
Reference: Walshe, R.D. (2007) “It’s Time Australia Reshaped English”, Presentation to The Legends Round Table on English Education, Arts, English and Literacy Education Research Network, The University of Sydney, August, 2007. Published in Illuminations: Journal of the Arts, English and Literacy Education Research Network, Volume 1:1, November, 2008.
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L Learning styles Refers to the different ways in which individuals engage with, respond to, process and make meaning from learning experiences. It is recognised that individuals learn in different ways and at differing rates. A number of pedagogical models have been developed that categorise, define and address the various ways in which students learn. These models seek to shape learning experiences so that all students are catered for. The role of the teacher, and the relationship between teacherstudent and learning, is summed up in UNESCO’s 1996 report, Learning: The Treasure Within: The teacher’s work is not confined simply to transmitting information or even knowledge; it also entails presenting that knowledge in the form of a statement of problems within a certain context and putting the problems into perspective, so that the learner can link their solution to broader issues. The teacher-pupil relationship aims at the full development of the pupil’s personality, with emphasis on self-reliance; from this point of view the authority vested in teachers is always paradoxical, since it is not based on the assertion of their power but on the free recognition of the legitimacy of knowledge. (1996: 36) Two well-known models that define learning styles are Multiple Intelligences and Left Right Brain. The following overview provides the key principles of each model and suggests practical strategies for implementing these principles in teaching and learning. See also Cooperative learning, Differentiation, Group work, Learning-centred English, Pedagogy, Student-centred learning. JM References: Delors, J. (1996) Learning: The Treasure Within, Report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-First Century, New York: UNESCO Publishing. Gardner, H. (1983; 1993) Frames of Mind: The theory of multiple intelligences, New York: Basic Books.
Model
Principles
Multiple intelligences: Intelligences: A theory developed by • Verbal/linguistic: words and Howard Gardner that defines language, written and oral. 7 dimensions to intelligence. Traditionally privileged in Each individual learns through education. engaging one or more of • Logical/mathematical: scientific these intelligences more thinking, involving reasoning, readily than the others. logical thinking, hypothesising, testing, apprehending patterns and drawing conclusions. • Musical: Attuned to sound, rhythm, tone, melody, the voice and sounds in the environment. • Visual/spatial: visual images and creating mental visual images. Attuned to special patterns and visual information. • Body/kinaesthetic: physical movement and activity, tactile, hands-on, practical. • Inter-personal: relationships, communication and interactions with others. • Intra-personal: reflection, introspection, metacognition, feelings, emotions, spirituality.
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Strategies •
•
• •
•
•
•
Reading, writing, discussion, abstract thinking and forms of reasoning through language. Present information systematically and logically. Use problem-based approaches, opportunities for abstract reasoning, and make connections explicit. Use aural stimulus, present new material with awareness of sound. Use visual stimulus and visual strategies for learning – graphic organisers (e.g. mind-maps). Strategies that provide opportunities for activities that require doing, making, movement (role-play, performance). Group work, collaborations, interacting through talk and projectbased activities. Individual work, opportunities and time for reflection, valuing of emotional as well as cognitive responses.
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L Model Left Right Brain: Based on the research of Dr Roger Sperry. For some individuals, one side of the brain may be dominant in thinking and learning. For others, there is a greater degree of balance between the two hemispheres.
Principles
Strategies
Left Hemisphere: Rational thinking, logic, language, analysis, mathematical processes.
Left Hemisphere: Sequenced, step-by step explication, systematic and sequenced learning tasks, chunking information and activities.
Right Hemisphere: Creativity, imagination, abstract, visual, musical, non-verbal, conceptual thinking.
Right Hemisphere: Big picture connections between new information and personal context, discussion of ideas, observation, casebased activities and group work.
Legend (Latin: ‘what is read’) A story or series of stories based on an historical figure, subject, place or event. Originally, legends were stories about the lives of the saints and were part of the oral tradition of storytelling. Later, stories about significant figures (real or based on actual people and events) such as, for example King Arthur, Robin Hood and Alexander the Great. Legends abound in all cultures across time and are derived from historical episodes that have gained currency and popularity. The term is often used interchangeably with myth. While myths involve stories about ‘gods’, legends tend to focus on historically verifiable material and involve a degree of realism or verisimilitude. There is an abundance of resources on legends online. Below are some useful links with annotations: This New Zealand site has links to many myths and legends from around the world and some excellent teaching ideas for students in the middle years:
Lesson plan A detailed plan of the learning goals, pedagogy, resources and content of a lesson. Lesson plans are prepared as part of a unit of work. Effective teaching and learning depends on effective planning and lesson plans can be considered as part of the sequence of planning. At the macro level, a program is designed for each class. The program consists of a series of integrated units of work. Each unit of work is made up, at the micro level, of a series of lesson plans. See also Curriculum, Program, Unit of work. JM The English Teacher’s Handbook
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L Example of a Lesson Plan Template Class: Unit: Lesson Outcomes:
Day/Date/Time: Syllabus Outcomes: Aim:
Preparation and resources: Procedure/strategies: Focal activities/tasks: Learning configurations and styles: pairs, small group, etc Modes: Talking, viewing etc Links to assessment: Homework: Links to next lesson/ closure: Reflection / Evaluation:
Limerick
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
A short, humorous rhyming poem of five lines which has a generic structure and rhyme pattern. Limericks were originally devised by the English poet, Edward Lear (1812-1888). Limericks combine a couplet with a triplet. Line 1 usually introduces the character or situation. Lines 1, 2 & 5 rhyme with each other. Lines 3 and 4 also rhyme. For example: There was a young woman named Bright Whose speed was much faster than light. She set out one day In a relative way, And returned on the previous night. Author unknown See also Poetry, Rhyme. JM Each Minties’ wrapper has a sketch on it. The illustration depicts a scene and/or character/s. After reading and modelling limericks, students each have a Minties’ wrapper and create a limerick based on the visual text of the wrapper. Limericks can then be shared, collated or illustrated. This activity encourages students to think and write creatively and imaginatively, using visual stimulus. There is an emphasis on rhythm and rhyme patterns, description, humour and brevity of language to capture a scene in verse.
Linguistics The scientific study, explanation and description of language that focuses on language structure (grammar) and/or meaning (semantics). Prior to the rise of linguistics as a discipline in the 20th century, the study of language was referred to as philology and concentrated on the historical developments and changes in language. Sub-branches of linguistics include phonetics, semantics, phonology, psycholinguistics, semiotics, applied linguistics and discourse analysis. See also Functional Grammar, Grammar, Language, Literacy. JM 176
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L reiterate the ways in which literacy skills are best acquired in English: through rich, purposeful language in use, in meaningful contexts. On this point, Jonothan Neelands contends that: The narrow focus on the technology of language in the subject of English in the state of England, has tended to background the traditional centrality of literature, poetry and other cultural experiences in the English classroom. The acquisition of testable skills in Literacy in its narrowest sense has replaced the idea that English, drama and media can offer young people a life resource at every level of human experience; from the pragmatic to the poetic; from spectatorship to participation in a wide range of representative and communicative forms.† By focussing on literacy at the expense of critical cultural learning, the idea that English classrooms are the principal site for young people to make and respond to cultural work has almost been forgotten. (Neelands, 2009) See also Language, Language in Use. PB References: Australian Education Council (1994) A Statement on English for Australian Schools. Melbourne: Curriculum Corporation. Neelands, J. (2009) “Getting off the subject; English, drama and media and the commonwealth of powerful culture” in J. Manuel, D. Carter, P. Brock & W. Sawyer (eds) Re-Visioning English: Educating for Education: Imagination, Innovation, Creativity , Sydney: Phoenix Education. NSW Department of Education and Training, (1994) Literacy ’97 Strategy: Focus on Literacy, Sydney: NSW Department of Education and Training.
Literary criticism The practice of studying, analysing, interpreting and evaluating literature. Literary criticism is considered to be the practical application of literary theory, although some argue that they are one and the same. Literary criticism – or the deliberate and systematic exploration of literature – has a long history, beginning with the Ancient Greeks, Plato (c. 428-348 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC). Both addressed the questions of the purpose, nature, function and value of literature. Plato considered ‘art’ as a powerful force in shaping morality and ways of thinking, but saw this, ultimately, as a negative influence on his ‘ideal’ society. Truth and knowledge, according to Plato, exist in ideal forms that cannot be apprehended through artistic representations. In contrast, Aristotle considered effective art to be an imitation of reality, operating according to universal laws and capable of enlightening audiences through their engagement with its moral dimensions and potential for catharsis – or the purging of negative emotions. Since Plato and Aristotle, there has been a continuum of debate about the definition, role, significance and place of literature – aesthetic texts – in human experience. Many of the approaches to the study of literature prior to the 20th century regarded the artistic work as a means to the end of learning more about the historical period and the life of the author and as a tool for addressing significant moral, philosophical and ethical questions about how to live a virtuous and ‘good’ life. Texts were not necessarily considered in and for themselves, as aesthetic artefacts, but as educative works and sources of moral instruction. Literary criticism, prior to the 20th century, is regarded as ‘moral/philosophical criticism’ since its aim was to promote literature (the traditional triumvirate of novels, plays and poetry) as a secular source for nation-building and ennobling the moral capital of individuals within a culture. Since the turn of the 20th century, and the institutionalisation of English studies, literary criticism has developed rapidly in concert with the rise of literary theory. The major critical movements or schools in the 20th century to the present are: Historical/Biographical criticism; New Criticism (Formalism); Structuralism; Psychoanalytic criticism; Archetypal criticism; Freudian criticism; Reader-response criticism; Poststructural criticism; Rhetorical criticism; Ethical criticism; Post-colonial criticism; Feminism/ s; and New Historicism. The American literary critic MH Abrams, in the opening chapter of the highly influential book The Mirror and the Lamp (1953) set out in the opening chapter - “Orientation of Critical Theories” – a framework for understanding literary criticism. According to Abrams, a critical approach is 178
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Work (Text)
Audience (Reader)
Artist (Composer)
Although Abrams used these terms, it is also possible to substitute ‘writer’, ‘dramatist’, ‘poet’ or ‘composer’ for ‘artist’; ‘context’ for ‘universe’; ‘reader’, ‘viewer’, or ‘responder’ for ‘audience’; and ‘text’ for ‘work’. Most critical approaches to the study of literature focus on one or more of these elements (and their interrelationship) to explain how we make meaning and where meaning ‘resides’: the Expressive criticism associated with the Romantics, for example, considered the ‘artist’ to be the source of meaning; New Critics insisted on the primacy of the ‘work’ as the source of meaning; and Reception theory shifted the focus to the interaction between the ‘audience’ (reader) and the ‘work’ as the source of meaning. Since the late 1960s and 1970s, however, the relationship between these elements has been problematised by structuralist approaches to language, the emergence of movements such as Reader-response criticism, Marxist criticism, Feminist criticism, New Historicism, Rhetorical criticism and Ethical criticism. Despite this, Abram’s framework remains useful for exploring the ‘orientation’ of different critical approaches. See also Interpretation, Literary theory. JM Reference: Abrams, M. H. (1953) The Mirror and the Lamp: Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition , Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Literary theory Theorised discourse about the nature, value, purpose, significance and interpretive practices relevant to the study of literature and language. Literary theory informs and underpins the practice of literary criticism. The rise of literary theory as a distinct branch of the humanities in the second half of the 20th century, saw its inclusion in a range of disciplines in universities, including the disciplines of English and philosophy. Further, discrete university courses dedicated to the study of literary theory also emerged at this time. According to Barry, the study of literary theory, or ‘theory’, reached its zenith or “high water mark” (Barry, 2002: 1) in the late 1980s. Since then, the appeal of theory in and for itself has subsided, as have the often intense and polarised discourses around it. Instead, the assimilation of many of the tenets of a range of theories as part of the fabric of the study of literature and language is now commonplace and (for the most part) uncontroversial. When debates about theory do arise, they are often around questions of how, why and at what stage of learning students should be introduced to theory in the context of their study in English. For teachers, however, an understanding of the continuum of literary theory and the implications of this for effective pedagogy informs their professional knowledge-base and pedagogical skills in the same way that theory informs the practice of other specialised professionals in disciplines such as law, engineering, architecture and medicine. See also Interpretation, Literacy criticism. JM References: Barry, P. (2002) Beginning Theory: An introduction to literary and cultural theory. Manchester:
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L Manchester University Press.
The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism.
Literature (Latin: ‘familiarity with letters’) A term that has shifting and contested meanings. Since the late 18th century, the term has referred to imaginative and creative writing in the major artistic genres in print: novels, poetry, short stories and drama. A broader definition of literature includes film and some nonfiction such as, for example, autobiography, biography and diaries. Attempts at defining art, the aesthetic and literature are almost as old as language itself and each generation of critics and others continue to wrestle with the elusive nature of ‘literariness’. Importantly, since the 1960s, ‘literature’ as it is applied in English education encompasses not only the imaginative, creative writing of others that is read and studied in English, but the imaginative, creative writing of students themselves. Ian Reid described the ‘gallery’ and ‘workshop’ approaches to the study of literature in English (Reid, 1984). The former is characterised by students’ engagement with and analysis of canonic and other literature, with the implication that what is read is critiqued and valued in ‘objective’ ways. The ‘workshop’ model assumes that students’ own writing is part of the continuum of literature. In this model, students are encouraged, for example, to ‘rewrite’ the literature of others, experimenting, adapting and transforming these texts to create new texts. In so doing, they engage with and interpret the forms, techniques, ideas, ways of thinking, assumptions and values that contribute to the developing mastery of language use and analysis. Such writing has been described as “dependent authorship” or “imaginative re-creation” (Adams, 2004) whereby students use literature as a model for their own writing and their development as writers, readers and critics. The term ‘literature’ has carried evaluative connotations, referring to texts that are considered to be of ‘classic’, ‘canonic’ or enduring quality, and which are written using literary language and forms. Poststructuralist theorists contend that all texts are constructed artefacts, emerging from cultural and personal contexts which are, in turn, shaped by values, beliefs, material conditions, ways of thinking and ideology: the idea of the ‘literariness’ of a text, or a special hierarchical or privileged category of ‘literature’, is rejected by these critics. Within such a framework, products of human activity that rely on language (including visual and non-verbal) are considered to be ‘texts’ and are seen as part of a continuum of discourses or system/s of signs. There is a reluctance within such a framework to confer particular a priori value or status upon certain texts over and above others. Others argue that “art is more than documentary…and is not imposed on us as an invention of middle-class elites…we have done it forever…art allows us to claim ourselves back from the machine...it is not ornament, surplus, extra, but the beating heart of who we are.” (Winterson, 2008). Still others argue that the capacity to evaluate texts and make informed value-judgements about the worth and quality of these is part of the ethical project of English (Thomson, 2004). The term ‘literature’, defined as creative, imaginative expressions of human experience, remains an important term in many discourses – public and academic – about a range of artistic, aesthetic, imaginative and creative works. There is a plethora of awards, for example, for ‘literature’ (Nobel Prize, other international, national and state awards etc). In each case, literature is defined as a print text with ‘literary’ qualities that is judged according to a range of often competing criteria. A concept (or concepts) of the ‘literary’ is also embedded in terms such as ‘literary theory’; ‘literary criticism’; ‘literary genres’; literary techniques’; and ‘literary devices’. Traditionally, the study of literature has been organised according to literary periods: for example, we talk of the literature of the Middle Ages, Renaissance, Elizabethan era, Victorian era, Romantic period, Modern era and Postmodern era. Such grouping enables the literature of a particular historical period to be explored and compared to understand the prevailing issues, genres, ideas and ways of thinking typical of that period and to map developments in literary style, technique and subject. The study of 180
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L literature can also be organised according to specific genres and sub-genres (novel, poetry, short story, nonfiction, Young Adult, children’s, action and adventure, fantasy, science fiction, etc); thematically (literature of love, mourning, protest, etc); and according to the gender, age, nationality or race of the composer. The task of assigning value, assessing literary and aesthetic ‘merit’ and deciding on the worth of particular texts in relation to others, and comparing these views with the views of others, past and present, continues to be a central part of English education. Equipping students with the critical skills, knowledge and understandings to make informed value-judgements and to recognise that all discourse about and evaluation of literature is value-laden, is a key goal of learning in English. It should not diminish the aesthetic dimensions of student engagement with and enjoyment of imaginative texts, and nor should it obviate the fact that English syllabus documents continue to refer to the study of “language and literature” as a central endeavour in English. Literature, in this context, is defined broadly as students’ and others’ creative and imaginative texts (in a range of modes such as print, oral, visual, media and multimedia). The creation, dissemination and enjoyment of creative works continues to occupy a central place in culture, education, personal lives and the community. It entertains; brings deep pleasure and satisfaction to the reader/viewer; opens up new worlds and ways of thinking, knowing and understanding; encourages empathy; asserts the significance of the inner life; connects individuals to wider visions of and perspectives on humanity; illuminates diverse, richly-textured experience; and offers myriad representations of what it means to be human. See also Drama, Drama as a learning medium, Fiction, Four phases of classroom experience, Interpretation, Literature Circles, Literary criticism, Nonfiction, Novel, Poetry, Short story and Wide reading program for practical strategies. JM Ten DON’Ts for Teaching Literature (Watson, 1983) 1. DON’T neglect reading aloud to them. To read aloud is to praise literature, spread enjoyment, convey the sound-of-writing. 2. DON’T impose reading around the class (‘round robin’). If you think oral reading practice is needed, why not in pairs or groups?
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
3. DON’T hand out a class text long before dealing with it – the keen ones will have it read and will be bored when you get to it. 4. DON’T spread ‘treatment’ of a book over a long period, with breaks at irritating places. Remember – enjoyment is central! 5. DON’T expect discussion after you’ve read a poem only once to them. They may need to read it silently, and you again. 6. DON’T issue worksheets or ‘guides’ which fail to allow for discussion and fail to offer a generous choice of written activities. 7. DON’T insist on writing about every book in your wide reading program. Sometimes, surely, the reading is enough! 8. DON’T continually set the writing of book reviews, when there are so many other imaginative forms in which to write. 9. DON’T demand chapter-by-chapter summaries – but if you do, experience the boredom yourself by writing with the class. 10.DON’T turn stories or poems into comprehension exercises – which, after all, are testing devices, not learning experiences. N.B. Of course, some of these DON’Ts may be acceptable options if offered for free choice among many other options. (Ken Watson, (1983) “Ten Don’ts of Teaching Literature, in Teaching Literature, Sydney: PETA Publications.)
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L References: Adams, P. (2004) “Imaginative re-creation of literature: a critical examination from the perspective of the 21st century”, in Reviewing English in the 21st Century, eds. W. Sawyer & E. Gold, Sydney: Phoenix Education, pp. 36-50. Reid, I. (1984) The Making of Literature: Texts, Contexts and Classroom Practices, Norwood: AATE. Thomson, J. (2004) “Post-Dartmouth developments in English teaching in Australia” in Reviewing English in the 21st Century, eds. W. Sawyer & E. Gold, Melbourne: Phoenix Education, pp. 10-22. Thomson, J. (ed.) (1992) Reconstructing Literature Teaching: New Essays on the Teaching of Literature, Norwood: AATE. Thomson, Jack, (1987) Understanding Teenagers’ Reading: Reading processes and the teaching of literature, 1992 edn. Norwood: AATE. Winterson, J. (2008) Opening Address to the Sydney Writers’ Festival, May. Watson, K. (1983) “Ten Don’ts of Teaching Literature, in Teaching Literature, Sydney: PETA Publications.
Literature Circles An effective approach to implementing a wide reading program in English. Students choose their own reading material and form small groups based on reading interest. Time is set aside for reading and discussion, with each member of the group taking a role. The principles and practical strategies for Literature Circles are as follows: ∼ Students choose their own reading materials. ∼ Small temporary groups are formed, based upon book choice. ∼ Different groups read different books. ∼ Groups meet on a regular, predictable schedule to discuss their reading. ∼ Advance preparation is crucial! Literature Circles are most successful when students have been prepared for the various roles and the meeting procedures. ∼ The more organisation a teacher puts into the program, the better the Literature Circles run. ∼ Discussion topics come from the students. ∼ Group meetings aim to be open, natural conversations about books, so personal connections, digressions, and open-ended questions are welcome. ∼ In newly-formed groups, students may play a rotating assortment of task roles. ∼ The teacher serves as a facilitator, not a group member or instructor. ∼ Evaluation is by teacher observation and student self-evaluation. ∼ When books are finished, readers share with their classmates, and then new groups form around new reading choices. The website:
Logo A picture or a picture with words designed to encapsulate the distinguishing features of an organisation, company or group. As a visual text, the purpose of a logo is to encourage the audience to perceive the organisation, company or group in a particular way. An effective logo will generate an easily recognisable and memorable association between the visual image and the organisation, company or group. Logos are often used in, for example, advertising, promotional materials, letterheads, signs and billboards. See also Film, Image, Media, Multimedia, Visual literacy, Visual text. DC, JM
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L ∼ Students create a logo for their own product, company or nonsense item. Or, create a logo or series of logos to represent a character/s in texts. Students support their logo choice with quotations from the text being studied.
∼ In small groups, students brainstorm as many logos as possible, identifying the most common and recognisable ones. Use this as a basis for examining the reasons why logos are utilised as part of advertising and marketing, and the role of visual texts in communicating messages and values.
∼ Visit the Logo and Trademark database which contains thousands of recognisable and less familiar logos:
∼
Lyric A poem that explores and expresses emotions. It is usually a shorter poem, in contrast to the epic, and may be set to music. The most common types of lyric poetry are the sonnet and the ode. Lyric poetry has a long history, but it reached its high point as a preferred genre in the Romantic period. See also Poetry. JM
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M Machinima An animation technique created by a machine (especially a computer). Often characters from computer games are used to create dramatic scenarios. See also Film, Media. JH
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There are several free animation programs available for download. These range from very simple line drawn animations to more complex creations. This website has a good listing of examples: http://animation.about.com/od/referencematerials/a/ freesoftware.htm Alternatively, students can storyboard animations, create flip-books, write ‘choose your own adventure’ texts and analyse animation and storylines within existing games. JW
Malapropism (French: ‘ill-suited’) Named after the character, Mrs Malaprop, in Richard Sheridan’s play The Rivals (1775). She was constantly muddling and confusing words and as a result, much of what she had to say was nonsensical. In contemporary popular culture, the characters Kath and Kim, from the eponymous television series, often utter malapropisms to add to the comic effect. For example: ‘effluent’ (affluent); ‘cardonays’ (chardonnays); ‘monogamy cupboards’ (mahogany cupboards); and ‘what are you incinerating?’ (insinuating). JM
Manga
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Popular Japanese comics that emerged in the post WWII period which have their roots in ancient forms of Japanese art. Manga are widely read and produced not only in Japan, but throughout the world. The comics take up a variety of subjects including action-adventure, romance, comedy, science fiction and fantasy, mystery, horror, sports, games, and business. See also Comics, Image, Popular culture, Visual text. JM, KS
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∼ Students research the role of Manga comics in Japan and their place in popular culture (how does it affect fashion, media, lifestyle?)
∼ Students create their own Manga comic book character adhering to the conventions of the genre.
∼ Each pair of students can create their own Manga character profile, these can be displayed on walls or compiled and published online as a compendium and reference when students are creating Manga narrative.
∼ Student pairs can be randomly assigned genre cards and asked to create their Manga comic in this style.
∼ Visit a Manga site such as
M Marxist literary criticism Modern Marxist literary criticism reacts against approaches typified by FR Leavis (1895-1978) and the American New Critics, which proposed that a literary work can be approached purely aesthetically and formally, with no regard to its context or the values which produced the text. Marxist literary criticism suggests that all texts are produced in and through culture, and, moreover, that culture is designed to uphold the interests of the bourgeois and the upper class. Literature, many Marxist literary critics would claim, supports the values upheld by the bourgeoisie, at the expense of the working class. As such, Marxist literary criticism works to expose the erroneous values that allow the bourgeoisie and the upper class to claim that their literature is in fact a universal literature, with a view to emancipating the working class and their interests. Based on the work of Karl Marx (1818-1883), Marxist literary criticism takes account of the class system within society, and argues that the idea of their being a “neutral”, “aesthetic” or “a-political” stance is a ruse for supporting the views of the bourgeoisie. A seminal work for the Marxist literary critics was Louis Althusser’s “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses”, where Louis Althusser (1918-1990) suggests that literature would be an “ideological apparatus”, specifically designed to dupe the working class into believing that their oppression and suppression was somehow a universal state, when in fact it was the direct result of “a small number of cynical men who base their domination and exploitation of the ‘people’ on a falsified representation of the world which they have imagined in order to enslave other minds by dominating their imaginations” (in Rivkin and Ryan, 2004: 694). Marxist literary critics are suspicious of claims of the superiority of the imagination, and of “literariness”, for precisely this reason. Literature helps to form a collective imagination, and if that collective imagination is fed the view that the working class is somehow natural, then, it is argued, it is clearly the work – be it conscious or unconscious – of the ruling classes in order to keep their privileged position safe. In this sense, Marxist criticism relies on the theory of social realism, whereby literature is mimetic and a site where social realities are represented and reflected. Prominent Marxist literary critics include Terry Eagleton (1943-), Fredric Jameson (1934-), Martha Vicinus, and Richard Ohmann, among others. Each of these critics, although very different in their manifestations of Marxist literary criticism, has in common the basic assertion that literature is necessarily political, and that to claim that it is apolitical betrays the most political position of all; that is, assent to the status quo. In addition, all of these critics would assert that the importance of the context of literature, both in terms of its production and its reception, as the right and proper concern of the literary critic. Literature can critique, promote, or ignore the status quo, (Marxist literary critics may differ on whether they believe texts can reject the status quo or not) and the only way one can properly ascertain how a text positions itself in this regard is to take into account the economic, cultural and political context into which a text inserts itself. Critics of Marxist literary criticism – and some of that criticism comes from within Marxist literary criticism itself – have suggested that the foundations of Marxism are themselves acontextual, and as such contradict Marxism’s basic assertion that all human work is necessarily bound by context. Still further, some have suggested that Marxism’s adherence to the notion of ‘ideology’ (particularly Althusser’s) can be totalising, thus refusing the working class an avenue for escape. Others have suggested that Marxism simplifies the contribution that literature makes to human experience, and that Marxism that assumes the complicity of literature of the bourgeoisie makes the mistake of making ‘literature’ monolithic, when it may be deeply varied in its contribution to society. See also Interpretation, Literary criticism, Literary theory. SGS, JM References: Althusser, L. (2004) “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses”, in J. Rivkin & M. Ryan, Literary Theory: An Anthology, 2nd edn. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 693-702. Rivkin, J. & Ryan, M. (2004) “Introduction: Starting with Zero”, in Literary Theory: An Anthology, 2nd edn. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 643-646.
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M Maxim (Latin: ‘greatest proposition’) A pithy and often witty statement that proposes a rule or guide for behaviour or provides an insight into some aspect of human experience. Oscar Wilde (1854-1900) was the master of edgy maxims. In 1894 a series of maxims was published anonymously in the Saturday Review, and titled: “A Few Maxims for the Instruction of the Over-Educated”. These were later acknowledged to be the creations of Oscar Wilde. For example: ∼ Education is an admirable thing. But it is well to remember from time to time that nothing that
is worth knowing can be taught. ∼ Friendship is far more tragic than love. It lasts longer. ∼ Art is the only serious thing in the world. And the artist is the only person who is never serious.
And these from “Phrases and Philosophies for the use of the Young” (The Chameleon, 1894): ∼ Only the shallow know themselves. ∼ Ambition is the last refuge of the failure. ∼ A truth ceases to be true when more than one person believes in it.
The Ancient Greek and Roman philosophers coined many maxims that maintain their currency in contemporary discourse. For example: ∼ Every day should be passed as if it were to be our last. (Syrus)
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See also Adage, Cliché. JM Debate: Debate Students play a game called ‘cross the line’ using these and/or other maxims as stimulus. A line is made with masking tape on the floor. One side is ‘agree’, one side ‘disagree’ and the ‘line’ is for those who sit on the fence. Teacher or students take turns to read the maxims and students position themselves according to what they believe to be true. Create: Create Students are given Polonius’ speech from Hamlet. After discussion in the context of the play they need to come up with a series of maxims, giving advice to:
∼a young person about to move out of home ∼a friend about to go on first date Students can look at advice given in Shakespeare’s time, in Ancient Greece and Rome etc. Students discuss the maxims they have studied and decide whether or not they are ‘for all time’. JW
Meaning Refers to the linguistic study of how language makes sense in communication (semantics); how signs are selected and organised to communicate (semiotics); the outcome of decoding language in acts of communication; and the outcome of cognitive and affective understanding of language and experience. Meaning depends on an active process of employing and comprehending the complex system of signs and codes that shape communication. In English, students use language and engage with the language of others in order to communicate meaningfully, build relationships, and generate insights into themselves, others and the world around them. “Meaning is achieved through responding and composing, which are typically interdependent and ongoing processes.” (NSW Board of Studies, 1999: 7). Meaning is dependent on a range of variables, such as, for example: purpose; intention; audience; values; beliefs; context; language competence in reading, writing, talking, listening and viewing; and hermeneutics. When it comes to texts and the process of how we making meaning, there has been, over the past few decades, a spectrum of judgement about the nature of the reader’s response to a text. At the 186
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M one end is the empiricist assertion that the meaning the reader ought to take away from an engagement with a text is incontestable, and entirely beyond the realms of speculation and context: that texts contain truths and represent the grand narratives that shed light on the meaning of the human condition. At the other end of the spectrum are those who have adopted an opposed position of relativism – such as that expressed by some poststructuralists – whereby the meaning of the text is completely constructed by the reader (who is himself/herself constructed by culture), according to a potentially endless plethora of contextual determinants. In secondary English, pedagogy tends to draw on a middle ground. In his book, On Literature, the contemporary Italian intellectual and author Umberto Eco (1932-) takes the following approach in articulating a position within this spectrum: Reading works of literature forces on us an exercise of fidelity and respect, albeit within a certain freedom of interpretation. There is a dangerous critical heresy, typical of our time, according to which we can do anything we like with a work of literature, reading into it whatever our most uncontrolled impulses dictate to us. This is not true. Literary works encourage freedom of interpretation, because they offer us a discourse that has many layers of reading and place before us the ambiguities of language and of real life. But in order to play this game, which allows every generation to read literary works in a different way, we must be moved by a profound respect for what I have called elsewhere the intention of the text. (Eco, 2005: 22) See also Communication, Decode, Interpretation, Literary criticism, Literary theory, Literature, Reading. JM References: Barry, P. (2002) Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory, Manchester: Manchester University Press. Eco, U. (2005) On Literature, (trans. Martin McLaughlin), London: Secker & Warburg. NSW Board of Studies (1999) English Stage 6 Syllabus, Sydney: NSW Board of Studies.
Media (Mass media) In English, media is one of the key language contexts, along with multimedia, literature, and everyday and workplace communication. Media has been an integral part of the English curriculum since the 1970s and continues to play a powerfully influential role in students’ lives. Mass media is a form of communication (in print, images, sound or a combination of these) intended to reach a ‘mass’ audience, with the purpose of entertaining, informing, persuading, selling products, and influencing the lives of large numbers of people. The blurring of the traditional categories of media – newspapers, radio, television, advertising and marketing, film and magazines – has occurred with innovations in information and communication technology. The former limits on the circulation of and access to media are increasingly irrelevant as technology enables global dissemination of information. This has rendered even more important the need for students to be well equipped to be intelligent, discriminating, questioning and informed ‘consumers’ of the media. Increasingly, students are not merely consumers of media: they are producers of media. Through language, image and sound, media texts construct versions of reality that encode a whole range of values, beliefs, perspectives, attitudes and ways of thinking. They often do so in ways that portray these versions of reality as ‘natural’ and prevailing, shaping popular culture and promoting particular perspectives on, for example: gender; stereotypes; relationships; class; ethnicity; family; community; sexuality; identity; age; the workplace; social issues; political issues; and the world around us. The media deals with issues and ideas relevant to almost every aspect of cultural, communal, social, political, economic and personal experience. Engaging with, critiquing and creating media texts provides students with the opportunity to actively participate in the shaping and communication of culture, and the capacity to interpret and critically evaluate its role in their lives. Given the overlap between media and multimedia, it is important to integrate the range of texts and contexts in an English program and to encourage students to understand the continuities within the broad range of types of texts and forms of communication. In addition, by facilitating and supporting the study and creation of media texts as part of a continuum of language and textual The English Teacher’s Handbook
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M study, English should provide the opportunity to: ∼ increase students’ awareness of their reading and viewing preferences and habits ∼ recognise and understand the purpose, audience and place of the mass media in the communication of information ∼ develop knowledge and understanding of the features of media language and technology and be capable of employing these in a range of contexts ∼ develop awareness of media bias and the implications of this ∼ develop understandings of the conventions, codes and techniques employed in media to construct and convey information ∼ develop an understanding of media as technology and media as process ∼ explore the issues and implications of media ownership, globalised media, media online ∼ broaden the experiences of students in reading and viewing media. Television: As a pervasive source of popular culture, most students are exposed to the medium of television on a daily basis. It is therefore essential that they become informed, critical viewers who understand and evaluate the content and processes of the production and dissemination of television programs.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
1. Audit personal viewing practices and preferences. Over a period of a week, students keep a record of what has been watched, when, for how long, ratings of programs, genres, target audiences (age group, gender, language background etc) and country of origin (e.g. Australia, USA, Britain, New Zealand, Japan, France etc). 2. The audit of individual viewing practices can be supplemented by a mapping of a television program guide over the period of a week, analysing the frequency, popularity, balance and timing of different types of shows. Students can also analyse the content of a range of television channels, comparing these and exploring the reasons for the differences and similarities.
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Type of show/content: ∼ Talk show ∼ Soap opera ∼ Drama ∼ Movie ∼ Game show ∼ Reality TV ∼ Sitcom ∼ Commercial ∼ Infotainment ∼ Lifestyle program ∼ News ∼ Children’s program ∼ Mini-series ∼ Documentary ∼ Current affairs ∼ Interviews 3. Students focus on one or more of these types of show/content and conduct an indepth study of the content, conventions, techniques, audience, formulae, and popularity, and compare similar types of shows across different channels. For example, investigate the range of reality TV shows. 4. Students watch a series of television shows through a particular lens (e.g. gender, race, language background, age). Explore the ways in which viewing positions influence the response to different types of shows.
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M 5.
Compare and contrast 3-4 evening news bulletins (content, point of view, images, length of report, use of evidence, bias, balance of fact and opinion).
6.
If possible, examine the range of specialist channels on cable television, identifying the niche channels.
7.
Examine media ownership and cross-media ownership and the implications of this for freedom of the press, censorship and diversity.
8.
Examine the occurrence of heroes/heroines and villains and other stereotypes in television shows and advertising.
9.
Examine the place of ‘public’ broadcasters (e.g. ABC and SBS) in relation to commercial broadcasters, considering the audience for each and the role of each in the dissemination and shaping of information and culture.
10. Explore the relationship between television shows and associated websites (e.g. Australian Idol, Q and A or The Biggest Loser TV shows and websites), examining the phenomenon of cross-media representations, advertising and interactive modes of participation and magazines. 11. Use the study of television to stimulate creative writing, filmmaking, script-writing, performance and representing. For example: script an episode or part of an episode of a TV show; parody a talk show or game show; script and perform a scene based on a popular soap opera, using parody or satire; use a text being studied in class and transpose sections of this for television or a website; prepare a proposal for the production of a text as a TV mini-series (including setting, casting, plot); students read a news bulletin, adopting the conventions of the form; create a commercial for TV to be screened during a children’s/sports/news/ reality TV program.
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Radio: An equally pervasive part of popular culture, radio has been radically diversified since it was first invented in the late 1800s. As the first form of ‘wireless’ communication, the radio continues to play a significant role in young people’s lives, with many radio stations now podcasting content, using personalities who straddle radio, television and web contexts, and appealing directly to niche 1. Students audit their listening habits for the duration of a week. Record the time spent listening to radio, the time/s of day/night, listening as background or foreground media, choice of station/s, features of the station/s (host, music, ads, etc). Students compare their audits, identifying differences and similarities. 2. Students undertake an analysis of a particular type of radio station or broadcast and its features and conventions. For example: ∼ Breakfast radio ∼ Talkback radio ∼ Current affairs ∼ Disk jockeys and hosts ∼ Music ∼ Sport ∼ News ∼ Interviews ∼ Target audience ∼ Ads/commercials ∼ Structure (mix of ads, music, talkback, news etc). 3. Explore the crossover between radio, the web and print media such as magazines. Analyse the websites of one or more radio stations to identify the purpose, audience, content and uniqueness. 4. Explore the nature of the content and the range of stations available.
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audiences through music, talkback, websites, advertising and competitions. These approaches to broadcasting are part of the medium’s efforts to compete with an ever-increasing range of entertainment and communications in young people’s, and others’ lives. 5. 6.
7.
8. 9.
Research the history and development of the radio, interviewing parents, grandparents and others about their experience of radio throughout their lives. Using a text or texts as the basis for creative writing, representing and performing, students create a script for a radio broadcast. For example, “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” as a radio play. Podcast or vodcast the performance. Create a segment to be broadcast: a morning radio segment; a news report; a sports report; interview a personality or a character from a text to be broadcast on radio. Visit a radio station to learn about the processes, technology and context of broadcasting. Compare and contrast the language and conventions of different types of radio programs: e.g. sports programs and talkback programs; music radio and news radio.
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Newspapers and magazines: While newspapers rate poorly as a leisure reading choice for adolescents, magazines are a highly popular form of media with female adolescents. (Manuel and Robinson, 2002, 2003). Technology has influenced the dissemination of news such that, increasingly, people are accessing news from the web, rather than from the print form of newspapers. Technology and economic imperatives have also influenced the nature of journalism, the immediacy of access to news and the blurring of distinctions between reporting and traditional journalism. Issues of censorship, authorship, the shaping of ‘truth’ in the media and the powerful effects of globalisation have all impacted on the nature and purpose of newspapers and magazines. Magazines are a pervasive tool in the maintenance of popular culture, especially for adolescent females. There is an expanding market for such materials as the younger ‘tweens’ market has greater access to print and other media. Students should critically engage with these forms of media, exploring the ways in which they use language, image and conventions of form and content to disseminate information, persuade, entertain and influence the values and ways of thinking of their audiences. In a similar way to news sites, magazines are now proliferating on the web, in the form of e-zines.
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Newspapers 1. Examine headlines and reports about the same story from a broadsheet and a tabloid. Analyse language features; the fact and opinion within the respective articles; position in paper; the intended audience; use of visual images; space given to story; and the layout of the report. 2. Compare the print and online versions of a newspaper. Look at sections, advertising, visuals, layout, hyperlinks, etc and explore how the medium of production influences and shapes the nature of the news and other content. 3. Retell a story from different points of view. 4. Examine the purpose of visual images associated with a story. (See Image). Magazines/eMagazines/e-zines: 1. Review two or three magazines, identifying the target audience, dominant advertising, layout, contents, cost and circulation. 2. Map the range and diversity of magazines and e-zines, according to: audience; special interest; gender; age and ethnicity. 3. Produce a class magazine or e-zine, aimed at a particular audience with appropriate content, advertising, etc. 4. Compare two magazines aimed at very different target audiences – e.g. a magazine for a teenage girl and a golf magazine. Analyse the content, advertising, visual images etc.
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Advertising: The marketing and advertising of products in a consumerist society is pervasive and powerful. In English, students develop the capacities to ‘read’ and critique the language, techniques and strategies employed in advertising in order to acquire the knowledge, skills and understanding they require to be informed citizens. Advertising is often studied as part of a unit of work (e.g. on media, censorship or visual texts), or as part of a language focus (e.g. on persuasive language or language and image). 1. In small groups, students cut a range of images, captions and rubrics from magazine and newspaper advertisements. They identify: • target audience (age, gender, ethnicity, etc.) • language use • relationship between language and image/s • visual techniques (see Image). • Students select a number of these images, and using print text, create a collage that aims to alter the ‘message’ of the image/ad by using the printed text to comment on it. 2. In small groups, students brainstorm the ads from TV, radio and other sources that they most readily recall. What aspects of these ads contribute to their appeal? 3. Students research the Australian Advertising Standards Bureau webpage:
See also Film, Image, Logo, Multimedia, Popular culture, Reading, Representation, Viewing, Visual text, Writing. JM References: Manuel, J. & Robinson, D. (2003) "Teenage boys, teenage girls and books: Re-viewing some assumptions about gender and adolescents' reading practices", English Teaching: Practice and Critique, 2:2, September, pp. 66-77. Manuel, J. & Robinson, D. (2002) "What are Teenagers Reading? The Findings of a Survey of Teenagers' Reading Choices and the Implication of these for English Teachers' Classroom Practice", English in Australia, 135, pp. 69-78.
Mediated performance
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Dramatic performance as presented to an audience through any technological medium, including amplified sound, television, video and digital-based forms. See also Drama, Film. JH ∼ Installation artwork: a representation of a poem or short piece of fiction that includes music, action and moving image.
∼ Short film-making: a video clip of an interpretation and representation of a poem. ∼ A talk show filmed and edited in post-production to include credits, music and sound effects.
∼ News reading: in pairs students create and edit a news bulletin (each group given different topics).
∼ Have an Oscars’/Logies’ party including popcorn and dress-ups to screen the films. JW
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M Medium of communication The form in which the language, ideas and images of any communication act is manifested and transmitted. See also Medium of production. JM
Medium of production
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The form in which a text (written, spoken, visual or other type of text) is produced. The composer makes deliberate choices about the medium of production to effectively communicate ideas to an audience. The medium of production is inseparable from the content and the ‘how’ or form of a text is shaped by and dependent on its function. Each medium is distinguished by a set of conventions, codes, techniques and practices specific to that medium. Creating an effective text requires an understanding of these conventions, codes, techniques and practices and an awareness of how the process of selecting, ordering and expressing ideas is influenced by the demands of the particular medium. Marshall McLuhan (1911-1980) famously declared that “the medium is the message”. See also Genre. JM ∼ Select a short text such as a short story or a news report. ∼ Transform the ideas in the text into another form. For example, transform the news report into a dialogue or a poem; or transform the story into a mini-saga, a diary entry, a blog or a news report.
∼ Compare the two texts, examining the form, conventions and features of each, analysing how the medium of production influences the meaning of the content and the audience response.
Melodrama This term has had a number of meanings in theatre history but now generally referrers to Victorianstyle stage productions with stock characters: the hero, the heroine, the villain, and comic characters. It is not a subtle form of theatre and is characterised by heightened emotion, crude plots and overacting. Many TV soap operas could be classed as melodramas. JH
Memoir (French: ‘memory’) A type of autobiography which focuses on the relationships, people and events experienced by the author during a part of their life. It is distinguished from autobiography in that there is less direct emphasis on the entire life of the author, although as terms to describe a genre, memoir and autobiography are often used interchangeably. See also Autobiography, Diary. JM
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∼ Students interview a family member and use their stories as inspiration for writing a short memoir.
∼ Students write a short memoir for a fictional character encountered in a study of a text.
∼ Create a digital memoir – in the mode of a digital narrative. ∼ Students could write nonsense memoirs: e.g. memoir of the last carrot in the fridge. JW
Metacognition Refers to the awareness and understanding of one’s process of learning (cognition). JH Flavell (1976) coined the term ‘metacognition’ describing it as “one’s knowledge concerning one’s own cognitive processes or anything related to them, e.g. the learning-relevant properties of information or data. For example, I am engaging in metacognition if I notice that I am having more trouble 192
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M learning A than B; if it strikes me that I should double check C before accepting it as fact.” (Flavell, 1976: 232) It is dependent on reflective practice and a knowledge of the ways in which learning takes place. It also requires the capacity, through higher-order thinking, to identify the most effective ways of learning, processing information and coming to meaning, and the capacity to apply this knowledge to new learning contexts. This, in turn, improves learning and assists students in moving towards increasing independence as learners. Metacognition is also defined as ‘thinking about thinking’: self-regulated learning is the prime goal of metacognition. It is an important component of teaching and learning in English and encompasses strategies that encourage, make explicit and validate students’ growing understanding of how they best learn. Journals (e.g. reading and writing journals); stimulus questions; discussions about the process of learning before, during and after tasks; reflective practice and evaluation of learning are all avenues for developing metacognitive skills. See also Representing. JM
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Teacher
Students
Make explicit the purpose of and processes involved in the learning task
Reading logs, including reflections on reading practices (when, where, how, what, why?)
Build a shared language to talk about learning and reflection
Student surveys of learning styles, strengths and weaknesses
Model reflection during and after learning activities
Writing journals (reflecting on aspects of class activities and preferred approaches to texts)
Provide students with trigger stems that provide a scaffold for metacognition: Today I learned to/about… The steps involved in this learning were… I felt confident doing… Next time, I would like to… I am good at… I could learn more about how to…
Small group and pair discussions utilising cognitive organisers and trigger questions and stems
Utilise cognitive organisers during activities such as: Mind maps Venn diagrams 4-Mat PMI charts de Bono’s 6 thinking hats (blue is for metacognition)
Self-evaluations at the end of units of work or a series of lessons. These can be collaboratively constructed and can include evaluations of group learning
Dedicate time to reflective practice to legitimate Monitoring of own learning through ongoing reflecits importance in teaching and learning tion and discussion of ideas for future learning References: Adapted from Bellanca, J & Fogarty, R. (1991) Blueprints for Thinking in the Co-operative Classroom. Melbourne: Hawker-Brown. Flavell, J. H. (1976) “Metacognitive aspects of problem solving”, in The nature of intelligence, ed. L. B. Resnick Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Metafiction Also known as ‘metanovel’ it refers to novels which write about novel-writing. This technique involves subverting the illusion of fiction; disrupting the reliance on an omniscient narrator; and drawing attention to the constructedness of the text. A famous example of a metanovel is Italo Calvino’s If on a Winter’s Night a Traveller (1979). John Fowles’ The French Lieutenant’s Woman (1969) is also a metanovel in that it uses parallel narrators and one of these narrators reflects on the process of novel-writing throughout the text. JM The English Teacher’s Handbook
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M Metalanguage
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The particular language used to describe language. A metalanguage includes the technical terms, concepts, codes and conventions that provide a vocabulary to describe and discuss how language operates. For example, there is a metalanguage of film and visual texts that enables students to analyse and interpret these media applying appropriate terms and concepts. ‘Meta’ suggests a ‘higher’ or additional language. JM Maintain a continuous word bank: for each new unit of work, the class adds to their word bank of technical terms, concepts, codes and conventions. This serves as a reference through the year for the whole class. This can be collated as a digital database. JW
Metaphor (Greek: ‘transfer’) A figure of speech, also known as a trope, that compares two things or ideas that are apparently unrelated but are linked linguistically in such a way that a point of similarity is created, producing a vivid image. This device is used to precisely capture the feelings, mood, object or essence of one thing by associating it directly with another. Metaphor is similar to analogy but is much more forceful and compelling. A metaphor expresses something as something else, rather than as merely ‘like’ something else, as is the case in a simile. Metaphors proliferate in all kinds of texts, especially in imaginative texts such as poetry, since poetry relies on an economy of language to express ideas and feelings. Metaphors enable writers to generate innovative and exciting ways of thinking about experience, ideas and objects. Examples of metaphors in literary texts include: “All the world’s a stage” speech (in Shakespeare’s As You Like It, 1599) and this speech from Macbeth (c. 1603): Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player That struts and frets his hour upon the stage And then is heard no more: it is a tale Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying nothing. (Shakespeare, Macbeth, Act V, Sc v, spoken by Macbeth) In William Blake’s (1757-1827) “A Poison Tree”, the entire poem is a metaphor for the experience of anger, vengeance and its consequences. I was angry with my friend; I told my wrath, my wrath did end. I was angry with my foe: I told it not, my wrath did grow. And I water’d it in fears, Night & morning with my tears: And I sunned it with smiles, And with soft deceitful wiles. And it grew both day and night.
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M Till it bore an apple bright. And my foe beheld it shine, And he knew that it was mine. And into my garden stole, When the night had veil’d the pole; In the morning glad I see; My foe outstretch’d beneath the tree. Metaphor is commonly exploited in the language of media and everyday communication (especially in clichés). For example: ‘The room is a pig-stye’; ‘Life is a roller-coaster’; ‘Money is the root of all evil’. The term ‘mixed metaphor’ refers to a metaphor or combination of metaphors that are overworked and clumsy. Mixed metaphors often occur in sporting broadcasts, where commentators are ‘thinking at the point of utterance’ (Britton, 1970). For example, ‘Even though this game is a war, what happens on the field should stay behind closed doors.’ See also Allegory, Comparison, Image, Language, Media. JM Reference: Britton, J. (1970) Language and Learning, Harmondsworth: Penguin.
∼ A simple and enjoyable creative strategy for encouraging students to think metaphorically, and to understand the concept of metaphor, is to provide a series of triggers.
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∼ Describe a character/object/self as a: piece of fruit colour season type of flower type of car land-form (e.g. ocean, desert, mountain, volcano, brook) force of nature (e.g. hurricane, sun-shower, hailstorm, flood, fire) currency (Dollar, Yen, Kroner, Euro) kind of pasta kind of fabric country kind of building body of water (sea, lake, river, stream, dam) kind of lolly musical instrument. ∼ Students can create metaphors for a series of characters in a text; for themselves; celebrities; or a combination of these and use them as part of a piece of writing. Such creative thinking strengthens students’ imaginative, linguistic and cognitive capacities, and can be transferred to any number of other contexts. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Metaphysical Poets A group of lyric poets writing during the 17th century, although they were not considered as a group or school as such until they were given the title “Metaphysical” by Dr Samuel Johnson (17091784) in 1779. The most well-known Metaphysical poet was John Donne (1572-1631). Metaphysical poetry is characterised by its differences from the poetry that preceded it – namely, Elizabethan lyric poetry that is typically consonant, harmonious and aesthetically appealing. Metaphysical poetry, however, relies on wit, paradox, unexpected and often startling imagery and metaphor, clever conceits, puns and often very assertive, colloquial and exclamatory language. The concern with metaphysics – or the philosophy of apprehending the underlying principles and ultimate ‘reality’ that lies behind the world of the senses. In this way, the poetry explores the philosophy of Plato’s ‘ideal forms’. JM The English Teacher’s Handbook
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M Metre (Greek: ‘measure’) Refers to the regular stress patterns and rhythm in language. Verse is often distinguished from prose by its dependence on explicit metre (although some poetry does not work through strict metrical patterns). The metre of a poem is defined in terms of a series of ‘feet’: a ‘foot’ is a unit of stressed/unstressed syllables. The most common metres in English verse are iambic (‘rising rhythm’) metres and trochaic (‘falling rhythm’) metres (in, for example, lyric poetry). Iambic metres are made up of a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable; trochaic metres are made up of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. Feet
Stressed (x) Unstressed (/)
Iamb
x/
Trochee
/x
Anapaest
xx/
Dactyl
/ xx
Spondee
//
Pyrrhic
xx
When a series of ‘feet’ are combined in a line of verse, the metre is defined in terms of how many ‘feet’ are contained in the line. Line lengths
Metre
One foot
Monometer
Two feet
Dimeter
Three feet
Trimeter
Four feet
Tetrameter
Five feet
Pentameter
Six feet
Hexameter
Seven feet
Heptameter
Eight feet
Octameter
Thus, a line of verse that has six trochaic feet is known as ‘trochaic hexameter’ (/x /x /x /x /x /x). The metre of a poem can be apprehended by reading the poem out aloud and ‘scanning’ the lines by identifying the stress patterns of the syllables. Some poems have varying metres from line to line or stanza to stanza.
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William Shakespeare’s plays and William Wordsworth’s The Prelude (1850), for example, are written in blank verse - unrhymed iambic pentameter. See also Accent, Poetry, Rhythm. JM
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Stomping out Iambs: Read out aloud Green Eggs and Ham (Dr Seuss, 1960) or a similar children’s text. Ask students to stomp lightly on left foot and hard on right foot for each iamb. Inspired by “Romping and Stomping Shakespeare” from the Folger library,
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M Metonymy The substitution of one word (or words) for another that is closely associated with the original object or experience. For example, ‘Canberra’ used to refer to ‘the Parliament of Canberra’; ‘Washington’, ‘The Administration’ or ‘The Whitehouse’ for ‘USA government’; ‘the Crown’ for the ‘monarchy’; ‘hits the bottle’ for ‘drinks too much alcohol’. DC
Middle English Although arbitrary classifications within the history of the development of the English language according to specific years or even groups of years is rather artificial, there is a general agreement that the evolution from Old English /Anglo-Saxon to Middle English was a product of the Norman Invasion (1066). This period is often assumed to have finished around the mid to late 15th century. Middle English was spoken in England and Scotland. Whereas the Wessex variant of English had been dominant in Old English, the Middle English period was characterised by a diversity of English dialects finding expression in printed texts. For example, those variants of English found in North East England (especially Northumbria and East Anglia) and, particularly, London started coming to the fore with each of these areas boasting growing literary importance. London’s position was strengthened by Londoner Caxton’s introduction of the printing press. The prominent literary figures of the Middle English period include Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343-1400), William Langland (c. 13301387) and Thomas Malory (c. 1405-1471). The latter, apart from his notoriety because of a string of criminal charges and periods in prison, was the author of Le Morte d’Arthur that established the Arthurian legend which – bolstered over subsequent centuries through literature, art, music, theatre, and film – continues to engage the interest of many today. PB
Mimesis/mimetic
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(Greek: ‘imitation’) Refers to imitation and reflection of ‘reality’. Aristotle wrote extensively about mimesis in Poetics (4th century BC). Art, through simulated representation of external reality and real events, can provide the audience with an experience of that reality at one remove. When watching a tragedy, for example, the audience can empathise with the characters and become immersed in the action, experiencing all the emotions without being physically involved in the tragic events. In this way, tragedy provides an opportunity for catharsis. According to the theory of mimesis, art does not merely imitate reality, but represents that reality by selecting, shaping and altering it for a purpose: a mimetic work embodies and transforms aspects of reality. See also Catharsis, Drama, Image, Imitation, Literary criticism, Realism. JH, JM The Last Battle (last in the Narnia series) deals with this concept well. Here the concept is explained thus: Narnia (as it exists for the characters) is only a copy of the True Narnia (allusion to heaven) which is brighter, more real and everlasting. The concept is easily explained to students by looking at shadows on walls, candlelight reflected in a mirror or even a student’s own reflection. Students could also look at an artwork in groups, and each group can be given a different ‘lens’ to observe it through (e.g. this painting was aimed at children; this painting is a warning to adults to be careful in love). Each group then reports on their interpretation of the ‘truth’ or ‘reality’ presented. JW
Mixed ability teaching An approach to teaching and learning that is based on research and theories of learning. These theories propose the benefits of grouping students of mixed ability in the one class, rather than ‘streaming’ them. Arguments against streaming have been based on extensive research and have been widely published in recent decades. The key arguments against streaming that have emerged from the research are: the negative impact on student achievement and self-perception for less able The English Teacher’s Handbook
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M students when streaming is inflexibly applied; the inability to accurately ‘place’ students in streams; the detrimental impact of labelling students at an early stage in their learning; the benefits for talented students in a mixed ability classroom where the pedagogy capitalises on their strengths and abilities; and the impact of streaming on teacher perceptions, expectations and the flow-on of this to student achievement. Documented benefits of mixed ability teaching include: the development of collaborative and social skills, which in turn heightens students’ engagement, achievement and workplace readiness; differentiated teaching that caters for the needs, interests and abilities of diverse students; and student and teacher expectations are grounded in what the student knows and can do, with both working towards achieving the outcomes of the program. See also Assessment, Differentiation, Group work, Learning styles. DC
Mnemonic
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(Greek: ‘to remember’) Relating to memory, or intended to aid memory. A verse may assist memory, as in the following mnemonics relating to the six strings of the guitar (E, A, D, G, B, E): Every Ant Drags Great Big Eggs; and the sharps on the musical stave (F#, C#, G#, D#, A#, E#, B#): Funny Clowns Go Dancing After Every Bounce. DC Look to Science teaching for this one. Many mnemonics exist for things such as the periodical table, placement of planets etc. Use poetic techniques or literary devices and have students create their own mnemonics for everyday rituals and routines. JW
Mock-heroic Refers to any work (often poetry) that treats an apparently serious matter in a mocking, comic and trivialising way. The purpose of the mock-heroic is to satirise or ridicule a social convention, pretentiousness or arrogance in order to instruct, correct and critique. See Neoclassical period. JM
Modality The language choices that a composer makes in order to communicate subtlety of meaning and ideas. JM
Models of English teaching Since it was established as a subject in the school curriculum, English teaching and learning has been informed by a number of models. Each values and emphasises a particular aspect of and approach to the study of language and literature. The evolving and informed eclecticism of English pedagogy means that elements of each of these models are evident to a greater or lesser degree in current English syllabus documents. The models can be summarised as follows: 1. Cultural Heritage: Emphasises the importance of studying the culture’s literature to initiate students into that culture’s values, beliefs and ways of thinking. 2. Skills: Emphasises the role of language and the need to equip students with the language skills in each of the language modes. 3. Personal Growth: Emphasises the holistic personal development and enjoyment of the student through immersion in all the language modes in active ways as composers and responders to a wide range of texts in context.
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M 4. Cultural Studies: Emphasises the influence of cultural context and social systems on the production, dissemination and experience of the range of language and texts existing in a given culture. 5. Rhetorical/Ethical: Emphasises the importance of values and how they are formed and maintained, and the ethical implications of composing, responding to and judging the worth of the range of language and texts in social and cultural contexts. See also Pedagogy. JM
Moderation An assessment term related to ensuring that consistent and reliable interpretations of student assessment conducted in a variety of settings will be fair and reliable, maintain the integrity of the curriculum as well as ensure that students receive a meaningful and transferable credential. Moderation involves statistical procedures of aligning internal assessment marks so that student results across the variety of settings can be compared accurately and fairly. For example, student performance in a course may include internal assessment marks for individual students awarded by a school which are then moderated by using the performance of the school course group in the corresponding external examination for that course. The moderated assessment and the examination mark will be averaged to provide a composite mark. See also Assessment. DC
Modernism A term applied to a period of time in the 20th century, post-World War I, during which literature was characterised by its innovations and difference from the conventions and ways of thinking evident during the 19th century. Some argue that Modernism had its origins in The Enlightenment at the end of the 18th century. The Enlightenment was defined by three key shifts in social and cultural thinking: reason was championed as the intellectual foundation for human existence; advances in science heralded a view that order could triumph over chaos; and the developments in science replaced superstition. The concept of ‘modernity’ also emerged from the Industrial Revolution, the French Revolution and the rise of capitalism. Rather than harking back to a so-called Golden Age, people sought emancipation from poverty, war and violence and believed in the potential for human society to move inexorably forward through advances in technology, industrialisation and rational thought. The literature associated with Modernism is marked by its experimental qualities, its responses to the wider social and cultural changes taking place at the time, its break with the realism of the preceding century and its innovations in each of the three major genres of the novel, poetry and drama. This innovation included a mixing of the conventions of genres so that novels became more poetic and poetry became more prose-like. Writers during this period played with the conventions of narrative, preferring discontinuous narrative or stream of consciousness over narrative techniques that rely on an omniscient narrator or a single narrative point of view. Smaller schools such as Imagism, Symbolism, Dadaism, Surrealism and Expressionism can be considered part of the larger Modernist movement. Acclaimed writers, poets and dramatists of the modern period include: DH Lawrence (1885-1930), Marcel Proust (1871-1922), James Joyce (1882-1941), William Faulkner (1897-1962), TS Eliot (1888-1965), Virginia Woolf (1882-1941), HD (Hilda Doolittle) (1886-1961), Ezra Pound (1885-1972) WB Yeats (1865-1939), Bertolt Brecht (1898-1956) and Samuel Beckett (1906-1989). Not all writers during this period were experimental. Thomas Hardy (1840-1928), for example, wrote a substantial corpus of poetry during the later stage of his life, and this cannot be said to be experimental or counter-conventional in the light of what had preceded it or was published contemporaneously. See also Literary criticism. JM
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Montage (French: ‘mounting’) Generally used to describe the assemblage of a film through editing or the changing of one image to another. Montage describes a particular method of editing in which images, objects and figures are linked or overlaid in a variety of creative or unexpected ways in order to generate certain effects or ideas. More specifically it is a number of shots edited quickly together in order to form a brief impression of a character, time or place. Such a montage sequence in a film summarises a topic or compresses a passage of time into brief symbolic or typical images. Frequently dissolves, fades, superimpositions and wipes are used to link the images. Montage is often used in film opening title sequences. See also Film, Image, Representing, Representation. KS
Mood
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(Old English: ‘feeling’) Refers to the atmosphere and feeling evoked by and in a text. The mood of a text may shift from the beginning to the end of the text. Often, the mood that is established at the opening of a text establishes the mood for the entire work. Mood is created through choice of language and the use of devices such as imagery, metaphor, symbolism, description, depiction and dialogue. See also Atmosphere, Depiction, Language, Tone. DC, JM ∼ Select 3-4 different types of texts that deal with similar themes (e.g. “The Raven”, a poem by Edgar Allen Poe; the opening of a short story such as “Vendetta” by Guy du Maupassant; a picture book such as PJ Lynch’s The Christmas Miracle of Jonathan Toomey; and the opening scene/s of a film such as Scary Movie 1)
∼ Read out aloud (or view) the opening of these texts. Ask students to be alert to the ‘mood’ of the text by identifying the tone; language (e.g. emotive, descriptive, ironic); point of view; narrative voice; imagery; colour, layout and perspective (visual texts); setting; dialogue; and sound effects and lighting (in film)
∼ After reading/viewing and discussing each text individually, compare the ‘mood’ of the three texts, focusing on conventions, techniques, language, medium of production and the impact of these on students’ responses.
Motto (Latin: ‘utterance’) A short saying expressing the guiding maxim or ideal of a family, group, company or organisation. Mottos are often found on material advertising or describing an institution, club, association or company, and are typically found on family crests. The term also refers to a quotation prefacing a book or chapter in a book. DC, JM ∼ Examine mottos of sporting and cultural clubs. What do they tell us about the club?
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STRATEGY
M
∼ Look at the school motto and try to discover the history behind it. Is it still appropriate today?
∼ Students research family crests, mottos etc - where did they come from? Is the motto in Latin? Does the meaning change over time?
∼ Students create a motto for their friendship group and explain how it represents them. JW
Multicultural literature The introduction of multiculturalism as official government policy in the early 1970s did not simply mean that immigrants would be able to retain the language and culture of their homelands and still call themselves Australian; it also led to a reassessment of Australian culture as such, and a 200
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M questioning of its almost exclusively Anglo-Celtic roots. In the field of Australian literature, scholars started to ask why the literary canon did not include writers from the large non-Anglo immigrant groups which had arrived in Australia in the wake of World War II: did such writers not exist, or was it rather that they were overlooked, not considered part of the national culture? Inspired by a desire to make such writers more visible, and to make the national literature more representative of the cultural diversity of the nation, early scholars of multicultural literature saw it as their main task to gather information about writers from ethnic minority backgrounds and their work, and to make it available to the wider scholarly community in the form of bibliographies and anthologies. This information is now available through AustLit, the comprehensive online database for information on Australian literature. ‘Multiculturalism’ and ‘multicultural writing’ are terms which raise a number of questions about definitions and demarcations: Is all Australian writing multicultural or only that produced by writers of ethnic minority backgrounds? Is it the thematic contents of a text that makes it multicultural or only the ethnic background of the author? Should the category include writing by Indigenous Australians? Are only first-generation migrants multicultural or does the term cover their Australian-born descendents as well? Some critics prefer to use other terms, such as migrant writing, NESB (nonEnglish speaking background) writing, ethnic or ethnic minority writing, diasporic writing, etc, but none have found unanimous critical support. While acknowledging that these categories can be unwieldy, scholars of multicultural writing still find them useful as a means of highlighting the contribution of non Anglo-Celtic writers to Australian literature, and in order to argue against their marginalisation in the national culture. Today, Australian multicultural literature generally refers to writing produced by Australians of non-Anglo-Celtic background, both first-generation migrants and their immediate descendents. Indigenous writers are not normally included in this category. The history of multicultural additions to the national literature closely reflects trends in Australian immigration since World War II. Apart from the (relatively small) number of non-Anglo writers who had made their home in Australia before this time, the first writers identified as multicultural belonged to the (predominantly European) migrant groups who arrived in the country in large numbers in the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s: Greeks, Italians, Balts, Poles, Jews, to name just some of the larger groups. In more recent decades, Australian-born and -educated descendents of these migrants have added a further dimension to the multicultural literary tradition. At the same time, they are joined by writers belonging to more recent migrant groups, coming from places such as Vietnam, the Middle East, India, China and South-East Asia, and adding even greater diversity to a previously European-dominated literary culture. Multicultural writing echoes the writers’ widely diverse backgrounds and experiences, and so by its very nature defies any attempt to generalise about its forms and content. It ranges from the pareddown realism of Judah Waten (1911-1985) and David Martin (1915-1997) to the linguistic exuberance of Pi O (Peter Oustabasidis b.1951) and Ania Walwicz (1951-), from the lyricism of Dimitris Tsaloumas (1921-) to the raw, angry voices of Ouyang Yu (1955-), from the wistful nostalgia of Vasso Kalamaras and Anna Couani (1948-) to the humour and biting satire of Yasmine Gooneratne ( and bleak grunge of Christos Tsiolkas (1965-). Thematically, it knows no boundaries, but a number of motifs based on the writers’ cross-cultural experience can be traced across a large number of writers and texts: dislocation (physical, psychological, cultural) and alienation, the search for cultural and personal roots, the outsider’s perspective on Australia, explorations of myth and cultural traditions, generational disharmony, racial and ethnic discrimination, the migrant child as gobetween. Autobiography and autobiographical fiction are common – recent examples include Alice Pung’s Unpolished Gem (2006), Christos Tsiolkas’ Loaded (1995) and Brian Castro’s Shanghai Dancing (2003) – but it is an all too familiar misconception to assume that all ethnic minority writing is based on the writers’ own life: like all creative works, their literary worlds are imaginary constructions in which history and fantasy intertwine to produce ‘realities’ that are familiar, deceptive, weird and wonderful, a constant challenge to our perceptions of what is true, what is real, and what is Australian.
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M Most ethnic minority writers in Australia, and certainly those who are best known to mainstream audiences, write in English; others prefer to write in their languages of origin and some publish in two or several languages. Many build their bi- or multi-lingual background into the writing itself through linguistic experimentation: mimicry of the accented or imperfect English of particular migrant groups; untranslated words or passages from other languages; side-by-side publication of the same text in two languages. In Shaun Tan’s The Arrival (2007), there is no verbal language at all: the migrant story is told entirely through pictures. However, linguistic confusion is echoed by the proliferation of incomprehensive signs which the migrant slowly learns to decipher. Many multicultural writers also build formal aspects of other literary traditions, or oral story-telling traditions, into their writing in English. One example is Merlinda Bobis (1959-), who both in writing and performance, recreates oral narrative forms of Filipino culture. AustLit (www.austlit.edu.au), the comprehensive database of information about Australian Literature, includes a Multicultural subset, plus a number of search options for exploring the linguistic and cultural background of authors and texts. Please note that AustLit is a subscription database. For a survey of the theoretical contexts of multicultural writing, see Sneja Gunew (1946-), Framing Marginality: Multicultural Literary Studies, Carlton, Vic.: Melbourne University Press, 1994. A longer introduction to Australian Multicultural Literature can be found in: Wenche Ommundsen, ‘Multicultural writing in Australia’, in Nicholas Birns and Rebecca McNeer, eds. Companion to Australian Literature of the Twentieth Century, Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 2007. WO
Multiliteracies A term coined by the New London Group in 1996 to describe the changing nature of texts and the literacy demands these make on us in an increasingly digital age. The term encompasses the engagement with, and the interpretation and production of, multimodal texts (texts that work through more than one mode – for example, combining print, visual and spatial elements, such as in the case of a website); and the need for the knowledge, understanding and skills to effectively deal with cultural and linguistic diversity and complexity in contemporary forms of communication. Being ‘multiliterate’ means being equipped with the capacity to decode systems of signs, interpret and make meaning across the vast range of types of texts and communications that characterise the digital age. See also Film, Image, Language, Literacy, Multimedia, Visual literacy, Visual text. JM
Multimedia Any text that is characterised by a convergence of forms (printed text; images; video; animation; and sound). A multimedia text usually depends on the use of technology for its creation and dissemination. Devices such as computers, iPods, mobile phones, DVD players and recorders; data projectors; media players and other electronic and digital devices are each described as ‘multimedia’ (noun) and enable the production and distribution of multimedia (adjective) texts. These texts are categorised as either ‘linear’ or ‘non-linear’ texts, depending on the arrangement of the content and the opportunity for the responder to interact with and direct the movement of the text. Linear texts include films screened in a cinema; music accessed in a digital format and some screened performances and presentations. Non-linear, or hypermedia texts allow the responder or user to navigate through the content in non-linear ways; to interact with the content and form; to add to, edit and intervene in the text to create new texts; and to utilise hyperlinks that take the user to other parts of the same text, or to other related texts. Innovations in technology mean that students are immersed in a world of multimedia as part of their everyday lived experience. Multimedia has also revolutionised teaching and learning, allowing educators to expand the boundaries of pedagogy in an almost endless array of ways. Online learning is becoming more commonplace, through the development of e-learning hubs and sites, vodcasts and purpose-designed interactive digital spaces. As digital natives, many students are adept at accessing and creating multimedia for learning, entertainment and pleasure. The 202
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M implications of this for learning are profound, particularly in English where the modes of writing, reading, talking, listening, viewing and representing are at the core of the subject. Each of these modes converges in and is integral to multimedia. Students engage with and create multimedia as part of their leisure activities (through mobiles, digital devices and websites such as, for example, MySpace, YouTube and Facebook). They are engaging in reading and writing, for instance, in new ways that do not rely on the traditional conventions associated with print medium texts. English teaching needs to account of such changes and build upon the knowledge, skills and understanding that many students already possess when it comes to multimedia and technology. See also Digital text, Film, Image, Media, Visual literacy, Visual text. JM ∼ PowerPoint presentations: these can include print texts, hyperlinks, moving images, still images, and sound.
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∼ Digital narratives/stories: based on a text (character/s); the student’s own experience; or themes and topical issues.
∼ Websites: there is an endless range of possibilities for making and doing, and for using the web as a resource for research and learning.
∼ Filmmaking and film analysis. Digital technology enables students to use accessible programs such as iMovie or Movie Maker to create films and DVDs, based on responses to texts, themes and topics.
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
SMART Boards – for use in class. Digital databases (e.g. for collating materials for projects and research). Interactive and e-learning sites. Webquests, Wikis, blogs. Publishing creative and critical works online. Critical analysis, comparison and mapping of popular networking sites, focusing on purpose, audience, interactive capacities, privacy policies and design.
Multiple choice questions (mcq) A question-type commonly used in tests and examinations in which the candidate is required to choose the correct answer from a given number of prefabricated options. Critics of mcq hold that this type of questioning negates the opportunity for the candidate (i.e. the reader) to participate in authentic interpretation and meaning making because a ‘third party’ has engineered a ‘correct’ answer. These kinds of questions also proceed on the assumption that, apart from simple identification and naming of literal and concrete items, there is a fixed and uncontested interpretation of any given text. Critics further contend that mcq can lend themselves to focusing on specific vocabulary items, identifying the exact meaning of obtuse phrases and attending to minor items of formal logic. See also Assessment. DC Reference: May, B. & Raleigh, M. (1984) ‘Comprehension. Bringing it back alive’ in ed. J. Miller, Eccentric Propositions: Essays on literature and curriculum, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Multimodal Refers to a text that operates in and/or through more than one mode. Examples of multimodal texts include films and websites. Such texts employ a range of modes (visual, aural, print) to communicate meaning rather than relying on one mode, as is the case, for example, in a printed poem. See also Digital text, Film, Graphic novel, Image, Media, Multimedia, Visual texts. JM
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M Music theatre This is an umbrella term for a range of theatre productions that involve singing, musical accompaniment and often dancing. Music theatre includes: cabaret, revues, burlesques, musicals, operettas and operas. Arriving at an exact definition of each genre is difficult. It has been argued that the difference between opera and a musical is that opera is sung throughout and musicals have spoken dialogue. However, several very famous operas contain dialogue, e.g. Mozart’s The Magic Flute and Bizet’s Carmen, and many famous musicals are through song e.g. Jesus Christ Superstar and Les Misèrables. There are some general and common differences. Opera singers are usually not amplified and performers in musicals are. Opera is usually (but not always) sung in the original language and musicals are performed in the language of the audience. Music theatre genres allow for ensemble singing where many voices can be heard at the same time. This is not a typical feature of spoken theatre. See also Drama. JH
MyRead A comprehensive Australian web-based resource for teaching reading in the Middle Years. The site has a wealth of practical strategies; teacher resources that provide materials on the theory and practice of reading pedagogy; details about the latest research in the teaching of reading; further reading; resources for assessment; profiles of students who are under-achieving or reluctant readers; and organisational and process strategies for establishing and maintaining a productive, engaged and effective classroom learning environment. See
Mystery (Greek: ‘secret rites’) A broad term closely allied to the detective story, crime fiction and film, gothic fiction and film and thriller fiction and film. The mystery is a work of prose or a film in which mystery or terror is integral to the plot: there is always a puzzle at the centre of the story that needs to be solved, often, but not always, by a detective. Mystery texts need not include a crime and the puzzle is not always resolved. Along with mystery fiction and film, there are mystery texts, including television dramas and documentaries that draw on actual events, unsolved crimes or ‘cold cases’, and mysterious phenomena (such as for example, the mysteries of the Bermuda Triangle). Mysteries may incorporate or emphasise the supernatural. Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849) is often credited with the first mystery story - “The Murders in the Rue Morgue” (1844) and Wilkie Collins’ (1824-1889) The Woman in White (1860) and The Moonstone (1868) are also considered to be early mystery classics. Agatha Christie (1890-1976) wrote a series of vastly popular mysteries that have been adapted for the screen. Other notable mysteries include Arthur Conan Doyle’s (1859-1930) The Complete Sherlock Holmes (1891-1927), also adapted for the screen; Josephine Tey’s (1896-1952) The Daughter of Time (1951); and Rebecca du Maurier’s (1907-1989) Rebecca (1938). More recent popular mystery writers are Dan Brown (1964-) who wrote the enormously popular The Da Vinci Code (2003); Patricia Cornwell (1956-); Sue Grafton (1940-); Ian Rankin (1960-) well-known for the creation of Rebus; and Stieg Larsson (1954-2004). See also Fiction, Genre, Novel, Writing. DC
Myth (Greek: ‘story’, ‘word of mouth’) Traditional stories that represent a culture’s beliefs, truths, values, ways of thinking and ways of explaining the world. Originating in the oral story-telling tradition, myths typically tell the story of a highly significant enduring human experience; religious principles; creation; mortality and immortality; the supernatural; the seasons; and the cycle of life. Like fables and parables, myths operate on several levels (literal and symbolic) often involving gods, goddesses, heroes, heroines, archetypes and symbols. Myths are usually timeless in that the setting, action, characters and events in the story have continued relevance and accessibility to audiences in different contexts. Myths are deeply embedded in culture, reflecting and embodying the prevailing 204
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M perspectives and attitudes of that culture. Myths pervade literature, film and other texts. Myths are often considered to be synonymous with legends. Legends, however, tend to represent actual historical events and people, whereas myths do not necessarily rely on this type of verisimilitude (although they may). Myths are more concerned with the metaphysical, seeking to illuminate and interpret the great questions of human existence and the universe. Originally, myths were often represented dramatically and performed, on the stage or orally. A group of myths is referred to mythology. Myth and mythology can also be applied in pejorative ways to indicate the perpetuation of ideas, concepts or things which are not ‘true’ in the scientific sense. For example, we refer to ‘urban myths’ as stories that have no basis in fact or experience, but continue to enjoy currency as a way of explaining unknown or mysterious phenomena or events. Carl Jung (1873-1961), Joseph Campbell (1904-1987) and Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908-) explored the psychology of myths, with Jung arguing that the archetypes in myths are representations of universal states of mind and human types. Northrop Frye (1912-1991) developed Myth criticism: an approach to texts that assumes all literature is based on the appropriation and adaptation of myths and the use of archetypes and archetypal plots. Frye argued that the major genres of literature can be understood in terms of myth: for example, tragedy is associated with Autumn; comedy is associated with Spring; irony is associated with Winter; and romance is associated with Summer. Later critics such as Roland Barthes (1915-1980) extended the application of myth criticism to interpret and critique a whole range of human activities in order to analyse the cultural values that inform them (Mythologies, 1957). There are many examples of novels, poetry, films and computer games that exploit the use of myth. In prose fiction, a well-known example is Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (The Modern Prometheus) (1820). There is a wealth of epic poems and fiction that represent the hero’s journey or quest; and many films that incorporate myth, such as, for example, Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (Mamoulian, 1931, Fleming, 1941); King Kong (Cooper, 1933, Jackson, 2005); Xena - Warrior Princess (1995); Clash of the Titans (Harryhausen, 1981); O Brother, Where Art Thou (Cohen, 2000); and Troy (Petersen, 2004). Baz Luhrmann, when commenting on his film, Moulin Rouge! (2001), asserted that all films are in some way based upon or draw on elements of mythology. Myths exist in almost every culture. In studying myths in English, there is an abundance of diverse texts to select from: ancient Greek and Roman; Norse; Celtic; Indian; Egyptian; Chinese; North American; Japanese; Maori; and Indigenous. Myths can be studied as individual texts; myths from different cultures dealing with a similar theme can be compared; and myths can be used a resource and stimulus in a wide range of units of work. See also Archetypal and Myth criticism, Dreamtime, Film, Legend, Writing. JW, JM References: Barthes, R. (1957, 1970) Mythologies, Paris: Seuil. Campbell, J. (1988) The Power of Myth, New York: Doubleday. Frye, N. (1957) Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays, Princeton: Princeton University Press. Gold, E. (ed) (1997) Timeless Truths: Exploring Creation Myths and Dreamtime Stories in Years 7-10, Sydney, Phoenix Education.
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N Narrative Most commonly used to denote a ‘story’ (which may be fictional or factual) that is told in one or more forms of print and visual media. The term also refers to the process and technique employed to represent ideas and experience – commonly known as ‘narration’. Narrative is a broad term that encompasses a wide range of types of print, oral, performance and visual texts, from short stories, anecdotes, graphic novels, jokes, historical accounts, films and plays. The common but by no means universal ingredients of narrative include: ∼ a story-teller or implied narrator (narrator) ∼ an intended or implied audience/reader (narratee) ∼ a structure (plot, sequencing and unfolding of action in time – and for visual texts, in time and ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
space; a beginning, middle and end) characters (action and dialogue) point/s of view setting (place, mood, atmosphere, context) an emphasis on ‘telling’ rather than ‘showing’ (as is the case in Drama).
Narrative as technique is driven by the careful selection and ordering of material by the composer (as distinct from the narrator). For example: what is left out; what is implicitly suggested; what is explicitly explored; and which parts of the action are clearly or subtly endorsed or rejected? These elements make up what can be called the ‘narrative’ of a text. David Lodge (1935-) argues that the two main tools that the narrative uses are “summary” and “scene”: summary is used to truncate the actual passing of time, and “scene” is used to “show” what is happening, thus imbuing the event with significance. In this way, narrative is a key tool used to create the general shape of a text, and to engage and influence the reader’s response to that text. Formalist and structuralist critics developed analytical frames to account for the structure of narrative. Although this emphasis on structure has been criticised by later poststructuralist critics, these frames are helpful in understanding the common features of narrative as a form (see Narratology). Novels and short stories are common forms of narrative studied in English. Oral narratives are also common, especially in the daily language experience of students. William Labov developed a framework for understanding the structure of oral narratives, based on the premise that such narratives proceed through six stages: ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
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Abstract – setting up the context for the story or making links to the preceding conversation Orientation – establishing the context, setting, characters, etc. Complicating action – ‘what happened’ Evaluation – narrator’s comments on the action and events Resolution or outcome – tying up of the elements of the story The English Teacher’s Handbook
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See also Author, Character, Fiction, Hierarchy of discourses, Implied author, Implied reader, Narratology, Narrator, Plot, Point of view, Reader, Story, Writing. SGS, JM References: Labov, W. (1972) Language in the Inner City, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press. Lodge, D. (1992) The Art of Fiction, Harmondsworth: Penguin. Pope, R. (2003) The English Studies Book: An Introduction to Language, Literature and Culture, 2nd edn. London: Routledge.
Narratology A form of literary criticism that has its roots in structuralism – in fact, most structuralist literary critics could be said to have practised narratology. Narratology applies the basic premise of structuralism – that form can be separated from content, and that form tells us about the social system of signs that enables a text to ‘mean’ – and applies it to particular texts with particular emphasis on narrative time, narrative voice and plot structure (Rudrum, 2002): In order to understand narratology's contribution to semiotics, it is important to grasp the distinction between its three fundamental entities: story, narrative and narration. The story generally corresponds to a series of events and actions that are told by someone (the narrator), and represented in some final form, producing a narrative. As a field of study, narratology looks at the internal mechanisms of narrative, the form taken by a narrated story. In the field of narrative discourse, we endeavour to identify the common, near-universal principles of text composition. Thus, we attempt to discern what relations are possible between the elements of the narrative/story/narration triad. These relations operate within four analytical categories: mood, the narrative instance, level and time. (Guillemette & Lévesque, 2006) Narratology’s focus is on uncovering the system of signs that governs a text, and one of the seminal efforts at this kind of grand-scale investigation was Claude Lévi-Strauss’ (1908-) work on myths. Lévi-Strauss postulated that myths in any given culture could be broken down into basic constituent themes, and that each, particular social myth governing any society could be finally shown to be derivative of one of these basic themes (Eagleton, 2003: 90). Lèvi-Strauss believed that these myths were essentially agents by which a society was organised, and that texts and people operated within this system of myths apparently oblivious to either the myth’s existence, or the myth’s constructedness. The key figures of narratology in literary criticism were Roland Barthes (1915-1980) and Gérard Genette (1930-). Roland Barthes’ essay in Image-Music-Text, entitled “Introduction to the Structural Analysis of Narratives” explores plot-based narratology, and Gèrard Genette’s Narrative Discourse gives a sophisticated account of how narration works and how the position of the narrator affects the story itself (Rudrum, 2002). Genette shows that there is a difference between what is narrated (histoire) and the way it is narrated (rècit), asserting that the narrator is able to shape a story quite apart from the way it ‘actually’ happened. One of the key ramifications of narratology is that the investigation into narration, and the way a text is structured by narration, demystifies the power of literature (Eagleton, 2003: 92). By showing the nuts and bolts, for example, of the way narrative works in Joseph Conrad’s (1857-1924) Heart of Darkness (1902), one is less concerned with Marlow’s existential crisis, perhaps, and more concerned with the way narrative itself attempts to create that crisis. See also Code, Hierarchy of discourses, Literary criticism, Narrative, Narrator. SGS, JM References: Eagleton, T. (2003) Literary Theory: An Introduction, 2nd edn. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Guillemette, L. & Lévesque, C. (2006), “Narratology”, in Louis Hèbert (dir.), Signo [on-line], Rimouski (Quebec), http://www.signosemio.com. Rudrum, D. (2002) "Narratology". The Literary Encyclopedia.
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N Narrator The narrator is either the character or the presence in a text that ‘tells’ the story. Narration can take different forms. Narrators can be either embedded characters within a story (first person narration), or omniscient narrators (third person narration) who can identify with different characters equally and defy time and space to be able to narrate all events. Over time, and particularly in the 19th and 20th century, story-tellers have moved toward a more conscious rendering of the narrator’s presence, suggesting that writing has become aware of the way in which the narrator’s voice – omniscient or not – is a construction by the author that directs the reader’s responses and sympathies. The narrator is quite distinct from the author, and the point of view of the narrator and the author can sometimes be at odds. In this case, such a narrator would be what Wayne Booth (1921-2005) calls an “unreliable narrator” (Booth, 1961: 158). This distance between the narrator and the author can be created by several things: a moral distance, physical distance, and intellectual distance. For example, Rodman Philbrick’s novel for young adults, Freak the Mighty (1993), is narrated by a boy with learning difficulties in the process of overcoming his fear of writing. The distance between the “implied author” and Maxwell Kane, the boy, is created by age, experience, and intellectual maturity. The choice of placing the narration with Maxwell creates a keyhole for young readers into the world of a boy who is bullied and who struggles with reading. The overall effect is to create a genuine empathy for Maxwell and his predicament. In addition, the narrator may be distant from the other characters in the novel, creating tension in the story. Again, this distance may be temporal, intellectual or moral (Booth, 1961: 156). For example, the narrator of Wuthering Heights (Brontë, 1847) Nellie, is clearly at odds with the values and behaviours of some of the characters she describes: her ambivalence and sometimes outright fear and disdain for Heathcliff (and also at times for Cathy) suggests a moral disconnect between the narrator and the characters. Furthermore, Booth points out that the narrator can be intentionally distant from the reader by deliberately challenging the assumed norms of the intended or implied audience (Booth, 1961: 156). For example, Kate Grenville’s recent novel The Secret River (2006) has the reader follow the white convict William Thornhill in his quest to grab land in the Hawkesbury. While the novel’s third person narrator clearly invites us to sympathise with his plight as convict, Thornhill’s eventual descent into brutality and cruelty is at an intentional moral distance from the reader. The overall effect of this narrative technique is to generate jarring insights into the tattered relations between Aboriginal and white Australia. See also Author, Character, Fiction, Implied author, Implied reader, Literary criticism, Narratology, Narrative, Novel, Point of view. SGS, JM Reference: Booth, W. C. (1961) The Rhetoric of Fiction, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
National Curriculum Attempts at establishing a national curriculum in English have taken place in recent decades in a number of countries including the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Australia. France, Italy, Finland, and Japan are among other countries which have put in place national curricula in their particular languages. Typically, the historical tradition in a number of English speaking countries has been for curriculum to be determined at the State/Province/Territory levels, rather than across the whole of the nation. There are interesting variations of the either/or paradigm; for example in Canada. In Canada, although the curricula for primary level education (ages 6/7 to 11/12/13 years) vary by province or territory, most include language arts/literacy (usually English, plus French in some provinces or territories), mathematics, social studies (usually includes history, geography, personal, social, health and civic education), general science/technology, the arts, and physical education. At lower secondary level (ages 11/12/13 to 15/16 years), the curricula in most provinces include language arts (English/French), mathematics, arts education, health education, physical education, science and technology, and social studies. Information and communications technology (ICT) and careers are often also included. Foreign language provision varies and is usually optional. 208
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N It is of note that the four western Canadian provinces and three northern territories have established a protocol for collaboration in education from Kindergarten to Grade/Year 12 (ages 5 to 18/19). The Western and Northern Canadian Protocol includes the development of common curriculum frameworks and learning outcomes in certain curriculum areas. Invariably where there have been State/Province/Territory curricula, attempts by the national government or a national agency to develop a national curriculum have not been without their challenges. For example, in the early 1990s the Commonwealth, state, and territory governments in Australia established a major project to develop national curriculum in the 8 ‘Key Learning Areas’ (KLAs) in Australian school education: English; Mathematics; Science; Technology; Languages other than English; Health and Physical Education; Studies in Society and Environment; and the Arts. Eventually, after producing national Statements and assessment Profiles in all 8 KLAs, the project came to an end – basically because of change in governments at the state level. Indicative of both the delicate nature of intergovernmental collaboration required, the second Chair of the body set up to direct this project, Dr Ken Boston, wrote later: “the Statements and Profiles (were) the result of a voluntary and fragile alliance which … held together only because each of the States and systems (judged) it to be of benefit to them and the nation” (Boston, 1994: 44). Not untypical of the attempted scope of a national curriculum, at least within the English speaking countries, is the following statement by England’s Qualifications and Curriculum Authority: We develop the national curriculum, which defines the knowledge, understanding and skills to which children and young people are entitled. We keep it under review, to evaluate its appropriateness and relevance to the changing needs of learners and society. (www.qca.org.uk/qca) In the English-speaking countries these attempts have not been without their controversies: this was particularly the case in England. But idealism and high aspirations usually characterise the aims of those seeking to develop a national curriculum. See also Curriculum, Key Learning Area. PB Reference: Boston, K. (1994) “A Perspective on the So-called ‘National Curriculum”, Curriculum Perspectives, 14: 1, April.
Naturalism A sub-category of realism that asserts that all human behaviour, experience and ‘truths’ can only be explained and understood with reference to observable causes emerging from the natural world, heredity, the impact of the environment and scientifically verifiable principles. Naturalism rejects appeals to the supernatural, the spiritual, the numinous or the divine in interpreting the human condition. The prominent 20th-century educator and philosopher, John Dewey (1859-1952), was a self-proclaimed naturalist. The influence of naturalism is evident in the works of Èmile Zola (18401902) (Nana, 1880; Germinal, 1885); Thomas Hardy (1840-1928) (Jude the Obscure, 1895); Henrick Ibsen (1828-1906) and Theodore Dreiser (1871-1945). See also Literary criticism, Realism. JM Reference: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
Negative capability A concept developed by the English poet John Keats (1795-1821), and first explained in a letter he wrote to George and Thomas Keats in 1817: It struck me, what quality went to form a Man [sic] of Achievement especially in Literature & which Shakespeare possessed so enormously – I mean Negative Capability, that is when man [sic], is capable of being in uncertainties, Mysteries, doubts, without any irritable reaching after fact and reason. The concept of negative capability holds that the artist should be open-minded and receptive to imaginative experiences which may not be familiar to the artist’s own self or identity. This receptiveness enables the artist to enter into and represent new experiences and allow the The English Teacher’s Handbook
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N imagination to act as the supreme authority in shaping and influencing that representation. In such a state, there is no need to resolve or even understand the contradictions or paradoxes of human experience. Instead, the concept of negative capability allows the artist to embrace the uncertainties and mysteries of existence through creative representation. JM
Neoclassical period A period in English literature within the Age of Reason. One of the prominent writers of this time was Alexander Pope (1688-1744). Pope was writing in a pre-industrial England whose 'high' culture was very much influenced by Newtonian physics with its rationalistic approach to human beings and their place in a universal order. A great resurgence of belief in the potential of the human intellect and reason to understand ‘absolute truths’ about the nature of the cosmos was apparent at this time. It was a period in which moral and religious zeal flourished and individuals' responsibility to the established social structures and institutions was of paramount importance. The valorisation of the individual, a process which as modern readers we are so familiar with, played no overt part in the society of Pope's time, although you will notice that much of his poetry is addressed to, and is concerned with, individuals, including Pope himself! One of the basic maxims of the age was to 'judge the part in relation to the whole'. See also Age of Reason, (The) Enlightenment, Heroic couplet, Satire. JM
Neologism
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
(Greek: ‘new word’) A new, invented word, expression, phrase or term. New words are regularly coined and added to the language via popular culture, literature, science, and other disciplines. Digital communication, for example, has added a plethora of terms to the language. The advent of sms (short message service), for instance, has brought with it a raft of new abbreviations that have become part of the language: for example, ‘lol’ (‘laugh out loud’). Often, students are actively engaged in coining new words and expressions, establishing their own language for communication within a particular group. Shakespeare added around 1700 new words to the English language, most of which are now commonplace. For example: majestic, radiance, mimic, gossip, elbow, dawn, luggage, addiction, bedroom, tranquil, obscene, and lonely. For a fuller list of Shakespeare’s neologisms, and links to the plays in which they first appeared, see:
∼ Create an sms dictionary for an older generation. ∼ Create nonsense words to describe an object. JW
Newbolt Report The Newbolt Report, The Teaching of English in England (1921) was the most substantial study of the teaching of English in England (and Wales, although the latter did not figure in the title) in the first half of the 20th century. This substantial and profoundly influential work was almost 400 pages long. Indeed, the only report to rival it in both quality and quantity is the Bullock Report A Language for Life (1975). Chaired by the poet Sir Henry Newbolt (1862-1938), who was the President of the English Association (which continues its existence into the 21st century) its intellectual and scholarly roots can be found in the ideas of Matthew Arnold (1822-1888). The 15 members of the committee included George Sampson whose book English for the English (published in the same year, 1921) was and remains one of the seminal books on English and its teaching. The Arnoldian belief that the love and study of English Literature should constitute the ethical and moral fibre/backbone of English society in the face of what Arnold insisted was the failure of established religion any longer to provide such 210
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N a compass underpinned the Newbolt Report. The committee was strongly of the view that the study of English had to be undertaken in all schools – which, as it discovered, had not been the case. The Newbolt Report even went beyond the context of schooling to include the study and teaching of English in universities within its scope. The Report insisted that English should constitute the very foundation of school education. Newbolt’s committee eschewed any notion that such literature should be read only by the highly educated and the ‘upper’ classes. “The literature of England belongs to all England, not to the universities or to any coterie of the literary or the learned: and all may enjoy it who will” (p. 204). On the other hand, there are those who have asserted that the members of the committee had a collective sense of social and linguistic superiority over those who did not speak ‘proper’ English and/or whose language was ‘tainted’ by dialect. The issues it dealt with and its exhortations to teachers of English are strikingly relevant to contemporary times. For example, secondary school students were urged to undertake “a close and intensive study of specially selected works in verse and prose, chosen on account of their intrinsic value” (p. 16). Teachers of English were told that they needed to make regular reference to “the other creative arts, music, architecture, painting, etc” (p. 118). A staggering feature of the Newbolt Report was contained in its publication of the results of a survey of the number and scope of books being read in London Elementary schools. The survey found that within these London Elementary schools there were approximately 1650 titles in circulation, from a number of approximately 2 million volumes. The Newbolt Report evinced a powerfully Romantic perception of the world. Literature was seen to be “the most direct and lasting communication of experience by man to men (sic)” (p. 9). The spirit of humanity was seen to be driven by three purposes: “the love of goodness, the love of truth, and the love of beauty” (p. 9). Hand in hand with the study of literature the Report promoted the study of science. Together, the ideals of literature and science as imbibed through their study would mean that “the child’s natural love of goodness will be strongly encouraged and great progress may be made in strengthening of the will.” (Newbolt, 1921: 9). PB Reference: Newbolt, H. (Chair) (1921) The Teaching of English in England, London: HMSO
New Criticism A school of literary criticism established and developed by the Cambridge School from the 1920s to the 1950s, and developed by the American New Critics in the 1930s. It is also known as Formalism. English as a discrete university discipline had only been in existence since the early 1900s: English courses of study and models of approaching the study of literature had not been institutionalised in universities prior to this time. The leaders of the New Criticism movement were IA Richards (18931975), William Empson (1906-1984) and FR Leavis (1895-1978), each of whom were teaching at the University of Cambridge. New Criticism developed as a reaction against the kinds of criticism that preceded it: criticism that was impressionistic, reliant on details of the life of the author and other historical or cultural factors; the moral and philosophical import of the text; and proceeded in terms of major historical periods, such as, for example, the literature of the Romantic period or Renaissance. In response to this ‘subjective’ approach, New Critics insisted on a focus on the ‘text’ (although they did not use this term) and the close scrutiny of the form, structure and content of the literary work without reference to ‘external’ variables or the impressions and affective responses of the critic. In 1929, Richards published Practical Criticism which set out the method of studying literature through intensive analysis of ‘how’ a text produces meaning. This is enacted by attending only to the words on the page since New Critics argued that in the end, this is the only available ‘evidence’. These critics were concerned with ‘trusting the poem and not the poet’. The focus was on evaluating the ‘organic unity’ of the work: the interrelationships of the parts to the whole; the use of techniques such as paradox, irony, metaphor, symbolism, patterns, ambiguity, conceits and tension; and the consequent judgement about the value and worth of the text. The English Teacher’s Handbook
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N This approach assumes that the text is an autonomous, timeless, self-contained entity, and its ‘essential’ meaning or ‘truth’ transcends the limitations of a particular historical context or author’s life. Meaning can only be apprehended and understood through close analysis of the text itself. Meaning inheres in the language. Literature ‘contains’ expressions of universal, enduring and perpetually relevant truths about human existence. New Critics were concerned to invest the study of literature with a ‘scientific’ rigour and regarded great literary works as highly significant expressions of morality. In the face of what they perceived as the onrush of dehumanising technology, the study of literature was one remaining ‘space’ to celebrate and connect with ‘humanity’. FR Leavis is considered to be one of the key pioneers of the movement, establishing the journal Scrutiny in 1932 that published articles exemplifying the New Critics’ approach. Leavis’ The Great Tradition (1948) and The Common Pursuit (1952) were highly influential, with the former explicating the New Critics’ ‘canon’ of English literature. In the decades after the widespread application of New Criticism, theorists have reacted against what they consider to be the acontextual, essentialist and ‘elitist’ tenets of this approach, arguing that it assumes a transcendent view of human nature as unchanging, homogeneous and universal. New Critics’ insistence on the primacy of the text means there is little or no emphasis the role of contextual forces in the production and dissemination of the text, and the social, economic and political variables that influence production, reception, interpretation and meaning. Despite the now widely accepted criticisms of the limitations of this approach, the principles of close reading remain influential in English education. In addition, New Criticism is considered to be a part of the evolving historical continuum of literary criticism that spawned the succeeding developments in theory and practice. See also Canon, Close reading, Interpretation, Literary criticism, Literary theory, Literature. JM References: Abrams, M. H. (2005) A Glossary of Literary Terms, NY: Harcourt Brace. Barry, P. (2002) Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory, Manchester: Manchester University Press. Leavis, F.R. (1948) The Great Tradition, London: Chatto & Windus. Leavis, F.R. (1952) The Common Pursuit, London: Chatto & Windus. Richards, I. A. (1929) Practical Criticism, London: Kegan Paul. Thomson, J. (ed.) (1992) Reconstructing Literature Teaching: New Essays on the Teaching of Literature, Norwood: AATE. The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism.
New Historicism A school of literary criticism that emerged in the 1980s as a reaction against the tenets and practices of New Criticism and Deconstruction. Unlike the 19th century Historical criticism, New Historicism does not use the text as an exemplar or a means to the end of moral, philosophical or historical study. Rather, New Historicism is concerned to interpret a whole range of traditional literary and non-literary texts, blurring the boundaries between these and reading texts against the backdrop of historical and cultural contexts. This approach reads literary and non-literary texts from the same historical period in order to gain a more incisive understanding of the ways in which the historically and culturally dependent sets of beliefs, values and practice shape and influence the text. Like poststructuralist approaches, New Historicism inquires into the issues of power, social structures and colonisation as they are manifested in texts, regarding such representations as evidence of the reinforcement and perpetuation of dominant systems of thought and social relations. This approach rejects the notion of canonicity, or the existence of transcendent ‘literariness’. Unlike some poststructuralist approaches, the discourse of New Historicism is less dense and jargon-laden and tends to promote the place of historical evidence in textual analysis. See also Interpretation, Literary criticism. JM
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N When reading/viewing a text, consider:
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
What are the relations of power suggested by this text? How is power either explicitly or implicitly operating in this text? What historical or cultural events may have influenced the creation of this text? What view of human existence does this text present? What does this text reveal about the relationship between society, individuals, language, knowledge and power in a particular culture?
∼ Does this text present a particular model of truth or authority that is specific to its historical time?
Newspaper See Media
Nobel Prize for Literature Alfred Bernhard Nobel (1833-1896), a Swedish chemist and engineer funded prizes and research foundations in literature, physics, chemistry, medicine or physiology through his income from his estate. With a central intention of promoting world peace, the first prizes were awarded on 10 December 1901 with the French writer RenÈ FA Sully-Prudhomme (1839-1907) receiving the inaugural prize for literature. Other notable recipients of this prize have been WB Yeats (1923), Ernest Hemingway (1954) and Doris Lessing (2007). The 1987 literature prize winner, Russian poet, Joseph Brodsky wrote “…there is no doubt in my mind that had we been choosing our leaders on the basis of their reading experiences and not their political programs, there would be much less grief on earth.” (p. 272) Visit the Nobel Prize site to read and listen to Nobel Laureates’ speeches:
Nonfiction Texts that purportedly deal with and represent facts, actual people, places and events rather than fictional or imaginatively derived material. Nonfiction can encompass speeches, essays, travel writing, biography, autobiography, journals, textbooks, and everyday and workplace texts such as brochures, pamphlets, user instructions and so on. The distinction between fiction and nonfiction is problematic, since all texts rely to some degree on the composer’s creative and imaginative selection and organisation of material. This is the case in some examples of biography and autobiography where accounts of persons, events and personalities are open to challenge. Many works have a blend of fiction and nonfiction, often making the detection of the fictional elements difficult. Nonfiction enjoys contemporary popularity through periodicals and collections of essays such as Black Inc. The Best Australian Essays, which is issued annually. See also Autobiography, Biography, Diary, Essay, Faction, Media, Multimedia, Reading, Rhetoric, Speech, Travel writing, Writing. DC
Novel (Italian: ‘a tale’, Sp. ‘news’, Fr. ‘new’) One of the three major traditional literary genres (along with poetry and drama). The term refers to a broad range of imaginative fiction texts that are categorised in subgenres (e.g. thriller, fantasy, action and adventure, romance, science fiction, spy, historical, crime). A novel is generally defined as an aesthetic text, with a sustained and welldeveloped narrative (story) that involves a theme/s, character/s, event/s, setting/s and a plot that are imaginatively rendered. The primary purpose of the novel is to bring pleasure and enjoyment to the reader. Beyond this broad definition, there is an almost endless array of variations on the conventional prose fiction form.
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N While there are some examples of early forms of the novel prior to the 18th century, it is generally agreed that the rise of the novel as a mainstream, popular and established form took place in the 1700s, with a flourishing of the form in the 1800s. In the 1700s, writers such as Henry Fielding (1707-1754), Daniel Defoe (1659-1731), Samuel Richardson (1689-1761) and Laurence Sterne (1713-1768) published what are now considered to be the first authentic novels. During the Victorian era during the 1800s, writers such as Jane Austen (1775-1817), George Eliot (18181880), Charles Dickens (1812-1870), William Thackeray (1811-1863), Elizabeth Gaskell (18101865) and the Brontë sisters (Charlotte, 1816-1855; Emily, 1814-1848; and Anne, 1820-1849) achieved great success, with a reading public that devoured prose fiction, often in serialised form in the periodicals of the time. Novels were very much part of popular culture. The work of women novelists was prominent and highly popular, especially in the context of the shifting roles of women in society, the rise of industrialism and the movement of women from the domestic to the public sphere. In the later part of the 19th century, and during the fine-de-siècle, a number of novelists experimented with the conventions and subject matter of the form, with innovations that had a farreaching impact on prose fiction in the 20th century. For example, James Joyce (1882-1941) established the narrative technique of stream of consciousness, opening the way for further developments in narrative technique and narrative voice. Thomas Hardy’s (1840-1928) novels were distinctive in their sustained representation of the intersection of pre-industrial rural life and the rise of industrialism, and the impact of this on traditional ways of living, social mores and values. He also shifted the thematic focus of the Victorian novel to an intense exploration of teleological questions about the role of fate, destiny and chance in individuals’ lives in a seemingly amoral, Darwinian universe. During the 20th century, novels began to be categorised and published according to whether they were considered to be ‘popular’ or ‘literary’. The latter was defined as a novel that was subjected to literary criticism, while the former was considered for its appeal to mass audiences for the primary purpose of entertainment. The distinction has always been problematic, with many of the ‘popular’ novels of the past achieving ‘canonic’ status once they attract the attention of literary critics. Assigning value to novels in terms of their ‘classic’, ‘popular’ and ‘canonic’ status constitutes an ongoing part of the study of English in formal educational settings. In the 20th and 21st centuries, with the rise of mass markets and mass production of printed texts, the novel continues to enjoy widespread appeal. Despite the public perceptions to the contrary, novels continue to occupy an important place in the leisure activities of young people who engage with prose fiction for pleasure and personal satisfaction. The burgeoning of Young Adult Literature (YLA) attests to the continued and significant role of fiction in the lives of young people. With the advent of visual media and multimodal texts, many novels are adapted for the screen, creating an important crossover of media. In addition, novels are also now increasingly produced and disseminated in digital forms, opening up a range of pathways for young readers to engage with fiction and to create and publish their own fiction. See also Author, Creativity, Drama as a learning medium, Four phases of classroom experience, Fiction, Genre, Imagination, Implied author, Implied reader, Interpretation, Journal writing, Language, Literary criticism, Literature, MyRead, Narrative, Narratology, Narrator, Reading, Story, Text selection, Wide reading program, Writing, Young Adult Literature. JM
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N There is a wealth of resource material to support the teaching of prose fiction in English. These exist in print form and online and range from practical guides to selecting appropriate texts to practical strategies for engaging students in reading and response. The role of reading journals, writi ng journals, portfolios, activity-based and projectbased learning, the integration of ICT, and a range of small group, individual, pairs and whole class tasks should inform approaches to teaching novels. 1. It is useful to frame the study of novels according to the four phases of classroom experience: pre-reading; during reading; response; moving beyond. MyRead.org.au provides a series of very useful ideas and scaffolds for approaching texts in this way. Also see Four phases of classroom experience. 2. Response strategies abound: for example,
∼ “100 Things to do with books” Nancy Mavrogenes:
∼ “103 Things to Do Before/During/After Reading” Jim Burke (1998) ∼
∼ “24 things to do with a book” Geoff Fox in A. Adams (ed.) (1982) New Directions in English Teaching. London: Falmer.
Novella (Italian: ‘tale’, ‘news’) A narrative that is longer than a short story, but shorter than a novel, usually running between 50 and 150 pages. The distinction does not have a great deal of practical use, since many texts that are technically ‘novellas’ (e.g. Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness, 1902, and George Orwell’s Animal Farm, 1945) are commonly referred to as novels. See also Drama as a learning medium, Fiction, Genre, Novel. JM
Nursery rhyme Texts that existed originally as part of the oral tradition, nursery rhymes are playful, short, rhythmic and simple verses often sung to children or by children (hence the term ‘nursery’). Nursery rhymes have a long history, and this has been well documented in the research literature. They are often used in secondary English to develop students’ language skills, embodied knowledge (since some rhymes are accompanied by actions and dance), awareness of metre and rhythm (many rhymes are intended to be sung), and understanding of stereotypes and aspects of culture. Many nursery rhymes are based on historical events, personalities and places. For example: “Ring-a-Ring-o’Roses” (emerged at the time of the Great Plague); and “Georgie Porgie” (based on the antics of the first Duke of Buckingham, George Villiers, 1592-1628). See also Children’s literature, Fairy tale. JM
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O Obituary
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An extended tribute to a deceased person. An obituary is usually written in prose and seeks to capture the significant aspects of the person’s life and personality. Obituaries probably emerged with the advent of the printing press in the 1500s and the earliest forms were akin to what are now known as death notices. An obituary is more detailed and personalised than a death notice. JM When studying a text that includes the death of a character/s, students can create an obituary, relying on the evidence from the text to compose their piece. The task enables students to develop awareness of concepts such as audience and purpose; develop skills in using techniques such as description, synthesis and chronology; encapsulate the focus through devising a title and rubric; and apply generic conventions drawn in part from biography. Obituaries for well-known people are regularly printed in newspapers, and these are often accompanied by a photo of the deceased. Examples can be selected to serve as models for students’ own writing.
Objective correlative A literary concept first described by Washington Alston in 1840, but later taken up and developed by TS Eliot (1888-1965). In his essay “Hamlet and His Problems” (1920), Eliot explains the concept in the following way: The only way of expressing emotion in the form of art is by finding an "objective correlative"; in other words, a set of objects, a situation, a chain of events which shall be the formula of that particular emotion; such that when the external facts, which must terminate in sensory experience, are given, the emotion is immediately evoked. Critics of this concept argue that it is impossible to create a ‘formula’ whereby reference to an external object can immediately provoke an emotional response. Others argue that it is impossible to know the author’s intention, and therefore the idea of an object provoking the author’s intended and desired associations and emotions in the responder amounts to a false expectation. Words such as ‘Disneyland’, and some brand names, have arguably succeeded in becoming objective correlatives for emotions of happiness, pleasure and fun. See also Intentional Fallacy. DC, JM Reference: Eliot, T.S. (1920) “Hamlet and his Problems” in The Sacred Wood: Essays on Poetry and Criticism, 1997 edn. London: Faber & Faber.
Objective criticism A critical approach to texts that regards the text as an autonomous entity. Analysis and interpretation is focused on the text itself, without reference to the biographical, historical cultural or other contextual factors, or the context of the reader. New Criticism exemplifies this approach. See also Interpretation, New Criticism. JM 216
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O Occasional verse A poem composed to mark or celebrate an event. Occasional poems are written for events such as births, marriages, funerals, coronations, investitures, and important public ceremonies. JM
Ode (Greek: ‘song’) A type of lyric poem that is more extensive, detailed and developed than other types of lyric poetry such as the sonnet. The ode was developed by Pindar, the Ancient Greek poet (522-442 BC). His odes were written to celebrate and praise Olympians. Odes are characterised by their focus on public, patriotic and elevated themes (Pindaric odes) or their focus on personal moods, reflection and emotional experiences (Horatian odes). Horace (65-8 BC) developed the form established by Pindar by shifting the public tenor to a more personal one. John Keats’ (1795-1821) odes are fine examples of the use of the Horatian model, since they are meditative, personal and deal with themes such as immortality, transcendence, nature and states of mind. See also Genre, Lyric, Poetry. JM Keats’ odes lend themselves to visual representation. “To Autumn” for example, is richly evocative and sensual in its use of imagery, personification and sound.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ If possible, plan a task to be undertaken in Autumn. ∼ Students spend some time outdoors, focusing on an aspect of nature that is associated with the season (e.g. a leaf, tree, sky).
∼ Use this as a trigger for a ‘Spontaneous Memory Monologue’ (James Moffett, Active Voice: A Writing Program Across the Curriculum, 1992). Drawing on their own memories, students write about an experience of Autumn (e.g. playing in the leaves beneath a deciduous tree in the backyard of their home) provoked by their reflection on an aspect/s of the surrounding landscape.
∼ Allow time for students to complete this activity. ∼ Writing can then be shaped and polished – as a poem, narrative, digital story, PowerPoint etc.
∼ Writing can be anthologised, displayed or published in some other form, with visual representations included.
∼ Other resources such as, for instance, Antonio Vivaldi’s music (“Autumn” from The Four Seasons) and visual images of Autumn, can be used as pre-writing stimulus. ∼ Once students have completed their own writing, they can be introduced to Keats’ poem with the teacher reading this out aloud (possibly with accompanying music).
Old English/Anglo-Saxon Old English (also called Anglo-Saxon) is the oldest surviving written form of English. It was spoken in England and parts of Scotland from the 5th century. Although there were significant regional dialects, it was the Wessex dialect that gained supremacy. With its origins in Germanic and other languages, as it developed it incorporated features from other languages spoken and written by successive invasions. For example, the periods of Roman occupation and the influence of Christian missionaries brought Latin vocabulary into the language. Features of Celtic and Old Norse also were assimilated into the language. Old English was a synthetic language: number, gender, and case were signified by differences in word endings. Modern English is not a synthetic language: word order, not word endings, shapes the meaning. However, vestiges of the synthetic language remain: for example, woman/women; man/men; ox/oxen; mouse/mice; louse/lice. Scholars believed that there was a greater consistency between how Old English was written and how it was pronounced than is the case in modern English. But the phonemic/phonetic consistency of words was coloured by differences of dialect. A number of modern words with ‘silent’ letters in them would have been pronounced in Old English with those letters sounded. The English Teacher’s Handbook
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O It is almost certain that many Old English texts have not survived. But some very important works have: such as the epic poem Beowulf (8th-11th century) and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle – a remarkable record of significant events and experiences in England kept by monks in various monasteries. The surviving manuscripts of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle date from 7th Century until the late 12th century. The great literary figures of Anglo-Saxon literature include Bede and Caedmon. There are also other manuscripts which survive, such as lives of the saints, documents to do with the law, and translations of the Bible. The Norman Invasion of 1066 led to significant changes in the language and ushered in the period known as Middle English. See also Dialect, Middle English. PB
Onomatopoeia (Greek: ‘name-making’) Refers to a word that, when spoken, sounds like the noise that it is describing. For example: ‘hush’, ‘clatter’, ‘thud’, ‘bang’, ‘crack’ and ‘hum’. In Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s (1809-1892) poem “Morte D’Arthur” (1845) there is an example of the use of this technique: So saying, from the ruin'd shrine he stept And in the moon athwart the place of tombs, Where lay the mighty bones of ancient men, Old knights, and over them the sea-wind sang Shrill, chill, with flakes of foam. He, stepping down By zigzag paths, and juts of pointed rock, Came on the shining levels of the lake. See also Language, Poetry. DC, JM
Outcomes and objectives Outcomes and objectives are important components in the design of curriculum in that they set out what the learner has to learn and to what level of achievement. Use of both terms may vary according to the educational setting but generally, a distinction may be made, as follows. Objectives are the major elements in curriculum design which define the key learning that should occur. Objectives: ∼ identify specific outcomes or competencies to be achieved with regard to skills, content mastery, attitudes, or values ∼ establish the foundation for the selection or design of instruction materials, content, or techniques ∼ determine when the purposes of instruction have been achieved ∼ present a structure within which a learner can organise efforts to complete the learning tasks. Generally, learning outcomes specify what learners are supposed to know or be able to do as a result of a program of planned learning activities. Outcomes describe the actual capabilities, knowledge, skills, understandings, values or qualities learners should develop as a result of their educational experiences. Outcomes are based on: ∼ the agreed content, knowledge and understandings peculiar to the specific course of study or learning domain ∼ the needs of the learner at the specific developmental or stage of learning ∼ the needs of society as articulated in curriculum documents. See also Assessment. DC, JM
Oxymoron (Greek: ‘deliberately foolish’) A form of paradox in which two contradictory or opposite sayings or terms are joined. For example: “Tumult and peace, the darkness and the light.” (The Prelude, William Wordsworth, 1850). JM 218
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P Palindrome (Greek: ‘running back again’) A word or sentence which, when taken in the reverse order, gives the same word or sentence. For example, Napoleon (1769-1821) is attributed with coining the palindrome, ‘able was I ere I saw Elba’ and ‘Sums are not set as a test on Erasmus’. A clever example of the sustained use of palindrome as a structural technique is Weird Al Yankovic’s homage to Bob Dylan - “Bob”. It is a song in which the lyrics are made up entirely of palindromes. (www.com-www.com/weirdal/bob.htmlwww.com-www.com/weirdal/bob.html) DC, JM Reference: Cuddon, J.A. (1991) Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, Great Britain: Penguin Books.
Pamphlet
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(Greek: ‘small work’) A small publication, usually unbound, with a paper cover. Originally used to argue a case on an issue, the pamphlet was exploited as a form by authors such as Sir Thomas More (1478-1535), John Milton (1608-1674), Jonathan Swift (1667-1745) and Daniel Defoe (16611731), and by others throughout the period of the latter 18th and 19th centuries. More recently, the pamphlet is often used to inform the public of issues of interest and future meetings of different organisations. DC Students create pamphlets about an issue they are passionate about or one arising from the study of a text. This can range from expository pieces/ information texts to pure fantasy (e.g. making a pamphlet for a fairyland or theme park while studying A Midsummer Night’s Dream). JW
Panegyric (Greek: ‘pertaining to public assembly’) A formal speech or poem in which an individual or group is accorded high praise and commendation. DC
Pantomime (Greek: ‘imitating all’) Originally a form of entertainment in Ancient Greece, where a solo performer would sing, dance and often play a musical instrument. In the Middle Ages, it was a form of popular Italian drama which had strong resonances with Commedia dell’arte. Developing over the centuries, pantomime has come to refer to a form of ‘low opera’, especially produced for children, and with a celebratory focus (e.g. Christmas pantomimes). It is characterised by songs, dance, visually appealing costumes, music, comic acts, slapstick, audience participation and the appropriation of traditional fairy tales and children’s stories. JM
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P Parable (Greek: ‘to throw alongside’) A short illustrative story intended to point out a moral or lesson. Similar to allegory, the Christian scriptures include many parables such as “The Good Samaritan” and “The Prodigal Son”. See also Allegory, Fable, Fairy tale. DC
Paradigm (Greek: ‘example’) A pattern, exemplar or model. As a literary device, a paradigm indicates an illustrative parable or fable. DC
Paradox (Greek: ‘opposed to existing notions’) A seemingly self-contradictory statement that when scrutinised, may contain a surprising truth or insight. The American New Critic, Cleanth Brooks (1906-1994), in his essay "The Language of Paradox” argues that paradox is “the language appropriate and inevitable to poetry." Used extensively by writers, George Orwell’s (1903-1950) Nineteen EightyFour (1949) provide famous examples, ‘War is peace’; ‘Freedom is slavery’ and ‘Ignorance is strength’. Paradox is common in the poetry of the Metaphysical poets. Paradox is at the centre of John Donne’s (1572-1631) poem “The Canonization”. In another of his poems, “Death, Be Not Proud” (1633), the speaker declares “Death, thou shalt die”. DC, JM
Paragraph (Greek: ‘line drawing attention to part of a text’) A section or subdivision in a piece of writing. Varied in length, a paragraph generally deals with a specific point or aspect of a topic. Different types of paragraphs have different functions. For example, the opening paragraph of an essay usually sets out the main argument of the writer and foreshadows elements of supporting evidence to be explored in the main section of the essay. An essay’s concluding paragraph sums up the writer’s position on the topic and may attempt to reinforce his/her thesis through the inclusion of a supporting quotation, while a linking paragraph may only be one sentence long, linking lengthier paragraphs. See also Essay, Rhetoric, Writing. DC
Parallel (Greek: ‘alongside one another’) An aspect of syntax, parallel refers to the repetition of grammatically similar words of similar meaning in similar sequences. In TS Eliot’s (1888-1965) Four Quartets, (1941), “East Coker”, lines 40-46 there is an example of the use of this technique of parallel syntax emphasising similarities in meaning between the objects being described. DC
Paraphrase (Greek: ‘to recount’) Refers to capturing the gist or essence of a text or passage using other words. Paraphrasing is similar to the activity of retelling and recounting: it involves low-level, early phase comprehension skills within the taxonomy of learning in English. DC
Parody (Greek: ‘beside, subsidiary or mock song’) A work intended to mock or ridicule another through the imitative use of the words, tone, ideas and stylistic features of the original. The origins of parody are ancient with references to it in Aristotle’s Poetics (350 BC) and in Aristophanes’ The Frogs (4th century BC). A famous example of parody is Henry Fielding’s Shamela (1741) which parodies Samuel Richardson’s Pamela (1740). Government policies and politicians have also been the focus of parody. Jonathan Swift’s (1667-1745) essay A Modest Proposal for preventing the Children of Ireland from being a Burden to their Parents or Country used a business-like tone similar to those of politicians and public servants in proposing a solution to the problems of the British government in Ireland – cooking and eating Irish children: 220
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P I shall now therefore humbly propose my own Thoughts, which I hope will not be liable to the least Objection. I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London, that a very healthy Child well Nursed is at a year Old a most delicious nourishing and wholesome Food, whether Stewed, Roasted, Baked, or Boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a Fricasie, or a Ragoust. Recent examples of parody include the Australian television shows Frontline (1994-1997), which parodies current affairs programs, and The Hollowmen (2008) which satirises politicians and government bureaucracy. See also Imaginative re-creation. DC ∼ Use the songs of Weird Al Yankovic to illustrate parodying of famous contemporary songs. Students could choose a Top 10 song and parody it (they can also perform it if brave!)
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∼ Several parodies of Dorothea Mackellar's “My Country” exist. Using these as models, students can write their own parody of the poem based on personal experience of Australia (particularly Australia from different migrant/indigenous perspectives). JW Well-known fairy tales and nursery rhymes are good stimulus for parodic writing. Here is an example of a student’s parody of Goldilocks and the Three Bears: “In the Style of James Joyce: A Portrait of Goldilocks as a Young Girl”
…I love porridge I’d love to have the whole place swimming in porridge I ate it all up and broke his chair. I hate chairs I remember the first chair I broke they were playing the blue Danube god how I hate the blue Danube and the rhododendron was in bloom and broke their chair because it was too warm in the room yes and now I have broken this chair yes and he is angry with me yes and he is standing over me yes and saying someone has been sleeping in my bed yes and there she is yes and I open my eyes to look at him and he looks like a little brown bear cub he asks me with his eyes if I have eaten all his porridge yes I ask him with my eyes to ask me again yes and he asks again ye did you eat my porridge yes I put my arms around him and drew him down to me…
Pastiche
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(Italian: ‘pastry, muddle’) A text that is created from fragments and pieces of other, original texts. See also Bricolage, Collage. JM Pastiche poem:
∼ Students are given a selection of evocative lines from a range of well-known poems.
∼ Students construct a new text using these fragments and weave their own lines of verse through or around these fragments.
Pathetic fallacy A term referring to the practice of ascribing to nature and the natural realm the feelings, emotions, sensations, thoughts and mood of a person (often the composer, and typically the poet). The pathetic fallacy is commonly employed in the poetry of the Romantics. See also Anthropomorphism, Personification. JM
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P Pedagogy (Greek: ‘to lead the child’) The art, craft and science of teaching. Pedagogy refers to the practical strategies employed in teaching and learning situations. Pedagogy is driven by theoretical principles: beliefs about the learner; the nature of knowledge and an understanding of the most effective ways of engaging and facilitating student learning. In English, the art and craft of teaching is not neutral, natural or simply imbibed. Pedagogy in English is underpinned and informed by a repertoire of theories, models and approaches including, for example: student-centred learning; learning styles; activity-based learning; constructivism; process approaches; workshop models; collaborative learning; Personal Growth; Cultural Heritage; Skills; Cultural Studies, Rhetorical and Ethical models; and Critical Literacy. Being informed about the theories of learning, knowledge and teaching that drive practice is essential for all teachers. Without such an awareness of the theoretical underpinnings of pedagogy, teachers are ultimately controlled by, instead of having control over, the discourses, values and assumptions that shape their practice and student learning. Pedagogy involves the range of tasks required for teaching and learning, from planning, programming, resources, practical strategies, structuring of learning environments, implementation, sequencing, assessment, evaluation, reflection, and curriculum development. Effective pedagogy is essential for engaging students in and making accessible new and unfamiliar experiences, content, processes and ideas. Particularly vital is the application of digital pedagogies: teaching strategies that account for the ways in which young people are now accessing and interpreting information and participating in the production of knowledge and meaning through their own digital creations. Students are immersed in a fast-paced, diasporic digital world where information and learning is multimodal, driven by a heavy emphasis on the visual, and not necessarily linear or sequential. In the classroom, this shift in students’ ways of engaging, creating and knowing has significant implications for teaching practice. Pedagogy that accounts for such changes involves not only the integration of digital technologies as resources: it requires processes of engagement and ‘making and doing’ that build on and refine students’ critical skills, aesthetic opportunities and capacities to read, write and view with increasing discrimination and sophistication. See also Assessment, Constructivism, Curriculum, Group work, Learning-centred English, Learning styles, Lesson plan, Poetry, Reading, Unit of work, Viewing, Writing. DC, JM
Performance poetry Poetry that is written specifically for the purpose of performance, as distinct from poetry written for distribution through print or other media. Poetry for performance has a long history as part of oral cultural traditions. It was commonplace for ballads, for example, to be written and performed by bards who had complete control not only over the text, but the communication and interpretation of this in performance. The genre came to prominence again in the 1980s as part of a wider movement in popular culture, particularly in America, and has since been a part of the pedagogical repertoire in English education. Performance poetry combines the conventions of verse and drama, and, importantly, invests the poet with the capacity to determine how, where and for what audiences it will be performed. It locates the act of representation in the immediacy and authenticity of live public space in a way that publication in print or other media cannot. Ideally, most poetry should be read out aloud to fully appreciate and understand its nuances of language. Performance poetry re-centres this ideal and melds the oral, aural, written and visual modes. It also enables embodied language and literature to be experienced in a communal setting, thus promoting the importance of interpretive communities, oral traditions and the significance of literary experience in everyday life. Opportunities for students in English to create and perform poetry can be integrated into almost any unit of work and enables the language modes to be engaged in an holistic and purposeful way. There are many valuable resources for teaching performance poetry, including the series by Rory Harris and Peter McFarlane: A Book to Perform Poems By (Adelaide: AATE). My Best Poetry Unit 222
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P (edited by Ken Watson, Sydney: Phoenix Education Press, 2001) is also a valuable resource containing practical strategies for the teaching of performance poetry. For oral performances of poetry online, see
Persona (Latin: ‘mask’) An assumed identity or character. Derived from dramatis personae and the word ‘person’, it originally meant a mask or false face of clay or bark. An example of the use of persona in fiction is Marlow in Joseph Conrad’s (1857-1924) Heart of Darkness (1902). Robert Browning's (1812-1889) dramatic monologues rely on the skilful development of persona. See also Author, Dramatic monologue, Character, Implied author, Implied reader, Hierarchy of discourses, Narrative, Narratology, Narrator. DC
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Students assume the persona in a poem, artwork or work of fiction. Extend the story, in role as this persona or the persona of a silent/minor character in the text.
∼ Create a profile. ∼ Create dialogue between characters. ∼ Use a picture book such as, for example, Katie and the Mona Lisa (James Mayhew, Orchard Books, 1998) to explore the concept and technique of persona.
Personal Growth model In John Dixon’s seminal book, Growth Through English (1967) he describes three basic models for the teaching of English: “Cultural Heritage”; “Skills-based”; and one which he develops, drawing upon the deliberations and outcomes of the Dartmouth Seminar (1966) which he describes as “Personal Growth”. This book marked a profound shift in thinking about English as a body of content to English as process, with language and the user of language squarely at the centre of all teaching and learning. In 1968 David Sadler, then Chairman of the Department of English in Western Michigan University, proffered an insightful summary of the principles underpinning Growth Through English. (See ADE Bulletin 16a February 1968: 33-34 online at
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P cultures represented in their reading materials…What Growth Through English tries to do is simply to widen the definition of literature to include not only pupils’ writing and other ‘spectator role’ language, but also into ‘participant role’ language…It is remarkable, given the 1970s criticism of his (Dixon’s) neglect of literature…that some modern criticism has also linked Dixon to a Leavisite tradition (Christie 1993; Christie et al 1991; Patterson 1992)…when so much of the work of Dixon and other ‘growth model’ advocates has obviously been to distance themselves from, and provide a balance to, the view of curriculum represented by the Leavis/Cambridge School. Indeed, the notion of ‘personal response’, which Christie and others see as almost equivalent to ‘personal growth’ has quite a different origin and meaning in both response theory and in Growth from what it had for Leavis. (Sawyer, 2004: 29) Importantly, Sawyer observes that: The critical literacy school accuse growth pedagogy of not critiquing, or aiding students to critique, the conditions of working-class life. But it could be argued that in celebrating the immediate life, culture and language of the working-class student, Dixon is taking the far more radical stand of presenting a new social basis to the curriculum. Undoubtedly, there is a genuine radical element in early growth pedagogy, an element that concentrated on the causes of social inequity…(and) the bulk of what is has to say has underpinned leading-edge English practice for thirty years. It is worth revisiting for these historical reasons, as well as investigating what it still has to say for the future. (Sawyer: 2004: 30) See also Dartmouth seminar, Experiential learning, Language, Learning-centred English, Literary criticism, Student-centred learning. PB, JM References: Dixon, J. (1967) Growth Through English, Huddersfield: OUP and NATE. Sawyer, W. (2004) “Seminal books on English teaching”, in Reviewing English in the 21st Century, eds. W. Sawyer & E. Gold, Sydney: Phoenix Education.
Personification A metaphor which attributes human characteristics to the non-human or to abstract qualities. For example: John Keats’ (1795-1821) “To Autumn” employs the technique of personification to represent the season of Autumn as a living, sentient phenomenon. See also Ted Hughes’ (19301998) poems: “Wind” and “Hawk Roosting”. See also Pathetic fallacy. JM
Perspective The particular way of viewing, reading, writing and interpreting texts, ideas, situations, events, places and people. Perspective is contingent and endlessly fluid depending on the context, the individual responder and the text itself. The perspective presented within a text is similar to the point of view. See also Film, Image, Point of view, Visual text. JM
Phonics Few terms generate more heat and less light in the public and professional discourses about the acquisition and development of literacy than “phonics”. Teaching children to read by using phonics involves focusing on the relationships between letters and sounds (phonemics). Usually this is accompanied by teachers requiring students to learn certain rules to help them better relate letters to sounds. But one of the problems with setting down immutable rules is that English does not always abide by simple rules linking letters and sounds. This is the consequence of the development of the English language over many centuries. While we can trace the first records of written English back to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle - where the first entries are in the 9th century AD and continued into the second half of the 12th century - the unrecorded history of the spoken English language obviously long predates that period. †Furthermore, in the development from Old English/Anglo Saxon to the 21st century, the language has undergone significant changes in structure, vocabulary, and semantics as features of other languages have become assimilated into English. 224
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P Where controversy about phonics arises is when assertions are made such as that phonics is the ‘be all and end all’ best method of teaching literacy; and/or where it is asserted that phonetic/ phonemic skills must be taught first in any presumed sequence or hierarchy of skills necessary for a child to acquire the skills of reading; and/or when advocates of phonics teaching deride any other form of literacy teaching as being ineffective in teaching young people how to read. Advocates of the primacy of teaching phonics have not infrequently taken issue with advocates of a “Whole Language” approach – and vice versa. In quite a few areas, such either/or polarisation has had a corrosive effect upon the teaching and learning of English.A dichotomy between the whole language approach and phonics has emerged in recent decades: there have been intense debates produced by this dichotomy in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia. Government reports have been commissioned to address these issues. In 1984, the American National Academy of Education commissioned a report on research and practice in reading, titled Becoming a Nation of Readers. This report, while acknowledging the important role that phonetic/phonemic instruction plays in helping to teach a child to read, also stressed the importance of complementary strategies of engaging the students with the search for meaning in sentences, as well as reading stories. Later research has demonstrated that a very early emphasis on explicit systematic teaching of phonetic/phonemic relationships is of particular importance for children who have considerable difficulties in learning. The ebb and flow of debate – usually within a polarised context of ‘phonics versus whole language’ - has continued. Perhaps the state of recent research might be best summed up by saying that while phonetic/phonemic instruction is a necessary strategy in the acquisition and development of early literacy skills, it is not sufficient. Generally speaking, there has been a move away from advocating and defending polarised positions and towards intelligent eclecticism - with teachers drawing upon a range of theoretical and practical strategies of teaching and learning that are relevant to the needs, interests and capacities of their students as well as the particular context in which the learning and teaching is taking place. In practice, exemplary teachers of English at whatever stage of a child’s development are multiskilled and intelligently eclectic in their theoretical knowledge and practical strategies. In their explicit teaching and developing the reading skills of their students, teachers of English need to be able to draw upon their knowledge of such essentials as phonemic-phonetic relationships; holistic approaches to learning; grammar, spelling, and the multiple functions of language; appropriate linguistic and literary theory; a wide range of literary, factual, media, visual, and other forms of text; and so on. The most comprehensive study of the teaching of English in the second half of the 20th century was what is known as the Bullock Report (1975) A Language for Life: Report of the Committee of Inquiry appointed by the Secretary of State for Education and Science under the Chairmanship of Sir Alan Bullock, F. B. A., Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, London, 1975). What it said about phonics (in the opening three paragraphs of Chapter 6 “The Reading Process”) within a broader range of diverse but complementary strategies for the teaching of reading remains timelessly germane. 6.3: In our view a large part of the controversy (about methods of teaching reading) arises from the expression of unnecessarily extreme opinions, often more extreme than the real beliefs or practices of those who advance them. In addition, the contentious statements are often based on inadequate information. For example, we receive many letters whose writers seem convinced that the majority of infant teachers had abandoned the teaching of phonics; they argued that a return to the practice would raise standards dramatically. But the results of our survey showed that their supposition was far from correct. We believe that an improvement in the teaching of reading will not come from the acceptance of simplistic statements about phonics or any other single aspect of reading, but from a comprehensive study of all the factors at work and the influence that can be exerted upon them. (Bullock, 1975: 78) See also Language, Literacy, Reading. PB Reference: Bullock, A. (1975) A Language for Life, London: HMSO
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P Picaresque (Spanish: ‘rogue’, ‘rascal’) Refers to both a subgenre of prose fiction and a literary technique. The picaresque novel portrays the adventures of a roguish hero (rarely a heroine) who is nevertheless appealing. The hero typically acts in defiance of a corrupt social context, and the adventures are often represented episodically. Picaresque originated in Spain, although there are early examples of the form in Sanskrit legend. Satire and comedy are a feature of the genre, with the hero’s antics often portrayed as immoral in relation to the prevailing social morality. The setting is usually realistic. The picaresque technique is characterised by an episodic and simple plot. Examples of the genre in English include: Daniel Defoe’s Moll Flanders (1722) (a rare example with a female protagonist); Henry Fielding’s Joseph Andrews (1742) and The History Tom Jones, a Foundling (1749); and Mark Twain’s Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884). See also Fiction, Literature, Novel, Realism. JM
Picture books A picture book is conventionally a book of less than 600 words with images intertwined with written text at each opening. It is often (unfortunately) assumed that picture books are written for younger readers and thus that all contain a simple story structure and plot with attractive decorative images which will facilitate children learning to read or learning a new language. Award winning author and illustrator, Shaun Tan, however, questions traditional assumptions about picture books arguing that most of us remain interested in the imaginative play of drawings and paintings, telling stories, and learning how to look at things in new ways. Many contemporary picture books, despite their apparent simplicity, are intentionally written to stretch the imaginations of children, adolescents, young adults and more mature readers alike. Images are not necessarily ancillary – they may well convey meanings additional or even contrary to the written text. Richly interpretive picture books are constructed carefully to deliberately bring text and image together to enable us to explore spaces/ places to play (Williams, 1987; Gleeson, 2006), to challenge our stereotypes and subvert the usual or everyday. Despite their apparent simplicity, many contemporary picture books are written for adolescents, young adults and more mature readers. RE While picture books are commonplace in the K-6 classroom, they have now become widely accepted as valuable resources in the 7-12 English classroom. Indeed, Raymond Brigg’s When the Wind Blows has been set for study at senior secondary level as a text in and for itself. In secondary English classrooms, picture books have been typically utilised to deepen understandings of, for instance, narrative structure; conventions of story and the relationship between visual and printed text; the ways in which image can work with language to produce irony, parody and satire; the ways in which gender, class and race stereotypes and cultural assumptions can be both promoted, critiqued and subverted; intertextuality and exploring literary concepts such as the constructedness of texts and the multiplicity of meanings that can emerge from a range of reading perspectives. As Watson writes, “the picture book can be a powerful aid in helping students to grasp some unfamiliar literary concepts; it can also be used as a means of promoting visual literacy.” (Watson, 2004: 265) Of course, picture books are written to be entertaining, informative and to be enjoyed for their aesthetic qualities, but the latter experience does not preclude the use of picture books as a powerful and accessible source of learning for students in English 7-12. For a wide range of practical approaches to using picture books, Year 6-10, see See also Children’s literature, Image, Literature, Visual text. JM Reference: Watson, K. (2004) “Picture books in the secondary classroom” in Reviewing English in the 21st Century, eds. W. Sawyer & E. Gold, Sydney: Phoenix Education. Watson, K. (ed.) (1997) Word and Image: Using Picture Books in Years 6 to 10, Sydney: Phoenix Education Press.
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P Play script Unlike poetry or the novel, there is no intimate relationship implicit between the reader and a play script. When reading novels and other literary text we read for personal and aesthetic pleasure. A play script, however, needs to be read differently. We should read a play script as we read a nonfiction piece such as a set of instructions. A play script is written for a team - directors, designers, actors and so on – to bring to life, so students need to read scripts as if they were going to put on the play. JH
Pleonasm The repetitious use of words, often to emphasise meaning. For example: ‘Absolutely yes’. The media, particularly through advertising, continually employ tautologies, with ‘free gift’, ‘safe haven’ and ‘end result’ being common examples. DC
Plot (Greek: ‘plaited, woven’) Refers to the arrangement or organisation of events in a work of fiction, a play, a poem or a film. The distinction between story and plot was first identified by Russian Formalists. MH Abrams defined plot as “the system of actions, represented in a dramatic or narrative work” (Abrams, 1958: 69). A plot is intended to engage the curiosity of the reader/viewer and to sustain this interest. In Poetics, Aristotle considered plot as the “the first principle, the soul of a tragedy” and “the imitation of an action”, as well as “the arrangements of the incidents.” The imitation of actions in the real world, praxis, was viewed as assembling an argument, logos, from which were selected and rearranged the elements that formed mythos, the plot. A plot, Aristotle contended, needs to have unity, through the structure of a beginning, middle and end. He considered the episodic plot, in which acts proceed “without probable or necessary sequence” as being of lesser status. Causality was an important principle through which an author should outline a plot and then explicate and intensify it. EM Forster’s (1879-1970) Aspects of the Novel (1927) defined plot in the following way: “We have defined a story as a narrative of events, arranged in their time-sequence. A plot is also a narrative of events, the emphasis falling on causality.” Thus, a story arouses curiosity and plot requires of the reader/viewer the skill of astute recall. Seymour Chatman in Story and Discourse Narrative Structure in Fiction and Film (1978: 19) states that structuralist theory promotes the view that each narrative has two parts: firstly, a story (histoire), the content or chain of events (actions, happenings), and existents (characters, items of setting); and secondly, a discourse (discourse), through which content is conveyed. This story is the what in a narrative and the discourse is the how. The integration of conflict into a plot is generally considered essential, leading to rising action and suspense, and ultimately to a crisis. The action is then resolved and completed through a dènouement. Some works will then repeat this cycle. Many composers of prose fiction, film, drama and poetry have experimented with plot, requiring the responder to be actively involved, making links between events and characters in a plot that contains a number of narrators and non-chronological plotlines. An example of this type of text is Robert Cormier’s novel I Am the Cheese (1979) in which the reader has to piece together a series of incidents – which initially appear to have little or no connection – through a number of narrative voices and the inclusion of taped transcripts. See also Drama, Fiction, Film, Literature, Narrator, Narrative, Narratology, Novel. DC References: Abrams, M.H. (1958) A Glossary of Literary Terms, New York. Chatman, S. (1978), Story and Discourse Narrative Structure in Fiction and Film, Cornell: Cornell University Press. Cuddon, J.A. (1991) Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, 3rd edn. London: Penguin Books. Holman, C. Hugh (1976) A Handbook to Literature, 3rd edn. Indianapolis: The Odyssey Press
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P Pluralism In English education, pluralism refers to pedagogy and theory that embraces a multiplicity and diversity of approaches, texts, languages, ways of thinking, opinions, perspectives, responses, interpretations and meanings. Pluralism assumes an expansive awareness of the need for students not only to develop confidence and excellence in their use of language and encounters with texts, but also to recognise that diversity and even at times conflicting views are inevitable in the teaching and learning process. Exposure to a wide variety of language opportunities and texts, as well as to a range of competing approaches to the reading and interpretation of those texts, is a fundamental pedagogy in the pluralistic classroom. The goal of pluralism is the student’s increasing knowledge, understandings and skills generated through higher-order thinking; making and doing; synthesis and application of ideas and information; and purposeful learning activities across a range of settings (e.g. individual, pairs, small group and whole class). See also Differentiation, Group work, Learning styles, Pedagogy. JM
Poetic justice Refers to the concept of good and evil being appropriately rewarded and punished in imaginative texts. If imaginative texts have a moral function, it was considered appropriate that texts should portray a world in which good prevails and evil is defeated. The term was coined by the critic Thomas Rymer (c. 1643-1713) in The Tragedies of the Last Age Considered (1678) and although the concept is rarely embraced by composers, it does find expression in particular genres. Many popular Hollywood films and television series, for example, rely on the formula of virtue triumphing over vice; ‘good’ characters achieving victory over the ‘bad’ and villainous characters; and a ‘happily ever-after’ dénouement that satisfies the requirements for poetic justice. DC, JM
Poetic licence Refers to the leeway and permission afforded to poets to play with language, manipulate established conventions, coin new words and syntax and generally create their own ‘rules’ as part of the creative process. JM
Poetics Refers to a set of general principles or theory about poetry and the study of poetry. Similarly, poetics can refer to the set of principles or theory relevant to a particular genre, such as, for example, tragedy, drama, crime fiction or film. JM
Poetry (Greek: ‘creator’) A term which refers to texts which use language in particular ways, utilising conventions of form and written in non-prose style. Often, poetry is distinguished as a type of text by its use of patterns, rhythm, metre and figurative language. The terms poetry and verse are often used interchangeably, although poetry can carry the connotation of a more highly wrought and sophisticated use of language than verse. Robert Frost (1874-1963) asserted that "Education by poetry is education by metaphor. [Poetry provides] the profoundest thinking that we have." Research with secondary school students over the last four decades, in Australia and the United Kingdom, however, has indicated that poetry is the least enjoyable and preferred aspect of their English education experience. Typically, students regard the study of poetry as ‘boring’, resisting the ineffective pedagogical approaches that treat poetry as a quarry for figurative language or require students to read the poem in isolation and answer a list of comprehension questions (Manuel and Robinson 2002, 2003). Despite a wealth of resources for engaging students with poetry, it continues to be poorly regarded by many students, particularly adolescents. The following practical suggestions are not intended to be adopted as discrete lesson plans. Rather, they are ideas and practical triggers which can be integrated into units of work and adapted in a range of ways to suit the learning context. The strategies are underpinned by a set of principles: 228
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P namely, that poetry in English should be shared, enjoyed, contextualised, read aloud where appropriate, performed, written, connected with the lived experience of students, and provide extensive opportunities for engagement and learning across the spectrum of modes. Poetry lends itself to performance, dramatisation, choral readings, and connection with media, multimedia and everyday texts. Exploring song lyrics is an effective strategy for encouraging reluctant students to engage with the techniques of poetry, providing a pathway into poetic texts that may not be immediately familiar or accessible. DC, JM
Engaging students with poetry Each of the following strategies can be applied in practice using the Four phases of classroom experience and Group work configurations:
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
Pre-reading /Engagement During Reading Response Moving Beyond the text Suitable for whole class Suitable for small group/pairs
Titles
Read a poem out aloud without the title. In pairs, students decide on a suitable title after discussion. Justify the choice. Compare and contrast titles with the original. Promotes engagement, personal response and confidence. 1, 6, 7
Sequencing
Rearrange the stanzas or lines of a poem. In groups or pairs, play with the options for reframing the poem. 1, 2, 6, 7
Visual images/
Use these before reading as an engagement strategy to provoke ideas and build anticipation. 1, 5, 6
music stimulus Transformations
Rewrite the poem in another form. Rewrite it as a news story, a recipe, a report, a dialogue, a soliloquy, a letter, a journal entry etc. 3, 6, 7
Focused browsing Allow time for small groups to browse through poetry with a simple focus task. 2, 6 Anthologies and interleaving
Students collate their favourite poems with annotations and visual images. They may interleave these with their own poems to create a personal anthology. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Versions
Select poems that have a number of versions – e.g. Edited versions of a poem prior to its final version (some of Wilfred Owen’s poems). Promotes understanding of the creative process and the crafting of language. 2, 3, 5, 6, 7
Become the speaker
Construct responses in the role of the subject of the poem. Ask the speaker questions, hot-seat the speaker of the poem. Learn about ‘voice’ and ‘persona’. 3, 4, 5, 6
Reading as ‘other’ Generate a list of types of people (may be stereotypes: e.g. rock star, homeless person, doctor, unemployed person, sailor). Students adopt a role and read the poem in role. Promotes understanding of dominant and alternative readings, point of view, reader-response and multiple readings. 3, 6, 7 Syndicates
Each small group is responsible for selecting the poems that the class will explore in the coming week. The group must also make suggestions for activities and resources to be used. 1, 2, 6
Cloze
Leave out words, but do not have a list of the ‘correct’ words at the bottom (this then becomes a ‘fill-in-the-gaps’ task instead of an active meaning-making task). 2, 6, 7
Parody the poem Use a model such as “Come live with me and be my love” and have students write their own parodic, modern version of this. 3, 4, 6, 7
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Construct the ‘response’ poem
Read a poem such as “Advice to a Teenage Daughter”. In response, students compose “Advice from a Teenage Daughter”. 3, 4, 6, 7
PAT
Use A4 or other sized cards. Each group prepares a series of focus questions and possible activities for the reader to engage in when considering the poem. 2, 3, 6
Yes-But-No
Using a series of opposites, ask groups to respond to aspects of a poem by asking, for example, if the poem should be read loudly/softly; this poem is happy/sad etc. 2, 5, 6, 7
Visual representation 1
Students gather as many pictures as possible from magazines, the web, etc. Match these to poems. Explore the relevance of poetry to media and everyday life. 3, 6, 7
Ghosting
Describe/write the next scene or event of a poem. Describe/write the scene before the poem. Describe/write the missing scenes or events. 3, 5, 7
S and I
In pairs, ask students to put an S against anything which is stated in the poem and an I against anything that is implied. This is an active, problem-solving task and generates much discussion. 2, 3, 6
Think, pair, share
Read the poem. Think about it, using the “Four roles of the Reader” guides. Pair up with a partner and discuss ideas. Share with another pair, or with the whole class. 2, 3, 6
The Oscars
Create a mini-film storyboard of the poem in a certain cinematic style. 3, 4, 5, 6
Visual representation 2
Much poetry lends itself to visual interpretation. Students in groups, or pairs can utilize visual and digital media to represent the poem. 3, 4, 6
Display and publish
Anywhere and everywhere. Make posters, anthologies, use the web to publish, mobiles, class displays etc. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Rhythm, rhyme Use hands, feet, voices, bodies, instruments, etc to interpret a poem dramatically. 2, and sound games 5, 6 Sound recordings
Record readings of a poem. Record several versions and compare and contrast. Focus on tone, mood, language, voice. 3, 5, 6, 7
Word cache/Writing derby 1
Free write for one minute, writing every word that comes to mind (word cache). Then use these words to write in prose (writing derby) for three minutes. Free write on issues raised by the poem: e.g. love, death, memory, loss, fear, anger, faith, hope, time, revenge, and power. 1, 7
Read out aloud
Once or often, without having to discuss or analyse. 1, 2, 5
Read silently
And jot down initial responses in pairs. 2, 6, 7
Frontloading
Discussions of issues/themes, memories, experiences, objects, pictures, scenes, building a common field of reference, in pairs, small groups, individually or as a whole class. 1, 5
Interactive websites
There are many excellent poetry writing and publishing sites on the web. Interactive sites engage students in creative activities around poetry and also reinforce the concepts of purpose and audience as key components that shape all writing. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Word cache/ Writing derby
Focus on the characters/people/places/ideas in the poem. In one minute, brainstorm and write down every word that comes to mind when thinking of the character/ person/places/idea. Then, in a limited time (2-3 minutes) write in prose form. 3, 7
Penny Blackie approach
Read the poem out aloud. Ask three questions. Get together with partner and reduce 6 questions to 3. Get together with another pair to form groups of four. Reduce 6 questions to 3. Whole class discuss questions from each group. (Hayhoe) 2, 3, 6, 7
Picture-text creations
Create a collage or visual representation of the poem. 3, 4, 6, 7
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Draw the poem (setting, events, ideas) in simple artistic forms or symbols. 3, 7
Transformation
Change one or more things about the poem and explore what difference it makes. For example, change the gender of the subject, the setting, the language, or the sequence of ideas. SCAMPER technique: http://wwwfp.education.tas.gov.au/english/ideas.htm 3, 4, 6, 7
Music
Select a piece of music to set the poem to. 3, 4, 6, 7
Digital story
Create a digital story/narrative of the poem. This works well for poems that have a strong ‘voice’, subject or setting. 3, 4, 6, 7
Drama
Dramatise the poem. Be as adventurous as possible. 3, 4, 6, 7
Choral readings
In small groups or as a class. Make it fun. Promotes understanding of rhythm, voice, mood, tone and point of view. 3, 4, 5, 6
Bring Your Own Lit Each day, a student/s brings to class one poem and reads it out aloud. Useful for (BYOL) immersing students in poetry without the need to analyse or assess. Builds confidence, familiarity and enjoyment. 2, 3, 5 Photographic essays
Respond to the poem through a series of still images that provide an interpretation of the poem. A reflection statement can accompany this. 3, 4, 6, 7
Parallel creations
An engagement strategy, ideal for ‘getting ready for the text’. For example, think of a time when you were … frightened, amazed, angry etc … what was it like? This will build personal connections with the poem. 1, 5, 6, 7
Class critical anthology
Anthologise the poem and the class’s responses (e.g. visual representations and interpretations) 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Research
Research the poet, other poems, the context, the major themes. 4, 6, 7
Intertextuality
What other poems/literature/texts does this poem remind you of or lead you to? 4, 7
STAR
Who, What, When, Where, How, Why? 2, 5, 6, 7
Group composition Group composition of a poem on a theme or idea. 4, 5, 6 Haiku and cinquains
Students individually, in pairs or small groups, compose a cycle of these on a topic or theme and publishing online, in anthologies and with visual representations. 4, 6, 7
Guest speakers
Invite poets to talk to the class. 1, 4, 5
References: Fox, G. & Merrick, B. (1982) “Thirty-six things to do with a poem” in A. Adams (ed) New Directions in English Teaching, London: Falmer. Hayhoe, M. and Parker, S. (1988) Words as Large as Apples, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Manuel, J. & Robinson, D. (2003) "Teenage boys, teenage girls and books: Re-viewing some assumptions about gender and adolescents' reading practices", English Teaching: Practice and Critique, 2:2, September, pp. 66-77. Manuel, J. & Robinson, D. (2002) "What are Teenagers Reading? The Findings of a Survey of Teenagers' Reading Choices and the Implication of these for English Teachers' Classroom Practice", English in Australia, 135, pp. 69-78. Watson, K. (ed.) (2002) My Best Poetry Unit. Sydney: Phoenix Education.
Point of view Refers to how an author, through the creation of a narrator/s, has chosen to tell a story. More accurate terms may be ‘narrative stance’ or ‘narrative technique’. A basic choice for an author is between ‘first-person’ narration and ‘third-person’ narration. In first-person narration, the author usually creates a character who tells the story from their ‘point of view’ – that is, from their own stance. This is a common technique used in novels such as Charles Dickens’ (1812-1870) Great Expectations (1861) and Daniel Defoe’s (1661-1731) Moll Flanders (1722). The reader should not The English Teacher’s Handbook
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P assume that the first-person narrator is synonymous with the author (see Narrator, Hierarchy of discourses). Third-person narration involves the narrator remaining outside the narrative, referring to the characters as ‘he’, ‘she’ and ‘they’. In third-person narratives, the narrator is sometimes invested with the ability to read the minds of the characters, or to see the future or the past in order to tell the story. Such narrators are often referred to as ‘omniscient narrators’. The term ‘unreliable narrator’ was coined by Wayne Booth (1921-2005) and denotes a narrator whose values depart noticeably from that of the implied author’s. For example, the flow of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s (1804-1864) The Scarlet Letter (1850) is constantly interrupted through the offering of opinions, speculation on motives and suggestions of alternative views. The narrator even takes part in the interactions, as in chapter one, where he picks a rose and offers it to the reader. The narrator also makes the claim that he is guiding the reader through a myriad of sources: legends, rumours, manuscripts and gossip, that may or may not be reliable. The reader is forced to choose a version of the story or reject them all. As Giorgis and Johnson observe: One of life's biggest challenges is accepting that there are numerous interpretations and that there is rarely one right way to view the world. Literature can introduce characters who have learned to accept that different viewpoints exist, demonstrating how they persevere when faced with difficulties. Books can also change readers' perspectives about what they already know and extend their knowledge through new ways of seeing familiar things (2002: 491)
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
See also Author, Implied author, Fiction, Persona, Narrator, Narratology, Novel, Writing. DC, JM ∼ Look at a simple idea like comparing how you would imagine a bug sees the world to how a human does.
∼ Watch the animated film Hoodwinked that retells Little Red Riding Hood from the point of view of three main characters.
∼ Other fairytale parodies will be useful models and resources. ∼ In small groups students write from the point of view of each character in a scenario e.g.: a student explains to her teacher that an assignment is incomplete.
∼ For more senior classes use the concept of point of view to debate controversial media issues.
∼ Also use picture books to explore the ways point of view is employed by the author and illustrator. JW
Reference: Giorgis, C., & Johnson, N.J. (2002) Multiple perspectives.
The Reading Teacher
Polemic (Greek: ‘war’) An argumentative work in which the views of the author are asserted vigorously. Often covering controversies in politics, religion, economics and social issues, the views of the polemicist can be found in newspaper opinion pieces, magazines and periodicals, talkback radio and Internet blogs. See also Bias, Language, Rhetoric, Writing. DC
Popular culture Camille Paglia (1947-) described popular culture as the “new Babylon, into which so much art and intellect now flow.” The term ‘popular culture’ refers to the ‘culture of the people’. It is evident in the mass media, film, popular literature, music and multimodal texts such as, for example, websites, comics, graphic novels and computer games. Although debate continues to arise intermittently in the public arena about the role of popular culture in English, the critical study of popular culture texts and processes has been a central component of many English syllabus documents for many decades. 232
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P Students are immersed in popular culture in their daily lives and much of it powerfully influences their sense of identity, values, beliefs, ways of thinking and views of the world. Given its pervasiveness, and it impact on students, it is essential to equip them with the critical skills and knowledge to be able to understand how and why such texts and practices operate to entertain and/or influence their lives. The inclusion of popular culture texts in English is not at the expense of other types of texts and language experiences. Rather, they are an important part of the language and literature continuum. These texts can be studied in and for themselves, and utilised as effective ‘pathways’ for students in the study of more sophisticated literature and language. After all, Shakespeare’s plays were, at the time he was producing them, regarded as ‘popular culture’. JM Pop Culture in Australia
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Create time capsules from the past and compare with the present. ∼ Fashion/teen magazine audit: look at stories, structure, and advertising. What are we really buying? Count and tally pages under categories: advertisements, advice, information report, fashion, beauty etc.
∼ Music lyrics as poetry: look at different eras. What were the major concerns, ways of thinking and ideals. Has this changed through time?
∼ Visual deconstructions of pulp fiction novel covers: take a critical literacy approach and discuss intended audience, etc.
∼ Cult of the celebrity: undertake an examination through popular magazines. ∼ Music video: read lyrics, then add music, then add the clip. How does the meaning and message change depending on the mode of production?
∼ Using digital technology, have students create a music video clip of a poem. ∼ Explore representations of gender in popular media. ∼ Dr Seuss, The Simpsons, Shrek and intertextuality: using these texts delve into intertextual references. 2 minutes of Shrek 2 will yield many connections to other texts that can be explored. JW
Portfolios A collection of student work samples. Portfolios offer an approach to teaching, learning and assessment in English that is underpinned by a set of assumptions about the learning process, the learner and the role of the teacher. Portfolios have been a common part of other disciplines and professional fields, but have only been adopted systematically in English since the latter part of the 20th century. They provide evidence of both student learning and achievement and enable students to collect, select, reflect on and present what they know and can do. Portfolios (for learning and/or assessment) offer the opportunity to enact authentic learning that is linked to authentic assessment, involving the teacher and the student in negotiating and working towards learning goals and outcomes. Students take responsibility for their learning and the outcomes of their learning in tangible and meaningful ways, and reflect not only on the ‘what’ of their learning, but also the ‘how and why’. The principles underpinning the use of portfolios include those embedded in student-centred and process-centred models of learning. Portfolios allow students to demonstrate what they know and can do in a wide range of forms and media. Writing portfolios, for example, provide students with a ‘real’ context for collating drafts, selecting pieces to be polished for publication, maintaining records, reflections on writing, feedback and works-in-progress. Portfolios enable teachers to assess not only the products and artefacts generated from students’ learning, but also the processes that have contributed to this learning. Portfolios may take a range of forms: writing, reading, multimodal, multimedia, performance and representation. Raines (1996) sets out a series focus questions to be used as the basis for ongoing reflection by students in the development of their portfolios: The English Teacher’s Handbook
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What are your writing (reading, representing, performance etc) goals? In what ways have you achieved these goals? What still needs to be done? What is your best work? Why do you believe this is your best work? Why did you include this and other evidence in your portfolio? What changes do you see in your work over time? What are the key things you have learned during this process?
See also Assessment, Experiential learning, Learning-centred English, Writing. DC, JM Reference: Raines, P. (1996) “Writing Portfolios: Turning the house into a home”, English Journal, 85:1.
Positioning A term relevant to particular poststructuralist theories and approaches to reading and viewing. The term refers to the ways in which a text, through its language, techniques and ideas, invites, persuades or manipulates the responder to adopt a certain position, respond in a certain way or assume a certain point of view. Such theories and approaches argue that a composer and/or text invite a particular reading or positions the responder to react to ideas, characters, events or situations through the skilled development of tone, mood, perspective, connotative language and the careful choice of content, emphasis and focus. A Critical Literacy approach to texts, for example, encourages the responder to resist the invited reading and the tendency for the text to position him/her within a dominant reading. Readers resist the text, according to this model, by actively and critically interrogating the purpose, context and meaning of the work and thereby developing alternative readings. In this way, according to such approaches, the responder is less likely to uncritically accept the political, social, cultural, philosophical or historical assumptions and aesthetic of the text. The term also highlights the complex process of engagement and response that shapes any interaction between reader/viewer and text. Reader-response critics contend that any act of engaging with language is inevitably a dynamic one in which the text and the reader/viewer act upon each other in the process of coming to meaning. Some critical approaches that encourage alternative and resistant readings assume that the text has more ‘power’ in the reader-text dyad: other approaches see the dyad as more evenly balanced. See Alternative reading, Critical Literacy, Critique/critiquing, Dominant reading, Literary criticism, Interpretation, Reader, Resistant reading. JM
Postcolonial criticism A form of literary criticism that seeks to illuminate the ways in which the ‘white story’ has been privileged over and above those of other ethnic groups and cultures. In particular, postcolonial literary criticism takes issue with the ways in which narratives of colonisation have told the story of white domination without attending to the negative consequences of white colonisation. By pointing out the privilege that the Western canon has given to the white story – both in terms of the privileging of white authors and the privileging of white perspectives within the narratives themselves – postcolonial critics seek to expose the pattern of domination and so release the stories of other ethnicities. As such, postcolonialism draws on the notion of ‘the other’, using the term to explain the critical and imaginative silences of other ethnicities in the Western canon. In terms of literary criticism, modern postcolonialism began with Chinua Achebe’s essay on Joseph Conrad’s (1857-1924) Heart of Darkness (1902) entitled “An Image of Africa: Racism is Conrad’s Heart of Darkness” (Conrad: 1998). Achebe attacks Conrad for privileging the white experience of Africa at the expense of the African perspective. He makes the point that Conrad gives voice to the white experience, but renders the Africans in the narrative as speechless, only depicting them as “bestial” (Achebe, 1998: 252). Much controversy over Achebe’s claims ensued, and the beginning of the still continuing debate can be found in the Norton edition of Conrad’s Heart of Darkness. 234
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P Another seminal figure in postcolonial criticism was Edward Said (1935-2003), with his two books Orientalism (1978) and Culture and Imperialism (1994). Said’s Culture and Imperialism, for example, seeks to “dialectically, oppositionally to uncover and elucidate [the imperial] context ... to challenge and defeat both an imposed silence and the normalized quiet of unseen power wherever and whenever possible” (Humanism and Democratic Criticism, 2004: 135). When Said acts as a literary critic, therefore, he intentionally reads against the invited position and interrogates the text for its unacknowledged imperial positions (for example, see his reading on Jane Austen’s Mansfield Park). The works of Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (1942-) have also been influential in the field. Critics of postcolonialism have suggested that post-colonial critics deliberately misread the text to draw out the narrative of ‘the other’, and some feminists have criticised Said in particular for privileging the male ‘other’ over and above the female ‘other’, in his attempt to interrogate white imperialism (this is particularly so in the feminist rejoinders to Said’s interpretation of Mansfield Park). See also Interpretation, Literary criticism, Literary theory. SGS References: Conrad, J. (1963) Heart of Darkness, 3rd edn. ed. Robert Kimbrough, Norton Critical Edition, London & New York: Norton. Said, E. (2004) Power, Politics and Culture: Interviews with Edward W. Said, ed. Gauri Viswanathan, London: Bloomsbury. Said, E. (2004) Humanism and Democratic Criticism, London: Macmillan Palgrave. Said, E. (1994) Culture and Imperialism, Vintage: London. Said, E. (1978) Orientalism, Vintage: London.
Postmodernism A broad term to describe the move against modernity – “against ‘grand narratives’ of truth, reason, science, progress and universal emancipation which are taken to characterize modern thought from the Enlightenment onward” (Eagleton, 1996, 2000). Broadly speaking, postmodernism may be used to describe the efforts of many literary and other theories and literary criticisms to challenge a patriarchal, bourgeois, white projection of truth as “Truth.” It would loosely include efforts by feminism, postcolonialism, cultural studies, deconstruction, poststructuralism, cultural materialism and gender studies to resist dominant meta-narratives of “Truth”. Postmodernists would challenge the notion of Truth as discrete and immutable and would suggest that such an understanding of truth, meaning and the human subject is simply constructed by the dominant group, and subsumes any different experiences (by women, the masses, or by other ethnic people, among others) under the umbrella of white, male experience. In this way, ‘otherness’ is eradicated and silenced, and the narratives that provide texture, richness and variation in the human experience are marginalised. Postmodernism seeks to expose the efforts of the dominant group, and thus emancipate these marginalised narratives to speak. Postmodernism can be broadly seen to encompass two dimensions: one; the aesthetic or cultural movement to include and celebrate difference and break down hierarchy, and two; the philosophical movement to achieve the same. In art forms (literature, visual art forms, theatre and so on) postmodernism finds expression in breaking down the perceived hierarchy between high and low art, deliberately mixing the ‘literary’ and ‘non-literary’. This mixing of the two previously discrete categories embodies an attempt to challenge the dominant group whose interests are seen to be served by the category of ‘high art’. In addition, it suggests that since there can be no ‘truth’ as such, outside of interpretation or discourse, ironic playfulness is a more authentic way to engage with life since it exposes ‘malevolent’ hierarchy. Critics of postmodernism, in addition to the traditional criticism that upholds modernist notions of transcendent truth, have argued that forms of postmodernism have left its practitioners unable to engage politically. Its commitment to difference, relativism and endless variety in meaning has rendered it unable to mount a sustainable argument against political and economic injustice. See also Interpretation, Literary criticism, Literary theory. SGS Reference: Eagleton, T. (1996) Literary Theory: An Introduction, 2nd edn. Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press.
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P Poststructuralism Refers to a set of theories that emerged in France in the 1960s (closely associated with the work of Roland Barthes, 1915-1980, and Jacques Derrida, 1930-2004) examining how language operates and the constructedness of meaning. It is widely associated with the term “deconstruction”, used to describe Derrida’s philosophy and the reading that he practiced throughout his career. Poststructuralism takes the basic tenets of structuralism – that the signifier and the signified are not necessarily linked in essence, but are arbitrarily aligned for an instant – and moves them into the realm of political reflections on power, ‘the other’, and how one might resist oppression by the powerful (see Deconstruction for a more detailed analysis of his particular version of poststructuralism and see Structuralism for the precedent to poststructuralism). Poststructuralist theories begin with the recognition that meaning is produced and constructed in, by and through language. That is, language does not reflect pre-existing meanings and cannot transcend history and social relations of power. Post-structuralist critics are concerned to ‘deconstruct’ the language of the text to expose the meaning beneath the literal, surface meaning of a text. Rather than being primarily concerned in the first instance with the process and content of narration, or stories, poststructuralist theories go ‘behind’ the narration to consider what it is that structures and dissolves particular meanings, and at what cost. What cannot be/is not said is of as much interest as what can be/is said. Where New Critics valued the qualities of unity, pattern, symmetry, paradox, irony and coherence in a text, poststructuralist critics seek the conflicts, absences, contradictions (also paradoxes) and disunity in texts. In addition to Derrida, the other philosophers who would be considered a part of the poststructuralist movement are Julia Kristeva (1941-), Luce Irigaray (1932-), Hèlène Cixous (1937-), Gilles Deleuze (1925-1995), Jean-Franáois Lyotard (1924-1988), and Jean Baudrillard (19292007). Essentially, what these philosophers have in common is a radical shift away from what Lyotard called “grand narratives” toward “micro stories” (Rivkin and Ryan, 2005: 258). Each of these philosophers, in varied ways, moved away from the idea that truth was essential, quantifiable and ontological to the idea that truth is essentially unstable. They argued that the truth we live by is essentially constructed, and remains in a process of construction, rather than being a pre-existing referent for us to access. This move away from truth as ontological allowed poststructuralist literary critics and philosophers to assert the value of poststructuralism as an ethical force. Like deconstruction, which is considered a version and the founder of the broader movement – poststructuralism suggests that the idea that truth is essential is a violent assertion, since it silences all varied and contradictory claims to truth made by ‘others’, as it were. In this way, poststructuralism argues to free alternative claims to truth, and works to destabilise central, ontological claims to truth. The incorporation of aspects of poststructuralist theories in the teaching English has been the source of much controversial public debate. It can be considered, however, as part of the historical continuum of theory that English teachers engage with and critique and it may or may not as a consequence inform aspects of English pedagogy at certain appropriate stages of teaching and learning. A survey of English curriculum documents in Australia demonstrates a continued reliance on the major models of English: Cultural Heritage, Skills and Personal Growth with a balanced inclusion of aspects of Cultural Studies, Critical Literacy and Ethical and Rhetorical models. SGS, JM Reference: Rivkin, J. & Ryan, M. (2005) Literary Theory: An Anthology, 2nd edn. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Preface (Latin: ‘before’) A statement written as an introduction to a literary of other work. One of the most famous prefaces in the English language is Harley Granville-Barker’s Prefaces to Shakespeare (4 vols. 1927-48). DC
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Press The collective term for news media and agencies, particularly newspapers. The press in the later 18th century also included periodicals such as Spectator and Tatler. See also Media. DC
Production (Latin: ‘to bring forth’) Any work created as a result of literary or artistic effort, such as a theatre play, a published work of fiction, poetry, nonfiction, or a film, television show, music, websites and other multimedia. DC
Programming Refers to teaching/learning programs that are the planned and documented teaching/learning strategies to be implemented by a classroom teacher, based on a syllabus or its equivalent. Programming is undertaken at the beginning of a teaching/learning cycle and is often adjusted as the teacher learns more about the needs and interests of the students. A program is often divided into units of work, in which a specific focus is established. This focus may be the study of a genre such as epic poetry, or a specific text such as the novel Great Expectations (Charles Dickens, 1861) or the integrated study of a theme such as Adversity. While there is no prescribed format for a teaching/ learning program, some important ingredients may be an indication of the duration of the program/ unit; when the program/unit will be implemented; the title of the unit; its intentions, as in targeted syllabus outcomes or objectives; a meaningful sequence of strategies, designed engage the students and facilitate learning; and resources. Programming is a crucial part of a teacher’s work and through the documentation of the planned learning experiences provides the teacher with accountability to educational authorities and stakeholders such as parents. In planning a teaching program, the following considerations should be addressed: ∼ syllabus requirements ∼ learning experiences that encompass the full range of language modes and contexts ∼ the balance between literature, media, multimedia, nonfiction, everyday and workplace texts ∼ the inclusion of texts from a range of cultures ∼ an emphasis on the process of learning, differentiation, learning styles, and authentic assessment ∼ a mindfulness of the worldviews presented in the selected texts, with a balance, for example, between ‘tragic’ and ‘comic’ perspectives. See also Assessment, Curriculum, Evaluation, Learning-centred English, Lesson plan, Pedagogy, Unit of work. DC
Program Registers These are part of classroom teaching/learning programs where the classroom teacher ‘signs-off’ that the planned activities related to the relevant syllabus content, objectives and outcomes, have been completed. Depending on the format and content of the program, the teacher will generally notate the program, indicating what content, objectives, outcomes and strategies have been completed. Often, the teacher will include comments on what worked well and what did not; adjustments to the program resulting from amended planning or interruptions and the like. The notations are an important part of accountability and provide important information for a substitute teacher or for the teacher who next takes the class. See also Evaluation, Programming, Unit of work. DC The English Teacher’s Handbook
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P Prologue (Greek: ‘before speech’) A prologue is the opening section of a work, as in a preliminary act or event, without being an introduction. A famous example is Geoffrey Chaucer’s (c.1343-1400) “General Prologue” to The Canterbury Tales (c. 1380 – 1400). Verse prologues were common in 17th and 18th century drama and are sometimes found in prose fiction. DC
Propaganda (Italian: Relating to the Sacred Congregation for Propagating the Faith) The organised and sometimes institutionalised dissemination of ideas, beliefs, information, or allegations with the purpose of influencing a large number of people’s views, opinions and perceptions. Pamphlets and journals in the 18th century such as Daniel Isaac Eaton’s “Politics for the People” (1794) and Thomas Spence’s “Pig Meat” (1793-1796) were propagandist in their anti-establishment views, while the 20th century saw the rise of film as a tool for dissemination of political propaganda, as evidenced by the German Nazi movement. See also Bias, Language, Writing. DC
Prose (Latin: ‘direct’) Any form of written or spoken language that is not ruled by systematic metre or explicit patterns such as rhythm, stanzas, and rhyme. It encompasses an endless range of types of fiction and nonfiction texts. For example: novels; short stories; journals; biographies; autobiographies; diaries; picture books; magazine articles; newspaper articles; reports; digital texts (blogs, emails, discussions etc); and letters. Prose is distinguished from verse (or poetry) in its sustained and often direct movement, relying on a middle, beginning and end, without and overreliance on explicit recursive or repetitive language techniques. The major genres of prose such as the novel and short story are also categorised into subgenres (e.g. fantasy, mystery, horror, action and adventure). Students should be exposed to and compose a wide range of prose texts in an English program. See also Fiction, Nonfiction, Novel, Short story, Story, Writing. DC, JM
Protagonist (Greek: ‘main actor’) The main or central character in a text. It has the connotation of hero/heroine in many cases, although the two terms are not always synonymous. In drama, the protagonist is the character who dominates the action, is the focus of interest and is pivotal to the movement and resolution of the play. In fiction and film, for example, the protagonist may be represented through the eyes of the narrator, or other characters, and/or through the point of view of the character him or herself. Texts may have one or more protagonists – characters who carry the major interest and are central to the story or drama. See also Antagonist, Hero / Herione. JH
Pseudonym (Greek: ‘false name’) Refers to a fictitious name adopted for the purposes of publishing or public endeavour that is not the birth or legal name. A pseudonym is similar to a pen name (nom de plume) and stage name. It is often adopted to conceal the identity of the composer or to render the public name more palatable or appealing; for example, Agatha Christie (1890-1976) used the pseudonym Mary Westmacott and Sylvia Plath (1932-1963) used Victoria Lucas. Examples of composers and others adopting pseudonyms include the Brontë sisters who published under the pseudonyms of Currer (Charlotte), Ellis (Emily) and Acton (Anne) Bell (Brontë); Mark Twain (Samuel Clemens) 1835-1910; Mary Ann Evans (George Eliot) 1819-1880; and Lewis Carroll (Charles Dodgson) 1832-98. Visit the ‘A.K.A.’ website at:
Psychoanalytic criticism Also known as Freudian criticism. An approach to literary criticism that applies the techniques and principles of psychoanalysis to interpret texts. This form of literary criticism draws heavily on the 238
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P theories of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and seeks to understand texts in terms of how they represent the ‘conscious’ and ‘unconscious’ workings of the mind, dreams, sexuality and human ‘instinct’. Psychoanalytic critics are alert to any ‘psycho-drama’ in the work and regard the explicit content of the text as the manifestation of the ‘conscious’ mind. The deeper meaning of a work can be apprehended through an analysis of the ‘unconscious’ mind at work ‘behind’ the text. This may be apprehended through the use of Freudian symbols (e.g. water/life; fire/destruction or rebirth; cave/ female genitals; sword, tower, pen, gun/phallic symbols of power and potency); the identification of Freudian phases or stages (e.g. oral, anal, phallic); and the interpretation of characters as psychological tropes with an emphasis on their feelings, motives and interior states. There is a concern in psychoanalytic criticism for the individual’s inner conflicts, and anxieties, rather than for the wider social or cultural conflicts that may be represented. Following the work of Freud, Jacques Lacan (1901-1981) developed a Lacanian approach to the analysis of texts, modifying Freud’s theory by proposing the elusiveness of language, the ‘mirror stage’ and the centrality of the concepts of ‘lack’ and ‘desire’ in human experience. Lacan also argued for the constructed nature of individual subjectivity. The Psychoanalytic approach has been criticised for its oversimplification of literature, its emphasis on hunting out symbols, metaphors and images, and its reliance on the work of Freud which has been similarly critiqued to expose its flaws. This approach, while promoting individual enjoyment and pleasure in reading and response, does not account for the historical and cultural contexts that can influence the reader’s engagement with and response to texts and language. See also Interpretation, Literary criticism. JM Reference: Barry, P. (2002) Beginning Theory: An introduction to literary and cultural theory, Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Pun
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
A deliberate play on language to communicate a double meaning, usually for humorous effect or to display wit. Puns often employ homonyms. For example, a recent headline in a British newspaper used a pun to describe how the substitute players for a football team came on in the final session and scored the winning goals against the German side. The headline read: “Our subs sink Germans”. There is a play on the word “subs”, alluding to both the substitute players and also to submarines in WWII in the battles against the Germans. DC, JM Use the web resource: Pun of the Day (www.punoftheday.com) to explore the range of types of puns. Students can add their own examples of puns to this site, and examine the way language is used succinctly and precisely for comic or satiric affect in the examples provided on this site.
Purpose (Latin: ‘to propose’) The intention or reason motivating an endeavour. In texts, the purpose can be interpreted as the driving motivation for creating a work. The purpose of George Orwell’s (19031950) Animal Farm (1945), for example, is generally considered to be a condemnation of totalitarianism, particularly communism. When composing texts, students should be encouraged to articulate their purpose. An awareness of purpose influences both the form and content of text, and shapes the kinds of decisions about the language to be employed. In reading/viewing others’ texts, students are often encouraged to identify the purpose of the text. In some cases, this is reasonably straightforward, as in, for example, propaganda, speeches, and advertising. With other texts, the task of deciding upon the purpose or intention of the composer is more complex and problematic. While it is valuable to speculate on the purpose of a text, the Intentional Fallacy posits that it is impossible to ever definitively or authoritatively assert what the composer’s ‘intention’ was in producing it. See also Author, Intentional Fallacy, Language, Representing, Writing. DC, JM
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Q Quatrain A stanza of four lines in poetry. Quatrains are a common structural device in ballads and many popular songs. JM
Questioning techniques Effective pedagogy requires a repertoire of question types and a teacher who is able to apply these for stimulating, guiding, challenging and deepening student learning. Teacher-centred classrooms tend to be characterised by the predominance of ‘closed’ and ‘control’ questions. Learning and student-centred classrooms, however, are characterised by a wide range of question Question Type
Practical Implications
Appeal questions
Require students to agree with or share an attitude, or remember an experience. These can occur when the teacher is actively engaged in problem-solving (and modelling this) and invites students to share in this experience through appeal questions. Opens up learning opportunities.
Closed questions
Require one ‘right’ answer, almost always known in advance by the teacher. Narrows learning opportunities if used too often at the expense of other question types.
Control questions
Require students to comply with the teacher’s views and opinions. Narrows learning and limits inquiry if used too often at the expense of other question types.
Naming questions
Require simple recall of information, identification, description. Can be limiting if used too often due to its focus on lower-order thinking skills.
Observation questions
Require students to interpret and make value judgements
Reasoning questions
Require students to think out aloud, hypothesise, test knowledge, reconstruct from memory and use reason and logic to find solutions.
Recall questions
Memory test questions requiring students to recall facts, information, ideas, understanding and knowledge from memory.
types employed not only by the teacher, but also, importantly, by the students. JM Reference: Manuel, J. (2004) “Connecting Voices: Effective engagement and pedagogy for oral English”, in Reviewing English in the 21st Century, eds. W. Sawyer & E. Gold. Sydney: Phoenix Education, p. 81.
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Reader Refers to the individual who engages with a text and the implied, generic or intended audience of a text. In the light of theories of learning, language, texts and reading practices, the concept of the reader has become more complex and nuanced than that of a passive ‘receiver’ of information and knowledge from a text. In 1741, David Hume (1711-1766) argued that the process of engaging with a text requires an ‘ideal reader’ – one who reads as though ‘he’ was a universal ‘everyman’ [sic], setting aside personal, idiosyncratic perspectives. In the 20th century, Reception theory and Reader-response criticism proposed that the concept of ‘the reader’ is not singular – that each reader is unique and brings to the text his or her own set of beliefs, expectations, experiences, view of the world, reading skills and values. Therefore, the idea of a single ‘ideal reader’, implied or assumed by the text, needs to be extended to take account of many kinds of readers. There is, for example, the ‘informed reader’ who is assumed to have the knowledge, background and reading competence to engage with elements such as allusion and specialised language in a text. There is the ‘implied reader’ (Booth, 1961) which the text, through its language and ideas, assumes it is speaking to; the ‘super-reader’; the ‘reluctant reader’; the ‘under-achieving reader’; the ‘resistant reader’ and the ‘encoded reader’. Each of these terms seeks to qualify the concept of the unitary reader by recognising the range of differences that individuals bring to their experience of a text. The concept of the reader has also been enlarged to refer to reading not just print texts, but reading and viewing visual images and the whole range of modes of language and communication. See also Aesthetic and efferent reading, Author, Implied author, Implied reader, Literary theory, Literary criticism, Reading, Reception theory, Reader-response criticism. JM Reference: Booth, W. C. (1961) The Rhetoric of Fiction, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Reader-response criticism An approach to reading and textuality built on the work of Louise Rosenblatt (1904-2005) and Wolfgang Iser (1926-2007) (see Reception theory), and developed by Norman Holland (1927-), Stanley Fish (1938-) and David Bleich. This approach focuses on what readers experience as they read, shifting the New Critics’ emphasis from the self-contained text to the process of reading and meaning-making. Therefore, the role and personality of the reader – what s/he brings to the text in terms of values, experience, beliefs, memory, and reading competence - is central to the act of criticism.
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R Reader-response criticism is a branch of Reception theory and is underpinned by the assumption that the text, or words on the page, do not have meaning in themselves: meaning is produced by the ‘transaction’ between the text and the reader. Therefore, any text is always created anew with every new act of reading. This ‘new’ text is what Rosenblatt refers to as the ‘poem’. There is no single, fixed or authoritative meaning residing within any text. Meaning is contingent upon how the reader constructs meaning and the forces that influence that process of reading. These forces include the personality of the reader, their past and present, their prior and current experiences of texts, and their knowledge and understanding of the textual and reading conventions that shape their reading experience.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Reader-response criticism contests the notion of fixed, canonic literary value, regarding instead the continuum of texts (including film, media and other texts) as forever open to fresh responses and interpretations. This critical approach has significantly influenced the pedagogy of English, since it places the reader at the centre of the reading process and values at all stages, the development of an active, critical, imaginative and self-conscious responder who is increasingly aware of his or her own reading strategies and repertoires. Using this approach to teaching and learning, the classroom becomes a setting for dynamic, creative engagement and response, without the constricting limitations of a single (often the teacher’s) incontestable interpretation of a text. See also Aesthetic and efferent reading, Appreciation, Interpretation, Literary criticism, Literary theory, Literature, Reading, Reception theory. DC, JM When reading a text you may ask:
∼ What aspects of my experience do I see reflected in this text? ∼ What aspects of age, race, ethnicity, social status and gender are influencing my reading of this text?
∼ Do I empathise with any character or experience in this text? Why? ∼ Are there characters or experiences in this text that challenge and/or unsettle me? Why?
∼ When I read this text, would I change things about its form and/or content? Why?/ Why not?
∼ How do others in my group respond to and interpret this? In what ways are such responses and interpretations different from or similar to my own?
References: Rosenblatt, L. (1938) Literature as Exploration, NY: Appleton-Century. Tompkins, J.P. (ed.) (1980) Reader-Response Criticism: From Formalism to PostStructuralism, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Reading From decades of research, we understand that reading is an active process of making meaning from signs and systems of signs. Reading is a transaction between the reader and the text: the text acts upon and shapes the reader and the reader acts upon and shapes the meaning of the text. As readers, what we bring to the text is critical: 1. Our experience of the process of reading (decoding symbols; knowledge of structures and features of language; and our understanding of the codes and conventions of types of texts). 2. Our experience of the world: we use our existing knowledge of the world to connect new ideas, synthesise these and make meaning. Reading is not merely a mechanical process of decoding print, but a thinking process – a ‘psycholinguistic guessing game’ (Goodman, 1968, 1986, 1996) where we make meaning from the grapho-phonic, syntactic, and semantic cueing systems in the text. Reading is about making sense out of print, not just sound out of print. We can read phonetically, for instance, without understanding the meaning of what we are reading. Prediction is a central feature of the reading process: we predict and then have these predictions confirmed or denied by the text as we read on. Some 242
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R reading programs tend to ignore or undervalue the experience a student brings to the text in the meaning-making process. Packaged programs are actually detrimental to these readers, confirming their assumptions that reading is boring, meaningless and tightly controlled by adults. As teachers, we need to avoid the ‘bits-and-pieces’ or ‘bottom-up approach’. Instead, ∼ model good reading practices by reading out aloud to students, demonstrating enthusiasm and discussing the pleasures and satisfactions that can be derived from reading ∼ give students some choice in what they read. Some students will need more guidance and encouragement than others in making selections for Literature Circles and reading groups. Enjoying reading builds reading proficiency ∼ emphasise reading as an act and process of making meaning and communication rather than merely a series of sub-skills. Use whole texts regularly (stories, poems, plays, articles), rather than fragments (isolated words, phrases, exercise paragraphs) ∼ encourage readers to become active thinkers, predictors and evaluators of their reading process. Encourage speculation, anticipation and critical thinking and the sharing of responses to build an interpretive community ∼ constantly link reading practices and responses with students’ writing, building an understanding of the art, craft and skills involved in shaping language for a purpose and audience to represent ideas and communicate meaning ∼ keep in mind that we read for a wide range of purposes: for pleasure, relaxation and enjoyment; to gather information and ideas; for writing; for assessment; to escape; to learn more about other people, places and experiences; to confirm or challenge values, identity, beliefs and attitudes; to solve problems; and experience vicariously new worlds and perspectives. Too often, reading at school becomes associated with information gathering, a precursor for writing, and the completion of assessment tasks. Models of Reading Cognitive models Expressivist models Emerged from 1960s cognitive psychology • These theories see reading primarily as an activity • Objectivist theoretical assumptions in which readers create their own personal mean• Information processing ings from the text as they read • Reader actively draws on prior knowledge to • “There is no such thing as a generic reader or a make meaning generic literary work; there are in reality only the • Very influential in research on reading potential millions … the novel or poem or play ex• Text is a container of meaning ists, after all only with interactions with specific • Theory that all human processes, including readminds.” (Louise Rosenblatt) ing, can be dissected and quantified • Mastery of a set of skills: mental capacities fore- • Emerged from student-centred theories of Rousseau grounded in this process and Dewey. • Reader as a social being is less important • Reader-response theories (Holland, Fish, Smith, Brit• Schema theory: universal foundation which underton, Meek, Rosen, Bleich, Iser, Fish) lies knowledge • Reading is a process that should be owned by the Socio-cultural models reader and bear an organic connection to the rest • Social context of the reader and text is emphaof the student’s life sised • Opposed to reading programs (basal readers etc) • Reading regarded as a social process • According to Catherine Belsey, in expressivist theo• Reading is not merely about comprehension and ries “the reader’s intuition is a new source of authorlearning, but also about shaping of cultural, ideoity” and this does not account for “the relationship logical and political beliefs and values between experience and language, ideology and • Reading and learning must be contextualised history.” (2002) • Freire: problem posing role of the teacher – op- • Readers primarily seen as individuals rather than posed to the ‘banking model’ of pedagogy and also as socially constructed subjects knowledge • Reading and the construction of knowledge is a transactional process: a transaction or interaction between reader and text takes place to create a ‘new’ text The English Teacher’s Handbook
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R •
“Different communities, different experiences of life, different social positions create essential contexts for the unique meanings each of us makes. Critical literacy teaching begins by problematising the cultures and knowledges of the text – putting then up for grabs, for critical debate, for weighing, judging, critiquing… Such analysis also provides the groundwork for ‘changing the subject’ of texts, and for strategically intervening in social contexts.” (Wendy Morgan, 2004)
• • •
•
The reader’s unique perspective is brought to bear and will greatly influence the shape of a work The work itself will also has the power to influence and shape responses The question shifts from ‘What does this mean?’ to ‘What can I learn from this work?’ The reader becomes an active agent in meaning-making “Knowledge is made rather than found.” (Stanley Fish)
Practical strategies for encouraging, supporting, enjoying, sharing and developing reading Strategy Reading out aloud
Examples
Context
Engage students in the worlds, pleasure and enjoyment that texts can WC, SG, P open up; acclimatizing them to language and discourses that may be unfamiliar, and to conventions, patterns and structures of texts
Personal literacy history Students complete a survey of favourite books; topics; interests; I leisure activities; and goals Reading Log
Include books read; books to be read; wish lists; agreed reading
I
Reading Journal
Include reading goals; reflections; responses to books; questions; I reviews; wish-lists; rating books 1-10; self-evaluations
Wide Reading Program Students self-select material and time is set aside in class for this kind WC, SG, P, I of reading. This program exists alongside and contributes to the class reading program which may be more teacher-directed Reading contracts
Personal negotiation with teacher
Focus on texts
Book of the week/month; Author of the week/month; Genre of the WC week/month
‘Bring Your Own Literature’ (BYO Lit)
Encourage students to bring in to class something they are enjoying WC, SG, P, I reading to share with the class. Should not be assessed. Intended to encourage enjoyment, self-awareness of reading development; recognition and valuing of diverse tastes; awareness that not all reading is associated with school assessment; building a community of readers and an interpretive community
Celebration and events
Participate in book fairs; writers’ festivals; reading challenges
Parallel creation
Use films, music, excursions, recordings or visual stimulus as resources WC for parallel creation prior to reading the book. Pre-reading, building the field, getting ready for the text
Displays
Boxes of books and classroom book displays – reading ‘corners’ if WC, SG, P, I you have a home room
Posters
Wall charts from book publishers or posters about books made by WC students; Favourite Books list; quotes from favourite books, or about books on posters and collages displayed around the room
Resource files
Source files/blogs/book raps compiled by students with reviews of WC, SG, P, I books and suggestions for further reading and responses
Podcasts
There are many books available as podcasts on the web
Excursions
Visit publishing houses or places of significance to particular texts/ WC thematic units
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Sharing
Literature Circles, Book Groups, Book Clubs: Virtual and Actual - WC, SG, P, I based on interest, ability, friendship. Students can create their own book clubs (through sites such as Facebook), participate in established book clubs and share reading on sites such as Facebook’s Virtual Bookshelf
Reciprocal teaching
With teacher and peer groups. More able readers work with less SG able readers, with assigned roles. Stages are: 1. Attempting to predict the story 2. Clarifying any misunderstanding 3. Asking questions concerning key content and language structures, patterns and features 4. Demonstrating understanding and comprehension through response
Interviews
Mock and real interviews with composers
Contact
Writing to/emailing authors and other audiences about books, WC, SG, P, I plays, poems etc
VIP: Variety, Immersion, Pleasure
Immersion in a wide variety of texts so that students grow in confi- WC, SG, P, I dence and competence in exploring and understanding
WC, SG, P, I
The table below describes a range of ways to engage and support students in their reading. Many of these strategies can be embedded in reading programs and units of work. Indications are given for the suitability of each strategy for whole class (WC); small group (SG); pairs (P); or individual (I) learning contexts. Practical strategies for improving reading comprehension Strategy
Example/Purpose
Context
Prediction
Predict from visual, printed and spoken cues (e.g. book, DVD cover). WC, SG, P, Draws on real-world knowledge to speculate on possible meanings. I Engages interest and promotes anticipation for reading on
Cloze
Designed to promote students’ use of efficient semantic and syntactic SG, P, I cueing systems to construct meaning. Provide experience in using anaphoric (backward) and cataphoric (forward) referencing techniques
Discussion
Talk about, hypothesise, speculate on stories or add missing scenes - WC, SG, P, verbally, dramatically or in writing as you are reading I
Sequencing
Heightens understanding of the ways texts work. Readers’ expectations SG, P, I and assumptions about texts and story are enriched and challenged. Develops understanding of narrative structure; voice; tense; plot and form
Changing the form
Translating, transforming and imitating the form so that students are SG, P, I brought back to the text again and again and gain insight into the art and craft of creating text and shaping response. Promotes concept of student as simultaneously writer and reader
Questions
Open-ended questions about texts which are generated by students
Dramatising and performing
A very valuable way of improving comprehension, promoting embodied SG, P, I knowledge, and encouraging interpretation
Fact and opinion
Use a highlighter to identify facts and opinions (e.g. in newspapers and SG, P, I magazines)
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Example/Purpose
Context
The implied reader Speculate on the intended audience of a passage from the evidence of its SG, P, I subject matter, language, style and presentation. Fables, fairy tales, nursery rhymes and parables
Employ these as parallel texts because they are readily accessible and WC, SG, P, often familiar and cross-cultural I
Versions
Select and compare different versions of poems, stories, myths, factual v SG, P, I fictional treatments – e.g. Cinderella. There are many versions to enable students to explore changes in language, audience, purpose, context etc
Character trees
grids/ Students complete this during reading, to deepen connections and SG, P, I understanding of characters – motivation, action, behaviour, dialogue etc
Representation
Time lines, mind maps, Venn diagrams, word webs. All work well to assist SG, P, I readers in understanding often complex patterns within texts
Drawing
Students create symbols, maps, plans, cartoons. Visual representations of P, I aspects of texts can be illuminating for some readers
de Bono’s Thinking Hats
Six In small groups of six, each student wears a different hat. Red: Feelings SG (What are my feelings about this?); Yellow: Strengths (What are the good points?); Black: Weaknesses (What is wrong with this?); Green: New ideas (What is possible?); White: Information (What are the facts?); Blue: Thinking about thinking (What thinking is needed?) Adapted from Edward de Bono (1992) Six Thinking Hats for Schools.
Practical strategies for addressing the needs of adolescents experiencing difficulties with reading Factor
Key Principle
Strategy
1. The Learning Environment
Schools and their practices vis-à-vis literacy and reading can position some students as ‘failures’ and thereby institutionalise deficit models of adolescent achievement.
There is a vast array of strategies to empower and enable readers to exercise ownership of and control over their language in a noncompetitive environment that values and builds upon their personal literacy capital.
2. Remedial Reading
Remediation programs that decontextualise literacy learning for struggling adolescent readers, and/or focus merely on ‘getting the word right’ approach to reading, can be more harmful than helpful in reversing the individual’s reading problems.
Choice of reading materials and reading that is purposeful and contextualised is critical for reading success. A balance of teacher-selected and student-selected materials is essential.
3. Reading Pedagogy
Well-informed teaching practice is pivotal for the struggling reader. All teachers are teachers of reading, even in high school. Poor pedagogy can imperil reading achievement for struggling adolescent readers just as excellent pedagogy can enhance it.
Start where the student ‘is at’. Build on their current skills, knowledge and interests. Employ a range of approaches, including whole class, small group, pairs and individual work. Make time for reading, and make reading count. Understand and implement effective reading pedagogy, in all curriculum areas. Model being a committed reader who enjoys reading for a range and variety of purposes.
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Key Principle
Strategy
4. Choice and selection of reading materials
The most significant catalyst for decreasing interest levels and reading difficulties in adolescents is inappropriately selected or taught reading materials. Students can become passive, apathetic and resistant readers if the materials are not managed and negotiated.
Empower students through the use of studentselected materials in the curriculum. When given the opportunity, most students will make ‘good’ reading choices that can be a potential asset to our teaching. Range of materials and access to materials are fundamental ingredients in an effective reading program in all curriculum areas.
5. Connecting school and life
“All reader are good readers, when they have the right book” (Jean Henry). Readers use reading for their own purposes. Reading must have a purpose beyond the merely functional or assessable. Motivation levels in adolescents are clearly linked to the quality and kind of reading they are required to undertake.
Ensure that reading has purpose and meaning that challenges students to use higher-order thinking skills, rather than requiring reading for mere information retrieval and low-level busywork tasks. Reading is more than a tool for academic learning. It is also a means for pleasure, enjoyment and personal learning.
6. Teacher Professional Development
Most secondary school teachers, with the exception of English teachers, have not traditionally considered teaching reading to be part of their role.
Be explicit about the demands of and the strategies required for reading in particular curriculum areas. Utilise the many resources available for teachers and students: e.g. MyRead.org.au
7.Expectations and Relationships
Teachers need to demystify the reading process and communicate to students through language and modelling, that learning to read is not a mystery or a prize to be won by an elected few. It is wholly within their reach if they are willing to engage. The teacher needs to trust that students can learn and will achieve.
The relationship between the teacher and the student has a decisive impact on the student’s self-image as a reader. High teacher expectations, and effective pedagogy and modelling of purposeful reading are crucial for success. Conversely, poor expectations and labelling of students can have serious deleterious effects on reader’s self-image that may have a profound influence their opportunities to achieve.
8. The Learner
Most reading difficulties are the result of factors other than an individual’s learning disability. Given this knowledge, it is possible for most students, with expert intervention and support, to achieve success in reading.
Make learning, as least for part of the time, fun. Reading is more than mere skills development. It is about books, stories, communicating and understanding. It is about opening new worlds, and illuminating old ones. There is a powerful nexus between enjoyment and learning.
See also Constructivism, Group work, Metacognition, Reader, Writing. DC, JM References: Belsey, C. (2002) in Davies, C., What is English Teaching? Buckingham: Open University Press de Bono, E. (1992) Six Thinking Hats for Schools, Victoria: Hawker Brownlow. Goodman, K. S. (1968) The psycholinguistic nature of the reading process. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press. Goodman, K. S. (1978) Reading of American children whose reading is a stable, rural dialect of English or language other than English. Washington, DC: National Insti-tute of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Goodman, K. S. (1986) What's whole in whole language? Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Goodman, K. S. (1993) Phonics phacts. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Goodman, K. S. (1996) Ken Goodman on reading. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Manguel, A. (1996) A History of Reading, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Manuel, J. (2005) Effective Strategies to Address the Needs of Adolescents 13+ Experiencing Difficulties with Reading: A Review of the Literature, NSW DET: Curriculum Support Directorate,
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R Morgan, W. (2004) “Critical Literacy”, in Reviewing English in the 21st Century, eds. W. Sawyer & Gold, Sydney: Phoenix Education. Thomson, Jack, (1987) Understanding Teenagers’ Reading: Reading processes and the teaching of literature, 1992 edn. Norwood: AATE.
Reading Groups See Literature Circles, Reading, Wide reading, Young Adult Literature.
Realism (Latin: ‘thing’) A term that has been applied to a kind of writing (and art) prevalent in the 19th and 20th centuries. It refers to the degree to which a text ‘imitates’ or reflects reality, although attempts to define ‘reality’ are problematic and continuously debated. Indeed, Aristotle’s theory of mimesis addressed this issue. In one sense, all texts rely to a certain extent on aspects of a particular ‘reality’ to shape the ideas, context, characters and setting of the text. In the study of literature and other texts, realism generally refers to the more direct and explicit engagement with ideas, events, people and places of a particular context, such that the point of view and subject matter seek to capture something close to a shared sense of the objective world – whether this be through descriptions and the documenting of places and events, or through the narrative point of view that seeks to imitate the actual working of the human consciousness (e.g. stream of consciousness). Often, realism focuses on the experiences of ‘ordinary’ people and their daily lives, in contrast to idealised or heroised subjects who may experience fantastic or extraordinary adventures. Novels of the 19th century, such as, for example, George Eliot’s Middlemarch (1871-1872) have been described as instances of realism, since they deal with ordinary people in everyday situations. See also Mimesis, Novel. JM
Reception theory Developed in the 1960s by Hans Robert Jauss (1921-1997), in the light of shifting understandings of the role and experience of the reader in the act of reading and interpretation of texts and language. According this theory, the reader of a text brings to the reading experience a set of assumptions, beliefs, perceptions and expectations that are fluid and shifting, depending on the moment of engagement with the text. Jauss argued that such factors inevitably shape the meaning that arises from the interaction of the text and the reader. Later, Wolfgang Iser (1926-2007) argued that reading is a process and experience whereby the reader is continuously constructing meaning, predicting and speculating on what will follow, having these expectations confirmed or challenged, and filling in the gaps of the text to make sense of the text. He called this the process of “anticipation and retrospection” (Iser, 1978). Starting out with reflecting on how literature functions as a medium of interaction between the context from which it emerges, and a reader who makes the literature concrete, Iser contributed to the development of literary theory by turning literature itself into a mode of reflection. In this so-called “Wirkungsästhetik” [“aesthetics of effect”] he conceived of the literary text as a structure that elicits aesthetic responses in its reader by opening up her or his habitual worldview. (Van Imshcoot, 2005: 1) According to Iser, the reader is always seeking to unify the indeterminacies of the text through this process of active engagement and the construction of a single meaning. Reception theory shares with New Criticism the view that the text has an internal coherence and unity, and it is the reader’s task to complete this. It also assumes that the reader will come to a single, determinate reading, although different individual readers will potentially derive different meanings from the same text. Unlike New Criticism, Reception theory relocates the final source of meaning from the text to the individual reader. See also Interpretation, Literary criticism, Reader-response criticism, Reading. DC, JM Reference: Iser, W. (1979) The Act of Reading, London: RKP Tompkins, J.P. (ed.) (1980) Reader-Response Criticism: From Formalism to PostStructuralism, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Van Imschoot, T. (2005) "Wolfgang Iser", The Literary Encyclopedia.
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R Reciprocal teaching See Group work, Reading.
Recursive Refers to the concept of learning as a dynamically evolving experience, rather than a strictly sequential or lockstep process. Recursive learning classrooms value and recognise that students learn in different ways. Recursive practice involves revisiting and refining prior learning at appropriate points in order to deepen and expand knowledge, understanding and skills. See also Metacognition, Reflection/reflective practice. JM
Reflection/Reflective practice The process of deliberating on, thinking about and reviewing learning, experience and knowledge. Students in English are encouraged to reflect on their learning through talking, writing and valuing the process of assimilating new knowledge and its meaning. Reflecting on learning is a crucial means of enabling students to understand and strengthen their own ways of learning; to make explicit to themselves what they have learned; and to acquire a metalanguage to describe how they have learned this. Such reflection leads students to understand how they best learn and acquire new knowledge and skills. Journals are an effective medium for reflection, as are class discussions and pair and small group discussions. Reflection can occur prior to, during and after a new learning experience. It is an integral component of effective pedagogy in English and is an important component of recursive classroom practice. Reflective practice is an essential element of effective teaching, with teachers engaging in the same kinds of processes of reflecting on their own learning and their teaching. Action research is a strategy for improving teaching practice through reflection and action. Self, peer and student evaluations are also avenues for teachers to improve practice through reflection on these forms of feedback. See also Assessment, Evaluation, Metacognition, Journal writing. JM
Refrain (Latin: ‘to break’) A recurring word, line, lines or stanza in a poem at regular or irregular intervals. Often the refrain will occur at the end of a stanza. Refrains are common in ballads, songs and hymns, allowing the audience to participate as a chorus. An example of a refrain in a ballad occurs in “The Three Ravens”: There were three ravens sat on a tree, Down a down, hay down, hay down There were three ravens sat on a tree, With a down They were as black as they might be. With a down derry, derry, derry, down, down. See also Poetry. JM
Register The variation in written or spoken language that is shaped by the writer’s or speaker’s purpose, context and audience. A formal register, for example, would be required in a professional setting such as a speech night or awards presentation. An informal or colloquial register is appropriate for a conversation between good friends. The register is determined by the writer’s or the speaker’s choice of language. Effective communication depends upon the use of the appropriate register. See also Accent, Dialect, Language, Talking and listening, Writing. JM
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PRACTICAL STRATEGY
R ∼ In small groups, students brainstorm a list of all the types of contexts that they experience in their daily lives. These may include, for example, home; peer group; workplace; sporting group; classroom; playground; online communities; and so on.
∼ For each of the contexts, students discuss what types of language and register are appropriate – e.g. ‘formal’ or ‘colloquial’ etc.
∼ Provide students with a series of scenarios and brief examples of dialogue or statements.
∼ The dialogue and statements can be matched to the most appropriate scenario, with students considering how and why a particular ‘register’ is required for each differing context.
Renaissance (French: ‘rebirth’) The period that immediately followed the Middle Ages, marked by a ‘rebirth’ and flourishing of artistic, scientific and intellectual endeavour. The Renaissance originated in Italy in the late 1400s and by the 1500s it had reached Europe and England. The Renaissance in England encompassed the Elizabethan and Jacobean ages (1558-1625). JM
Reporting The process and practice of providing detailed information about student achievement for students, parents, the profession and the wider community. Reporting can take place formally and informally. Formal reporting includes details of assessment and records of student achievement reported against standards, criteria, descriptors or other measures. Formal reporting is usually in written form. Reporting is integrally linked to assessment and evaluation regimes and generally takes place at the conclusion of a course of study, a stage of learning or at the transition points of education. Informal reporting can take place at any stage in the teaching and learning cycle, through, for example, interviews, conferences, discussions and verbal or written feedback to students, parents and others. See also Assessment. DC, JM
Representation Refers to the ways ideas, events, people and places are portrayed and presented in and through a text. See also Drama, Composing, Fiction, Film, Image, Language, Narrative, Poetry. JM
Representing One of the language modes of English. Representing is creating, constructing, and communicating meaning through a variety of visual media and forms including drawings; sounds; pictures; movements; illustrations; charts; graphs; posters; murals; photographs; dioramas; puppets; sculptures; models; dramas; videos; films; and electronic texts/graphics. When students engage in such activities, they understand and apply generic conventions and codes that are appropriate to the text and medium of production. Aristotle proposed that “the aim of art is to represent not the outward appearance of things, but their inward significance” and acts of representation in English (of creative and other types of texts) aim not merely to reflect experience but also to interpret it. See also Drama, Composing, Fiction, Film, Image, Language, Narrative, Poetry, Reading. DC, JM Forms of Representing
Examples
Maps and Webs
concept map; story map; character map; word map; concept web
Charts and Frames
summary chart; matrix; comparison/contrast grid; paragraph organizer frame; structured overview
Diagrams
labeled diagram; Venn diagram; tree diagram
Chains, Wheels, Timelines and Flowcharts
sequence chain; word chain; cycle wheel; word wheel; historical timeline; event flowchart; rebus
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Examples
Graphs
object graph; pictograph; bar graph
Illustrations
poster; painting; photograph; mural; slide show; collage; comic strip; storyboard; story quilt
Three-dimensional and mul- display; model; diorama; sculpture; skit; mime; tableau; role play; drama; puptimedia pet play; mobile; video; multimedia presentation Talk, Act, Draw, Write
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Talking, acting, drawing, and writing provide ways to express thoughts. Students talk, act, draw and write to represent what they are hearing, seeing, viewing, understanding, feeling, or thinking about a story, topic, or experience. They can use talking, acting, drawing, and writing to retell a text, to represent their response, or to share their impressions with others. Students are encouraged to share their representations with others and then to add further details or ideas to their representations. Students can talk about, act, draw, or write scenes or sequences of events from texts they have heard, read, or viewed. Students can share and discuss the scenes (Whitin, 1996). Another activity that students enjoy is representing a scene from different perspectives such as a bird's eye view or an ant's eye view (Moline, 1995). Students can also talk, act, draw, and write about a field trip experience or a guest speaker's visit.
Story Maps These assist students to develop a ‘sense of story’. Students can use a simple story map to retell the beginning, middle, and end of a story or create a graphic organiser that captures the problem-solution relationship found in a story.
Illustrator Strategies Students can explore different techniques and media to represent their ideas, capture a story line, illustrate a character or setting, and capture or create moods and feelings. Students can represent their understanding of word meanings through collages, paintings, and mobiles. Students can create comic strips of the key events and elements of a story, create murals, or design posters.
Books:: Wordless Picture Books Teachers model how wordless picture books tell a story or convey information. Students can tell a story or present information using this technique.
Stretch:: Sketch to Stretch In small groups or as a class, students view, read, or listen to a text. Before they begin, encourage students to think about how one can represent or draw the composer’s intended meaning. During and after viewing, reading, or listening to a text, students sketch their observations about the text and share them with a partner. Speech balloons and ‘thinking bubbles’ can be incorporated into the sketches to indicate what characters said or were thinking (Harste, Burke & Short, 1988). Alternatively, students can represent their observations through acting, designing a diorama, and other activities. References: Harste, J. C., Burke, C.L. & Short, K.G. (1988) Creating classrooms for authors, Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Moline, S. (1996) “I See what You Mean: Children at Work with Visual Information.”
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R Research Refers to the investigation of phenomena and human experience through the systematic application of research methods for gathering and analysing evidence. Research seeks to solve problems, discover new knowledge, interpret experience, draw conclusions and contribute to our understanding of ourselves and the world we inhabit in ways that are valid, reliable and can be reproduced. There is a range of types of research, based on the nature of the research methods being applied; the purpose and focus of the research; the context of the research (and researcher); and the research questions. This range is defined according to the two broad categories of qualitative research and quantitative research. In English education, both types of research occur, contributing the development of theory and pedagogy. Disciplines are characterised by their reliance on evidence-based research to inform these developments: English education is underpinned and sustained by a significant body of research that continues to inform all aspects of teaching and learning. A knowledge and understanding of not only the research-base of the discipline, but also the methods of conducting research in education is a vital part of the English teacher’s professionalism. Importantly, English teaching and learning assumes that students will become active researchers, particularly with the availability of information accessed through digital media. Research is driven by the need to answer questions and solve problems. Students should develop the skills to undertake not only the process of inquiry through research but also the skills to critically evaluate the validity and worth of material that they rely upon as evidence. The opportunities for research by students in English is endless, depending on the focus, tasks and outcomes of the particular teaching and learning program. Students are no longer wholly dependent on the teacher as the source of knowledge and information, although it is the responsibility of the teacher to equip students with the required skills and understandings that will enable them to conduct research in ethical and valid ways. Students, with the support of and modelling from the teacher, engage in their own research through investigating topics; issues; historical, cultural, biographical, and other information; as well as undertaking research to answer questions and invest projects with depth and substance. See also Action research, Constructivism, Reflection/Reflective practice, Student-centred learning. JM
Resistant reading An interpretation of a text that challenges received, ‘dominant’ or orthodox interpretations. A resistant reading seeks to ‘interrogate’ the text to expose its ideology. As the term implies, a resistant reading seeks to ‘resist’ the power of the text to persuade the responder that the worldview portrayed in the text is a ‘natural’ or universal one. In other words, the text is approached with suspicion since it is regarded as being complicit in the maintenance of dominant power structures. The responder actively ‘resists’ the potential for the text to exert power over him or her. Approaches to texts that encourage resistant readings reject the authority and agency of the author, insist on the primacy of ‘difference’ and tend to discount the aesthetic dimensions of texts. Ironically, or even paradoxically, such a view rests on the hegemonic view that all texts are first and foremost ‘cultural objects’ or documents encoding systems of signs while at the same time arguing against any manifestation of hegemony. Critics of this approach argue that such a position is highly problematic, given the responder is not a passive cipher and can exert the final ‘power’ over the text through the decision to simply not continue reading/viewing. Boyd (2006) argues that: another considerable apparent advantage of Theory for literary scholars was that it made it easy to generate new readings—and to have them published. One could choose from a range of mechanical templates: the deconstructionist insistence on the impossibility of meaning; the feminist criticism of the patriarchy; the feministpsychoanalytic insistence on the absent mother; the cultural materialist insistence on the economic substrate; the New historicist insistence on power as “always already” 252
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R recuperating dissent; and so on. Assured of the rightness of one’s convictions, one could adopt loose canons of evidence, or even dismiss the idea of objective evidence as a ruse and glorify strong or aggressive readings that contested the text’s apparent meanings. These self-proclaimed “interventionist” readings of past texts allowed a blithe conviction of moral superiority, since they indicted those who could offer no resistance, although it was never explained quite how charging a sixteenth-century text with complicity in, say, patriarchy would trans- form the modern world. Nor did the process actually require anyone, as Edward Said complained, to exert pressure in the world outside academe where conflicting interests might have to be contended with. (Boyd, 2006: 295) See also Alternative reading, Author, Critical Literacy, Dominant reading, Literary criticism, Literary theory. JM Reference: Boyd, B. (2006) “Theory is Dead – Like a Zombie”, Philosophy and Literature, 30, pp. 289-298.
Response terms When students are responding to texts and experiences (and ‘making and doing’) the ‘what’ and ‘how’ of any activity is defined as a ‘response’. Response terms are verbs, providing a framework for students as they engage in the process of responding. The terms carry specific meanings and expectations so it is important that these are made explicit to students prior to commencing any task. DC, JM Response term
Meaning
Account
Give an account of; report on and provide reasons for; retell and recount
Analyse
Explore, probe and question aspects of a text or experience, focusing on intercepting and making meaning of the whole through systematic attention to the parts
Apply
Use acquired knowledge, skills, understandings and values in new and/or different situations and contexts
Appreciate
Engage with, respect and value
Assess
Measure, weigh up or make a judgement about the quality, worth, value, relevance or outcomes
Clarify
Spell out in straightforward ways something that may not be immediately clear; illuminate
Compare
Demonstrate how things are similar and/or different
Construct
Build, design, make, assemble, compose, develop an argument, text, response
Contrast
Show how things are similar and/or different
Critically Explore, question and interpret a text and make a judgement about its value, worth and analyse/evaluate effectiveness. Define
Explain the meaning, name, describe and delineate the features
Demonstrate
Explain understanding with evidence and examples
Describe
Explain, portray, illustrate, depict
Discuss
Talk or write about a topic, idea, issue, setting out points ‘for’ and ‘against’
Distinguish
Highlight the differences between two or more things, recognise and explain differences, make a distinction between things
Evaluate
Make a judgement about the value and worth of something, appraise and assess the effectiveness of something
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R Response term
Meaning
Examine
Scrutinise, study in detail, investigate, interrogate and thoughtfully consider
Explain
Provide details and reasons, clarify, elucidate and explain
Identify
Recognise and name something
Interpret
Ascribe meaning, demonstrate understanding, translate
Investigate
Explore, inquire into, research and study something in detail
Justify
Provide valid reasons and explanations
Outline
Summarise key points, features, ideas
Summarise
Sum up, provide a brief overview of key point, features, ideas
Synthesise
Combine various parts into a whole, create a new product or argument by drawing together various sources
Restoration period The period in England commencing with the ‘restoration’ of the British monarchy under the kingship of Charles II in 1660. The Restoration period lasted for approximately 30-40 years (until 1689-1700). This period is celebrated for the emergence of journalism and periodicals, the flourishing of drama (Charles II re-opened the theatres) and the proliferation of odes as a poetic form of praise for the aristocracy. The so-called ‘court poets’ thrived during this period – poets who were attached to the court of Charles II, including John Dryden (1631-1700), and the Earl of Rochester (1647-1680). They wrote poetry about topical issues, public figures and political events. The literature of the time tended to obviate the personal in favour of an emphasis on the public and philosophical. Eschatological literature also featured during the later stages of the Restoration, reflecting the growing concerns of the Puritans within British society. It is believed that the playwright, spy and controversial figure of the time, Aphra Behn (1640-1689), was the first women in British history to earn a living ‘by the pen’ – an achievement hitherto known only by male writers. Her comedy, The Rover or The Banished Cavaliers, was performed in two parts in 1677 and 1681, respectively. Like many dramas of the period, The Rover had a clear political purpose, critiquing the Puritans and anti-royalists of the time. The period is also known for its comedy – William Congreve’s The Way of the World (1700) is a notable example of the genre and themes prominent at the time. Restoration comedy is characterised by its sexual explicitness, intrigue and focus on politics. JM
Revenge tragedy A type of tragedy that explores the tragic hero’s determination to exact revenge for perceived or actual wrongdoings against him/her. These tragedies dramatise the moral and psychological dilemmas and confusion of the protagonist, and often include violence, murder, treachery and the supernatural. The best-known example of revenge tragedy is Shakespeare’s Hamlet (c. 1601). JH
Reversal The turning point or hinge-moment in a drama or other text that signals the reversal of fortune for the protagonist. See also Climax, Drama, Freytag’s pyramid. JM
Review (Latin: ‘to see’) Generally, a short piece of writing which is a critical assessment or discussion of an issue, event or publication. The other sense of review is a publication such as a journal or periodical which includes articles on literature, art and philosophy. Famous examples include Scrutiny, the Edinburgh Review and The Bulletin. DC 254
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R Rhetoric (Greek: ‘orator’) The art and principles of speech, writing and communication. It originated with the Greek Sophists and was developed by successive Greek philosophers including Socrates (469-399 BC), Plato (c. 428-348 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC). Rhetoric as a discipline is closely linked to the practice of logic and the study of the principles of grammar (the study of language and symbols and the synthesis of these to communicate effectively), both of which are considered to be central to the art of rhetoric. Rhetoric aims to persuade the audience to the speaker’s/writer’s point of view. The principles of rhetoric centre on the quality of ideas, the organisation of these ideas and their expression. The study of rhetoric in the humanities aims to analyse the strategies (rhetorical) that the composer employs to engage and persuade the audience. Winterowd (1981: 66-69) proposed a model for the analysis of rhetoric, based on what he describes as the rhetorical context. He sets out 6 elements of rhetoric and explicates their function: Element
Question
Definition
Persona
Who?
The voice the audience apprehends
Topic
What?
The focus or subject of the text
Medium
Where?
The form and structure and context for the text
Purpose
Why?
The reason for the text
Tone
How?
The combination of mood, voice and style
Audience
Whom?
The responders
Rhetoric often involves the use of rhetorical questions designed to galvanise and advance an argument and engage the audience in the flow of ideas and thinking that is shaping the speech. Rhetoric also carries pejorative connotations in some contexts – ‘it is just rhetoric’ – implying that the quality of the communication or ideas is lacking substance and credibility. See also Argument, Debate, Essay, Language, Speech, Talking and listening, Writing. JM Reference: Winterowd, W. R. (1981) The Contemporary Writer, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Rhetorical criticism The dominance of New Criticism in the first half of the 20th century, with its tenets of close reading, the autonomy of the text and authoritative readings, prompted a number of American critics to question and extend the concept of the text, the author and the reader. Prominent within what was known as the Chicago School of critics were RS Crane (1886-1967) and Wayne C Booth (19212005). Crane’s work contested the notion of criticism as an ‘objective’ act, regarding it instead as a process and a method that was inevitably subjective and contingent. In 1961, Booth published The Rhetoric of Fiction in which he argued that all works of fiction are constructed narratives, dependent on the values, morals and beliefs of the author and the ‘implied author’. While the New Critics rejected any reliance on information about the author or historical context of the work, Booth posited that all narratives are shot through and inscribed with the personality of the author. The role of the reader/critic is to examine the implicit authorial or narrative voice, and apprehend the ‘implied reader’. Any act of reading requires a consciousness of the relationship between the author and the creation – and the subsequent moral, ethical and value-laden perspectives that drive the creation through the author’s use of rhetorical resources and techniques. See also Implied author, Implied reader, Interpretation, Literary criticism, Literary theory, Literature, New Criticism. JM Reference: Booth, W. C. (1961) The Rhetoric of Fiction, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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R Rhetorical modes Refers to the distinguishing features, conventions and purpose of the major modes of discourse: argumentation (persuasive discourse); explication (setting out, explaining and analysing ideas and information); narrative (story-telling); and description (portraying and representing people, ideas, places, events and action). See also Language, Writing, Speech. JM
Rhyme (Greek: ‘number’) One of the distinguishing features of poetry (verse). Although not all poems depend on rhyme, it is a technique associated with versification and refers to the use of identical or similar sounds at the end of (and sometimes within) a line of verse. There is a range of types of rhyme: end-rhyme (the most common type); half-rhyme; imperfect rhyme and internal rhyme. The structure of a poem is often dependent on its rhyme scheme. It is a device that contributes to the unity and coherence of the poem, the structural distinctiveness of the poem and the reader’s capacity to remember the lines. See also Metre, Poetry, Writing. JM
Romance A genre of fiction, poetry and film that deals with romantic love and romantic relationships, often from a female point of view. There are a number of subgenres of romance, including historical, contemporary, multicultural, adventure, comic and suspense romance. The genre is further distinguished by the classifications of ‘category romance’ (e.g. Mills and Boon), and ‘single title romance’ (e.g. the works of Barbara Cartland, 1901-2000, Danielle Steel, 1947-, or films such as An Affair to Remember, 1957, Love Story, 1970, Sleepless in Seattle, 1993, and Titanic, 1997). Single title romance may also include series, but the works are more substantial in length and less formulaic than category romance. The genre of Chick-lit can also be considered as a subgenre of romance. The genre is characterised by a female writer, writing for a female audience, with at least one female protagonist. There is a subgenre of romance, however, that is written by men, with a male narrator, with an implied audience of both males and females. An example of this is 2004 film The Notebook. Romance fiction and film have high marketability and are often very formulaic in their style, characterisation, setting, plot and dénouement. Samuel Richardson’s (1689-1761) novel Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740) was a successful work that focused on a romantic relationship and was written from a female narrative point of view. The works of Jane Austen (1775-1817) are considered to be the exemplars of romance, and have wide critical acclaim and enduring appeal for contemporary audiences. This is in contrast to the ‘category romance’ that is regarded as ‘pulp’ fiction, (for example, Mills and Boon stories) produced and disseminated for a short ‘shelf-life’. See also Chick-lit, Fiction, Literature, Novel. JM
Romanticism Although a term which is used extensively and can mean many things, ‘Romanticism’ denoted a broad movement of thought in the arts, philosophy, history and political theory towards the end of the 18th and early 19th centuries in Germany, France and England. Romanticism heralded a shift away from the rationalism and empiricism of The Enlightenment toward sensibility and feeling in relation to the natural order and nature itself. The movement celebrated the self, respect for the transcendental, the power of the imagination and the value of art. In addition, an emphasis on spontaneity, a link between human moods and the ‘moods’ of nature, the primitive and uncivilised way of life and the emphasis on natural religion were central to the movement. A pivotal figure was the French political and educational philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) whose key idea was that of the ‘general will’ in which an individual must give himself or herself totally, including all his rights, to the whole community. This, the ‘general will’ and individuals are ‘forced to be free’. Individuals are thus required to accept what is deemed to be best by the general will – the state.
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R The German Romantics influenced ST Coleridge (1772-1834) and Percy Bysshe Shelley (17921822), particularly the transcendental idealism of Friedrich Schelling (1775-1854), who held that ‘consciousness itself is the only immediate object of knowledge, and knowledge of the objective world arises merely in the form of a limiting condition acquired through the process whereby consciousness becomes aware of itself and provides the platform for valid philosophical reflection. Important figures in the German Romanticism movement were Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (17491832) and Johann Schiller (1759-1805). In Britain, key figures of the period included ST Coleridge (1772-1834), William Wordsworth (1770-1832), John Keats (1795-1821), Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822), Lord Byron (1788-1824) and Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832). In France, Victor Hugo (1820-1885), Alphonse Lamartine ((1790-1869), Alfred de Vigny (1797-1863) and Alexandre Dumas (1802-1870). In America, prominent writers included Herman Melville (1819-1891), Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862), Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) and Nathaniel Hawthorne (18041864). Research literature in the field of the history and development of English education has established the influence of Romanticism on the institutionalising of English theory and pedagogy (Reid, 2004). Romantic principles, such as for example: ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
child-centred approaches to learning the centrality of the individual imagination and creativity the importance of personal and individual response the teacher as mentor a recognition of students’ language as the foundation for language learning in the classroom self-directed learning and reflective practice unity and integration of the modes and activities in English.
According to research in the field, these and other principles have informed approaches to English education since the inception of the subject in the school curriculum in the 1800s. See also Expressive criticism, Imagination, Literary criticism, Literary theory, Literature, Pathetic fallacy. DC References: Cuddon, J.A. (1991) Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, 3rd edn. London: Penguin Books. Flew, A. (Ed.) (1979) A Dictionary of Philosophy, London: Pan Books. Reid, I. (2004) Wordsworth and the Formation of English Studies, England: Ashgate.
Rubric A brief, summative statement about the focus and nature of a text. The term also refers to an overview of key assessment criteria. JM
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S Saga (Old Norse: ‘tale’, ‘story’) A type of story that originated with the Icelandic epic tales in narrative form dealing with accounts of Viking adventures, heroes, warriors, legends and conflicts. They were part of the oral tradition of Scandinavia, and were common in the centuries leading up to the 14th century. Many of the epic tales have been recorded in writing. In contemporary contexts, saga also refers to an epic story on a grand scale that is often told in a very long novel or a series of novels. The term also refers to film or television series that treat an important historical movement, family history or great adventure in a detailed, sustained and lavish way. The film Gone with the Wind (Fleming, 1939) is an example of a film saga. JM
Sarcasm (Greek: ‘speak bitterly’) Language with a deliberately bitter and hurtful tone, intended to ridicule, satirise or the person/subject. See also Irony, Language. DC
Satire (Latin: ‘mixture’) Refers to a language technique and a genre. The purpose of satire is to expose and ‘correct’ human vice, folly, pretentiousness, arrogance, corruption, ignorance and weakness by subjecting these to ridicule, parody, irony, humour, caricature and sarcasm. Satire is distinguished from comedy in its serious purpose that goes beyond the purpose of merely entertaining and provoking laughter. The Neoclassical period in English literature is renowned for its satire, with John Dryden (1631-1700) and Alexander Pope (1688-1744) figuring as the two prominent satiric poets of the time. Satire is pervasive in texts and cultural contexts and is a powerful instrument for social and cultural critique. Two recent examples of satire in the Australian media are Frontline (19941997) and The Hollowmen (2008) both of which are television series that satirise the media and politics, respectively. See also Language, Neoclassical period, Writing. JM
Scaffolding A term associated with Jerome Bruner (1915-), the American psychologist, who developed a cognitive model of learning. He first introduced the concept of instructional scaffolding in the 1950s as a way of supporting and guiding the learner during the engagement with new and unfamiliar activities, skills, knowledge or information. Like a scaffold for a building under construction, the goal is to eventually remove the scaffold when the learner has acquired the skills, knowledge and understanding necessary to continue autonomously and independently. An example of scaffolding is the practice of immersing young children in rich language experiences, reading to them and guiding them through, for example, picture books. Eventually, this scaffolded experience will not be required, once the child has learned to read independently. Examples of 258
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S scaffolding in English include: providing models and guides; building the field; implementing prereading and pre-viewing strategies; modelling skills; reading out aloud to students; and ensuring opportunities for discussion and feedback. See also Constructivism, Group work, Learning-centred English, Learning styles, Pedagogy. JM
Science fiction (SF) A form of narrative, usually a short story, novel or film but can also encompass games, television shows and art. The concerns of science fiction are varied but often focus on the impact of science and technology on real or imagined worlds in which the settings can be futuristic or from the past. SF can include utopian visions and landscapes, visitations from aliens, scientific experiments, and social, environmental and climatic change. Some early progenitors were Jonathan Swift (Gulliver’s Travels, 1726); Mary Shelley (Frankenstein, 1818); Robert Louis Stevenson (The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, 1886); Daniel Defoe (Robinson Crusoe, 1719); and Jules Verne (1828-1905). The term ‘science fiction’ is thought to have been coined by William Wilson in A Little Earnest Book Upon a Great Old Subject (1851) and came into general use in the late 1920s through the works of Hugo Gernsack (1984-1967), with the term ‘scientific romances’, as used by HG Wells (1866-1946), declining as a result. Wells was hugely influential with The Time Machine (1895), The Wonderful Visit (1895), The Island of Dr. Moreau (1896), The War of the Worlds (1898) and First Men in the Moon (1901). Also influential were Edgar Rice Burroughs (1875-1950) and Edgar Wallace (1875-1932) both of whom wrote short stories for the early pulp science fiction magazines. Burroughs created the character Tarzan. After the First World War, visions in SF became more dystopian in texts such as, for example, Yevgeny Zamyatin’s We (1920-21); Muriel Jaeger’s The Question Mark (1923); and Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World (1932). The dystopian novel continued with George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949); Kurt Vonnegut’s Piano Player (1952); Evelyn Waugh’s Love Among the Ruins (1953); Ray Bradbury’s Fahrenheit 451 (1953); Anthony Burgess’ A Clockwork Orange (1962); and Philip K Dick’s Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said (1974). Writers such as Isaac Asimov (1920-92), Robert A Heinlein (1907-88), Clifford D Simak (1904-88), AE Van Vogt (1912-2000) began their careers writing for science fiction magazines such as the popular American magazine Astounding. Asimov’s I Robot (1951) and Heinlein’s Stranger in a Strange Land (1961) have been influential, as have the novels and short stories of Arthur C Clarke (1917-2008) such as Rendezvous with Rama (1973) and 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) and Frank Herbert (1920-86), particularly with the Dune series (1965). Women SF writers such as Ursula L Guin (b.1929) - The Earthsea Trilogy (1968-72); Josephine Saxton (b.1935) - The Hieros Gamos of Sam and Ann Smith (1969); Angela Carter (1940-92) - Heroes and Villains (1969); Suzy Mckee Charnas (b.1939) - Strange Seas (2002); Joanna Russ (b.1937) - When It Changed (1972); CJ Cherryh (b.1942) - Cyteen (1988); Pat Murphy - Points of departure (1990); and Pamela Sargent (b.1948) Cloned Lives (1976) have all been instrumental in the development of the genre. SF films have been numerous since George Méliès’ Le Voyage Dans La Lune (A Trip to the Moon) in 1902, Harry O Hoyt’s (1885-1961) The Lost World (1925), Fritz Lang’s (1890-1976) Metropolis (1927) and James Whale’s (1889-1957) Frankenstein (1931). Other classic and popular SF films include: The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951); Invaders from Mars (1953); Planet of the Apes (1968); Star Wars (1977-2005), Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977); Alien (1979; E.T: The Extra-Terrestrial (1982); Jurassic Park (1993); Star Wars Episode 1: The Phantom Menace (1999, part of the Star Wars series of films); The Matrix (1999); The Day After Tomorrow (2004); and Watchmen (2009). See also Film, Fiction, Novel. DC
Scope and sequence: A principle of curriculum planning used by teachers to indicate the breadth and duration of a teaching/learning program. This is generally done on a single page via a table which sets out the sequence of learning units and their titles; the duration of each unit; and relevant requirements such The English Teacher’s Handbook
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S as texts, resources and syllabus outcomes. The scope and sequence provides a ‘snapshot’ of the teaching/learning program. See also Curriculum, Programming, Unit of work. DC
Semantics (Greek: ‘sign’) The meaning of words and the study of the meaning of words. Semantics is one of the three branches of linguistics (along with phonology and syntax). Structuralist and later approaches to the study of language attend to the relationship between signs, meaning, function and context, exploring the ways in which language operates to ‘make sense’ in communication. See also Language, Reading. JM
Semiotics (Greek: ‘interpreter of signs) The study of systems of signs. Semiotics examines the ways in which the selection and ordering of ‘signs’ (language) is dependent upon and reflects the codes and conventions of culture. The process of selecting and ordering language is central to communication and to the production and interpretation of meaning. Signs are not created by an individual – rather, they are drawn from the reservoir of shared signs valued by a particular culture. In the context of textual analysis, a semiotic approach is interested in exploring the ‘signs’ that constitute a text. In a story, for example, there are characters, setting, plot, dialogue, narration and action. Semiotics asks how these elements are selected and ordered to make the text ‘mean’, and how this meaning relies upon a shared knowledge and understanding of generic, cultural and other conventions. See also Code, Convention, Language, Narratology, Reading. JM
Setting Refers to the world of the text in which portrayals of the characters, action, events, time, along with the narrative and ideas combine to establish the context, mood, atmosphere and distinctive features of the work. The setting is a fundamental element of fiction, film, drama and sometimes poetry and nonfiction, and is generally established at the outset of the work. The setting anchors other elements of the text, and the audience should be able to apprehend the setting early on in the text. The setting can frame, influence and shape the characters, events and action. In drama, the costumes, props and stage or set design are often critical in establishing the setting. See also Depiction, Description, Drama, Fiction, Narrative, Novel. DC, JM
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Read out aloud the first paragraph/s of a short story or novel. Or view the opening scene/s of one or more films. Identify the ways in which the composer establishes the setting (description, evocation, visual images etc). For prose fiction texts, students draw their interpretation of the setting – using symbols if appropriate. Compare the representations. Speculate on the intended audience. Note any aspects of the setting that are unfamiliar or unexpected.
∼ When responding to a text, students can change the setting of the original text (e.g. alter the physical setting and/or the time period). Transport characters to another place and time to explore the impact of this on the meaning of the text.
∼ If using film, focus on the filmic techniques employed in the opening scenes to establish the setting (close-ups, wide angle shots, panorama shots, light, dark, sound, colours, music etc). Explore the connections made between the characters and the setting and the impact of this on our attitudes towards and response to characters.
∼ When studying drama, have students transport the setting, characters and plot into a contemporary setting. Use models such as Shakespeare Retold (ABC, 2007).
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S Shakespeare There are more resources about William Shakespeare (1564-1616) than any other English author or, indeed, than any other author in recorded history. There are more than 59 million Shakespeare entries listed on Google alone, for example. There is a universe of information and published commentary – historical, biographical (see especially Peter Ackroyd’s Shakespeare: The Biography, Vintage Books, London, 2005), literary critical, psychological, forensic, and so on. It is not possible, therefore, to canvass the subject of “Shakespeare” comprehensively within an entry of such brevity. Perhaps there are two fundamental principles that should be acknowledged and understood when studying Shakespeare. First of all, he was an actor and he wrote to earn a living within theatre. Indeed, it cannot be repeated often enough that William Shakespeare wrote his plays to be acted – not to be swotted over by generations of unwilling students forced to worship at his shrine. He was an actor who became a writer of plays. His texts should always be read as scripts to be enacted. Shakespeare would draft and redraft the texts of his plays in the light of the contexts within which he was working. For example, a number of his early and mid-career plays feature a rambunctious character – like Falstaff in Henry V, the Porter in Macbeth, and Bottom in Midsummer’s Night Dream. His shaping of these earthy, comedic, often coarse characters was influenced by the personality and qualities of Will Kempe (d.1603), who was a clown who became a superb comedic star of the collection of actors working alongside, and eventually for, him. When Kempe left the company in unhappy circumstances that kind of character became far less prominent in Shakespeare’s plays. The fact that he had such a superb actor in Richard Burbage gave Shakespeare the confidence to create such astonishing characters as Hamlet, Richard II, Macbeth and King Lear. In the later plays we find a strong presence of music. This was a direct consequence of a talented singer/musician joining Shakespeare’s later company. He did not divide up his plays formally into Acts and Scenes until Shakespeare’s company acquired the Blackfriars Theatre. Up until then the Globe Theatre and its large scale predecessors were open-air venues. Blackfriars, a large theatre completely enclosed, provided Shakespeare with the stagecraft flexibility that enabled him, among other things, to separate Acts and Scenes more formally on the stage. And, as is often pointed out, the early scripts he wrote were often amended, shortened, lengthened and so on as a result of performance. The second fundamental principle is that he was, in every sense of the words, a literary genius. He had a taste, a smell, a feel for language unparalleled in the history of the English language. He was a remarkable inventor of words – something like 1700 words entered the language via Shakespeare’s pen. He was an astonishing poet. An undeniable indicator of his genius is that all of his sonnets and all of his plays retain their salience, vibrancy, and relevance today. At the same time it can be conceded that some of his comedies today lack some of the punch and verve they probably had in Elizabethan theatres. But his tragedies, his English history plays, his plays set in ancient Greek and Roman contexts, tragic-comedic works like Measure for Measure, and Merchant of Venice as well as epic poems like The Rape of Lucrece and Venus and Adonis still retain their literary power today. Shakespeare’s plays continue to enjoy sell-out houses all around the world. It is not unusual, for example, for a Shakespeare play or plays to attract the season’s largest audiences in London’s West End or the theatres on the south side of the Thames. The modern rebuilding of the original Globe Theatre has ceased to be merely a tourist attraction and is now a vibrant open-aired venue in high demand not only for Shakespearean plays, but also for other prominent dramatic works. When Shakespeare is taught well, school students typically progress from an initial lack of interest/ boredom - even outright hostility - to a level of engagement, enjoyment, and wonder that they did not previously anticipate. The Shakespearean play then enjoys what the American literary critic Ford Maddox Ford once described as “the unearned increment”. Because the play ‘enters’ the classroom bogged down with the weight of minimalist, if not hostile expectations by the students, their unanticipated more positive response once they have come to grips with the play in meaningful ways gives to the play a boost that has not been earned by itself but which has been generated by the students’ shift of perception. See also Drama, Globe Theatre, Shakespeare in the classroom. PB The English Teacher’s Handbook
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S Shakespeare in the classroom There is an abundance of print and web-based resources for teaching Shakespeare. These include: Berchervaise, N. (ed.) (2003) Constructing Shakespeare on Screen, Sydney: Phoenix Education. Brown, M (ed.) (2008) Experiencing Shakespeare, Sydney: Phoenix Education Garfield, L. (1994) Shakespeare: The Animated Tales, London: Heinemann. Garfield, L. (1998) Shakespeare Stories II, London: Gollancz. Gibson, R. (1998) Teaching Shakespeare, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Leach, S. (1992) Shakespeare in the Classroom, Buckingham: Open University Press. Mallick, D. (1984) How Tall is this Ghost, John? Adelaide: AATE. Mellor, B. (1989) Reading Hamlet, Scarborough: Chalkface Press. Michaels, W. (1986) When the Hurly Burly is Done, Sydney: Phoenix Education Press. Shakespeare Workshop Series (a wide range of practical resources for teaching many of Shakespeare’s plays), Sydney: Phoenix Education. The Globe Theatre:
Shakespearean theatre In English theatre, William Shakespeare (1564 – 1616) remains one of the most significant influences. It must be remembered that when he was writing the concept of a theatre was a very recent innovation. The first theatre in London was built in 1576. Play-going in Shakespeare’s day either occurred at Court or, for the mass of people, in disreputable areas outside London at theatres such as The Globe. Performances were very interactive events in theatres which could take up to 2000 people. And Elizabethans were loud and active audiences. Performances occurred on thrust stages, with little or no scenery and in the daytime. Thus, a very different audience/performer interaction and dynamic occurred compared to the way Shakespeare is often played today. See also Drama, Globe Theatre, Shakespeare. JH
Short story A fictional prose narrative text that is considerably shorter and often less complex than a novel or novella. Like other forms of prose fiction, a short story generally contains a character/s and structural features of narrative (such as a plot, setting, complication, climax and resolution). Short stories grew out of the oral story-telling tradition and are similar to extended anecdotes. Although the length of a short story is usually between 1000 and 8000 words, there are many exceptions to this. Usually, a short story is a work that can be read in a single ‘sitting’. The conventions of narrative are frequently modified and altered by modern writers as they experiment with the traditional narrative forms and techniques. Typically, the short story contains fewer characters than a novel, with a straightforward plot that often relies on a single or a few events or incidents. The short story grew out of traditional oral forms such as fables, folktales and anecdotes. There are many anthologies of short stories that can be used as resources in English. These include: Adams, P. (ed.) (2008) Exploring Short Stories: Volume 1, Sydney: Phoenix Education. Adams, P. (2008) Exploring Short Stories: Volume 2, Sydney: Phoenix Education. Bernhardt, S. (2007) Storyweavers, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. Bernhardt, S. (2007) Storywizards, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. Keyte, B. and Baines, R. (eds.) (1987) A Slender Thread: An anthology of short stories, Melbourne: Nelson. Manh, E. (1998) Sharing Fruit: An Anthology of Asian and Australian Writing, Melbourne: Curriculum Press. See also Fiction, Imaginative re-creation, Literature, Narrative, Novel, Reading, Writing. JM 262
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S Sibilance A language device that is a form of consonance where sibilant sounds are strongly emphasised: sh/ s/ch/j. For example, in Robert Frost’s (1874-1963) poem “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening”, there is extensive use of sibilance (especially repeated ‘s’ sounds) to create the soft, almost eerie sound, evoking the feeling of snow falling in the dark woods. Even the title of this poem uses sibilance to produce this effect. See also Language, Poetry. JM
Signifier/Signified The terms “signifier” and “signified” derive from the linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure (18571913), who proposed that language could be broken up into two parts; the utterances of a language (parole), and the system of signs that allow those utterances to have meaning (langue). He then postulated that this dichotomy could be understood at the level of the single word; there is a difference between the word used to communicate (signifier), and the world to which the word refers (signified). de Saussure suggested that the link between the two was in fact fairly arbitrary, as the variety of languages would suggest. Instead, de Saussure suggested that language has meaning only insofar as one signifier differs from another signifier. We know ‘cat’, for example, because it differs from ‘mat’. This suggestion is in direct contrast to the more traditional assertion of linguistics; that a word is ontologically linked to its referent. See also Structuralism. SGS Reference: de Saussure, F. (2005) “Course in General Linguistics”, in Literary Theory: An Anthology, eds. Rivkin, J. & Ryan, M. , 2nd edn. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Simile (Latin: ‘like’) A figure of speech that is related to metaphor. Where a metaphor describes one thing ‘as’ another such that the two things are synthesised, a simile describes one thing being ‘like’ another. Similes are very common in imaginative texts and in everyday communication. Examples of similes from literary texts include: O my Luve's like a red, red rose That's newly sprung in June; O my Luve's like the melodie That's sweetly played in tune. (Robert Burns, 1759-1796, “A Red, Red Rose”) She walks in beauty, like the night Of cloudless climes and starry skies; And all that’s best of dark and bright Meet in her aspect and her eyes… (Lord Byron, 1788-1824, “She Walks in Beauty”)
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Examples from everyday communication include: ‘she runs like the wind’; ‘he eats like a horse’; ‘as brave as a lion’; ‘as dry as a bone’; ‘as white as snow’; ‘fits like a glove’; ‘as bright as a button’; ‘eyes like a hawk’; ‘as clean as a whistle’; ‘swims like a fish’; and ‘as bold as brass’. See also Comparison, Language, Metaphor, Symbol. DC, JM
∼ Students collate a bank of similes from everyday contexts. ∼ Students select the most recurring or intriguing of these and research their origins. ∼ The bank of similes can also be used to create aleatoric poetry.
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S Sitcom A humorous, formulaic television show usually centring on the life of a family, a group of friends or on a workplace. Portraying under-developed characters, delivering lines of dialogue which become synonymous with the individual character, these shows introduce an obstacle which is overcome by its conclusion with harmony being restored. Sitcoms reveal the values and concerns of their respective eras and sometimes promote specific ideologies and practices. An example was the late 1960s, early 1970s sit com The Brady Bunch which promoted particular family values through the depiction of a ‘democratic’ approach to family life through family discussions and voting on issues. Longrunning shows such as My Family, Friends, Everybody Loves Raymond, Hey Dad! and Seinfeld portray everyday issues and aspects of modern life, often satirically. See also Comedy, Media. DC
Sketch (Greek: ‘unprepared’) A short, descriptive piece of prose commonly found in newspapers and magazines. Another meaning is a brief dramatic piece often used in a theatrical revue as a curtainraiser. DC
Skills Model Influenced by the work of the behavioural psychologist BF Skinner (1904-1990), this model centres on drilling the skills of reading, talking, listening and writing to eliminate errors. Behaviourism was concerned with observable indications of learning and the ramifications of this for teaching. One result of this approach was the production of graded reading books for the classroom. Critics of the model point to the absence of contextual considerations in language use: such as how usage varies according to context and the needs and interests of the students. The model has been criticised for failing to embed language experiences within meaningful pedagogical contexts. See also Models of English. JM
Skit
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
(Old Norse: ‘to shoot’) A brief satirical theatrical sketch or piece of writing which caricatures a person, style of writing, performance or interpretation. Close to parody and burlesque, skit is common in musical revues in which famous people are lampooned. DC In small groups, students are given a scenario. Students decide on how best to perform this scenario to convey meaning, without using spoken language. The whole class then interprets the skit. Examples of scenarios:
∼ A person walking a dog is attacked by a magpie. The dog runs off and the person seeks help from a stranger.
∼ A person at a supermarket checkout ‘express lane’ overhears two people in front arguing about how many items they have in their trolleys. The person intervenes to try to resolve the dispute.
∼ A person is stopped by the police for speeding and is asked for a driver’s licence. The person does not have the licence and tries to explain that a bag-snatcher stole her bag ten minutes ago at the shopping centre.
Slang (Old Norse: ‘war’) Highly colloquial language common to everyday speech. In 1756, Toldervy described slang as the special vocabulary of low, illiterate, or disreputable persons. It probably originates from the Norwegian slenja-keften ‘to sling the jaw’, ‘to abuse’. See also Dialect, Language, Register. DC
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S Slice of life (French: ‘tranche de vie’) Refers to the raw, factual and non-evaluative representation of life in a literary work as exemplified in the literature of Émile Zola (1840-1902) and other French naturalistic writers during the late 18th century. See also Naturalism, Realism, Stream of consciousness. JM
Slogan (Gaelic: ‘army’, ‘cry’) A distinctive or topical phrase used in advertising and politics. In Australian federal politics, the famous slogan of the Australian Labor Party’s 1972 campaign was “It’s Time”. In the 2008 USA elections, the Democrat’s slogan was “Yes, we can.” Slogans are often used in advertising to identify consumer brand names - Nike’s “Just Do It” being one example. See also Film, Image, Language, Logo, Media, Multimedia, Representing, Visual text. DC
Social media Media forms, online technologies and methods whereby people become both audience and producer. The technology being employed enables people to share opinions, insights, experiences and perspectives. Examples of social media include MySpace, Facebook, Twitter and YouTube. JH
Sonnet (Italian: ‘little song’) A lyric poem of 14 lines, written in iambic pentameter. Depending on the type of sonnet, the 14 lines are organised in stanzas. The conventions of the form were established by the Italian poet, Petrarch (1304-74). It was originally a poem (or a cycle of poems) about idealised love. The theme of love and the expression of emotions continued to be the distinguishing feature of this form. Typically, the first two quatrains establish a problem or situation, and the final quatrain and couplet (or sestet) resolves this. Sonnets were a popular form in the 16th century, performed by sonneteers. The sonnet was further developed by Edmund Spenser (1552-1599) and William Shakespeare (1564-1616), both of whom changed some of the conventions of the Petrarchan sonnet. The Petrarchan sonnet idealised the concept of love and the object of love; it used extravagant images and hyperbole to represent the lover, beauty, pain and suffering; it dealt with the experience of rejection; and elevated love as an exalted, spiritual experience. Shakespeare challenged these conventions: Sonnet 130, “My Mistress’ Eyes are Nothing Like the Sun” for example, subverts the Petrarchan convention of listing the lover’s qualities in effusive and elaborate terms. The sonnet was later developed by Victorian and Romantic poets such as Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806-1861), Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828-1882), William Wordsworth (1770-1832), Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822), John Keats (1795-1821) and Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844-1889) who each experimented to some extent with the form. Twentieth century poets such as Wilfred Owen (1893-1918), WB Yeats (1865-1939), WH Auden (1907-1973), and Robert Frost (1874-1963) all wrote well-known sonnets. The thematic focus of these, however, is distinctly different from the sonnets of Petrarch and Shakespeare in that they do not deal exclusively or in many cases, even obliquely, with romantic love. The major versions of the sonnet can be summarised as follows: Version
Features
Petrarchan
14 lines, Iambic pentameter 2 quatrains (with a rhyme scheme of abababab) and a sestet (with a rhyme scheme of cdcdcd)
Spenserian
14 lines, Iambic pentameter 3 quatrains (with a rhyme scheme of abab, bcbc, cdcd, ee)
Shakespearean
14 lines, Iambic pentameter 3 quatrains (with a rhyme scheme of abab, cdcd, efef) and a couplet (with a rhyme scheme of gg)
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S Shakespeare’s Sonnets: This Powerful Rhyme, edited by Ken Watson and Millard Dunn, (Sydney: Phoenix Education, 2005) is valuable resource for teaching and learning about sonnets, with a wealth of strategies and examples. See also Genre, Poetry. JM
Song
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A lyric poem that was originally written to be set to music. Songs have been part of the oral tradition of cultures throughout history and since the 20th century, songs have been an integral part of popular culture. Using songs in English is an effective way of exploring popular culture. Songs can also be utilised as resources for engaging students in poetry, language study, drama, fiction and a wide range of other types of texts. DC, JM ∼ Folger Shakespeare Library, K-12 Teacher section: ∼ A range of lesson plans are provided that use popular songs and music as part of the study of Shakespeare. These practical approaches engage students in dynamic ways with the language and ideas of Shakespeare and include:
∼ “M.C. Bard: Hip Hop and Shakespeare” ∼
the songs of an era to reveal the concerns/issues of that era: e.g. the American protest movement of the 1960s. Songwriters and their themes – compare and contrast the songs of Stephen Foster, Woody Guthrie, Bob Dylan and Kurt Cobain. Explore the artistry in selected songs by Tracy Chapman, Joni Mitchell, Woody Guthrie and Pete Seeger.
Speaking See Talking and listening.
Spectator and participant See Language, Talking and listening.
Speculative fiction A broad and somewhat controversial term to describe texts that blend science fiction, horror and fantasy. More recently, this type of fiction has included an eclectic mix of elements of cyberpunk, space opera, dystopia, and apocalyptic fiction, to name a few. As the term suggests, speculative fiction speculates on the world and what might be – or what might have been. Robert A Heinlein (1907-1988) is often attributed with the invention of the term with his 1948 essay “On Writing of Speculative Fiction”. Some of the common features of speculative fiction works include futuristic settings - usually in other worlds, or if set on Earth, include alien visits and lost civilisations; the inversion of the laws of physics that allows incredible feats and occurrences; and the question ‘What if…?’. For example, the question ‘What if…a Nazi sympathiser defeated Franklin D Roosevelt in the 1940 presidential election?’ is explored in Phillip Roth’s (1933-) The Plot Against America (2004). This book is also classified by some as an ‘alternative history’ which is considered as a sub-genre of speculative fiction. Speculative fiction films include the Mad Max series (1979-85), The Matrix (1999) and The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951). See also Fantasy, Fiction, Film, Genre, Literature, Novel, Science fiction. DC
Speech A subgenre of rhetoric and a type of nonfiction text. Also used interchangeably with ‘talk’ – one of the six language modes in English. As a type of text, a speech is generally designed to be delivered orally by a speaker, addressing an audience (known, unknown, actual and/or virtual) and adheres 266
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S to a set of conventions particular to rhetoric. Persuasive language, figures of speech, repetition, crescendos and diminuendos, rhetorical questions and a clear, precise structure are features of the form. As an oral form of communication, a speech also depends on the oratory skills of the speaker: the use of tone of voice; pitch; pauses; body language (such as, for example, hand gestures, eye contact and physical movement). Importantly, the context and setting for delivery and the use of audiovisual and other aids also influence the substance, purpose and quality of the speech. Speeches are regularly included in an English program (students’ own speeches and the analysis of the speeches of others), addressing the need for communicative competence in this mode. Unfortunately, class speeches can become banal unless students are encouraged to develop rhetorical skills that engage the audience, rather than merely rely on written notes to present a spoken version of a quasi-essay or narrative. For practical strategies for speeches, see Talking and listening. See also Debate, Nonfiction, Rhetoric. JM
Spelling Spelling is the basic skill of learning the correct order of letters within words. English spelling is made more complicated because, unlike Italian (for example) where symbols and sounds are consistently similar if not identical, there are many inconsistencies in the English language between letter and sound. Many of these are the products of the power of English over its history to assimilate the words and sounds of other languages. Some idiosyncrasies are the product of great shifts in both phonetic and phonemic representations – such as occurred during what is known as the “Grimm Vowel Shift”. History has played a role in ‘distorting’ any assumed rules of relationship between letters and sounds. A classic example is the effect of the Norman invasion (1066). In the subsequent period, Norman handwriting traditions overrode Old English/Anglo-Saxon traditions of calligraphy. Norman handwriting style was cursive, sloped to the right, italic, and did not permit parts of any letter being higher or lower than the rest of the letter - as is the case, for example, in contemporary handwriting in English of the uncapitalised (lower case) letters such as ‘b’, ‘d, ‘j’, “p”, and ‘t’, for example. Norman calligraphy meant that English words like ‘wimmen’, ‘luve’, ‘sunne’, ‘Cuventri’ and so on, became almost illegible. The letter ‘i’ in ‘wimmen’ became submerged in a muddle of squiggly lines; the same was true for the letter ‘u’ in the four other words. So to make things legible, the Norman writers simply replaced the ‘offending’ vowels with an ‘o’: thus today those words are spelt ‘women’, ‘love’, ‘son (the celestial ‘sun’ has a different history) and ‘Coventry’ (the change from ‘i’ to ‘y’ is another story). The notable thing is that despite the changes of spelling instituted in the 12th century, these words and the other words which were subjected to this process continue to be pronounced today (with the ‘i’ and ‘u’ sounds) exactly as they obviously would have been pronounced prior to 1066 – with phonetic/phonemic exactitude. The only way to explain these idiosyncrasies of subsequent phonetic/phonemic disjunction is by history – not by some artificially constructed phonic/phonemic ‘rules’. Over time quite a few people have tried to transform spelling practices by making everything simpler. One of the most famous of these was the great dramatist George Bernard Shaw. To illustrate what he considered to be the absurdities of English spelling, he pointed out that ‘fish’ could be spelt ‘ghoti’: ‘gh’ as in ‘rough’; ‘o’ as in ‘women’; and ‘ti’ as in ‘nation’. There are no easy shortcuts to becoming a skilled speller – it requires rote learning; learning and utilising ‘rules’ that have validity; recognising and remembering phonetic/phonemic cues; a lot of reading; a lot of writing; and assistance through correction. See also Language, Literacy, Phonetics, Writing. PB
Spoonerism Named after Dr WA Spooner (1844-1930) of New College, Oxford, the term refers to the accidental misplacement of initial consonant sounds such as ‘blushing crow’ for ‘crushing blow’ and ‘wellboiled icicle’ for ‘well oiled bicycle’. Dr Spooner allegedly said to a student: “You have hissed all my mystery lectures; you have tasted a whole worm; you must leave at once by the town drain.” DC The English Teacher’s Handbook
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S References: Cuddon, J.A. (1991) Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, 3rd edn. London: Penguin Books. Holman, C. H. (1976) A Handbook to Literature, 3rd edn. Indianapolis: The Odyssey Press.
Spy genre As a genre, spy (or espionage) fiction is similar to the thriller, action and adventure, and political fiction and film, in that mounting suspense and tension, with well-constructed characters operating in a fast moving plot, are at the core of the genre. The Spy (1821) by James Fenimore Cooper (17891851) is an early example of the genre, with Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities (1859) acclaimed novel in this genre. These novels were followed by William Le Queux’s (1864-1927) Guilty Bonds (1890), A Secret Service (1896), England’s Peril (1905) and Spies of the Kaiser (1909). The Scarlet Pimpernel (1905) by Baroness Orczy, was set in the French Revolution, with Joseph Conrad’s The Secret Agent (1907) and Under Western Eyes (1911) both notable examples of the genre, the latter dealing with double agents. Erskine Childers’ (1870-1922) The Riddle of the Sands (1903) provided a background of technical expertise which was to become a convention of the genre. John Buchan’s (1875-1940) The Thirty-Nine Steps (1915) entertained audiences during The Great War. Eric Ambler’s (1909-98) Epitaph for a Spy (1937) depicts an ordinary man on a holiday becoming caught up in a web of intrigue. Somerset Maugham (1874-1965) published the Ashenden in 1928, presenting spies as ordinary people doing their jobs. The Cold War and beyond spawned a series of spy fiction authors such as Grahame Green (190491) who wrote The Quiet American (1955), Our Man in Havanna (1959), A Burnt-out Case (1961), The Comedians (1966) and The Honorary Consul (1973). Ian Fleming (1904-64) created the hugely popular James Bond series which included titles such as Casino Royale (1953), Moonraker (1955), Diamonds are Forever (1956), From Russia with Love (1957), Dr No (1958) and Goldfinger (1959), all of which have been adapted into films. Len Deighton’s (1929) and John Le Carré’s (1931) fiction provided a more realistic vision of espionage with depictions of corruption, depravity, betrayal and the like. A proliferation of titles since the 1950s has seen success for Robert Ludlum (1927-2001), Frederick Forsyth (!938-), Tom Clancy (!947-), Desmond Bagley (!923-1983), Jack Higgins (1929-), and Anthony Horowitz (1956-). Films in this genre include the James Bond films, as well as The Holcroft Covenant (1985), Sea Wolves (1981), The Fourth Protocol (1987), The Russia House (1990), Firefox (1982), Clear and Present Danger (1994), The World is Not Enough (1999), Mission Impossible (2000), The Good Shepherd (2006) and The Bourne trilogy: Identity (2002), Supremacy (2004) and Ultimatum (2007). Similarly, the genre is represented in video games, and in popular television series such as, for example, Spooks (BBC, 2002-2009) which has a homepage that includes an interactive section:
Stage The stage is any space that actors perform on for an audience. The conventional types of stages in western theatre are: ∼ proscenium stage or end on stage, where the audience sits in front of the stage and views the action as if through an invisible fourth wall ∼ apron stage, the area of the stage in front of the proscenium arch often covering the orchestra pit if the musicians are not needed ∼ thrust stage has a platform extending out into the audience who usually sit around the three sides of the stage ∼ theatre in the round has the audience sitting on all sides of the performance space. Arena theatre (performances in large stadiums) is a form of this type of theatre ∼ avenue stage has the audience sitting on two sides. It is also called alley stage because the space is like an alley between the audience 268
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S ∼ found stage is often created by street theatre performers. The space is marked out by the
performer in an informal way to create a stage.
Stage geography Backstage
Upstage Right
Upstage Centre
Upstage Left
Centre Right
Centre Stage
Centre Left
Downstage Right
Downstage Centre
Downstage left
Audience
Note that left (in English theatre known as prompt) is on the actors’ left as they face the audience and right (OP, opposite prompt, in English theatre) is on the actors’ right. This is important when reading stage directions in a play script. If the stage has a slope from downstage up to upstage then it is known as a raked stage. JH
Standard Australian English A definition of Standard Australian English appeared in the National Statement of English produced by the Australian Education Council as part of its National Curriculum, published in 1994. Australian English is the national variety of English in Australia, distinguished from other national varieties, such as British and American English, chiefly by pronunciation and vocabulary. It comprises standard Australian English, which is the variety used in schools, and a number of colloquial varieties. Students have any one of these varieties as their home language. While respecting students’ home languages, English teachers have a responsibility to teach the forms and usages generally accepted in Australian English. The development of increasing proficiency in the uses of standard Australian English should be treated as an extension of, and an addition to, a student’s home language. The goal should be to ensure that students develop an ever-widening language repertoire for personal and public use. It is important to note the implicit recognition in this statement that so called non-standard English does not equal ‘sub-standard’ English. Indeed, valuing variations on standard English is seen as a vital principle in extending and enriching students’ language repertoire. See also Accent, Dialect, Language. PB Reference: Australian Education Council (1994) A Statement on English for Australian Schools. Melbourne: Curriculum Corporation.
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S Standards This word is used in a variety of contexts. Loosely, as in sweeping generalisations like ‘standards of behaviour are falling everywhere’. Or much more specifically: two examples are ‘standardsreferenced assessment’ and ‘professional teaching standards’. In both cases the ‘standards’ are explicitly articulated. In the former, students are assessed against ‘standards’ of achievement that have been made explicit, based on a syllabus or a set of articulated outcomes. For example, following the McGaw review of the NSW Higher School Certificate in the late 1990s, assessment moved from a norm-referenced base to a standards-referenced base. Standards of performance were classified into five bands. Students were assessed on their achievement in terms of the articulated standards. Thus, for example, it is theoretically possible (though highly unlikely) for 90% or more of all candidates in one HSC course to achieve the top band (Band 6). Under a normreferenced regime, driven by the normal distribution curve, this would be impossible. As far as the latter use of the term is concerned, in recent years there have been professional and political pressures for professional teaching standards to be defined and used in accreditation and monitoring teacher performance. For example, following years of research and trialling, the NSW Institute of Teachers has developed standards of accreditation for teacher education graduates entering the profession, standards of competence, standards of accomplishment, and standards of leadership. See also Assessment. PB
Stanza (Greek: ‘stopping place’) A structural unit of a poem made up of several lines. Typically, the structure of a stanza is repeated throughout the poem and the stanzas may be made up of three, four, five or more lines. The lines of poetry within a stanza may or may not be of regular length and may or may not involve the same rhythm and rhyme. A common type of stanza is the quatrain – a stanza made up of four lines. Stanzas are usually structural devices that allow the composer to explore and develop ideas within units, similar to paragraphs in prose. Each stanza may take up and explore a particular aspect of the theme of the poem. See also Poetry, Quatrain. JM
STELLA (Standards for Teachers of English Language and Literacy in Australia) A set of standards for teachers of English and literacy developed by the AATE and ALEA. These standards are subject-specific, describing the knowledge, understanding, skills and values of beginning and accomplished teacher in English and literacy. Importantly, these standards are framed in terms of the breadth and scope of the discipline of English and the cross-curriculum teaching of literacy. Details of the standards and the STELLA project are available at:
Stereotype (Greek: ‘solid type’) A standardised, conventional and over-simplified way of categorising, describing and labelling ideas, concepts, people, events, fictional characters and images. Stereotypes are pervasive in culture, texts and the media and reflect the values and attitudes of social groups in their thinking about and perceptions of others. Stereotyping people, characters, situations, ideas and images reduces their complexity, unique identity and difference to a more onedimensional and generalised form. In texts, stereotyped characters are often ‘flat’ characters who are easily recognisable as ‘stock’ characters: e.g. the clown, the villain, the good fairy, the wicked witch, the damsel in distress, the charming prince. Stereotyping can occur on the basis of race, gender, nationality, appearance, economic status, religion and age: e.g. ‘all teenagers are binge drinkers’; ‘French people are romantic’. In everyday language contexts, stereotypes proliferate and can be pejorative labels (negative stereotypes) or affirming labels (positive stereotypes): for example, ‘nerd’; ‘bogan’; ‘hooligan’; ‘bookworm’; ‘cricket tragic’; ‘women can’t read maps’; ‘Afro-Americans are great dancers’; and ‘men can’t multi-task’. Visual texts in the media (especially in advertising) also often exploit the use of stereotypes. See also Image, Media, Gender. DC, JM 270
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representation of stereotypes.
∼ For example: explore the representations of character in The Princess and the Perfect Dish (L Gleeson, R Greder) and The Paper Bag Princess (R Munsch), comparing these with representations in fairy stories such as “Cinderella”, “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs” and “Rapunzel”.
∼ Discuss the ways in which stereotypes are challenged or promoted in these texts, comparing these representations with students’ experience of stereotyping in their own lives.
∼ Audit magazines, popular networking websites and other media to identify the prevalence and nature of stereotyping (on the basis of, for example, gender, race, religion, age etc) and examine the ways in which such stereotypes reflect and sustain productive or damaging cultural assumptions and values.
Stock character Similar to a stereotyped character, a stock character is often part of the convention of a particular genre. Stock characters are common in drama (especially in burlesque and pantomime), fairy tales and many films genres, such as for example, westerns, spy and action and adventure. Examples of stock characters include the white knight or charming prince; the rescued princess; the villain; the intrepid action hero; the gull, the cuckolded husband; the fool or clown; the wicked stepmother and the beautiful heroine. See also Character/Characterisation, Conventions, Stereotype. JM
Stock response A response to a text or experience that is under-developed, predictable, immediate or imitative. A stock response is often an appropriated response which is not adequately supported by the responder’s considered interpretation of the work. See also Analysis, Evaluation, Interpretation, Developmental model of reading literature. JM
Story (Greek: ‘narrative’) Often used interchangeably with ‘narrative’. A story is a representation of events, people, places and experiences, structured by a composer and presented by a narrator, speaker or composer to entertain, inform, persuade and communicate ideas, concepts, values and beliefs. In one sense, all texts and experiences constitute a form of story. Barbara Hardy argues that narrative, like lyric or dance, is not to be regarded as an aesthetic invention used by artists to control, manipulate, and order experience, but as a primary act of mind transferred to art from life…I take for granted the ways in which storytelling engages our interest, curiosity, fear, tensions, expectation, and sense of order. What concerns me here are the qualities which fictional narrative shares with that inner and outer storytelling that plays a major role in our sleeping and walking lives. For we dream in narrative, daydream in narrative, remember, anticipate, hope, despair, believe, doubt, plan, revise, criticize, construct, gossip, learn, hate, and love by narrative. In order really to live, we make up stories about ourselves and others, about the personal as well as the social past and future. (Hardy, 1968: 5) Story is at the centre of English: stories of the self, stories of others, stories throughout time, stories represented through an almost endless range of forms and media. Telling, hearing, interpreting, reflecting over, enjoying, analysing, connecting, creating and sharing stories constitute much of the process and substance of English education. Gregory explains that: telling and consuming stories is a fundamental and universal human activity. From the time we are born the sound of story accompanies us like the collective heart beat of humanity, The English Teacher’s Handbook
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S and none of us rejects the opportunity to enlarge ourselves by "trying on" the lives and feelings of fictional characters. We may not all consume a steady diet of what college catalogues sometimes call "great books," but our interactions with stories in one form or another - in commercials, TV programs, movies, song lyrics, sermons, legends, fairy tales, novels, dramas, and so on - is constant and ongoing. (Gregory, 1998) Pedagogy in English relies on the principle that students’ stories (their experience, language and ways of thinking and organising that experience) are the foundations for learning. In the 20th century, the concepts of story and narrative were the subjects of critique and theorising by structuralist critics (narratology). See also Author, Fiction, Heteroglossia, Literature, Narrative, Narratology, Narrator, Novel, Reading, Short story, Writing. JM Reference: Gregory, M, (1998) “Ethical criticism: What it is and why it matters” Style, Northern Illinois University,
Storyboard A series of framed sketches which are used to visually outline a film sequence. Storyboarding is a tool used in planning film production and consists of comic-strip-like drawings of individual shots or sequences, with annotations or descriptions provided for each drawing or frame of things such as camera angles and/or movement. See also Drama, Drama as a learning medium. KS
Stream of consciousness A term coined by William James in 1890 (The Principles of Psychology). It is a narrative and filmic technique that aims to capture the complexity and inner world of a character. It is similar to inner speech and interior monologue in that it seeks to reveal the ‘consciousness’ – the unmediated thoughts, feelings, ideas, memories and insights - of the character. This can often lead to a narrative that is a seemingly chaotic, unedited and randomly unfolding, reflecting the inner workings of the character’s mind. It is akin to a linguistic recording of the consciousness of the character. For this reason, texts employing this technique can be difficult to read, due to the lack of expected conventions of structure, form and sequence.
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Stream of consciousness is more common in modern texts, with the exemplar of this technique being James Joyce’s Ulysses (1922). Other examples of the use of stream of consciousness include: Virginia Woolf’s Mrs Dalloway (1925) and To the Lighthouse (1927); and William Faulkner’s The Sound and the Fury (1929). Stream of consciousness can also occur in diaries, poems and drama. See also Author, Autobiography, Diary, Language, Narrative, Narrator, Persona, Point of view, Realism, Writing. DC, JM James Moffett’s Active Voice: A Writing Program Across the Curriculum (Boynton/ Cook, 1981, 1992) includes an activity that draws on the technique of stream of consciousness. “Spontaneous Memory Monologue” requires the writer to reflect on an aspect of the landscape that reminds them of a past experience. Writing expressively, students record all the memories, sensory perceptions and responses that come to mind during this reflective process. Moffett also provides practical strategies for developing this expressive writing into a polished piece of ‘poetic’ writing.
Reference: Moffett, J. (1981) Active Voice: A Writing Program Across the Curriculum, New Jersey: Boynton Cook.
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S Street theatre A type of theatre performed in outdoor, informal settings by buskers or established companies. How performers mark the performance space varies with the setting and the style of performance. The performances are usually highly visible and distinctive in order to attract and maintain an audience. Street theatre is one of the oldest forms of theatre as can be seen by a study of the medieval passion plays. See also Drama. JH
Stress Refers to the emphasis placed on part of a word with more than one syllable. Stress is central to metre in poetry with the stress patterns imbuing the lines with rhythm. Stress can alter the emphasis in pronunciation – for example: kilometre or kilometre; research or research. It can also alter the meaning of a word: convict and convict. See also Accent, Language, Metre. JM
Structuralism Structuralism began as a linguistic movement in the 1950s, prompted by the work of Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913). de Saussure suggested that language could be broken into two essential parts: langue, which is the speech utterances of a language; and parole, which is the system, or set of rules, which enables these utterances to make meaning. de Saussure believed that the proper emphasis for linguistic study was not parole, but langue, since to gain an understanding of the rules that allows a language to signify allows one to gain an understanding of the cultural system that governs a language. If one can see the rules by which a language operates, then one can also understand when the rules are intentionally broken, and so begin to see a complex system of cultural and linguistic interactions. Structuralism posits that we have internalised structural categories which allow us to sort and interpret the sensory phenomena of the world around us. According to this theory, these internalised categories give us a way of analysing all kinds of phenomena in the humanities and social sciences. This theory, that seemed to explain how certain things came to carry certain meanings, offered to make the whole world known and knowable. Structuralism moved into the world of literary criticism with the work of the anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908-), linguist Roman Jakobson (18961982), and the literary critics Roland Barthes (1915-1980) and Tzvetan Todorov (1939-). Structuralist literary criticism adopts a radically different posture from what had preceded it; rather than assuming the precedence of the content within a text, structuralists deliberately gave precedence to the form, since the form would tell them not about the text per se, but about the world that enabled the text to have meaning. Critically, structuralists were not as interested in the particular text so much as what that text had to say about the world that produced it; whether the text upheld or transgressed the particular system it operated within. One of the important assumptions of structuralism is indeed about the nature of meaning; if meaning proceeds from a system of signs, then meaning itself is socially constructed, not ontological. See also Signifier/ Signified. SGS References: Eagleton, T. (2003) “Structuralism and Semiotics”, in Literary Theory: An Introduction, 2nd edn. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 79-109. Rivkin, J. & Ryan, M. (2004) “Introduction: The Implied Order: Structuralism”, in Literary Theory: An Anthology, 2nd edn. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 53-55.
Structure (Latin: ‘to build’) The patterns and organisational features that shape a text. Structure is often determined by the genre or conventions of form associated with a particular type of text. For example, the structure of a conventional narrative is dictated by the need for a beginning, middle and end, and by the requirements of plot, sequence and character. Poems may be structured in terms of stanzas. Plays may be structured in terms of acts and scenes. Language devices and techniques can also be employed to invest a work with structure. For example, the repetition of symbols, metaphors and imagery can contribute to the overall structure of a text. The English Teacher’s Handbook
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S Structure is generally associated with the form of the text, although the content of the text is ultimately inseparable from the formal means of representation. Structure also refers to the linguistic structure of language, the relationship between the reader, the text and the context, and the system of signs in language, all of which have been theorised by structuralists. See also Code, Conventions, Structuralism. JM
Student-centred learning Shares the principles of ‘learner-centred’ pedagogy; Inquiry method; Discovery approach; Processoriented approach; Values clarification approach; and Constructivist model. Describes a pedagogical and theoretical approach to teaching and learning that values and explicitly incorporates students’ personal interests, language, strengths, opinions, and responses. Studentcentred pedagogy is informed by a knowledge of how students develop cognitively, affectively and socially. In English classrooms, student-centred learning is facilitated through a workshop, experiential and activity-based approach; opportunities for student choice in, for example reading and writing tasks; a classroom environment that values the ways in which knowledge and understanding are socially constructed; and explicit teaching so that students can see purpose in learning make connections between this learning and their own lives. Student-centred learning seeks to nurture curiosity, inquisitiveness, wonder, empathic intelligence, discovery and a sense of selfworth through meaningful learning and achievement. The work of James Moffett (Teaching the Universe of Discourse, 1978) along with that of other key figures in English education during the 1970s and 1980s, marked a substantial shift in English pedagogy to a student-centred model of teaching and learning. See also Constructivism, Cooperative learning, Experiential learning, Group work, Learning-centred English, Learning styles, Pedagogy. JM
Style Refers to the aesthetic and/or language techniques employed in a text to invest it with a particular quality and distinctiveness. The style of a text can refer to the effect of the formal dimensions of the work, the tone, mood, perspective, point of view, narrative voice and the thematic focus or emphasis. Composers have distinctive styles that render their work unique. This may be achieved through their repeated use of certain genres, language, subject matter and distinctive voice. JM Subject The term has several meanings in English. The simplest meaning is that associated with the content, thematic focus, character, or ideas in a text. In some poststructuralist critical theories, the term subject refers to the subjective position of the responder; the constructed identity of the individual as ‘subject’; and the process of the responder being ‘subjected to’ the influence of the text, context and culture; and conversely, the process of subjecting the text, context and culture to critical analysis. Subject also refers to a curriculum area and is often used interchangeably with Key Learning Area. The history and development of English as a subject have been and continue to be well documented (see, for example, Brock, 1984, Green and Beavis, 1996; Sawyer, 2002, ), as have the debates about what constitutes ‘subject’ English. JM References: Brock, P. (1984) A history of the development of English syllabuses in NSW Secondary Education 1953 - 1976: A "continuum" or a "series of new beginnings"?, PhD Thesis, University of New England, Armidale. Green, B. & Beavis, C. (1996) Teaching the English Subjects: English Teaching and Curriculum History, Geelong: Deakin University Press. Sawyer, W. (2002) Simply growth?: a study of selected episodes in the history of Years 7-10 English in New South Wales, PhD Thesis, University of Western Sydney, Sydney.
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S Subjectivity/Objectivity
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Subjective writing and response usually refers to intensely personal, expressive writing and response which relies on the particular beliefs, convictions, dreams and ideals of the writer/responder. It often takes the form of narrative and description (for example, stream of consciousness). Subjectivity may also refer to the composer’s autobiographical presence in the work or the construction of a persona whose feelings and emotional responses are specific to the character as represented by the composer. Objectivity is generally associated with an approach to writing and the analysis of texts which seeks to efface the emotions, affective responses, personal views, sentiments and the apparent attitudes of the composer and responder. Such activity aims to be free from personal bias, in favour of ‘impersonality’, but the extent to which any use of language is or can be free from personal bias is a highly contested notion. Indeed, poststructuralist approaches to language reject the notion that any language or its use can ever be objective since it is endlessly contingent upon cultural conventions, values and context. See also Active and passive voice, Author, Affective learning, Impersonality, Poststructuralism. DC, JM
∼ Select two texts such as, for example, a diary entry or blog and a scientific, medical or legal report. Students read both texts, noting the use of the active and passive voice, point of view, fact and opinion, intended purpose and audience, tone and mood. Discuss the differences between these two texts, exploring the extent to which each is subjective or objective.
∼ A small group of students performs a skit for the whole class. The skit should dramatise an incident that involves some action. Half the class then writes a ‘factual’ report on the incident. The other half of the class writes a diary entry, story, poem or other ‘imaginative’ text. Compare the versions of responses to the same skit and examine the extent to which each version relies on the personal bias, perspective, choices, and interpretations of the writer.
Subtext The covert or implicit meaning behind or operating beneath the surface, literal level of a text or situation. The participants in the text or situation may or may not be aware of the subtext. Subtext as a term is interchangeable with ‘hidden agenda’. Interpretations of the subtext of a text or situation are often subjective and contestable. See also Subjectivity/Objectivity. JM
Surrealism (French: ‘beyond realism’) Partly drawing on the work of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and the Dadaists, and as a reaction against the realism that preceded it, surrealism emerged as a philosophical movement in France in the 1920s and found expression in art and literature. Surrealism is characterised by a rejection of realism, logic and rationality, exploring instead the experience of dream-states and representations of the unconscious mind. Aleatory and automatic writing were favoured by surrealist writers, allowing for the random flow of ideas, experiences and insights ‘beyond the real’ to be captured, juxtaposed and represented in unexpected ways. Surrealism influenced French film and some music in the 1920s and 1930s. In the visual arts, the work of Spanish artist Joan Miró (1893-1983) typifies the surrealist techniques and philosophy. See also Aleatory/ Aleatoric, Automatic writing. JM
Syllabus (Latin: ‘label’) The pedagogical and often theoretical details of what is included in a course of study. A syllabus is the fine-grained documentation of a course within a curriculum. In English, a syllabus sets out the rationale and aims of the course; the theoretical principles; the purpose and intended The English Teacher’s Handbook
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S candidature; teaching and learning requirements; values; links to other learning areas; links to workplace and vocational learning; outcomes; standards; content; assessment and often pedagogy to support implementation. A syllabus in English is typically shaped by the stage of student learning: for example, K-6 English syllabus; 7-10 English syllabus and 11-12 English syllabus. Taken together, these documents constitute the formal expression of the English curriculum. The development and substance of an English syllabus is often highly contested due to the enduring debates about what is of value and significance in English. The process of shaping, selecting and defining the components (from content to process and theory) in a course of study is frequently subjected to public scrutiny to an extent that is not so evident in other curriculum areas. That such scrutiny continues to occur is evidence of the ways in which subject English is regarded as the primary site for the ‘transmission’ of a culture’s dominant values, beliefs and ‘cultural heritage’. Ultimately, it should be the role of the English teaching profession, in collaboration with other educators, curriculum bodies and discipline experts, to determine the nature of a syllabus document and implement this in daily classroom practice. See also Assessment, Curriculum, Lesson plan, Outcomes, Pedagogy, Programming, Unit of work. DC, JM
Syllogism (Greek: ‘inference’) An argument that relies on the principles of logic and deductive reasoning. A syllogism proceeds on the basis of connecting two premises which leads to a third premise, called a conclusion or a proposition. The premises are referred to as a major premise, a minor premise and a conclusion. For example: ‘All dogs are carnivores’; ‘Benji is a dog’; therefore ‘Benji is a carnivore’. JM
Symbol (Greek: ‘throwing together’, sign’, ‘token’) An image, object, word or sound that comes to represent something else through association, convention and deliberate analogy. A symbol is a form of metaphor, and is often used to associate an abstract idea or concept with concrete phenomena. Symbols abound in texts as they do in the media and everyday contexts. There are particular symbols that recur in texts such as, for example: ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
Love and beauty: the rose; gold; the heart; a ring; the dove. Life: tree; ocean; light; circle; mandala. Death: darkness; Underworld; skull and crossbones; cross. Birth: flowers; seeds; Spring; eggs; light; sun.
See also Archetype, Image, Metaphor, Language, Representation, Simile. JM
Synecdoche (Greek: ‘taking up with, interpreting together’) A metaphor in which a part is mentioned to signify the whole or its opposite. These are common in everyday speech and poetry. For example, the expression ‘all hands on deck’ signifies that all sailors are immediately required on the deck of a ship or that everyone needs to contribute to a task at hand. See also Metaphor. DC
Synthesis (Greek: ‘bring together’) Refers to the dialectic between a thesis and antithesis that results in a new thesis. A synthesis is a bringing together of two or more things, elements, ideas or concepts. In literary criticism, synthesis refers to the drawing together of key aspects of an analysis to provide a cohesive and detailed evaluation of the whole. See also Antithesis, Thesis. JM
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S Systemic-functional grammar (SFG) A model of grammar developed by Michael Halliday (1925-), the most well-known component of a broad social semiotic approach to language called systemic-functional linguistics, originally articulated by Halliday in the 1960s. The term "systemic" is used to refer to the view of language as "a network of systems, or interrelated sets of options for making meaning" (Halliday, 1994:15). The term "functional" is used to indicate that the approach is concerned with meaning. Systemic-functional grammar is concerned primarily with the choices that are made available to speakers of a language by their grammatical systems. These choices are assumed to be meaningful and relate speakers'/ writers' intentions to the concrete forms of a language. Traditionally the ‘choices’ are viewed in terms of either the content or the structure of the language used. SFG seeks to present a view of language in terms of both the structure (grammar) and the words (or lexis). The term "lexicogrammar" is used to describe this combined approach. Meanings in systemic-functional grammar divided into three broad areas, called metafunctions: the ideational, the interpersonal and the textual. The ideational is grammar for representing the world. That is, the propositional content, which would include statements like, ‘The sky is blue’. The interpersonal is grammar for enacting social relationships such as asking, requests, asserting control, or ordering. Thus the interpersonal is very much about interaction between human beings, society and culture. Finally, the textual is grammar for binding linguistic elements together into broader texts (via pronominalisations, grammatical topicalisation, thematisation, expressing the newsworthiness of information, etc), or more simply, the rhetorical structure of a text. What is a subordinate clause? What is an independent clause? These are the kinds of questions that deal with the textual element of meaning. Systemic-functional grammar deals with all of these areas of meaning equally and within the grammatical system itself. See also Functional grammar, Grammar, Language, Literacy. PB Reference: Halliday, M.A.K. (1994) Introduction to Functional Grammar, 2nd edn. London: Edward Arnold.
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T Tabloid Refers to a daily or weekly newspaper which covers local interest news stories, sport, crime, business, politics, classifieds as well as social events, gossip and entertainment items. Tabloids use a smaller format than broadsheet newspapers and are often accused of sensationalism, due to the focus on sex scandals, political bungling, sporting achievements and even bizarre stories such as alien abductions. In Sydney, Australia, the number of tabloids has decreased with a narrowing of media ownership. Over the years, The Sun and The Daily Mirror have disappeared, leaving The Daily Telegraph as the sole Sydney tabloid. In London, The Sun, The Daily Star and The Daily Mirror continue the tradition of tabloids. See also Media. DC
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
∼ Create a tabloid, either on paper or online, giving different groups responsibility for different areas of the paper. The tabloid can be based on a text being studies, with news stories, horoscopes, classifieds, notices etc based on the characters and events in the text.
∼ Compare and contrast broadsheet and tabloid (audit them for content: how many pages/lines/square centimetres are devoted to different topics). Who owns the papers, what is the readership? What does this tell us about our society’s wants, needs, interests and abilities? Compare print and online versions of both forms of newspaper. JW
Talking and listening Two of the six language modes (along with writing, reading, viewing, representing) that are central to teaching and learning in English. The modes are typically integrated and dependent on one another in classroom activities. In his work on oral communication, Andrew Wilkinson affirmed the pivotal role of talk in the development “not only of the human ability to speak, not only of the human ability to communicate, but the human ability to develop cognitively” (Wilkinson, 1975: 431). The pervasiveness of the written word and visual images, and the tendency to privilege reading and writing in English and other curriculum areas in education, means it is possible to undervalue the central role of talking and listening in student learning. It has been more than four decades since Wilkinson and others argued on the basis of extensive research that writing and reading could not be pedagogically segregated from talking and listening. Importantly, research in the field has demonstrated that too often, the talk of the classroom is predominantly that of the ‘textbook’ and the teacher: language that is easy to copy, but is not easy for learner to reflect on or contest. Abundant student talk, however, is active, immediate and living, thus facilitating new learning and the synthesis of ideas and knowledge. 278
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T The work of Douglas Barnes in the 1970s highlighted the role of spoken language in classroom dynamics, finding that the privileged talking space of the classroom was typically dominated and controlled by the teacher (Barnes, 1976). Optimal learning can occur if the talking space is democratised and students have abundant opportunities to use language, not merely through immersion in reading and writing, but through meaningful talking and listening. Barnes identified two kinds of teaching, each one characterised by its approach to the role of talking; the view of the learner; the view of learning and knowledge; and the communicative relationship between teacherstudent. Transmission Teacher • •
• •
•
Sends knowledge ‘down a tube’ to the students. Relies on what Freire termed the ‘banking’ model of knowledge: it exists as a body of content to be transmitted by the teacher, regurgitated by the student and then assessed for accuracy. Memorising and accumulating content knowledge is central to this model. Teacher corrects and regulates learning, according to an established set of principles about what counts in the discipline. The learner is a ‘tabula rasa’ (‘blank slate’).
Interpretation Teacher •
•
•
•
Regards knowledge as something that is dynamic and depends on the learner’s capacity to organise thought, synthesise ideas and make sense of new information by assimilating it into and connecting it with their existing knowledge. The teacher values the capacity of the student to interpret and reshape information through talk and other communicative interaction. Teacher facilitates and opens up opportunities for learning, new knowledge and ways of thinking. Believes that the learner is equipped with capacities to understand systems of communication and knowledge Learning is recursive and reflexive.
(Barnes, D. (1976) From Communication to Curriculum. Harmondsworth: Penguin. pp. 144-145)
In an effective English program, there is an explicit understanding that students learn best when they: ∼ encounter a supportive learning environment that offers purposeful, relevant, challenging and
stimulating language activities ∼ are given a degree of choice and agency and opportunities for developing an increasing
sense of responsibility for their learning ∼ value the coherence between the language of school, home, community, workplace and media, and ∼ are provided with abundant opportunities for purposeful talk as a means of developing literacy skills across the modes and as an important pre-writing, pre-performance, prereading language experience (Reid, et al 1990). It is therefore important to plan for opportunities in English where students are both: ∼ Spectators: using language to contemplate and reflect on what has happened or what might
have happened; to improvise, imagine, fill in the gaps and so on, and ∼ Participants: using language to interact with others, get things done, and conduct day-to-day life. (Britton, Language and Learning, 1970) Developing Talking and Listening Skills
Practical Strategies
Describing and explaining
processes, events, excuses, instructions, places, things, people, decisions
Retelling and recalling
stories, experiences, incidents, jokes, memories, movies
Reporting
hypothetical and actual events, results of group discussions, experiences
Exploring
ideas, texts, evidence, stimulus materials
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T Skills
Practical Strategies
Narrating
stories, experiences
Problem-solving
negotiating resolutions to actual and hypothetical conflicts in texts, school, society
Predicting, speculating, theoris- from a range of texts, excerpts, stimulus materials ing Generating questions
about texts, themes, characters, issues
Classifying, collating, ordering, ideas, questions, issues, actions, characters, events sequencing Role-playing
characters, stereotypes, hypothetical situations
Interviewing
characters, writers, famous and invented people, in hypothetical workplace situations
Panels
characters, authors, issues, themes
Hot-seating
characters, writers, famous and invented people
Discussions and conversations
focusing, reflecting, analysing, hypothesising, musing, between peers, between student and teacher, about texts, events, experiences, issues
Music
as a stimulus for creative talking-into-writing
Staging a play
chosen or written by students
Dramatic presentations
of poems, scenes, dialogue, excerpts
Debates
issues, themes, laws, current affairs
Banquets and dinner parties
based on texts, events, themes
Casting interviews
for famous people or classmates for characters in plays, novels, poems
Mock Trials
text-based, invented
Prepared speeches
on topics, themes, issues, events
Pre-writing
exploring and articulating ideas, themes, issues, perspectives
Conferencing during writing
with peers and teacher
Recording
stories, narratives, conversations, ads, news, interviews, speeches
Using mobiles
protocols, reporting emergencies, getting information
Questioning games
‘Who am I?’, Celebrity heads
Listening for pleasure, meaning and critical understanding
poetry, stories, music, prose, famous speeches, parliament, mystery sounds, recordings
Listening for rhythms and rhymes
poems, songs, rhyming games
Improvised skits and speeches
using lines from plays as triggers: e.g. “To be, or not to be…”
Rehearsed readings
individual and choral
Dialogues
from texts, invented contexts
Music-story activities
create a story or poem to suit a piece of music and vice-versa
Media
mock press conferences, creating radio ads, interviews, news
Spontaneous talks
‘one minute’ sales talk for common objects, ‘what if...?’ games
Evaluating
responses, writing, stimulus materials, projects, presentations
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T See also Constructivism, Cooperative learning, Experiential learning, Group work, Language, Learning-centred English, Literature Circles, Reading, Representing, Viewing, Writing. JM References: Barnes, D. (1976) From Communication to Curriculum. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Britton, J. (1970) Language and Learning, Harmondsworth: Penguin. Reid, J., Forrestal, P. & Cook, J. (1990) Small Group Learning in the Classroom, Melbourne: Heinemann. Stratta, L., Dixon, J., & Wilkinson, A. (1973) Patterns of Language: Explorations in the Teaching of English, London: Heinemann. Wilkinson, A. (1975) Language and Education, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Tautology Generally refers to the unintentional and needless repetition of words which do not contribute to clarity of meaning. An example is ‘He wrote an autobiography of his life’. A common tautology is ‘unique and original’. DC
Technique (Greek: ‘art’, ‘craft’) The skills, craft and method required in composing a text. The composer’s technique is synonymous with the processes, approaches and selections made in producing a text. All texts are shaped by techniques: these range from formal techniques of structure and the use of conventions, to language techniques such as figurative language, dialogue, allegory, allusion and paradox. The quality of the composer’s technique is considered to be a measure of the quality of the text. TS Eliot (1888-1965) remarked that in an effective text, the “art conceals the art”. In other words, the technique of the composer is so skilful and accomplished that the text appears to have been composed effortlessly. JM
Television See Media
Tense (Old French: ‘time’ and Latin: ‘tempus’) A category of the verb or verbal inflections, such as present, past and future, that expresses the temporal relations between what is reported in a sentence and the time of its utterance. The two simple tenses are the present as in ‘She walks’ and the past as in ‘She walked’. To signal future tense, auxiliaries are used as in ‘She will walk.’ At times an auxiliary phrase of two, three or four words is required to indicate tense accurately, for example, ‘He used to be driven to work’; ‘He will have to be driven to work’. See also Language, Point of view, Writing. JM Reference: Wheeler, P.M. (2000) Mastering Words, 3rd edn. Sydney: Longman.
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Use the first lines of famous novels for:
∼ Group writing. Each student is given a blank sheet of paper with one of the first lines on it. They have 1-2 minutes to continue the story (time length depends on age of students). The story is then passed to the next student to continue for 1-2 minutes and so on, until the teacher decides on an appropriate point to conclude. The teacher should also write with the class. Once the story has been completed, they are returned to the original writer who then may read it to the class; edit it or reshape it into another form for publication. The strategy is an enjoyable activity, emphasising the concept of a ‘community of writers’. It develops awareness of voice, audience, purpose, tense, narrative structure, dialogue, narration, plot, climax, resolution, sequencing and character.
∼ The first lines may be used as exemplars for students’ developing understanding of crafting openings to their own stories. First lines can be used for analysis of, for instance, language; audience; engagement; point of view; tone; and narrative style.
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T Novel
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
A Tale of Two Cities
Author
First Line
Charles Dickens
It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity...
Brave New World Aldous Huxley
A squat grey building of only thirty-four storeys. Over the main entrance the words, Central London Hatchery and Conditioning Centre, and, in a shield, the World State's Motto, Community, Identity, Stability.
Catch-22
Joseph Heller
It was love at first sight. The first time Yossarian saw the chaplain he fell madly in love with him. Yossarian was in the hospital with a pain in his liver that fell just short of being jaundice.
Crime and Punishment
Fyodor Dostoyevsky
At the beginning of July, during a spell of exceptionally hot weather, towards evening, a certain young man came down on to the street from the little room he rented from some tenants in S--Lane and slowly, almost hesitantly, set off towards K---n Bridge.
Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone
J.K. Rowling
Mr and Mrs Dursley, of number four Privet Drive, were proud to say that they were perfectly normal, thank you very much.
Heart of Darkness
Joseph Conrad
The Nellie, a cruising yawl, swung to her anchor without a flutter of the sails, and was at rest.
Nineteen EightyFour
George Orwell
It was a bright cold day in April, and the clocks were striking thirteen.
Northern Lights
Philip Pullman
Lyra and her daemon moved through the darkening Hall, taking care to keep to one side, out of sight of the kitchen.
The Awakening
Kate Chopin
A green and yellow parrot, which hung in a cage outside the door, kept repeating over and over: "Allez vous-en! Allez vous-en!"
One Flew Over the Ken Kesey Cuckoo’s Nest
It was a dark and stormy night.
A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man
James Joyce
Once upon a time and a very good time it was there was a moocow coming down along the road and this moocow that was coming down along the road met a nicens little boy named baby tuckoo…
Pride and Prejudice
Jane Austen
It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.
Mark Haddon The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time
It was 7 minutes after midnight. The dog was lying on the grass in the middle of the lawn in front of Mrs Shears' house. Its eyes were closed.
The Hitch-Hiker's Guide to the Galaxy
Far out in the uncharted backwaters of the unfashionable end of the western spiral of the Galaxy lies a small unregarded yellow sun.
Douglas Adams
Tension The term coined by American poet Allen Tate (1899-1979) to describe the integrity and unity of a poem, in which the general and particular, connotation and denotation and aspects of abstraction and concreteness are resolved. The term came about by the removal of the prefix from two terms in logic: intension, based on the abstract attributes of objects which can be properly named by a word; and extension which refers to the specific object named by the word. DC 282
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T Text (Latin: ‘version’, ‘composition’) Any communication that involves or depends on language. Texts include written, spoken, visual, dramatic and non-verbal communications through one or more media such as print, sound, film, performance, media or multimedia. A text is not a naturally occurring phenomenon: it is constructed by a composer who makes deliberate decisions about the purpose, audience, form and content of the text. Such decisions are shaped and influenced by a range of factors including the values, ways of thinking, material conditions and context of the composer, codes and conventions, purpose and the nature of the audience, and the wider cultural context from out of which the text emerges. In English, texts have been differentiated in the following ways: ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
Literature (novels, poetry, short stories, drama) Film, Media and Multimedia (including visual texts) Nonfiction Everyday and workplace texts.
In practice, these categories are fluid: for example, ‘literary’ texts can embody elements and features of other types of texts. Texts rely on a set or sets of conventions and shared textual practices that are adopted and adapted continuously. These conventions not only shape the text, but also provide cues for the reader, viewer, audience and writer about how to read, view and create such texts. The interrelatedness of texts, through allusion, appropriation or similarities in form, content or both, is referred to as intertextuality. In English, students engage with the full range of texts as composers and responders: responding to others’ texts as readers/viewers and composing texts with an increasing understanding of the role and significance of purpose and audience in the shaping of meaning. See also Code, Convention, Genre, Literature, Types of texts. DC, JM
Text list A text list generally refers to a list of texts that are either prescribed or recommended for study. A prescribed list of texts for study, often referred to as prescriptions, indicates that a certain number of texts must be selected from the prescribed text list. A text list may also refer to recommended texts for study. Such a list may be developed by a state curriculum authority and means that schools are not obliged to select texts from the list, but may do so if they wish. A text list of recommended texts may also be developed by individual schools or teachers for local use, based on the needs, interests and abilities of those students. Such texts lists are often developed for in-school reading programs such as ‘DEAR’ (Drop Everything and Read). See also DEAR, Text, Text selection. DC
Text selection Refers to the selection of prescribed texts, often referred to as prescriptions, from a list authorised by a curriculum authority as part of the course of study for an external credential such as the NSW Higher School Certificate (HSC) or the Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE). Specific text requirements are often integral to the successful course completion, such as the mandatory study of prescribed prose fiction, nonfiction, poetry, drama and Shakespearean drama texts. Text selection may also refer to the selection of texts from a list of recommended texts developed by a state curriculum authority. This means that schools are not obliged to select texts from the list, but may do so if they wish. Similarly, text selection may refer to school or individual teacher-developed text lists, from which students select texts appropriate to the task being undertaken. Text selection is a crucial part of planning and programming in English. There are a number of useful guidelines for selecting texts for a range of age groups, abilities and interests. Text selection should always account for the needs, interests and abilities of the students in a particular class. Consider: ∼ ‘why’ you choose certain texts ∼ ‘how’ you choose certain texts ∼ the place of student taste and choice in an English program The English Teacher’s Handbook
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T ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
the balance of types of texts (literary, nonfiction, film, media, multimedia) the balance of perspectives (Australian, Indigenous, multicultural, gender and so on) the pedagogy applicable to the range of types of texts selected, and intertextuality in the selection of texts and resources.
State and territory curriculum authorities provide guidance for the selection of texts. The following websites supplement those resources by providing additional material for consideration in text selection. DC
Textual integrity Referred to in the New South Wales Board of Studies English Stage 6 Syllabus (1999) as “the unity of a text; its coherent use of form and language to produce an integrated whole in terms of meaning and value” (Board of Studies, 1999: 145). Textual integrity requires awareness of all the constituent elements of a work, their interrelatedness, and in particular, authorial intent and the response of the reader/viewer. The concept of textual integrity can be seen to have its roots in the New Critics’ notion of ‘organic unity’: in an effective literary work, the parts contribute to the aesthetic and literary quality of the whole. See also New Criticism. DC, JM Reference: Board of Studies, NSW (1999) English Stage 6 Syllabus, Sydney: Board of Studies.
Theatre of the Absurd The term coined by Martin Esslin in his book Theatre of the Absurd (1961) and refers to plays that present a world which is confused and bewildering. The movement had its roots in plays that emerged in France in the mid-20th Century. Absurd plays often contain qualities of hyper reality and defy the conventions of the so called ‘well-made play’. Some playwrights who are often grouped under this umbrella term include: Samuel Beckett, Arthur Adamov, Eugène Ionesco, Jean Genet, Harold Pinter, Tom Stoppard, Friedrich Dürrenmatt, Fernando Arrabal, Edward Albee and Jean Tardieu. See also Drama, Well-made play. JH
Theatre superstitions Many theatre people are very superstitious. Here are some of the common theatre superstitions in western theatre: ∼ Good luck. It is considered very bad luck to wish anyone involved in a performance good luck.
Instead, actors and others say ‘break a leg’. ∼ Whistling. It is considered very bad luck to whistle backstage. This derives from the fact that in
earlier centuries sailors controlled the ropes that moved the scenery and they signalled to each other by whistling. ∼ Macbeth. It is very bad luck to say Macbeth, or quote from Macbeth, in a theatre. Theatre people refer to Macbeth as the Scottish play. It is, however, appropriate to say ‘Macbeth’ outside a theatre. ∼ Wearing green. Many theatre people believe it is bad luck to wear green in a theatre. If a person breaks any of these ‘rules’ the usual remedy is that the person must exit the theatre, spin round three times, swear, spit and then request permission to re-enter the theatre. JH
Theme (Greek: ‘proposition’) The principal ideas and subject matter of a text that are interpreted by the responder in the act of engaging with the text. Texts may have more than one theme. A theme is often an organising feature of a text, influencing character, plot, narrative technique, form and structure. Programs in English often contain units of work that are thematically based, enabling 284
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T students to experience a wide range of texts and experiences that are unified or cohere within the particular thematic framework. The possibilities for thematic units of work are endless and are designed on the basis of the needs, interests and capacities of a particular class. Examples of thematic units include: ‘identity’; adversity and challenge’; ‘survival’; ‘fantasy worlds’ and ‘relationships’. See also Drama, Fiction, Narrative, Poetry, Unit of work. JM
Thesis (Greek: ‘placing’) In English, a thesis may refer to: 1. an argument that sets out a proposition about a text or idea 2. a sustained critical, scholarly and/or research-based study completed as part or full requirements for a postgraduate degree, and 3. one of the three elements of logic – thesis, antithesis and synthesis. See also Antithesis, Argument, Dialectic, Synthesis. DC, JM
Thriller Closely allied to the mystery story, detective story, gothic novel, ghost story, and spy fiction, the thriller is characterised by excitement and suspense and includes a greater array of possible plotlines, as opposed to the ‘whodunit’ which is based on the solution to a mystery, usually a murder. The thriller can encompass adventure, espionage, deductive reasoning and murder, and the hero is often ruggedly masculine, although women are becoming more common in this genre. The hero must overcome the plans of the antagonists which are usually enacted on a grand scale: for example a coup de tats, mass murder, political assassination or terrorism. The settings for such adventures are often spectacularly extreme locations such as mountain peaks, the Arctic or Antarctic poles, deserts, oceans, cities and so on. The quest of the hero involves a fast-moving plot in which explosions, car chases, gunfire and general mayhem claim the lives of other characters and sometimes that of the protagonist himself/ herself. Writers such as Geoffrey Household (1900-88), Dash ell Hammett (1894-1961), Raymond Chandler (1888-1959), Agatha Christie (1890-1976), Leslie Charters (1907-93), Dennis Wheatley (1897-1977), Hammond Inns ((1913-98) Len Dighton (1929), John Le CarrÈ (1931), Frederick Forsyth (1938) and Robert Ludlum (1927-2001) are just some of a plethora of writers whose works can be classified as thrillers. The thriller is also a very common film genre. Some commentators classify the thriller genre into subsets such as the action thriller, conspiracy thriller, psychological thriller, medical thriller, supernatural thriller, legal thriller, political thriller and spy thriller. Examples of films in this genre include: All the President’s Men (1976); The Bourne Identity (2002), The Bourne Supremacy (2004); The Constant Gardener (2005); and The Bourne Ultimatum (2007). See also Fiction, Film, Genre, Literature, Novel. DC
Tone Refers to the mood, ambience and feeling generated and communicated by and within a text. Tone is created through the use of language and language devices and often reflects and conveys the attitude or perspective of the composer. The tone may reflect the attitude of the composer to both the subject of the text and the implied reader of the text. The tone of a work may be, for example, ironic, satirical, cynical, arrogant or congenial. Tone is often a subtle and complex quality of a text and depends on the responder’s capacity to be attuned to the nuances of language and meaning. See also Atmosphere, Mood, Point of view, Style. JM
Tragedy (Greek: ‘of the goat’) Tragedy portrays a world in which a hero or heroine, often of exalted status, confronts adversity and is eventually defeated by a combination of personal flaws, or the intervention of ‘gods’, nature or other external forces. In modern tragedies, however, the protagonist The English Teacher’s Handbook
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T is usually an ordinary person (e.g. Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman, 1949). The term has its origins in Greek theatre and is most often a genre associated with drama. In Poetics, Aristotle (384-322 BC) set out a theory of tragedy, defining it as: an imitation of an action that is admirable, complete (composed of an introduction, a middle part and an ending), and possesses magnitude; in language made pleasurable, each of its species separated in different parts; performed by actors, not through narration; effecting through pity and fear the purification of such emotion. The playwright Arthur Miller (1915-2005) once described the tragic feeling as that which is evoked in us as an audience when we are in the presence of a character who is willing to give up his or her life in order to secure one thing: their sense of personal dignity. So often in Shakespeare’s tragic plays, for example, the protagonist’s downfall results as a consequence not so much of his or her ‘weakness’, but of a so-called ‘tragic flaw’. The protagonist makes a fatal mistake, frequently when their reason is overshadowed by passion or impetuosity. In tragedy, the human mistake cannot be redeemed; all mistakes exact a very heavy price, not only for the protagonists, but often for the innocent people around them. Indeed, one of the pressing questions that tragedy poses is ‘why do the innocent suffer for that over which they have had no control?’ In Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra, for example, characters such as Eros, Iras and Charmian die because of their loyalty and proximity to the two tragic protagonists. The concept of the ‘scapegoat’ or ‘sacrifice’ is linked to the origins of the word ‘tragedy’ meaning ‘goat song’ or ‘song of the goat’. In the tragic universe, ‘time’ becomes the great enemy. As the tragedy proceeds, the choices narrow and the escape routes for the characters close off, until the only means of restoring personal dignity and honour is through death. Structurally and thematically, tragedy often hinges on the crucial choices or decisions made by the characters. Once a ‘fatal’ choice has been made, the plot moves inexorably towards the death of the protagonist. See also Antagonist, Drama, Protagonist. JH, JM
Transformation
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The result of adaptation and/or appropriation. For example, Jane Austen’s (1775-1817) novel Emma (1816) undergoes a transformation at the hands of film director Amy Heckerling (Clueless, 1995) who adapts and recontextualises the 19th century novel and thus transforms it generically as well as culturally, socially and historically. Margaret Atwood’s Good Bones (1992) is a collection of short stories, sketches and creative pieces that transform stereotyped characters, familiar stories and themes for the purposes of satire and parody. See also Adaptation. MP, JM ∼ If students are studying, or are familiar with, Hamlet, read Margaret Atwood’s short story, “Gertrude Talks Back” available at:
∼
∼ Use this story as a model for students to compose their own transformations, taking one aspect or character from a familiar text and composing a piece from an alternative point of view.
Travel writing A broad genre of nonfiction writing that includes prose, faction, travelogues, itineraries, travel guides, travelblogs, travel reviews, memoirs, diaries and journals. See also Genre, Nonfiction, Writing. JM
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T Travelblog ∼ Students individually or in small groups can create their own travelblogs on this
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free site: www.travelpod.com
∼ The site includes sections for blogs, photos, and mapping a journey. It also provides links and hyperlinks to sites that provide information about places around the globe. It can be accessed by others and is interactive. This site can also be used to create a travelblog for a character in a text being studied in class.
A Coin’s Life: ∼ Collect coins from different countries. Each student creates a character profile for the coin (personifying it with a name, age, country of origin, etc). They can then work in pairs to interview one another ‘in role’. This can be used as a stimulus for creating an itinerary, travelogue, diary entry or travelblog for the coin. These can be collated to form an anthology of travel writing, accompanied by visual images.
∼ Use the picture book Letters from Felix (Annette Langan) about a girl’s toy rabbit that travels around the world, sending letters home to his owner, Sophie. The letters are included in this picture book. This can be used as a model for students to create their own picture book based on a text being studied, or create their own from other stimulus.
Trilogy (Greek: ‘set of three’) Refers to a group of three novels, plays or films and more recently, video games, which are generally linked by a common theme and characters. Originally the term referred to a group of three tragedies presented by individual playwrights at the drama festivals in Athens in the 5th century BC. A recent example of a novel trilogy is The Border Trilogy, by Cormac McCarthy (1933-): All the Pretty Horses (1992); The Crossing (1994); and Cities of the Plain (1998). DC
Trope (Greek: ‘turn’) Generally any rhetorical or figurative device that is used to associate one thing with another. A trope is often part of the convention of a genre. The Middle Ages saw a development in its use through the interpolation of words or music into the plainsong settings of the Roman Catholic liturgy. The canonic elegy uses tropes extensively – tropes for fertility (e.g. flowers) and resurrection (e.g. light). The final stanzas of Percy Bysshe Shelley’s (1792-1822) “Adonais” (1821) provide an example of the elegiac trope of literary inheritance and immortality whereby the power that accompanies the deification of the deceased is finally absorbed by the mourner: 54 That Light whose smile kindles the Universe That beauty in which all things work and move,... The fire for which all thirst; now beams on me, Consuming the last clouds of cold mortality. 55 The breath whose might I have invoked in song Descends on me. See also Metaphor. DC, JM
Types of texts The following table is not designed to be exhaustive. Instead, it can be used as a guide to the great variety of types of texts that students can create, engage with, critique and enjoy in English. The types of texts listed here may be sub-categories of broader genres, or genres in themselves. See also Genre. JM The English Teacher’s Handbook
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T Journal
Letter
Resume
Confession
Banner
Anecdote
Memo
Conversation
Directory
PrÈcis
Description
Dialogue
Response
List
Schedule
Application
Editorial
Placard
Novella
Summary
Commentary
Fact sheet
Prayer
Manifesto
Monologue
Case study
Newspaper
Recipe
Slogan
Rebuttal
Newsletters
Poster
Novel
Itinerary
SMS
Review
Ballad
Manual
Questionnaire
Bulletin
Song
Cinquain
Voice bubble
Directions
Demonstration
Haiku
Ode
Travelogue
Debate
Poem
Sonnet
Dirge
Prospectus
Blog
Limerick
Ubi sunt
Epigram
Guide
Transcript
Epic
Epithalamion
Acknowledgement
Dictionary
Shape poem
Elegy
Story
Article
Webquest
Graffiti
Epitaph
Affidavit
Biography
Children’s book
Pun
Eulogy
Autobiography
Brochure
Acrostic poem
Minutes
Advertisement
Broadsheet
Caption
Gloss
Play script
Announcement
Headline
Myth
Memoir
Forecast
Blurb
Folk tale
Catalogue
Interview
Essay
Caption
Cartoon
Parody
Obituary
Charter
Fairy tale
Dramatic monologue Joke
Postcard
Instruction
Legend
Biographical sketch
Record
Time-line
Magazine
Lyric
Guess who
Notes
Certificate
Petition
Diary
Request
Pamphlet
Greeting
Proclamation
Thumbnail sketch
Crossword
Mind-map
Log
Sermon
Menu
Notice
Synopsis
Reference
Testimonial
Puzzle
Booklet
PowerPoint
Manifesto
Critique
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U Unit of work Part of a teaching and learning program. Programs are made up of a series of sequenced units of work, and units of work are implemented through a series of sequenced and integrated lesson plans. A unit of work is a standard means of organising, structuring and implementing an English syllabus in order to integrate the language modes and types of texts. Units of work are generally designed prior to the teaching and learning cycle and aim to cater for the needs, interests, capacities, and the intellectual, social and linguistic readiness of the students for whom it is intended. Units may also be designed through consultation with students. A unit of work generally runs for a period of 2-6 weeks. Sometimes, a unit may run for 8 or 9 weeks, although this is unusual, particularly with primary and junior secondary classes. Flexibility in planning and programming is crucial in order to continuously cater for the learning needs of students. There is a range of types of units of work and many online resources available for assisting in the development of units of work. A useful site is the Tasmanian Education English resource site:
Sample of types of units of work Theme or topic-based
• • • • • • • • • • •
‘Me, Myself, I’ – Exploring individuality ‘Stranded’ – endurance and adventure ‘Survival of the Fittest’ – war and peace Heroes, heroines and villains Australian icons Migrant experience The Writer's Imagination “The News, the Net and the Media” “Look and Listen” -Stories from the Local Community 20th century Heroes Depictions of the Female Heroine
Text-based
•
Novel, film, poetry, drama, short story, non-fiction, etc
Genre-based
• • • • • •
‘Tales From the Grave’ – supernatural, horror ‘Whodunit?’ - Crime/detective/mystery genre Autobiography Comedy and Satire ‘Slick Flicks’ – film Media – soap operas; reality TV; sitcoms
A feature of language
• • • • •
Advertising Creative writing ‘Hook, Line and Sinker’ - Rhetoric Propaganda Censorship
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U Project-based
• • • •
Production and performance Web-based composing and representation Filmmaking Script-writing
A unit of work usually includes the following components: Component
Requirement
Component
Requirement
Unit title
Identify the focus for the unit.
Class, students, length
Situational details.
Rationale
An overview of the reasons the unit of being taught to meet the needs of students, individually and as a class.
Outcomes
Identify the syllabus outcomes to be addressed in the unit.
Content
Provide details of the content (texts, topics, themes), referring to syllabus requirements where appropriate.
Pedagogical approaches
Identify the key pedagogical approaches to be utilised during the teaching and learning cycle (include, for example, small group, whole class, pairs and individual work; learning styles; and activity-based, problem-solving or workshop approaches etc).
Practical activities
Describe the main focal activities of the unit and scope and sequencing of lessons.
ICT
Describe how technology will be embedded in the unit.
Resources
Professional readings; stimulus materials; ICT resources; wide reading/viewing lists for students; other relevant materials to be used in implementing the unit.
Assessment
Detail all assessment tasks – assessment for, as and of learning. Clearly link to outcomes and learning activities.
Evaluation
Describe the strategies to be employed to evaluate the unit.
See also Lesson plan, Program. DC, JM
Utilitarianism The 18th century theory of ethics established in England by Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) which judged the value of an ethical position by its usefulness to society. Bentham rejected the notion of Rousseau’s ‘social contract’ and sought something more basic as the core for social action – ‘Utility’. He labelled his moral theory ‘Utilitarianism’ by which he meant that the highest moral good is ‘the greatest happiness to the greatest number’ of people. Therefore, an action is useful if it contributes to this condition, and is not if it does not. He promoted the view that good and evil are based on pleasure and pain. Therefore, every act must be considered together with its consequences, and these can be measured by the intensity and duration of the pleasure it produces minus the pain which attends it. Bentham believed that a calculus of pleasure and pain could be determined. Individuals pursue pleasure and therefore the ‘good’, and avoid pain and with it evil. All social institutions, including the economic ones and especially the state, should be guided accordingly. The theory was advanced and modified in the 19th century by John Stuart Mill (1806-73) who sought to define ‘happiness’ in qualitative rather than quantitative terms. See also Models of English. DC
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V Valediction (Latin: ‘farewell’) A farewell poem or speech spoken by or to the person who is to depart. A wellknown poetic valediction is John Donne’s (1572-1631) “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” (1633). JM
Values Refers to the: ∼ personal, cultural and ethical positions that students bring to the study of language and texts ∼ pedagogy that encourages the articulation and development of these ∼ principles that inform evaluations which assign worth and significance to language and texts
by students and others, and ∼ values that are operating, promoted or prominent within and through texts and language.
All activity in English can be said to be value-laden in that any engagement with and use of language assumes and requires a set of values. At the most basic level, teachers make explicit their values through the selection of texts and the pedagogy employed to teach these texts; in their attitude towards learners and learning; and through the modelling of language in use. The range of activities, approaches and language experiences offered to students also reflects the values of the teacher and, ideally, takes account of and includes the values of the students. Within a group of individuals in an English class, there will be a variety and diversity of values. Metacognition strategies assist students in clarifying, articulating, and possibly modifying their values, weighing these against the values of others, and developing a framework for recognising the plurality of values that exists in a group or broader cultural contexts. The study of values in English necessarily requires engagement with ethical issues: what is spoken, read and viewed and why; who is advantaged or disadvantaged by such activity; who/what is excluded and included in texts and discourses and why; how are competing values negotiated; and what are the ethical considerations in the production and dissemination of language and texts? When students engage with and respond to texts, and create their own, they can be encouraged to explore the values that are informing their perspectives. The process of evaluating and assigning value to texts, deciding on hierarchies of value and justifying these judgements, is a crucial endeavour in English in the senior years, but can also be addressed with younger students. See also Ethical criticism, Evaluation, Literature, Rhetorical criticism. JM
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1. When studying a text, students may be encouraged to ask:
∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
Would you like to be friends with this character? Why/why not? Does one of the characters remind you of someone you know? Explain why. Did this text challenge your values or ways of thinking? How? In the course of this texts, do any of the characters change? How and why? What were the crises and challenges faced by the characters and how did they deal with these?
∼ What are the values evident in the text – are the innocent rewarded? Are the 2. 3.
4. 5.
villains punished? What elements or aspects of the texts seem to be promoted (e.g. material success; relationships; physical strength; intellectual acumen; passive compliance etc)? Select a topical and perhaps controversial issues in the media (e.g. stem cell debate, cloning, censorship, binge drinking). Students research a range of media reports and collate the evidence for and against, making explicit the value systems that they can detect in the media reports. These may be informed by religion, age, race, gender, language background, sexuality and so on. Explore the ethics of journalism by debating the issues of ‘revealing sources’, ‘on the record’ versus ‘off the record’ and confidentiality. Students are given a scenario that asks them to consider how they would react to a friend disclosing something confidential that seems to have significant implications for the safety of the friend or others. How would students deal with this situation?
Verisimilitude (Latin: ‘likeness’) A term associated with realism in literature, film and other texts, it refers to the quality of mimesis, or the capacity of the artistic work to mirror, represent and reflect external ‘reality’. The concept of verisimilitude in art has been questioned by structuralist and poststructuralist theories, since, according to these theories, ‘reality’ is culture-bound and it is therefore impossible to authentically capture a form of enduring, universal or eternal ‘reality’ in art. See also Realism. JM
Vernacular (Latin:. ‘domestic’) The language specific to the individual’s/group’s particular context. It is a term often associated with dialect and region-specific language. It is also used to describe colloquial language of everyday communication in informal contexts. In 1982, Australian poet Les A Murray published The Vernacular Republic: Poems 1961-1981 which explores issues of national identity and themes of ordinary, quotidian life, celebrating the ‘vernacular’ qualities of rural Australian people and communities. See also Accent, Dialect, Language, Register. JM
Victorian period The period in England under the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901). The early decades of the Victorian period were marked by relative peace, political stability and increasing economic prosperity. The period is celebrated for the ‘rise of the novel’ as a popular genre. Bridging the Romantic period that preceded it and the modern era that followed it, the Victorian period saw a movement towards realism in fiction by the end of the century, especially in the grim portrayals of life in the novels of Charles Dickens (1812-1870), Elizabeth Gaskell (1810-1865) and Thomas Hardy (1840-1928). Also writing at this time were the Brontë sisters, (Charlotte, 1816-1855; Emily, 1814-1848; and Anne, 1820-1849), William Thackeray (1811-1863), Wilkie Collins (1824-1889), Anthony Trollope (1815-1882), George Eliot (1818-1880), Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809-1882), Beatrix Potter (1866-1943), Robert Browning (1812-1889), Elizabeth Barrett Browning (18061861) and Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844-1889). JM
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Viewing One of the six language modes in English (along with writing, reading, talking, listening and representing). See also Conventions, Film, Image, Media, Representing, Visual text. JM
Villanelle (Italian: ‘rustic’) A poem with an intricate stanza and rhyme scheme: five stanzas of three lines each are followed by a quatrain. From a composer’s point of view, the form of the villanelle is considered difficult and complex. An example of a villanelle is the Dylan Thomas (1914-1951) poem “Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night” (1951). DC
Visual literacy Contemporary culture is highly image-based. The study of visual texts (e.g. film, multimedia, television, photography, paintings and other media such as, for example, advertising that relies on visual images) occupies a central place in the English education. Innovations in technology have seen a burgeoning of multimodal texts relying, for instance, on print, sound and visual elements. Accompanying the broadened definition of ‘text’ has come a range of theoretical and pedagogical developments and approaches to enable teachers and students to build knowledge and understanding of, and skills in reading, analysing, interpreting, evaluating and creating visual texts. The capacity to engage in such learning requires visual literacy: the awareness that, like printed texts, visual texts are constructed in particular ways, to serve particular purposes and address particular audiences. Like print texts, visual texts operate according to (or against) sets of conventions and (visual) codes. In their acquisition and application of visual literacy skills, students learn to ‘read’ visual texts as they would ‘read’ print texts – alert to the range of ways that texts operate and viewers interpret, discriminate and critique in order to come to meaning. For explanations of the technical terms, codes and conventions of visual texts, for an approach to analysing a static image, and for strategies for teaching film and media see Film, Image, Media, Multimedia, Visual text. JM
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Using the table of Film and Visual media terms (see Appendix), analyse these images. Apply the appropriate terms to describe the techniques employed by the composer to shape the image (e.g. shot, angle, composition, lighting, focus, frame, perspective, point of view).
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Images reproduced with permission, © Paul Manuel, 2008
Visual text Any text that communicates through visual media. Visual texts include images, films, visual arts, symbols, performances, body language, logos, comics, and any multimedia, multimodal or other texts that include visual images. Visual texts are pervasive in culture and are part of the range of texts studied, created and critiqued in English. See also Film, Image, Visual literacy. JM Visual image analysis (Based on the image below or any other image)
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Examine the structure of the image:
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∼ What perspective is evident in the image? Is the image taken from above (implying that the viewer is ‘looking down’ on the subject); from below (inferring a position of superiority of the viewer); or front on (implying a commonality between viewer and subject, inviting involvement)?
∼ Where is the eye drawn to? The middle, bottom, sides or top? Often the ‘real’ of an image is at the centre or bottom, and the ‘ideal’ is at the top (indicating aspirations).
∼ Are we drawn to view the image from left to right, right to left, bottom to top, top to bottom, centre to left, centre to right etc? Western convention assumes we read ‘left to right’, so visual images often deploy this strategy to invite the viewer to focus on a particular part of the image.
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Positioning and framing ∼ Where are the subjects positioned in the frame of the image? What is the relationship between the subjects/objects in the frame? Does one subject dominate? What is the effect of this?
∼ What are the ‘vectors’ in the image? Are the subjects looking or ‘gazing’ at something or someone else in the image, or something beyond the frame?
Distance, lighting and modality ∼ Is the image a close-up, long-shot or medium-shot. The distance of the image implies the extent to which the viewer is ‘involved’ or invited to engage with the image.
∼ Are there symbols, archetypes, icons or familiar objects in the image? Do these trigger associations with other images, ideas and experiences?
∼ What is the lighting in the image? Are there shadows and highlights, flat lighting or spotlighting? What is the impact on this for the viewer?
∼ How does the composition of the image contributed to the overall impact? ∼ What is the modality of the image? Is it a ‘real’ image, an action shot, a manipulated image or a combination of these? Is the image focused or blurred?
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∼ Does the image have a caption or headline. The eye is drawn to the printed part of the text initially. If there is printed text, how does this contribute to the visual image?
Analysing covers (books, CDs, DVDs) (Also a pre-reading/viewing and prediction activity) Students work in pairs with a book, CD or DVD cover. Without looking at any part of the book/CD/DVD except its cover, discuss the following:
∼ The title: what does it imply or suggest? ∼ Visual image (see Image for analysis scaffold). What does the visual image suggest about the content of the text and the intended audience?
∼ What is the time period or century when the text may be set? ∼ What country or place is indicated from the cover? ∼ Does the cover indicate who the central character/s may be? ∼ Does the cover indicate the genre or thematic focus of the text? ∼ What does the publication information indicate about the text? ∼ Is there a blurb on the front or back? What does this contribute to the cover? ∼ What is the most eye-catching or appealing aspect of the cover? ∼ Is there an obvious relationship between the images and the printed text? ∼ How is colour, perspective, light and positioning of subjects used to compose the image?
∼ What is the layout of the cover? ∼ Are there advertising and/or logos on the cover?
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V
Reproduced with permission, © Tommy Murphy, 2008
Vocational education An across the curriculum focus which emphasises the connections between knowledge, understanding, skills and values and their application in workplace and other settings. In English, vocational education outcomes are addressed through the broad engagement with, and creation and study of, language, literature and other texts. The range and breadth of experiences in English contribute in a functional way to students’ vocational needs, although such experiences are not limited to the merely utilitarian or immediately ‘relevant’ demands of a particular workplace. Rather, the knowledge, understanding, skills and values acquired in English are intended to equip all students with the confidence and capacity to live fully, purposefully and productively in their personal, social and working lives. See also Workplace texts. DC, JM
Voice The distinctive persona, narrator or speaker in or of a text. The voice is integral to the effective communication of ideas and meaning and is shaped by language, tone, point of view, narrative technique and the composer’s style. The concept of voice in texts is associated with the idea of a controlling consciousness shaping the way the persona, narrator or speaker communicates/speaks through the text to the reader/viewer/audience. The voice of a text is not the same as the composer’s voice: voice, like character and tone, is a constructed feature of the text and is achieved through the use of language and form. The narrator/s and character/s within a text also have a ‘voice’ which is shaped through narrative description, dialogue and other techniques to represent personality and ways of thinking. Some characters in texts have a stronger and more prominent voice than others. The term voice carries with it connotations of authority, with a powerful voice within a text engaging and persuading the reader/viewer to ‘willingly suspend disbelief’ and enter the world of the text. See also Character, Film, Hierarchy of discourses, Implied author, Narrative, Narratology, Narrator, Persona, Point of view, Tone. DC, JM
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W Well-made play An old-fashioned term referring to a formula for a play generally ascribed to Eugene Scribe (1791-1861). Many 19th century plays fit this genre. The well-made play is logical. In the exposition, information is supplied to the audience, followed by action and suspense. Usually the protagonist experiences a number of complications rising to a climax followed by a dénouement or resolution of events. JH
Western A genre of fiction, film and television largely set in the western states of the United States of America, usually in the period between the Civil War and approximately 1890. The genre dates back to James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) who wrote about life in the frontier. Francis Bret Harte (1836-1902) co-established Overland Monthly which provided an avenue for his stories and those of other western writers. Harold Bell Wright (1872-1944), Zane Grey (1872-1939), Eugene Manlove Rhodes (1869-1934) wrote popular western fiction. These novels depict the conquest of the wild frontier, life with the Indians, cowboys, isolation, cattle-rustling, gun-fights, lawlessness, justice, prospecting and so on. Conflict between Indians and settlers or the United States Cavalry was usually central to the plotline, as was the roaming gunslinger coming to the rescue of those in need and battling renegade cowboys. Western television shows, such as for example, Bonanza and Gunsmoke, were popular from the 1950s, depicting the values of honour, family and sacrifice. Later shows in the 1960s and 1970s took a more cynical view by emphasising the brutality and primitivism of life, often inverting the hero/antihero roles. See also Genre, Fiction, Film. DC
Whole language What has been called a ‘whole language’ approach to reading, like many innovations and developments in education, commenced as a reaction to existing ‘exclusive’ methods of teaching reading, such as a heavy emphasis on teaching only phonics, or on only ‘look-say’, or only on a kind of ‘word-by-word’ approach. Opponents of ‘whole language’ approaches sometimes describe it mistakenly as “whole word”. As properly understood, ‘whole language’ involves a whole range of strategies in developing the whole range of skills that students need to acquire and develop in order to become competent readers. Whole language emphasises the importance of the context within which words (and their ‘sub-units’ of letters and syllables) are situated in texts. A whole language approach involves motivating the students to read; providing them with texts that engage their interest; ensuring that the students have plenty of opportunities to read; developing the students’ phonemic/phonetic relationships skills; and concentrating on understanding and responding to meaning in texts. Students are encouraged to search for cues/clues to arrive at the meaning of words in context, and how they should be sounded. As with many educational approaches and strategies, some claiming to be teaching whole language can distort the original emphases and advocate extremist either/or positions – such as, for example, The English Teacher’s Handbook
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W that the teaching of phonetic/phonemic skills should be avoided or minimised. Opponents of whole language approaches often caricature them or mistakenly define them as “whole word” approaches – but this ‘strawperson’ phenomenon is by no means limited to this area of English in education. See also Bullock Report, Language, Literacy, Phonics, Reading. PB Reference: Goodman, K. S. (1986) What's whole in whole language? Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Wide reading program “Wide reading was one of the most obvious advances and one of the more accessible teaching methods advocated by the post-Dartmouth ‘new English’.” (Tucker, 2004: 205) English programs, for every year and stage of schooling, should include three kinds of reading experience for all students: 1. Whole class or shared reading experiences Every class needs an in-depth reading program through which students are encouraged to reflect upon texts and to develop their skills the in critiquing and appreciation of literature: ∼ the class novel, short stories, drama, poetry etc ∼ reading aloud to students – e.g. serialising a book, reading a poem by a chosen poet each day for a week. 1. Small group or pairs reading experiences Every class needs opportunities for individuals and groups to choose from a wide range of texts and to share and refine responses within these more intimate settings: ∼ within a thematic unit, have students choose from a range of relevant fiction and nonfiction – groups will form accordingly based on interest and selections ∼ allow groups to explore a composer’s oeuvre – novelist, poet, dramatist, journalist, etc ∼ alongside the class novel, for example, students may also be reading a range of other literature and texts that are relevant to and expand upon the reader’s experience. 1. Individual reading experiences Every class needs a wide reading program in which students select books freely for silent reading for pleasure or as part of Literature Circles in which the sharing of one’s enjoyment is a voluntary act: ∼ students self-select material to read during time that is specifically set aside for personal reading – this can form part of the student’s reading contract, or reading log, or Literature Circles ∼ such reading can form the basis of book reviews, sharing, and further reading. For an extensive range of suggestions for a wide reading programs, see Ernie Tucker (2004), “Wide reading” in Re-Viewing English in the 21st Century eds. W Sawyer and E Gold. See also Children’s Literature, Literature Circles, Picture books, Reading, Text selection, Young Adult Literature. JM Reference: Tucker, E. (2004) “Wide reading” in Re-Viewing English in the 21st Century, eds. W. Sawyer & E. Gold, Sydney: Phoenix Education.
Willing suspension of disbelief A term coined by S T Coleridge (1771-1834) in 1817 to describe the concept of the responder’s willingness to accept the ‘fiction’ and illusion of imaginative texts, embracing the constructed work (its characters, events, setting, action etc) as ‘real’. The responder voluntarily agrees to enter into the imaginative world created by the text, complying with the artifice of form and content in order to become immersed in the world of the text. The capacity of the responder to suspend disbelief, to maintain this disbelief throughout the entire text, and be caught up in the fictional world relies on the effectiveness of the composer’s use of techniques such as, for example, characterisation (and consistency of this); narrative structure; and what has been termed ‘textual integrity’. This concept has been challenged by critical approaches that advocate resistant readings of imaginative texts. See also Alienation effect, Fiction, Illusion, Imagination. JM 298
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W Wit (Old English: ‘to know’) This term has shifted in meaning over the centuries and formerly meant ‘knowledge’. In the Middle Ages it denoted ‘intellect’ and ‘inner senses’ as contrasted with the ‘the five outer senses’. In the Renaissance, it came to mean ‘wisdom’ or ‘mental activity’. In the time of the metaphysical poets, the term meant ‘fancy’ as relating to the imagination and the individual’s creative powers. Though its meaning was debated widely during the Neoclassical period, ‘wit’ is generally held to mean the intellectual capacity and talent to make unexpected associations between disparate words or ideas, resulting in a clever or humorous effect. Often, wit is a verbal demonstration, while humour need not be. See also Language, Writing. DC
Workplace texts Any text that is related or relevant to a workplace. These may include reports, brochures, briefing papers, catalogues, invoices, databases, PowerPoint presentations, spreadsheets, business cards, logos, resumes, forms, reviews, summaries, memos, emails, letters and job advertisements. In English, students study a range of these types of texts and language in units of work that situate such texts – their purpose, audience and conventions – within meaningful contexts. For example, when studying a film, play or novel, students may create resumes, emails, letters and job advertisements in role as a character/s. Students also learn about these types of texts through units of work that focus on the language of the workplace or the commercial world (media, advertising etc). The pedagogy of group learning and collaboration in English also equips students with the work-related skills, attitudes and values relevant to effective communication and team-work. DC
Writing development (Developmental Models of Writing) James Britton and the team he led at the London Institute of Education in the 1970s developed a model of writing based on the work of Jean Piaget (1896-1980), Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) and James Moffett. From their study of a large number of written texts from students aged 11-18, the team developed the concepts of audience and purpose to identify the necessary foci of attention as writers shape their writing. They then calibrated the linguistic features of writing present as writers’ progress developmentally from writing close-to-self to writing for distanced audiences. In formulating a developmental model of writing they acknowledged the fundamental importance of familiarity with narratives and a wide range of writing models in developing writing competence. See also Language, Writing. RA
Writing Since the 1960s, a great deal of research and scholarship has been devoted to understanding how to optimise students’ knowledge and understanding of, and skills in, writing. The predominant models of writing in English pedagogy have emphasised writing as a process and the development of writing skills as a complex and recursive endeavour, requiring collaboration between an expert teacher and engaged, active students. Over the past five decades, there have been a number models for teaching writing and these can be summarised (although inevitably over-simplified) as follows: 1. Writing as process requiring the writer to move from the ‘pre-writing stage’ through a drafting and editing stage, to publication. The process of writing demands careful attention to the craft of writing and the centrality of the purpose and audience in writing. The teacher is an informed, supportive and interested mentor, intervening to provide the writer/s with the necessary knowledge, understanding and skills to (Murray, 1980) 2. Writing as a process is a developmental experience, with the writer moving back and forth through stages of the writing process in order to shape and publish a product. Writing requires a communal environment that values the art and craft of writing, the experimentation and growing confidence of the writer, and the centrality of the writer’s voice. (Graves, 1983)
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W 3. Writing requires “4 essentials”: ‘Writing is important”; “Writing is a craft”; “Writing is mainly learned by writing”; and “Writing is intended for readers”. “Abundant reading and purposeful talk interweave continually with the writing.” (Walshe, 1980) 4. Writing requires a knowledge and understanding of the genres of writing. The conventions and structures of the range of genres of writing must be mastered by students. This involves an understanding of the social purpose of texts, and the ways in which power relations are inscribed in certain prevailing genres. This model emphasises a knowledge of the form over content. (Christie, in Sawyer, 2004) Contemporary English syllabus documents are informed by a range of assumptions about writing that include the following: ∼ Students learn best by doing, not by merely examining principles. Teachers offer an abundant and engaging range of writing tasks for meaningful purposes and real audiences. ∼ Purpose and audience shape all writing. Teachers make this clear to students before expecting them to write. ∼ We not only learn to write, but we write to learn. Writing is a means of discovering, connecting, clarifying and communicating what we know and who we are. ∼ Writing is a process, not a ‘one-shot-act’ to produce a product for the teacher. ∼ Students can learn to serve as their own editors. ∼ The writing situation involves four elements: the writer, the reader, the ideas and the craft. “I (writer) intend to persuade you (reader) of the importance of X (ideas) and will do so in Y form (craft).” (Walshe, 1980) ∼ Respond first to the message and second to the form. Form follows function (not the reverse). What is being written will shape how and in what form it is finally presented. ∼ Students must see that writing provides a means by which they can explore themselves and their world more closely and, by doing so, come to a greater understanding of both. ∼ The teacher must model being a writer and write with the class as much as possible. ∼ The teacher provides models of good writing by immersing students in others’ writing. ∼ The teacher must help the students to understand writing as a process and provide many authentic opportunities for sharing and publishing students’ writing. ∼ Teachers must monitor students’ writing and show them how they are growing as writers. Every writer needs a writing partner – a caring, patient, helpful person to share in the journey. ∼ Reading and writing are not binary opposites (i.e. reading as passive reception and writing as active production). Both are part of the same process of actively re-writing everything that is read and actively re-reading everything that is written. Students learn to read texts from a writer’s point of view and write texts from a reader’s point of view. ∼ The continuum of writing begins with reflection and culminates in publication. ∼ As students move from expressive to poetic writing, there is an increasing distance between the audience and the speaker – between the “I” and the “you” of the writing. ∼ Confidence in expressive writing leads to growing confidence in transactional and poetic writing. Transactional language • •
In this mode, we use language to get things done. It has a more formal function, to persuade, to theorise, to record, to inform, to instruct and to argue a case or point of view.
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Expressive language •
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Students write themselves into understanding and meaning through this mode. This uses language which is personal or “close to the self”.
Poetic language •
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Writing becomes more speculative, with increasing distance between the audience and the “I” of the text. Imaginative, argumentative, theorized writing.
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Transactional writing requires a knowledge of the audience and select and shape language accordingly. Assists students in developing a command of register and rhetoric.
Expressive language •
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This mode can be used as the foundation to move into the more demanding functions of transactional and poetic writing. Language varies according to function: e.g. a letter to a friend is expressive. A letter to an insurance company is transactional. A letter constructed as part of a story or literary work is poetic.
Poetic language • •
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The audience may be known, unknown or implied. The purpose of the writing is to entertain, offer aesthetic experience, represent ideas, emotions and ways of thinking in imaginative forms. Conventions of genres may be required to compose in this mode.
Examples of expressive, transactional and poetic writing Transactional
Expressive
Letter to get something done Review (book, film, etc) Essays (argumentative, expository) Posters Interpretations Lists Directions Instructions Interviews / News stories
Type of Writing/ Focus Descriptive Writing a) People
PRACTICAL STRATEGY
Letter in a novel Poems Stories Visual representations Plays Songs Dramatisations Scripts Character monologues Multimedia creations
Activities
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b) Places
Letter to a friend Journals Stream of consciousness Personal responses Reading logs Notes Monologues Emails, sms, MSN, discussion boards Character profiles
Poetic
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Skills and Resources
Describe people: teacher, doctor, plumber, Use models, e.g.: baker, footballer, broker, painter, musician Ted Hughes’ poetry Dickens Describe the person sitting next to you in the Hardy bus/train Browning’s poetry Describe your favourite or least favourite ad, Pictures TV character, website, song Music Describe your favourite animal Postcards Make jottings about a character you have Film excerpts imagined Documentaries Paintings Describe a scene in a painting, postcard, Webpages drawing to capture its essence I am a giant octopus carried out into the sea • Observation • Recognition of uniqueness, that is too cold differences, contrasts I am a creature from Jupiter. I’ve landed near • Surface and symbolic the sea. characteristics Describe the view from your bedroom window, early morning in summer, dusk in winter, • Description and evocation twilight in autumn • Aims at sharp detail and accuracy •
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W Type of Writing/ Focus c) Objects/ Sounds
Activities • • •
Activities/ Emotions
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Contrasts
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Fantasy
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Narrative
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Skills and Resources
Write the script for an ad for a potato, a new suntan lotion, new no-burn candles Describe your mobile’s ringtone without others being able to hear it Describe the impact of your favourite song or piece of music on you
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Use as a basis for story writing and other imaginative writing Develops language skills and recognition of differences between literal, abstract, emotive, rhetorical, sensational and figurative language
Describe someone who is angry, shy, embarrassed, delighted, afraid, miserable, enthusiastic, excited (what are the features of these emotions?) Describe what it feels like to ski, float, take off in a plane, ride a bike through the sand, eat ice-cream, shape clay Describe what it feels like to be late, early, stuck, betrayed, cheated, surprised
• •
Describe a room before/after a party A tree on a sunny, windy, raining, foggy day Bush before and after fire An old person and a baby The ocean and the desert Wealth and poverty A cat asleep/awake Fire/water Night/day Classical music/rap music Walking/dancing
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Develops precision in description
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Moving towards figurative use of language. Understanding of symbol, metaphor, simile etc through activity-based and embodied learning Resources – pictures, music, ads, objects – can be simple and supplied by both teacher and students
Describe life in a world without paper, electricity, mobiles, clothes, McDonalds Use Picasso and Dali paintings as a stimulus to describe a dream What is your ideal day? Who is your fantasy friend? Take extracts from fantasy fiction and recast it
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Word cache and writing derby – free-write for 1, 2 or 3 minutes on a person, place, experience, thing (from own experience of from a text) Use titles, pictures, photos, music, book covers, ads, opening sentences of novels, opening lines of poems or songs, headlines etc as stimulus Take an actual incident and turn it into a story (Kelly gang, war, news items, mystery) Spontaneous memory monologue technique Use flashback, stream of consciousness Finishing stories read in class Creating ghost chapters, missing chapters, new
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Memory and observation Honing skills of defining and evoking, showing rather than telling Use photographs and pictures as stimulus
Developing concept of fantasy Allow scope for representation Link to popular media representations
Developing confidence in writing through memory, observation, experience Stress origins, derivations, intertextuality, form, organization of ideas
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Activities • • • • •
Creative
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PRACTICAL STRATEGY
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Skills and Resources
Prepare a for/against list on the topic of censorship, stem cell research, cloning Create a dialogue between two people with opposed points of view about a text or topic Write a newspaper editorial or blog on a controversial topic or issue Contribute to a web discussion or blog on a topical issue Use the Benton advertisements to debate issues such as media censorship
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Stress on structuring ideas, distinguishing between fact and opinion, sequencing ideas, using evidence and shared conventions
Stimulus from pictures, music, objects, characters, topics, experiences, guided experiences, literature, film, media Stimulus by models – poems, stories, plays, media, etc Interview other writers Spontaneous Memory Monologue (Reflect on something in the landscape that triggers memories) Symbols – rocks, plants, gloves, sticks, etc Imagine you are … a piece of fruit, a force of nature, a season, a body of water, a landform, a tree, a building, a coin, a musical instrument, a car, a country, etc Find a photo or photos from stages in your life. Using the poem “The Album”, use this photo to reflect on the what, where, when, how, why of that picture Draw a silhouette of your friend’s face and vice-versa. Use this to stimulate writing about ‘you’, also using the poems as a stimulus if you wish .. create your own poem with visual images Write interview questions for interviews with characters from texts Speak for the city street, speak for the still lake, your bedroom, your dog Translate a known work into another form – a poem into a news story, a news story into a poem, a dialogue into a poem … Change the ending of a text Draw something you were afraid of as a child – then share and discuss with a partner – then read “The Day I Met the Devil” – short story Imagine you are the person in the picture – what is your life like? Write about it in diary, letter or narrative form Use the first line of a novel, a poem, a headline, a play, or anything, and continue the story – individually, or around the class Round the group writing Group collaboration on a poem or other piece of writing
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Allow for lots of choice and scope in substance and form. Lots of pre-writing talk, time for revising, opportunities for discussion of writing process, publication Develops confidence and control over language Values the capital that students bring to the classroom in terms of memory, experience, observation Experiential, student and learning centred approaches Workshop approaches Students’ literature and texts valued as part of the continuum of all texts
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W Type of Writing/ Focus Creative
Activities • • •
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Factual
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PRACTICAL STRATEGY
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Point of view
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Transactional
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Skills and Resources
Haiku, shape poems, acrostic poems Add a missing piece to the story, film or poem Change one thing about the story – a nursery rhyme or a fairy tale – move it forward in time, alter the conditions, the setting, the characters Complete the ending of a story “The New Axe Handle” Write letters exchanged between two characters Rewrite the story from another point of view – e.g. a minor character Write a report on media events Compile lists and catalogues Describe an experience or event from history Take a picture and present a point of view, or argue for an ad/film being (un)censored Instructional writing – giving directions, describing an object to the class without them being able to see it Examine propaganda posters and materials – identify how facts have been distorted. Rewrite the material to provide a more factual representation Detail a scene or an object as a forensic investigator for use as evidence in a case Statement of family background, family tree Inventory of advertising on tv, radio, print, web Present the relevant facts about a fork, a sock, a cricket ground Factual report on a dog’s life, teenagers, house next door Write a classified ad for something you want to sell on E-Bay
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Interview people on a topic/issue Express a point of view in response to an article in the paper Give opinions on crime, drugs, public education Write a day in the life of someone you know Write a report on an incident from two points of view Tell the story of a Sunday morning spent by an old man, a baby, a child, a journalist, a surfer
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Developing an understanding of the concept of ‘voice’ and the organization of ideas for public contexts
Plan an itinerary for a dream holiday – send emails, letter to hotels, postcards to friends Send an email to all your friends breaking to them some important news Write a letter to the Editor of your local newspaper Post a comment on an on-line at a news site Apply for a job
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Conventions of letters, emails, reports, forms, workplace texts etc Need for coherence and clarity Clarity of message is central
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•
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Distinguishing fact from opinion. Recognising the role of factual writing in communicating ideas Is there such a thing as fact?
The English Teacher’s Handbook
W See also Composing, Creativity, Genre-based model, Imaginative re-creation, Language, Literacy, Reading, Spelling, Talking and listening, Writing development. JM References: Britton, J. (1970) Language and Learning, Harmondsworth: Penguin Britton, J. et al. (1975) The Development of Writing Abilities (11-18), London: Macmillan. Graves, D. (1984) A Researcher Learns to Write, NJ: Boynton Cook Graves, D. (1983) Writing: Teachers and Children at Work, London: Heinemann Moffett, J. (1981) Active Voice, NJ: Boynton/Cook. Murray, D. (1982) Learning by Teaching, NJ: Boynton/Cook. Sawyer, W. (2004) “Seminal books on English teaching” in Re-Viewing English in the 21st Century, eds. W. Sawyer & E. Gold, Melbourne: Phoenix Education. Sawyer, Wayne, (ed.) (1995) Teaching Writing: Is genre the Answer?, Springwood: AEN. Smith, F. (1982) Writing and the Writer, London: Heinemann. Walshe, R.D. (1980) Every Child Can Write, Sydney: PETA. Walshe, R.D., March, P., & Jensen, D. (1986) Writing and Learning in Australia, Melbourne: Dellasta/OUP.
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Y Young Adult Literature In recent decades there has been a burgeoning of what has come to be known as Young Adult Literature (YAL, also known as adolescent literature and by the pejorative term ‘Adult Lite’). As a distinct category and sub-genre, Young Adult Literature has been, particularly since the 1980s, an increasingly significant component not only of secondary English, but also of the commercial world of publishing and the academic world of research, scholarship and literary criticism. It was only in the 1980s, for example, that prescribed texts for study at senior secondary level in English began to include Young Adult titles. Prior to this, syllabus and prescriptions documents were characterised by a predominance of ‘classic’ adult texts. While young adult texts were certainly read in English before the last decades of the 20th century, they did not have the status and recognition within the curriculum that is now evident from a mapping of Australian English syllabus documents. In Australia, the development of Young Adult Literature has involved an ever-widening scope and breadth of titles and a concomitant broadening of the prevailing themes, issues, characters, perspectives and forms written for a specifically adolescent audience. The works of writers such as Colin Thiele (1920-2006) and Ivan Southall (1921-) are examples of ‘early’ Australian YAL. But over the last three to four decades, the innovations in the subject matter and approach in Australian YAL have been significant. Many of the most popular texts push the boundaries of what was once considered appropriate for adolescents. These texts are characterised by a starkness, realism and at times confronting brutality that has not been typical of YAL in countries such as, for example, the UK and USA. Issues and themes explored in Australian YAL include youth suicide, youth homelessness, incest, drug use, domestic violence, murder, dysfunctional relationships, homophobia and gay rights, sexuality, physical and emotional deprivation, and sexual, physical and psychological violence. Indeed, YA fiction now covers the whole gamut of themes and concerns relevant to both adult and so-called teen cultures. It is therefore increasingly difficult to categories the intended audience for YAL. Some have argued that the audience for YAL ranges from the very early teens to the mid to late twenties. A prevailing concern for writers of YAL is the extent to which they engage with the ‘darker’ themes of contemporary teen and adult culture and thereby open up spaces for adolescents to engage with legitimate and authentic representations of their often complex lives. Or the extent to which they shield adolescents from the realism of the quotidian world they inhabit. A survey of the most popular adolescent fiction titles indicates that young adult readers are drawn to engage with representations that thoughtfully and honestly deal with experiences that are ‘front and centre’ of so many teenagers’ lives. Robert Protherough argues that: The presentation of fiction in schools is not just an academic exercise if the quality of narrative is intimately related to the quality of life. The ultimate importance of the fiction we read to children or put in their hands lies not in any ‘moral’ it may convey, but in the fact that through it young people are helping to develop a sense of themselves and of their shifting place in the world as they grow up. (Protherough, 1983: 22) 306
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Y One of the few features distinguishing adult from young adult fiction is the necessary presence of an adolescent protagonist or narrator in the latter and the use of language (in dialogue, inner speech and narrative voice) that closely mirrors the language and discourses of adolescents. YAL is also characterised by a fast-paced narrative, crises and conflicts (often with adults or within institutions), and protagonists who confront and move through painful experiences, all within contexts that are in some measure familiar to the contemporary adolescent. Also typical of Australian YAL is a representation of some enduring and more contemporary Australian themes such as, for example: the distinction between the city and the bush; the search for identity through connections with the Australian landscape; Indigenous history and experience; cultural values and structures embedded in concepts such as egalitarianism, ‘the fair go’ and resistance to authority; and multiculturalism. The importance of YAL in English cannot be underestimated. Research with Australian teenagers counters the mythology that too often underscores public debates on teenagers’ reading practices and preferences that teenagers do not read. The most recent research with almost 2000 Australian teenagers, between 11 and 18 years, provides evidence that young people are choosing fiction for leisure reading, but these selections are always not made as part of an English class reading program. (Manuel & Robinson, 2002, 2003). We know from research in the UK and USA that: ∼ Reading for pleasure declines as students move through secondary school. ∼ Academic reading replaces reading for pleasure for a majority of students in senior secondary school. ∼ Reading becomes closely associated with school-based learning and assessment. ∼ There is a decline in reading associated with the kinds of reading required of adolescents and the ways such reading is managed. ∼ Motivation to read closely correlates with the degree of student choice. ∼ Significant growth in the publication of YA fiction over the last 2 decades. ∼ Series are exceptionally popular. ∼ Particular authors dominate the reading preferences of 11-14 year-olds. ∼ Reading preference shaped by gender, ethnicity, socio-economic status. Key findings from the Australian Teenagers’ Reading Choice Project (Manuel and Brindley, 2010) show that: ∼ More than 80% of the participants had a favourite book (almost exclusively imaginative ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼
literature in the form of fiction). More than 40% of participants had read their favourite book at least twice, while 17% had read it 3, 4, 5 or more times. While 81% had a favourite book, 90.5% had a ‘worst ever’ book. In 21% of cases, the English teacher had been the source of the ‘best book’ experience. In more than 75% of cases, the English teacher had been the source of the ‘worst book’ experience. For 11-14 year olds, reading a book emerges as the third most popular leisure activity, along with being with friends and using the computer. Females prefer Fantasy, Mystery, ‘Other’, Detective and Action /Adventure. Auto/biography, Travel, Romance and Science Fiction are the least preferred for females. Action /Adventure, Fantasy and Mystery are the overwhelming favourites for both males and females. Preferences and antipathies are diverse, reflecting diversity of taste and interests. Most ‘favourite’ books have emerged from beyond school reading.
∼ Least popular genre and the one most identified as being ‘never read’ by males and females
is Romance.
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Y ∼ Reading imaginative literature in the form of fiction is maintaining its place as a leisure
activity in the lives of 11-14 year olds. ∼ Australian YA fiction figures prominently in ‘favourite’ books. • • •
There are strong discontinuities between school reading and self-selected reading. The role of pedagogy and appropriate text selection in promoting enjoyment or in undermining it is pivotal in English. Major sources of positive reading experiences for males and females are family, friends and personal ownership.
‘Favourite book’ titles (Australian) for females include the following: John Marsden – Tomorrow Series (1994-1999); The Ellie Chronicles (2003-2006) Robin Klein – Came Back to Show You I Could Fly (1989); Polly Pollard’s Scrapbook (1989); Hating Alison Ashley (1984) Isobelle Carmody - The Gathering (1993) Tim Winton – Lockie Leonard (1990-1997) Paul Jennings – Round the Twist (1991); The Gizmo (1995) Morris Gleitzman – Once (2005) Jackie French – Hitler’s Daughter (1999) Emily Rodda – Deltora Quest (2000-2005) Margot Clark – Mango Street series (2003) ‘Favourite book’ titles (Australian) for males include the following: Paul Jennings - Goosebumps series Morris Gleitzman – Once (2005), Boy Overboard (2003) Matthew Reilly – Scarecrow (2003) John Marsden - Tomorrow series (1994-1999) Emily Rodda – Rowan of Rin series (1994-2004) See also Fiction, Literature, Novel, Popular culture, Reading, Wide reading program. JM References: Manuel, J. & Brindley, S. (eds.) (2010, forthcoming) Teenagers and Reading: Literary Heritages, Cultural Contexts and Contemporary Reading Practices, Adelaide: Wakefield Press/AATE. Manuel, J. & Robinson, D. (2003) "Teenage boys, teenage girls and books: Re-viewing some assumptions about gender and adolescents' reading practices", English Teaching: Practice and Critique, Vol 2, No.2, September, pp. 66-77. Manuel, J. & Robinson, D. (2002) "What are Teenagers Reading? The Findings of a Survey of Teenagers' Reading Choices and the Implication of these for English Teachers' Classroom Practice", English in Australia, 135, pp. 69-78. Protherough, R. (1983) Developing Response to Fiction, Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Youth culture Refers to the distinctive, collective cultural practices of youth (often categorised as being between the ages of 15 and 25) – which include dress, language and music – to construct identity. Disillusionment with and rejection of the norms of society are often central to youth cultures. The depiction of youth by advertising and the media is frequently negative, perpetuating the division between youth and so-called mainstream society. Punk rockers, skinheads, hip-hoppers, surfies, bodgies and widgies have all gained attention over the years. Often, youth groups have deliberately set themselves apart from society and even competed against other groups such as in the activities of the Mods and Rockers in the early 1960s. Movies such as The Wild One (1953), Rebel Without a Cause (1955), Quadrophenia (1979), and The Delinquents (1989) depict the rebellion and disillusionment often associated with youth cultures. See also Popular culture, Young Adult Literature. DC, JM
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Z Zone of proximal development (ZPD) One of the most helpful concepts for educators wishing to attune to students’ readiness to learn is Lev Vygotsky’s (1896-1934) concept of the zone of proximal development, or zo-ped. Vygotsky argued that one cannot understand a child’s developmental level unless one considers two aspects of it: the actual developmental level and the potential development. The psychologist Jerome Bruner (1915-) developed the notion of ‘scaffolding’ to explain how a teacher can structure tasks in an empathic and sequential way which supports students as they move through their zone of proximal development and achieve intellectual success. A skilled teacher can assess students’ actual developmental level and provide challenges within their reach, or their zone of proximal development. Such assessments need to take into account both cognitive and emotional readiness for undertaking challenges. An example of this concept can be found at My Read (www.MyRead.org, 2003), a resource package for reading in the middle years. MyRead advocates a number of strategies for supporting and guiding the reader vis-‡-vis selection of reading material. One such strategy explicated in this resource is based on a Vygotskian learner-centred paradigm wherein the teacher and learner are engaged in a dynamic and integrated exchange in the learning enterprise. An overview of the strategy highlights the way in which the teacher and student move through various domains with an ebb and flow of teacher instruction and support balancing the evolving autonomy and increasing agency of the student (DEST/AATE/ALEA, 2003): Teacher chooses material for teaching purposes
Reading material negotiated and matched to student needs
Student chooses reading material
I DO (teacher)
I HELP (teacher)
YOU DO (student)
YOU WATCH (student)
YOU DO (student)
I WATCH (teacher)
See also Constructivism, Learning-centred English, Pedagogy, Reading, Scaffolding. RA, JH, JM References: Bruner, J. (1966) Towards a Theory on Instruction, Harvard: Harvard University Press. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978) Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. MyRead, (2003) DEST/AATE/ALEA,
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Appendices
Notes on Editors and Contributors The initials at the end of each biography below are those noted at the end of entries throughout the book that have been written by this contributor.
Editors Jacqueline Manuel is a Senior Lecturer in Secondary English Education in the Faculty of Education and Social Work at the University of Sydney. She is Co-convenor of the Arts, English and Literacy Education (AELE) Research Network and coordinator of Secondary Curriculum Methodology in the Faculty. She has a Bachelor of Arts with Honours Class I in English, a Diploma in Education and a PhD in English Literature from the University of New England (1991). Her research, publications, teaching and scholarship are in the field of secondary English education. She has co-authored/edited five books in the field of secondary English, the most recent being Drama and English Teaching: Action, Imagination, Engagement, with Michael Anderson and John Hughes, published by Oxford University Press in 2008. She is coeditor of Re-Visioning English Education: Imagination, Innovation, Creativity, (Phoenix Education, forthcoming, 2009). She is on the international editorial advisory boards of five research journals. She is currently a Member of the NSW Board of Studies; has been a member of the NSW Higher School Certificate English Examination Committee (Standard and Advanced); is Chief Examiner of these English courses for 2009; and is a founding co-editor of the AELE Research Network journal, Illuminations. JM
Don Carter is Inspector, English, at the NSW Board of Studies and is a member of the Arts, English and Literacy Education (AELE) Research Network. He has a Bachelor of Arts (English/History/Drama) and Diploma in Education from the University of NSW; a Masters of Education (Curriculum Studies) from the University of Sydney and a Master of Education (Honours) in Literacy/ESL from the University of Wollongong. Don has worked for the Department of Education and Training as an ESL/Multicultural education consultant in the Metropolitan South-West and South Coast Regions, providing a wide range of professional development opportunities for teachers. He has extensive teaching experience in both government and non-government NSW schools as an English, History and Drama teacher and has been a Head Teacher, English, in both systems. He joined the Board of Studies in 2002 as Senior Project Officer, Cognitive Science, and then became the Senior Curriculum Officer, English. Don has worked as a Senior HSC marker; an HSC examination assessor; convenor of the Association of Independent Schools’ Professional Development Committee; a local interest group (LIG) facilitator for the introduction of the current HSC; is a founding co-editor of the AELE Research Network journal, Illuminations; and coeditor of Re-Visioning English Education: Imagination, Innovation, Creativity, (Phoenix Education, forthcoming, 2009). DC
Contributors Roslyn Arnold has been Dean and Head of School in the Faculty of Education at the University of Tasmania. Prior to that she was Head of School and Pro-Dean in the Faculty of Education, and Deputy Chair of the Academic Board at the University of Sydney where she spent most of her academic career. Currently she is an Honorary Professor at the University of Sydney and the University of Tasmania. Her publications include Timely Voices, Writing Development: Magic in the Brain and Empathic Intelligence: Teaching, Learning, Relating. Her research interests include interpersonal dynamics, English Education, drama in education and the teaching of literature. She is completing an MBA in Higher Education at the Institute of Education, University of London. RA
Paul Brock AM, is the Director of Learning and Development Research in the NSW Department of Education and Training; Adjunct Professor in the Faculty of Education and Social Work, University of Sydney; Honorary Research Fellow, University of New England; Honorary Associate in The Centre for Values, Ethics and the Law in Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Sydney; member of the Arts, English and Literacy Education (AELE) Research Network; and Vice Patron, Motor Neurone Disease Association NSW. For over three decades Dr Brock has researched and published extensively in the field of English in education: literature, language and literacy. His most recent books are Reform and Resistance in NSW Public Education: Six Attempts at Major Reform 1905-1995 (Darlington Press, 2008)
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co-authored with John Hughes; and A Passion for Life (ABC Books, 2004). He has been extensively involved in the development of English curricula at both state and national levels, and was a Director on the Board of the Australian Children's Television Foundation. He has been an advisor to a series of Federal and State Government Ministers for Education. He is a Fellow of the Australian College of Educators and a Fellow of the Australian Council of Education Leaders. In 2006 Paul was made a General Member of the Order of Australia “for service to public education, particularly as an adviser and author in the areas of strategic policy development, to maintaining high standards of teaching and professionalism, and to people with Motor Neurone Disease”. PB
Robyn Ewing is Professor of Teacher Education and the Arts and Acting Dean, Faculty of Education and Social Work at the University of Sydney. Her research has particularly focused on the use of drama as quality pedagogy with authentic texts to develop students' critical literacies. Her research has included working as an academic mentor in a range of Sydney schools alongside classroom teachers. She was recently the Lansdowne scholar at the University of Victoria, British Columbia where she lectured on the imperative of an Arts-led curriculum. Teacher education, especially the experiences of early career teachers and the role of mentoring, sustaining curriculum innovation and evaluation, inquiry and casebased learning, and the use of arts-informed inquiry in educational research are also current research interests of hers. Robyn was President of the Primary English Teachers Association from 2001-2006. She has co-authored two books: Teaching, Challenges and Dilemmas with Susan Groundwater-Smith and Rosie Le Cornu and Beyond the script Take 2: Drama in the classroom with Jennifer Simons. In 2006, she edited Beyond the Reading Wars: Towards a balanced approach to helping children learn to read. Her new book, Curriculum and Assessment Storylines will be published in 2009. RE
Kelly Freebody is a Lecturer in the Faculty of Education and Social Work at The University of Sydney. Her teaching and research interests include drama, secondary English, literacy, social justice and qualitative research methods, particularly Conversation Analysis and Membership Categorisation Analysis. Kelly's PhD investigates the use of drama pedagogy to explore students' interpretations of, and interaction with, notions of socioeconomic status. KF
Sarah Golsby-Smith is a high school English teacher who, through participating in lively conversations in her classroom, became interested in the way readers make meaning. This led to an interest in philosophical hermeneutics, and in particular ethical criticism and the emerging American iteration of rhetoric dubbed "the new rhetoric." She completed her doctorate in 2007, which investigated the reading patterns of the 1999 Stage 6 English syllabus and finally suggested this "new rhetoric" as an alternative pedagogy that NSW might pursue. Sarah has taught at Cherrybrook Technology High School and at St Andrew's Cathedral School. SGS
Jowen Hillyer is a Lecturer in English Curriculum in the Faculty of Education and Social Work. Prior to her appointment, she was a Head Teacher of English/HSIE and a classroom teacher in NSW government schools. Jowen has worked in disadvantaged areas of South-Western Sydney and in rural NSW. Her doctorate research focuses on the engagement of boys in disadvantaged schools with an emphasis on middle years’ writing. JW
Kathryn Hodgkinson has been working in the film and television industry since 2003. Her roles have been as diverse as working as a Production Manager with world-renowned production house NHNZ (formally National History New Zealand), teaching / coordinating the film & television department at Aoraki Polytechnic in Dunedin, and managing high profile international film festivals in both Australia and New Zealand. Kathryn has also produced/directed and filmed a number of promotional films, and documentaries. The most successful of these, Out of the Blue, was produced as part of her postgraduate Diploma in Natural History Filmmaking and Communication (University of Otago, Dunedin, NZ), which she completed in 2004. The documentary depicts the wildlife of the Otago Peninsula in New Zealand. Her passion for wildlife and genuine interest in the Otago Peninsula also inspired her to produce the photographic book Otago Peninsula: Path to the Sea, (Reed Publishing 2007). Kathryn is currently in the midst of researching material for her next film venture. KH
John Hughes is an Honorary Senior Lecturer in the Faculty of Education and Social Work at the University of Sydney where he researches and lectures in English and drama/theatre pedagogy. He has published 34 refereed articles, 30 chapters in books, four edited books, and 12 professional books on arts education. In 1997 he was selected as one of four international master teachers of drama at the International Drama/Theatre and Education Research Institute in Canada. He was Chair of the Shakespeare Globe Centre Australia's Education Committee 2001-2006. For many years John was educational consultant to Opera Australia and the Australian Ballet. John is currently engaged in action learning projects with schools on the Northern Beaches. With Jacqueline Manuel and Michael Anderson he is editor of Drama and English Teaching: Action, Imagination, Engagement, Oxford University Press, 2008. JH
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Wenche Ommundsen is Professor of English Literatures and Associate Dean for Research at the University of Wollongong. She has published extensively on multicultural and diasporic literature and theory, including five edited collections, the most recent of which is Cultural Citizenship and the Challenges of Globalisation (2008). Her current research projects include 'Building Cultural Citizenship: Multiculturalism and Children's Literature' and 'Globalising Australian Literature', both funded by grants from the Australian Research Council. Wenche is the coordinator of the Multicultural subset of AustLit, the online Australian Literature Resource. WO
Marilyn Pretorius is Head of English at SCEGGS Darlinghurst and is an experienced and dedicated educator. She has been closely involved in the NSW English Stage 6 syllabus since its introduction in 2001 and has written numerous articles and units for the HSC Advanced and Extension 1 Courses. She was a Senior Marker of English Extension 1 from 2001 - 2006 and is currently the Supervisor of Marking for Paper 1 Section 1. She has also been the Association of Independent Schools Convenor for Professional Development, English since 2003 and has organised six conferences to further the sharing of resources, ideas and networking for the wider community of English teachers. MP
Karen Stapleton is currently the Secondary English Curriculum Consultant at The Association of Independent Schools of NSW. She presents professional development courses and individual school consultancies for English teachers. Karen has over 25 years professional experience in schools and education institutions. She has been a classroom teacher, Head of English, Deputy Principal and Supervisor of Marking for English Extension 1. As Senior Curriculum Officer, English, at the Office of the Board of Studies Karen was involved in the development of the English Years 7-10 Syllabus. She was also Project Manager for English Stage 6 Prescriptions (2004-2008) and was a member of the Advisory Committee responsible for drafting the new Prescriptions (2009-2012). Karen has also written and contributed to a number of textbooks for secondary English teachers. KS
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Film and Visual Media Terms Term Aerial shot
Definition Camera shots of the ground area, landscape or earth filmed from any elevated position to show location or perspective: for example, shots from a helicopter, aeroplane, balloon, hang-glider or model aircraft. Cameras can be used hand-held or mounted to the airborne structure and operated by hand, activated automatically, or by a remote control device. KH
Camera angles
Refers to the position of the camera in relation to the subject being filmed. The angle from which the camera takes the shot has an important effect on what the viewers see and on the impact of the shot. The camera angle, or where the camera is placed, is important as it indicates point of view: ie from whose perspective we are seeing the action, such as the character, audience or director. The five basic camera angles are overhead, high angle, eye-level (or eye-line), low angle and undershot. KS
Camera movement
Used to help define and create meaning in shots. As the camera moves the way things appear in the shot changes and so different meanings can be created and different responses can be elicited from the audience. The main camera movements are zooming (in and out), tracking, panning and tilting. KS
Camera speed
The speed of the camera’s movement can be used to create special effects, emphasise particular actions and enhance meaning. Slow or fast motion and the use of freeze-frames (a still image created by stopping the film in the middle of the action) are common variations on normal camera speed. KS
Close-up
A camera shot when only a part of an object or person is seen on screen or in the frame; usually a head, or head and shoulders only, shot. KS
Compositing
A term used to describe a variety of methods of digitally combining and layering multiple images and text to form a composite shot, which appears as a single image and gives the illusion that all the different elements used are in fact part of the same frame. Compositing is used extensively in film title sequences to create a complex visual shot where multiple images and written text coexist. KS
Composition
Composition is the control and placement of all the visual elements in a single frame of film. It refers to the deliberate arrangement and relationship of all the visual elements within a frame. Whereas the mise-en-scene of a shot encompasses all elements that are placed in the frame, the composition refers specifically to how they are placed: ie. the way the elements are positioned within the frame is the composition of the shot. The composition is also dependent upon the choice of lens and includes the camera angle and movement. KS
Crosscutting
An editing technique that allows the film to alternate between two different actions or scenes that are occurring at the same time but in different spaces. See also ‘intercutting’ and ‘parallel editing’. KS The basic device of editing film is a cut, which is the splicing together of two shots. It is the most direct and immediate editing device for introducing new screen information. One shot is followed immediately by a straight cut to another shot. A cut can be used to insert other relevant material into the film flow or maintain continuity of action. Between scenes or larger narrative units, called sequences, the cut can also mark a rapid transition between one time and space and another. A cut has both utilitarian and aesthetic value in film editing. A cut allows the use of different types of shots without disrupting the action. The use of cuts as transitions, rather than dissolves, fades or wipes, can affect the pace of the film. Some other common types of cuts are crosscuts, cutaways, jump cuts and J and L-cuts. KS
Cut
Cutaway
As the name implies, a shot that does not focus on some detail of the shot before or after it but cuts away from the action at hand. It is a single shot inserted into a sequence of shots that momentarily interrupts the flow of action, usually introducing a pertinent detail. It is the interruption of a continuously filmed action by inserting a view of something else. It is usually followed by a cutback to the first shot. The most effective cutaways are those that have some logic to them, are related directly to the scene. It may be, for example, a shot of an object that generally informs or reminds the audience of something it needs to know such as the clock ticking down on the bomb hidden beneath a car or the train that is rapidly approaching the station. KS
Deep focus
A style of cinematography that uses both wide angle and small lens apertures to keep objects in the extreme background and foreground simultaneously focused. KS
Depth of field
Refers to the amount of space in front of and behind a subject that is in focus in the shot. With a shallow depth of field the subject is on a blurry background. A long depth of field allows for many subjects at different distances to be in focus. KS
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Term
Definition
Dissolve
An editing device that allows for a gradual transition, or overlap, of shots as one scene finishes and the other begins. Both the end of the outgoing shot and the beginning of the incoming shot are briefly seen on the screen simultaneously. In traditional filmmaking the dissolve came to be the accepted technique for indicating substantial geographic leaps, a passage of time, a flashback or dream, or to show what the character is thinking. Dissolves are used to suggest a special relationship between the scenes that dissolve into one another; a relationship closer than one that would be suggested by a fade or cut. KS
Dolly
Used for creating tracking shots, the dolly is a wheeled device for mounting a camera to allow it to move smoothly (usually along rail-like tracks called ‘dolly tracks’). KS
Dubbing/Dub/Dup
Mixing multiple sound components for example dialogue, sound effects, wild sound and music into one soundtrack. It also refers to substituting one dialogue or language with a new one, for example, from German to English. ‘To Dub’ or ‘Dup’ refers to duplicating from one tape to another (usually from a master tape). KH
Editing
The process of joining shots and sequences of film: it is the arrangement of time, parallel movements and cuts to scenes and transitions of shots. Editors will use different ways of splicing shots together, including the use of special effects and transitions, to create a single continuous film. Common transitional devices are the fade, dissolve, washout and wipe. KS
Establishing shot
In popular or ‘dominant’ cinema, the opening sequence is traditionally regarded as an ‘establishing’ shot: a long, wide angle view of an area or open space is often given before the camera goes in closer to establish and identify the more specific location of a film story or scene. Later in the film establishing shots may be used to establish the setting for the sequence and action to come. KS
Eye level (or eye- This shot occurs when the camera is level with the object or figure. Like a normal eye-view of the line) shot scene, it is used to suggest reality. It is often a shot that shows us what a character is seeing. KS Fade
A transition device for moving from one scene or sequence to another in a film. Fades can suggest a passage of time, or a journey, or a new location. The scenes each side of a fade have a special relationship that would not be conveyed by a simple cut. A fade-out occurs when the image on the screen fades to black to end the scene and then the following scene suddenly appears (or cuts in). This gives a feeling of finality and separation to the scene just ending and introduces the new action in a dynamic, attention-getting way. Alternatively, a scene may gradually fade-in from black giving a slower, more contemplative movement from scene to scene. KS
Fine cut
The third and final stage of the offline editing process in which all sequence of images and sound are ‘locked off’. It is the completed version of a film, as it will be released. KH
Flashback
A technique used to alter the chronological order of the narrative. The viewer is taken back in time through the disclosure of a previous event, scene or sequence. Flashback can disclose the thoughts and memory of a character or return to earlier events to show their relationship to the present. KH
Focus
Refers to what is in focus in the shot, or what isn’t, and relates to the depth of field of a shot. A narrow depth of field is where the object in the foreground is in focus; a pull focus describes the change in focus from one object to another. KS
Frame
In film, the camera captures a particular image as if it has placed a frame around it. The frame constitutes the borders of the image or shot within which the subject is composed. KS
Freeze-frame
A still image created by stopping the film in the middle of the action and holding it for a time so that it appears like a photographic still. KS
High angle shot
This shot is taken when the camera is above and looking down on the scene or object but not directly overhead. The main effect is to make the object or character look small, vulnerable and/or lacking in power. It can also be used to follow a character or the action at a different speed. KS
Insert shot
A close-up of some detail from the main action or scene; it is a shot of part of a scene filmed from a different angle and/or focal point from the main shot. Inserts cover action already captured in the main shot, but emphasise a different aspect of that action due to the different framing and camera angle. For example, a sequence such as a medium shot of a gunfighter in a street, could include an insert shot of his fingers on the trigger of his gun, an insert of the town hall clock ticking and a return shot of the gunfighter’s face. An insert is different from a cutaway in that the cutaway is of action not covered in the main shot. KS
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Term
Definition
Intercutting
A term frequently used interchangeably with ‘parallel development’, intercutting is an editing concept derived from the film’s ability to move (or cut) back and forth among narrative elements occurring at the same time. It is also sometimes referred to as ‘crosscutting’. KS
Intertitles
Traditionally associated with silent films, intertitles presented printed information or dialogue to the audience about the images that appeared before or after the intertitle. This technique of providing written information on screen was retained from silent films and adapted for use in ‘talkies’. Intertitles are now used in films in different ways and for different purposes: they can, for example, provide exposition or commentary on the action, or identify the setting, place and/or date of the action: e.g. the prologue information given at the beginning of Star Wars or Blade Runner and the place/year provided during the opening sequences of Witness. KS
Iris shot
Refers to the expansion or contraction of a small circle within the darkened frame to open or close a shot. An iris-in shot is when an existing image moves into a circle that rapidly decreases until it disappears. An iris-out shot is when the image moves out from a small circle, increasing in size until it fills the frame and then a new shot takes its place simultaneously. The iris shot can be used as a transitional device as well as a means of altering the shape of screen images and of isolating dramatic material or action. It can also be used to link images thematically, such as in Contact when the iris-in shot of the computer screen transforms into an iris-out shot of the character’s eye. KS
J-cuts (and L-cuts)
These are examples of split edits. When you create a J-cut or L-cut you are deliberately creating an ‘out of sync’ condition between the audio and video tracks. The effect is a ‘carry over’ or ‘pull over’ of sound from one scene to another. For example, in Dead Poets Society the cries of the birds as they fly up into the sky transform into the voices of the boys descending the stairwell who we see in the next shot. This audio overlap draws attention to the contrast between the freedom of the birds and the confinement of the boys. KS
Jib arm
A mechanical arm that is supported on a dolly, tripod, or other device, which is counterweighted to hold a camera for an increased range of motion. KS
Jump cut
Refers to an editing device where there is no direct correlation between the two spliced shots. Basically, it denotes two shots that are cut together with a jump in continuity, camera position or time. Jump cuts can also be used to show us the beginning and the end of an action, but not the whole. KS
Juxtaposition
In film, a term that refers to the deliberate, expressive arrangement of contrasting cinematic elements such as the visual and aural, the editorial arrangement, a montage of individual shots or narrative time elements. Commonly the term refers to the editing process whereby two contrasting shots or images are cut together to create a particular effect. KS
Lighting
How a shot is lit is an important element of filming as it can create a mood for the audience and affect the audience’s interpretation of its meaning. Key lighting represents natural light as it casts shadows. High-key and low-key lighting are terms used for describing the quality of illumination and the intensity of the lighting in the frame. Usually high-key lighting is used to highlight the central subject. High-key lighting has bright, intense illumination. Low-key lighting has the opposite quality. It is more diffuse and shadowy. There is less general illumination in the shot giving heavier shadows and a more atmospheric quality. Other effects can be created through use of: • back lighting where the light source is placed behind the subject to create a darkened effect on the subject (or create a silhouette) • fill lighting where the lights are used to create or remove shadows • spot or pencil lighting which focuses sharply and directly on the subject • side lighting where only half the character’s face or object is lit and the other half is in shadow • chiaroscuro lighting, a type of film imagery where the artistic arrangement of dark and light shades in a scene is used for dramatic effect. KS
Long shot
A film shot which includes the whole human figure and part of the surrounding environment. An extreme long shot will is often used to depict the whole panoramic view for the audience. KS
Low angle shot
A shot taken when the camera is below or looking up at the object or character.It is commonly used to suggest the power or dominance of a character or iconic object in the shot. It can also be used to create a caricature. KS
Medium shot
A film shot which includes half the body and a small part of the background. KS
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Term
Definition
Mise-en-scene
This term encompasses the overall design of the film and the mise-en-scene can help the viewer identify a film’s genre and context. The term means ‘placed in the scene’ or ‘put in the scene’ and refers to what is put into the frame or the modification of space. It refers to all that appears in a frame, every visible element in the frame, how these elements are related to each other and how we see these elements: ie. what appears before the camera including performers, setting, lighting and décor. It can also include camera movement and action. When analysing a film’s mise-en-scene consider the following elements: • the set; the interior or exterior setting/environment/backdrop • props • costumes, make up and hairstyles • actors, body language and position in frame (in Western culture the viewer tends to ‘read’ left to right across the screen) • lighting; coding of colours • camera angle and shot type • diagetic sound.
Noddy shot (noddies)
Typically used to cover a cut in an interview or when using a one camera set-up. How is this done? The interview subject is shot for the duration of the interview. At the end of the interview shots are then taken of the interviewer listening and responding (or nodding) to the subject. The noddy shots are then edited into the interview during post-production. KH
Overhead angle shot
This shot is achieved when the camera is overhead or directly above the object or scene; the shot is usually taken from a height with the camera facing down. A number of effects can be created: objects or characters looking small or vulnerable; moving scenes can look mechanical/predictable; a city can look like a maze or ants’ nest and a character can appear lost; we can follow character or object at different speed/pace. KS
Pan
A shot in which the camera moves horizontally across the frame following the action from one side of the screen to the other; the camera moves from side to side on its tripod. This movement gives a sense of a wider perspective or shot; the sense of our eyes ‘panning’ across a large scene to give us a sense of the scale or details of the view. KS
Parallel editing
Often achieved through crosscuts, parallel editing is the linking-up of two sets of action that run concurrently but are interdependent within the narrative. KS
Perspective
A technique that invests an image with the illusion of depth, volume and distance and provides an image with a sense of more than a single dimension on a flat surface. This picture is an example of the use of ‘one-point’ perspective, where the image represents a sense of depth and distance viewed from a single point. Computer games are good examples of the use of perspective to generate the illusion of three dimensions. JM
Point of view
In film, this is the position or perspective from which an action or subject is seen. It relates directly to where the camera is placed or positioned to capture the shot. In screenplays or storyboards it is often cited as PoV. KS
Producer
The person who manages all the business and financial aspects of creating, making and distributing a film or television project. The producer is generally involved right from the start and either conceives, develops or purchases the original idea, and is the first point of contact for anyone attracted to the project. They are responsible for calculating the costs, pitching the idea to financiers and negotiating deals with prospective distributors or broadcasters, for hiring key cast and crew, and for supervising the entire production. KH
Production
Either refers to the entire film or television process, which includes all the relevant stages of development, pre-production, production, post-production, distribution that are required to create, make and release a film or television production. Each stage will vary somewhat depending on the type and size of the production; however the general concepts will work for any production. Production also refers to the ‘stage’ in the production process in which footage is actually shot, also known as ‘principal photography’ whereby all the main/lead actors are filmed. It can also include costuming and rehearsals, final script changes, and the preparation of shot lists, call sheets, and releases. KH
Rough cut
Once the selected takes have been logged and quickly assembled, a ‘rough cut’ of unpolished clips are arranged in sequence and script order to approximate the desired length, structure and general look of the film. Although the ‘rough cut’ may go through a series of necessary changes, it should at least resemble the final product. KH
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Term
Definition
Rushes
The unedited raw footage from a shoot. The term originates from film where the shot negative was immediately sent to the film lab at the end of each day and processed over night (in a rush) for the director, producer and editor to view the following morning. From the rushes they are able to ascertain how the shoot is going and evaluate what scenes need to be re-shot and what pick-up shots may be necessary. KH
Scene
A section of film within which a narrative action takes place. The term ‘scene’ is often used interchangeably with ‘shot’ but it may actually be composed of one or more shots. KS
Score
Refers to the original music composition for a film which is generally recorded after the picture has been edited. KS
Screenplay
Sometimes called the script, the screenplay for a film is the literary description of scenes, characters, dialogue and action. The writers of screenplays usually conform to an industry standard which has identifiable layout and design features as well as other specific conventions: e.g. dialogue is centred on the page, action is written in present tense, scenes are numbered and labelled as interior or exterior. It is also normal for a number of versions of a screenplay to exist for an individual film such as a pre-production screenplay provided for a director/actor to consider, a shooting script and a post-production script that identifies changes made in production. KS
Screen shot
A webpage captured from a website on a computer. JM
Sequencing
A sequence in a film is a series of scenes (or shots) unified by a shared action or motif. Sequences are the larger narrative units of the film. A sequence is created by the putting together of a series of shots to form a continuous scene or piece of action to create a particular sequence of the narrative in film. The order and presentation of the shots in a sequence can also be used to enhance the meaning as with the use of flashback, dream sequences, time variations and deliberate juxtaposition of shots. KS
Set
The place or location used for a specific scene or shot in a film. The screenplay will identify whether it is an interior or exterior set for a scene. KS
SFX
An acronym for ‘special effects’ (sometimes cited as FX). ‘Special effects’ is a term used to describe a range of technological additions to the film to manipulate or alter what has been filmed. The additions may be visual and/or aural. Many special effects are now computer generated and may involve the use of montage, compositing or a virtual camera. KS
Shot
All that is recorded on film from the point at which the camera begins (‘action’) until it stops rolling and filming (‘cut’): it refers to a continuous and unedited image of any length. The choice of lens fitted to the camera determines the shot size or the amount of the scene which is included in the frame. A shot can be filmed from a variety of camera angles, and single frames can be selected, edited and sequenced to create the most meaning. ‘Shot’ and ‘scene’ are often used interchangeably but a ‘scene’ can be comprised of one or more edited shots. KS
Shot reverse shot
Consists of a sequence of a minimum of two shots. For example, the first shot is of a person's face. The second shot is a reverse shot that shows who or what that person is looking at.This may then be followed by a reverse shot showing the first person again. This is commonly used for dialogue between two characters when the camera appears to switch back and forth between each speaker giving the audience a view of each of them and their reactions. KS
Slow motion
Also known as ‘Slow Mo’, refers to a camera effect in which time appears to move slower than normal. The process is commonly achieved by either running film through a camera at faster than normal speed then projecting it at normal speed - or by repeating frames. Slow motion can be used to emphasise a dramatic moment or assist in making make a fast action more visible. KH
Soundtrack
All that we hear in the film. As it is an audio-visual medium the soundtrack is an element that cannot be neglected when studying film. Sound in film can be categorised as: 1. Diegetic sound: sound whose source is identified by the film image such as the ringing of the telephone that can be seen in the shot; what sounds the characters can hear and is natural within the shot. 2. Non-diegetic sound: sound the characters cannot hear, that is put in the film for the audience only; sound that does not have its source in the film image such as a character’s voice-over which is addressing the audience or mood music only the audience can hear. Some sound which appears at first to be diegetic, such as tyres screeching in a car chase, may also be deemed to be non-diegetic when the sounds have been exaggerated or enhanced from what is natural in order to create a greater impact on the audience.
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Term
Definition
Soundtrack (cont.)
The following audio elements are part of the soundtrack of a film: dialogue and voices silence sound cues (consider how sound elements can take you over the cut between shots into the next or previous scene or sound that emanates in the following scene is brought forward to the previous scene) sound effects which are commonly used to set a scene or support a visual image. music synchronous sound (that which matches the images on the screen and is ‘in sync’ with what we are seeing) OR asynchronous sound (that which does not correlate to the visual images: e.g. a voice/dialogue we can hear but is from off the screen/out of the frame or as with a J or L-cut). KS
Special effects
See SFX
Treatment
A synopsis of a screenplay written in the short story form. Written in the present tense it summarises the dialogue and describes only what an audience would see and hear. It can also be a ‘puff piece’ designed to sell the script rather than give comprehensive information about content. KS
Tilting
The camera moves up or down to follow moving objects to reveal a scene or object which is too big to fit in one frame. KS
Tracking
The camera moves forward or backward through the shot or space, parallel to the action. This is often done by placing the camera on rail-like tracks (or ‘dolly tracks’) to allow smooth movement. The effect is that the camera seems to flow with the action or has a similar movement. It also allows the camera to get ahead or behind the action to give a different perspective. KS
Undershot
This shot is taken when the camera is directly beneath the object or figure, often suggesting extreme power or danger or creating a dramatic effect: e.g. in a Western the undershot of stampeding cattle and horses, or a runaway stagecoach. KS
Voiceover (VO)
An example of non-diegetic sound, it is the voice of someone addressing the viewer to describe or comment on the action or characters. The voice-over may be that of a character who appears on the screen and gives the viewer their commentary or thoughts on the action. In addition, the voiceover may be used to relate to the viewer what a character may be reading or writing. Alternatively, the voice may not be of a person seen in the image but who is acting as a narrator in the film. The voice-over can also be used to develop characterisation as the viewer deems them to be reliable or unreliable; this is often dependent upon whether their comments are seen as credible or not. For example, in the opening sequence of What’s Eating Gilbert Grape? The images we see reinforce what Gilbert is telling us whereas in Clueless the opening images contradict what Cher is saying about her being an average girl. In The Usual Suspects the voice-over in the beginning is used to dupe the viewers for the ‘sting’ at the end of the film. KS
Washout
An optical transition similar to the fade but unlike the fade-in, where the image fades to black, in a washout the image suddenly starts to bleach out or to colour, until the screen becomes a frame of white or coloured light. A new scene then follows. KS
Wipe
A transitional device that occurs when one shot moves across the screen from left to right or from right to left and appears to wipe away the preceding shot. A wipe is usually used to effect a change of scene without a slowing of dramatic pace. A wipe that is achieved by using objects or characters to wipe out a shot or scene is known as a natural wipe. KS
Zooming
The movement of the image according to focal adjustments of the camera lens; it gives the visual impression of the moving towards or away from a particular object but without the camera actually being moved physically. The camera lens may zoom in or zoom back to adjust the size of the object or image being seen: it is a means of making objects appear closer or further away. A zoom can sometimes be used to create a similar effect as a tracking shot. KS
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Professional Associations Country Australia
Association Australian Association for the Teaching of English: AATE
Website http://www.aate.org.au/
(Links to state and territory English teacher associations) United Kingdom
National Association for the Teaching of English: NATE
http://www.nate.org.uk/
New Zealand
New Zealand Association for the Teaching of English: NZATE
http://www.nzate.co.nz/
United States of America
National Council of Teachers of English: NCTE
http://www.ncte.org/
Canada
Canadian Council of Teachers of English Language Arts: CCTELA
http://www.cctela.ca/
South Africa
South African Council of English Education: SACEE
http://www.sacee.org.za/
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