English Grammar -overview Of The English Verb

OVERVIEW OF THE ENGLISH VERB 1.. The Grammatical Hierarchy: ILLUSTRATION: 1 Sentence

If I wash up all this stuff

somebody else can dry it

2 Clauses

If I wash up all this stuff

somebody else can dry it

If

I

wash up

all this stuff

somebody else

If

I

wash

up

all

this

stuff

somebody

If

I

wash

up

all

this

stuff

some

can dry

it

else

can

dry

it

else

can

dry

it

7 Phrases

12 Words 13 Morphemes

body

Phonemes Graphemes

2. At each level level of the hierarchy we need to describe : •

STRUCTURE / FORM

•

ROLE WITHIN SYNTAX / WORD ORDER

•

MEANING (SEMANTICS) (SEMANTICS)

•

USE (DISCOURSE FUNCTION)

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3. SENTENCES: Aim of a grammar - to describe the way a language's sentences are constructed. 4 . MULTIPLE SENTENCES SENTENCES Sentences, then, may consist of just one clause, or more than one clause. A one-clause sentence is called a simple sentence. A sentence which can be immediately analysed into more than one clause is called a multiple sentence. 5.MULTIPLE SENTENCES – Compound sentences (COORDINATION), Complex Sentences (SUBORDINATION) and combinations of both processes When clauses are combined by coordination we have a compound sentence. Coordination is between two clauses that are syntactically equivalent. The main coordinators are and, and but and or. Eg The cat chased the dog and the cow jumped over the moon and the man sailed to sea in a tub When the combination involves the embedding of one clause within another (an unequal relationship) we have subordination and a complex sentence. There are dozens of subordinators – when, if, whether, that which, etc. Eg. I answered the door when Jack rang the bell And, of course, we can have sentences that have both coordinated and subordinated clauses. 6. FOUR TYPES OF BASIC SENTENCES WITH RESPECT TO MAJOR USES IN COMMUNICATION : DECLARATIVES – statements - The dog is called Snoopy. INTERROGATIVES – questions - Where is the dog? IMPERATIVES – directives – Bring Snoopy to me. EXCLAMATIVES – exclamations – He’s so cute!

7. POLARITY : Positive and Negative Sentences Snoopy is here / Snoopy isn’t here

8. VOICE : Active and Passive Sentences The president cut the cut. The cake was cut by the president. 9. LOOKING CLOSELY AT CLAUSES – TYPICAL CLAUSE FEATURES FEATURES Typically: • Finite verb form (bearing tense) • Declarative • Active Voice • Positive • Without recursive and embedded structures.

The teacher / has called / me / a fool / twice

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10: WHAT IS A CLAUSE MADE OF? CLAUSE ELEMENTS: All clauses are made up of elements, each expressing a particular kind of meaning. There are just five types of clause element. All five appear in this sentence: 1. The first element in this sentence is the subject (S). The subject usually identifies the theme or topic of the clause. 2. The second element is the verb (V). The verb expresses a wide range of meanings, such as actions, sensations, or states of being. 3. The third element is the object (0). (0). Objects identify who or what has been directly affected by the action of the verb. 4. The fourth element is the complement (C). (C Complements give further information about another clause element. In the above sentence, a fool adds to the meaning of me. 5. The fifth element is the adverbial (A). Adverbials usually add information about the situation, such as the time of an action, or (as in the above sentence) its frequency. 11. What are Clause Elements made of? A clause element is NOT the same as a word. An element may be a single word, or several words. In multiple sentences some clause elements can consist of a whole clause or whole clauses I left when the sun rose and after I had a good meal 12. TYPES OF CLAUSES: How Clause Elements can combine: Clause elements combine usually in only seven basic clause types. Each type consists of two, three, or four elements. The seven basic clause types S: subject, V: verb, 0: object, C: complement, A: adverbial 1. S + V

-

Julia / yawned

2. S + V + 0

-

Julia / cooked / a meal

3. S + V + C

-

Julia /is / pretty

4. S + V + A

-

Julia / cooks / well

5. S +V + 0 + O

-

Julia / gave /me / a cake

6. S + V + O + C -

Julia / got /her apron /dirty.

7. S + V + O + A -

Julia / put / the cake /on the table

NOTE : A number of optional adverbials such – luckily, already, later, twice, perhaps – Can be added to any of these basic clause types.

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13. DECLARATIVE STRUCTURE: STRUCTURE All the clause types illustrated are statements. A statement is a sentence whose purpose is primarily to convey information. Such sentences are said to have a declarative structure. A BRIEF BRIEF RETURN TO BASIC SENTENCE TYPES: 14 . Questions : sentences which seek information. There are four types, depending on the kind of reply they expect, and on how they are constructed. They have an interrogative structure. 1. YesYes-no questions allow an affirmative or negative reply, often just yes or no. The subject follows an auxiliary verb. 2. WhWh- questions allow a reply from a wide range of possibilities. They begin with a question word, such as what, why, where, or how. 3. Alternative questions require a reply which relates to the options given in the sentence. They always contain the connecting word or. 4. Tag questions –the interrogative structure comes at the end of a sentence, as a tag. They also expect a yes or no as reply. Note : Interrogative structures also used for Exclamatory questions : Hasn’t she grown! And Rhetorical questions : Who cares? These sentences also resemble questions in their structure, but they are used as if they were emphatic statements. The speaker does not expect an answer. 15. Directives are sentences which instruct someone to do something. They are often called commands, but this term is somewhat misleading. Commanding is just one of the many uses of directive sentences. Some common directive sentences: Commanding Sit down! Inviting Have a drink Warning Mind your head on the beam Pleading Help me! Advising Take an aspirin! Requesting Open the window please. Expressing good wishes Have a nice day! In each case, the verb is in its basic form, with no endings and there is usually no subject element present. Structures of this type are called imperatives. Directive sentences typically have an Imperative (Mood) structure. 16. Exclamations are sentences whose main role is to express the extent to which speakers are impressed or aroused by something. They often take the form of a single word or short phrase - a minor sentence such as Gosh!, Oh dear, or Of all the cheek!. But exclamations can also have a major sentence structure. Their first element begins with what or how, and is followed by a subject and verb, in that order. What a lovely day! How nice the weather is! They also occur frequently in a reduced (or `elliptical`) form, using only the first element:

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Both types are said to have an exclamative structure.

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17. MOODS OF A VERB PHRASE: show whether a clause is expressing a factual, non-factual or directive meaning. Functionally they express - through the finite verb phrase - the role that the speaker assigns himself/herself in an interaction. There are 3 Moods in English : INDICATIVE (factual, for stating and questioning) – It’s sunny. Is John in? IMPERATIVE ( directive) – Sit in the corner SUBJUNCTIVE (nonfactual, expressing wishes, conditions) – I insist that he be punished.

HOMING IN ON THE VERBAL VERBAL ELEMENT 18 . THE VERBAL ELEMENT The verb element plays a central role in clause structure. It is the most obligatory of all the clause elements, as can be seen from such clauses as The old farmer drinks beer by the bucketful S V 0 A The verb is a predictable, dependable element of clause structure

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19. What affects the form of the Verb? A: MOOD –

INDICATIVE IMPERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

B. MODALITYability, permission C. TENSE -

Prediction, possibility, probability, volition, obligation, necessity, advisability,

Present Past

D. ASPECT - Perfective (anteriority) Progressive E. VOICE -

ACTIVE PASSIVE

F. FINITE-NESS

FINITE NON-FINITE

G. POLARITY

Positive Negative

H. Emphasis Contrastive Non-Contrastive I. NUMBER J. PERSON -

singular, plural ( I, we; she, they) 1st , 2nd , 3rd person (I, you, he)

20. VALENCY AND VERB TYPES: INTRANSITIVEINTRANSITIVE-TRANSITIVE (Mono/Di) The choice of the verb actually determines, to a large extent, what other elements can be used in the clause. This is referred to as its VALENCY Intransitive verbs can be used without an object: Appear, die, fall, go, wait If we pick enjoy, an object element has to follow. Such verbs are transitive verbs. verbs. Bring, carry, make, keep, get NOTE : A few verbs can be transitive or intransitive without a change of meaning: compare I'm eating cake and I'm eating. The test for transitivity is to try the verb with various objects. If the sentences are possible, the verb is being used transitively. If not, it is being used intransitively. In idioms, transitive verbs can be intransitive as in I say! Look what Mervyn is wearing!

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21. The Structure of the VERB PHRASE Main verb plus upto FOUR auxiliaries AUXILIARY VERBS

Might/may

Might/ may have

MAIN VERB

Has/had have been

is /was has/had been been being

eat/eats/ate eating eaten eating eating eaten

(The structure is rare) Also represented by : Tense

(Modal)

Pres/ Past

(Will,can, may…)

(PERF. ASPECT) (HAVE- en/ed)

(PROG ASPECT) (BE –ing )

(PASSIVE (PASSIVE PART.) (BE –en/ed)

VERB Full/lexical verb

NOTE : A verb phrase consisting of only one verb is still known as a phrase. The main verb is seen as the nucleus, or head, of the potentially larger phrase.

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22.Finite and NonNon-finite (Infinitives) Verb phrase Verb phrases are also classified into two broad types, based on the kind of contrast in meaning expressed by the verb: finite and nonnon-finite. finite The finite forms of the verb are those which signal contrasts of number, tense, person, and mood; the -s form, the past form, and some uses of the base form. The non-finite forms do not vary in this way. They do not express contrasts of tense, number, person, or mood. These forms therefore stay the same in a clause, regardless of any grammatical variation which may be taking place alongside them. Non-finite verbs can however express the meanings of the perfective and progressive aspects, and of the passive voice. VERB PARTS and VERBS 23. PRIMARY VERBS : BE, HAVE, DO The primary verbs – BE, BE HAVE and DO can function as main verbs or as auxiliaries.

24. OPERATORS: OPERATORS The first Auxiliary in the Verb Phrase. It bears the tense, and has a special role in NEGATIVE, and INTERROGATIVE, sentences, and in conveying EMPHASIS. OPERATORS and NEGATIVES: NEGATIVES Negatives are formed by adding NOT after the opearatorIt was not Bill Gates who bought Disneyland. OPERATORS and INTERROGATIVES : The operator is placed before the subject. Was it Bill Gates who bought Disneyland?

NOTE : When the main verb is BE or HAVE HAV they can also function as operators. In the absence of an Auxiliary in the verb phrase, DO becomes the operator for the formation of Negatives, interrogatives and emphatic sentences. 25. 25. Regular and Irregular Irregular verbs The forms of a regular verb can be,predicted by rules. An irregular verb is one where some forms are unpredictable. There are thousands of regular verbs, but less than 300 irregular ones. 26. The forms of the regular verb Regular full verbs appear in four forms, each of which performs a different role in the clause . 1.The base form - a form with no endings, endings as listed in a dictionary (sometimes called the `infinitive' form): Eg. Go run look discover 2.The -s form, form, made by adding an –s ending to the base (sometimes with a spelling change). The pronunciation of the -s varies, depending on the preceding sound. Examples : /-s/ in looks, cuts; /-z/ in runs, tries and /iz/ in passes, pushes

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3. The -ing participle, participle made by adding -ing to the base (often with a spelling change): 4. A form made by adding –ed to the base (often with a spelling change). In speech, the pronunciation of the -ed varies, depending on the preceding sound: /-t/ in passed, stopped; /-d/ in died, barred; and /-id/ in rented, funded. This ending is found in the past form and in the -ed participle form.

27. The forms of the irregular verb Irregular verbs make their -s form and -ing participle by adding an ending to the base, in the same way as regular verbs. But they have either an unpredictable past tense, tense or an unpredictable -ed participle form, form or both. both Many irregular verbs therefore appear in five forms. forms Two features of irregular verbs Most verbs change the vowel of the base to make their past or -ed participle forms. This process is known as vowel gradation. gradation. meet – met

take -- took

speak -- spoken

The -ed ending is never used in a regular way, and is often not used at all (as in cut, met, won). An important pattern with some verbs is the use of a variant form, in which the /-d/ sound of the ending changes to /-t/. Burned/burnt spilled/split kneeled/knelt 28. ILLUSTRATON--FORMS OF VERBS

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

BASE -s -ing participle Past -ed /en participle

prepare Prepares Preparing Prepared prepared

Make Makes Making Made made

Put Puts Putting Put put

Write Writes Writing Wrote written

29. The seven classes of irregular verb I

About 20 verbs whose only irregular feature is the ending used for both their past and -ed participle forms.

II

About 10 verbs whose past tense is regular, but whose -ed participle form has an -n ending, and a variant form in ed About 40 verbs which have the same ending for the past and ed participle forms, but this is irregular. They also change the vowel of the base form About 75 verbs with an -n ending for the –ed participle form, and an irregular past form. The vowel of the base also changes.

III

IV

have/had send/sent burn/burnt - burned mow/mown – mowed sell /swollen -swelled keep/kept sleep /slept teach/taught Sell/Sold Blow/blew/blown take/took/taken see/saw/seen undo/undid/undone

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V

About 40 verbs which have the same form throughout.

VI

About 70 verbs which have no ending, but use the same form for both past tense and –ed participle. The vowel changes from that used in the base. VII About 25 verbs, forming the most irregular type. There is no ending the past and -ed participle forms differ; and the vowels change with go/went/gone each form. 30 . The Formation of VerbsVerbs- Affixes:

cut

let shut broadcast outbid

Spin/spun, mislead/misled sit/sat Stand/Stood Swim/swam/swum; begin/began/begun come/came/come

•

Verb prefixes (dislike, mislead, overcook, unzip) do not change the word class, i.e. the new word remains a verb. Common prefixes: re-, dis-, over-, under-, un-, out-,

•

Verb suffixes Some nouns and adjectives can be made into verbs with suffixes (computerize, simplify) Common suffixes are : -ize/ise, -en, -ate, -(i)fy

31. SOME SEMANTIC CATEGORIES OF LEXICAL VERBS: • COPULAR VERBS – (of BEING and BECOMING /STATES) be/is/are/were/was, • CATENATIVE VERBS –(“Chain”, continuation phase)- appear to, fail to, happen to, seem to, keep on, went on, tend to • ACTIVITY VERBS bring, buy, get, move, run, use, pay, show, work • COMMUNICATION / REPORTING VERBS - ask, offer, claim, speak, insist, thank, say, tell, suggest • MENTAL / EMOTIONAL VERBS - think, know, love, want, prefer, believe, need, suppose, wonder, consider • CAUSATIVE VERBS – cause, enable, provoke, allow, precipatate • OCCURRENCE VERBS – change, develop, become, grow, happen, occur • EXISTENCE/RELATIONSHIP VERBS – appear, indicate, represent, contain, involve, exist, live, include, stay, look, seem • ASPECTUAL VERBS – begin, continue, keep, start, stop 32. MultiMulti-word verbs Multi-word verbs are full verbs which consist of more than one word. The most common type consists of a verb followed by one or two particles. particles Come in, sit down, look down on, A few multi-word verbs have a less predictable structure, and thus have to be taken as idioms: Take pride in, lie low. Particles can include Some spatial adverbs such as aback, ahead, aside, away, back, home, in front. Some prepositions such as against, at, for, from, into, like, of, onto, with. Some words which can act either as adverbs or prepositions, such as by, down, in, on, over. NOTE : Verbs taking adverb particles are known as phrasal verbs. verbs Those taking prepositional particles are known as prepositional verbs. verbs. (Sometimes the term `phrasal verb' is used in a general way, referring to both types.)

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