Energy Africa - Newsletter_3.pdf

Volume 1, Issue #3, September 2001

Editorial Note

In This Issue

In this third edition of "EnergyAfriKa" newsletter, we have added sections on Job and Consultancy Announcements; and Research Grants and Fellowships. We hope these added features should further enrich the content and scope of our newsletter, as an effective medium for sharing knowledge, information and experiences on energy among African energy specialists.

Profile • African Energy 1 Expert Feature Articles 7 • Widening access to rural energy ….. 14 • Energy Security in Africa:…….. 24 Energy News Attractions 31 • Job Opportunities • Consultancy Anno- 32 uncements 34 • Research Grants and Fellows-hips

As we enter the fourth month of the life of our newsletter, the level of contributions towards the newsletter from African energy specialists, by way of technical papers, information on energy events etc. has not been encouraging. As the key partners of "EnergyAfriKa", we entreat you to ensure its survival through your contributions towards its contents. Essel Ben Hagan, Editor-in-Chief E-Mail: [email protected] cc: [email protected] / [email protected] / [email protected]

PROFILE OF AN AFRICAN ENERGY EXPERT FREDERICK OHENE AKUFFO, 61,is a Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana.

Prof. FREDERICK OHENE AKUFFO

He was educated at Harvard University and obtained the AB degree with a major in applied physics and engineering science in 1966.Prof. Akuffo was awarded MEng in mechanical engineering by University of Toronto and PhD in 1973 for research in dynamics of magnetised plasmas.He has over 20years experience as lecturer in Thermofluids and Energy Systems.Prof. Akuffo is a Corporate member Ghana Institution of Engineers(MGhIE) and American Society of Mechanical

Engineers(ASME).He has considerable skill in research and scholarship in renewable energy technology, energy planning and policy. Prof. Akuffo also has remarkable consultancy skills to: design and implement manpower education and training programmes; design, implement, monitor and evaluate programmes and projects; analyse and formulate national energy policies and strategies; direct, design and implement renewable energy systems and evaluate performance by computer methods. ____________________________________________________

STATEMENT OF WORK EXPERIENCE TEACHING AND RESEARCH 1992-Present : University of Science and Technology, Kumasi Professor and Head of Department. Responsible for development and administration of teaching and research programmes, coordination and management of 15 academic, and over 40 technical and administrative staff. Director, CIDA-UR/UST Renewable Energy Project. Lectures in thermodynamics, thermal power and renewable energy systems, energy policy and planning. Supervision of postgraduate research in energy systems. 1973-1991 : University of Science and Technology, Kumasi Lecturer/Senior Lecturer and subject head for thermodynamics including responsibility for the solar energy laboratory. Lectures in engineering thermodynamics, heat transfer, airconditioning and refrigeration, internal combustion engines, fluid mechanics, enegy systems, and supervised student projects. Promoted senior lecturer effective April 1983. Research in solar energy. 1984-1985 : Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Visiting lecturer on sabbatical leave from UST, Kumasi. Taught undergraduate and graduate courses in internal combustion engines, heat transfer and energy conversion and developed curricula in thermal power systems. 1967-1973 : University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Teaching assistant in fluid mechanics, heat engines, thermodynamics and engineering mathematics. Research in kinetic theory of gases and plasmas. 1966-1967 :Orion Research Inc., Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A. Research assistant and quality control officer responsible for testing and evaluation of specific ion electrodes, ion-exchange membranes and standard solutions.

SELECTED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS 1. Mar.1992 - Present: Project Director, Ghana . CIDA-University of Regina/UST Renewable Energy Project Post-graduate teaching and research; socio-economic surveys and analysis of rural energy demand patterns; development and dissemination of affordable renewable energy technologies to meet rural demand. 2. Jun. 1997- Feb. 1998: Contractor, Unesco Pilot Solar Village Project. Design, installation, monitoring and evaluation of solar water pumping system for a rural community. 3. Sep. 1996- Jun. 1997: Contractor, Unesco Project on Environmental Benefits of Renewable Energy. Comparative study of renewable and conventional energy systems in Ghana and the benefits to be derived from substituting renewable for conventional sources. 4. 1992- Present: Author and subject coordinator. UNESCO SLEMES( Series on Learning Materials in Engneering Science) Project. Responsible for texts on thermodynamics and thermal engineering 5. 1987-Dec.1990: Co-investigator Comparative Study of Solar Crop Dryers, Project sponsored by the Collingwoode Williams Foundation for Research into Food Processing, Preservation and Storage.(Administered by UST Research and Conference Committee).Design of cost-effective natural convection solar crop dryers suitable for small scale applications. Duties included literature surveys,test and evaluation of prototypes and techno-economic modelling. 6. Jan.1987-Oct.1988: Project Coordinator Feasibility Studies on Steven Solar Technologies, sponsored by ANSTI/ UNESCO, Nairobi. The units considered in this technology transfer study were parabolic solar collectors, fractional horse power steam engines, steam injection water pumps, small wood fired boilers and solid absorption solar refrigerators. My duties included planning, reporting, organisation of training for technicians, analysis and evaluation of field and laboratory results. 7. Jun.1986-May 1989: Co-investigator. Development of a Solar Liquid Piston Pump, project sponsored by IDRC, Canada. The aim of the project was to develop a simple and cost effective water pumping system. I was involved in the development and evaluation of flat plate thermosyphon solar water heaters as heat sources for the SLPP. This activity included analysis of climatic data, mathematical modelling and evaluation of experimental results 8. Jan.1986-Dec.1988: Principal investigator. Utilisation of Vegetable Oils in Diesel Engines, sponsored by the Department of Mechanical Engineering, UST, Kumasi. I initiated the project to determine the economic implications for the local economy. The activities included planning and analysis of experimental results, and preparation of manuscript. SELECTED CONSULTANCY SERVICES DELIVERED 1. 1995-Present: Contractor Ministry of Mines and Energy Wechiau Solar Power Project. Design, construction and operation of 2kw solar power station and service centre for Wechiau community. Fabrication and supply of 100 12DC fluorescent and 5w halogen lamps. 2. July-Sep 1994: Consultant African Energy Programme, African Development Bank. Study on Diagnosis of Energy Education in the Educational System and Skilled Manpower Requirements in the field of Energy. 3. Oct.1991-Dec.1993 : National Energy Policy Consultant. UNDP Project GHA/89/003Strengthening National Energy Policy and Operations Management Capabilities, Ministry of Energy and Mines, Government of Ghana. Identification and evaluation of energy policy decisions and implementation, 1960-1992. Formulation of framework for national energy strategy. Training of staff in energy policy analysis and planning. 4. Jan.1992 - August 1993: Principal Consultant. Promotion of Improved Cook Stoves Project, Ministry of Energy and Mines, Government of Ghana. Laboratory testing and evaluation of stoves. Design and implementation of training programmes for artisans. 2

5. November 12-16, 1990 : Ministry of Energy/Government of Ghana representative. ACP-EEC Experts Meeting on Evaluation of Energy Projects, Bujumbura, Burundi. Chairperson for drafting Committee 6. Jul.1989-Jul.1990 : Principal Consultant. Solar and Wind Energy Resources Assessment Project, National Energy Board, Government of Ghana. Comprehensive evaluation of Ghana Meteorological Services facilities; analysis and compilation of climatic data for design and evaluation of solar energy systems. 7. Apr.-Jun.1989 : Local Expert, Energy Sector. Strengthening the National Capacity for the Transfer, Utilisation and Development of Technology, UNDP Project GHA/88/008/A/01/99. Technology Transfer Center, CSIR, Government of Ghana. Undertake diagnostic study of energy and development perspectives including review of R & D, indigenous technology, and development of technology profiles. 8. Mar.27-Apr.5, 1989 :Project evaluator, representing Government of Ghana. Evaluation Mission UNDP Project GHA/82/020: Technical Assistance to the National Energy Board. Ministry of Fuel and Power, Government of Ghana. Terminal evaluation including assessment of institutional framework, manpower development, facilities, work programme and contributions to national development 9. 6-7 December 1989 : Observer/Evaluator representing Ministry of Energy, Government of Ghana. 4th Ministerial Council Meeting of the African Regional Centre for Solar Energy, Bujumbura, Evaluation of the African Regional Centre for Solar Energy including work-programme and reporting on proceedings. PUBLIC SERVICE / MEMBERSHIP OF BODIES 1994-present : Member OAU/STR Inter African Committee of Experts on Renewable Energy Jan.1989-Mar.1991: Member of the Board of Directors, National Energy Board, Ghana. Jan.1987-Mar.1991: Member of the Technical Committee, National Energy Board,Ghana. 1986 - present : Technical Editor, Bulletin of the Energy Research Group, Ghana. 1986 - present : Technical Editor, Newsletter of the Energy Research Group, Ghana. 1988 and 1991 : Director, Kumasi International College on Energy, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi. 1988 - 1989 : Member, Energy Resources and Forest Ecology Working Committee of the Natural Sciences Technical Committee, of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Ghana. 1986, 87, and 89 : Chairman of the Organising Committee, National Energy Symposium 2-4 Dec., 1986 : Chairman of the Organising Committee of the ANSTI (African Network of Scientific and Technological Institutions) International Seminar on Renewable Energy for Development, UST, Kumasi. 1987 Member, International Solar Energy Society. 1991 Member Ghana Institution of Engineers (MGhIE) 3

1992 Member, American Society of Mechanical Engineers(ASME) 1993 Chairman, Ghana Solar Energy Society (GHASES) 1991 International Association of Solar Energy Educators(IASEE) National Representative _______________________________________________________________________ SELECTED REPORTS AND PUBLICATIONS ON ENERGY Consultancy 1. Diagnoses of Energy Education in African Educational Systems and Study of Skilled Manpower Requirements in the Field of Energy, Report on Ghana Study. Submitted to African Development Bank, September 1994. 2. UNDP Project GHA 89/003: Strengthening National Energy Policy and Operations Management Capabilities, Energy Policy Consultancy, Phase I Report - Energy Policy in Ghana, December 1992; Phase 2 Report - Implementing Energy Policy in Ghana, December 1993. Reports submitted to Ministry of Energy and Mines, Accra, Ghana. 3. Solar and Wind Energy Resources Assessment Project- Preliminary Data Analysis and Evaluation, Vol,1. Main Report and Vol.2, Climatic Data for Solar and Wind Energy Resources Assessment. Consultancy Reports submitted to the Ministry of Energy, Accra, Ghana, May 1991. 4. Report on the ACP-EEC Experts Meeting on Evaluation of Energy Projects, held at Bujumbura, Burundi. Submitted to Ministry of Energy, Accra, Ghana, November, 1991. 5. Report on the 4th Ministerial Council Meeting of the African Regional Centre for Solar Energy, Bujumbura, Burundi, 6 -7 December, 1989, Submitted to the Ministry of Fuel and Power, Accra, 20 January 1990. 6. UNDP Project GHA/82/020: Technical Assistance to the National Energy Board, Report of the Evaluation Mission by Dr.Peter Meir on behalf of UNDP and Dr.F.O.Akuffo on behalf of the Government of Ghana. April 5, 1989. 7. STEVEN Solar Energy Systems Project: Final Report, UNESCO Contract No.866.525. Submitted to ANSTI/UNESCO, Nairobi, October 1988. Academic 1. F O Akuffo, UST/University of Regina Renewable Energy Project, Presented at 6th National Energy Symposium held at Labadi Beach Hotel, Accra, 29 Nov.-2 Dec., 1994 2. Renewable Energy Education at UST Kumasi, Presented at 6th National Energy Symposium, 29November-2 Dec. 1994 1 3. F O Akuffo, Integrated National Energy Planning and Policy Analysis: Background and Basic Concepts, Resource paper presented at the Ministry of Energy/UNDP Seminar on Project Planning, Management and Evaluation in the Energy Sector, Ministry of Energy, Accra, 30-31 July 1992. 4. F.O. Akuffo and A. Brew-Hammond, The frequency distribution of daily global irradiation at Kumasi, Solar Energy, Vol.50, No.2, pp.145-154, 1993. 5. E.A. Jackson and F.O. Akuffo, Correlations between monthly average daily global irradiation and relative duration of sunshine at Kumasi, Energy Convers. Mgmt. Vol. 33, No.1, pp.13-22, 1992. 6. F.O.Akuffo and E.A.Jackson, Simulation studies on a compact solar water heater in the tropics, Solar and Wind Technology, Vol.5, No.3, pp. 229 - 237, 1988. 4

7. F.O.Akuffo, A.Brew-Hammond and M.A.Obeng, Long term performance estimation for thermosyphon solar water heaters in Ghana, Journal of the University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Vol.8, No.2,p.76-82,1988. 8. A.Brew-Hammond and F.O.Akuffo, A review of experimental studies on traditional thermosyphon solar water heaters, RERIC International Energy Journal, Vol.11, No.1, pp. 61 - 71, June, 1989. 9. M.A.Obeng, F.O.Akuffo, A.Brew-Hammond and E.A.Jackson, Simulation studies on the long term performance of a solar thermal pumping system in Ghana, Proceedings of the National Symposium on Renewable Energy 1987, ERG-BULLETIN, Vol.3, pp. 154- 166, 1988. 10. E.A.Jackson and F.O.Akuffo, Prospects for compact solar water heaters in Ghana, ERGBULLETIN, Vol.3, pp. 198 to 202, 1988. 11. F.O.Akuffo, T.Opoku-Agyemang and A.Abrobah-Cudjoe, Preliminary results on laboratory performance of a single cylinder diesel engine operating on diesel/coconut oil mixture, Proc. of the 7th ANSTI (African Network of Scientific and Technological Institutions) Mechanical/Production Engineering Subnetwork Seminar on Engineering Research for Development, University of Zimbabwe, Harare 3-7 February 1987. 12. F.O.Akuffo, Priorities in the energy sector, Presented to Mechanical Engineering Seminar, U.S.T., Kumasi, 12 July, 1989. 13. F.O.Akuffo, Energy and Technology, Invited paper presented at the Symposium on PHYSICAL RESOURCES organised by the Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences on the 29th Anniversary Celebration, Accra, Ghana, 23 November, 1988. 14. Charles Wereko-Brobby and F.O.Akuffo, Solar power generation: Status and prospects for developing countries, Presented by F.O.Akuffo at ATAS (Advance Technology Alert Systems) Meeting on NEW ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES AND DEVELOPMENT, Moscow, USSR, 17 - 21 October, 1988. 15. F.O.Akuffo, A.Brew-Hammond and A.Abrobah-Cudjoe, Solar Thermal pumping project at U.S.T. Kumasi, Presented by F.O.Akuffo at 8th ANSTI Mechanical/Production Engineering Subnetwork Seminar on Engineering Research for Development, Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania, 28 - 31 March, 1988. 16. F.O.Akuffo, M.A.Obeng and A.Brew-Hammond, Comparative studies on some models for estimating hourly diffuse irradiance, Presented by F.O.Akuffo at 13th Biennial Conference of the West African Science Association, University of Ghana, Legon, 24 - 29 August, 1987. 17. F.O.Akuffo, Energy options for development, Presented at the Symposium on Some Policy Options for Infrastructural Development, Faculty of Engineering Flag Week, Silver Jubilee Celebrations (1961 - 1985), University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, 26 May, 1986. 18. F.O.Akuffo, Solar Energy in Agriculture, in Proceedings of the National Energy Sysmposium '93 Eds. K Singh and F.O.Akuffo, ISSN 0855-0735 ^^Back to the Top

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FEATURE ARTICLES Widening access to rural energy services in Africa: Looking to the future Youba Sokona and Jean-Philippe Thomas Programme Energie ENDA-TM, Dakar, Sénégal email: [email protected] 1.0 Introduction Energy is basic to all human activity. It is indispensable to meeting daily needs (water, food, health, etc.) and to achieving even minimal economic and social development. To a certain extent, the level of energy consumption reflects the level of development. Per capita energy consumption in Africa is the lowest in the world: 0.3 to 0.6 toe/person in sub-Saharan Africa compared with 7.5 to 9 in North America (a ratio of 1:30). Moreover, Africa's energy balance continues to be dominated by biomass which, in its various forms, accounts for two-thirds of total household energy consumption. Economic and social development in Africa depends largely on meeting the rapidly growing energy needs of present and future populations. Africans must increase their energy consumption if they are to achieve social and economic development goals. Given this, one of the most important questions of our epoch is: how—with which modalities, at what rate, and using which alternatives—should this essential increase take place? But this may be jumping the gun, for at the moment, some African countries are finding it hard to maintain their present energy systems. If African countries are unable to mobilise adequate financial resources to maintain existing systems, the prospects for future development of energy systems in rural Africa seem doomed. It seems inevitable then that the present conditions of poverty in rural Africa will continue—if not worsen—in the foreseeable future. Our challenge is, then, to outline ‘sustainable’ energy strategies for rural Africa. Will it be possible to break with current energy strategies based on supply and directed primarily by large energy companies? What are the basic, foundational elements of ‘sustainable’ energy strategies, that is, of energy strategies that are economically efficient, environmentally sound, and socially equitable? 2.0 Common characteristics of rural energy systems in Africa Despite local and regional specificities, rural Africa has much in common that shapes the approach to energy development. Rural Africa is characterised by a heavy dependency on biomass, limited use of 'modern' forms of energy, and low energy consumption that is decentralised and dispersed. Low income 6

levels, a shortage of skilled labour, and socio-political and economical instabilities are key constraints to improvement in the short and medium terms. As in other developing regions throughout the world, most Africans live in rural areas. They are farmers or pastoralists, depending on where they live. Production systems are generally extensive and productivity levels are typically low for most of these subsistence local economies. Under the difficult circumstances of a shrinking natural resource base, a decline in soil productivity and a commensurate reduction in agricultural output, villagers across Sub-Saharan Africa have consistently migrated to urban areas. Demographic growth and climate-related factors will surely cause this trend to intensify. To meet their domestic energy requirements, rural people use various forms of biomass (fuelwood, agricultural and animal wastes) almost exclusively. Because of this heavy dependency on biomass, rural people are forced to over exploit their natural resources together with their agricultural wastes. This has significant implications for the observed decline in soil fertility levels. Poor rural energy practices, coupled with non-intensive production systems and inefficient energy habits in large parts of urban and suburban areas, aggravate environmental degradation through deforestation, soil erosion, etc. Modern energy forms, generally kerosene and occasionally electricity, are used mainly for lighting, other uses being quite marginal. Production activities, notably in agriculture, consume relatively little energy since they rely primarily on human and/or animal power. Grid extension to rural populations is often compromised, since the required high investments are unprofitable due to low income levels and population dispersion. Also, it has been observed that the percentage of connections to the grid often does not exceed 25% of village households. This set of characteristics of rural Africa requires original and innovative solutions. Asia also has a low income per capita. These countries do not suffer the same problems, however, since their population densities are higher and so the marginal cost of installing electricity network is lower. In fact, close scrutiny suggests that in the developing countries of Asia, per capita incomes grew at an average rate of 4.4 percent between 1970 and 1990 compared with close to zero in Africa (ADB, 1994). Between 1991 and 1995, GDP growth rates in the dynamic Asian economies averaged over 7 percents (OECD, 1996) and it is clear that the strong economic growth in Asia accounted to a significant extent for the considerable upward pressure on energy demand. 3.0 Environmental impacts of current rural energy practices Because everyone has to supply their own energy, rural energy production and consumption is highly inefficient. Biomass is gathered directly from sources close to where it is consumed. In most of sub-Saharan Africa, energy use is linked to deforestation, desertification and to poverty in general, which is perpetuated by environmental degradation and low energy consumption. This situation is both cause and the consequence of developmental difficulties. The low purchasing power of rapidly increasing populations makes it impossible for them to purchase factors of production (such as agricultural inputs, water supply, irrigation system, etc.) that would enable them to intensify their production to meet their basic needs. Current farming practices including keeping livestock and biomass collection are the primary causes of major environmental problems of the region. In recent decades, African eco-systems have suffered accelerated climatic perturbations. Arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid zones have been hit with particular force, provoking or accelerating desertification. Desertification has increased poverty and created instability in ecological, economic, political and social

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systems. Rural populations compelled to move to high density zones are especially affected by these instabilities. This situation has further reduced the availability of scarce natural resources (biomass, water, soil fertility, etc. ...) and contributed to the disappearance of certain plant species, in particular those without strong regenerative capacity. Biomass for cooking is often used inefficiently and is therefore a significant source of pollution. Smoke from cookfires, often built indoors, contains dangerous amounts of toxic substances (monoxide of carbon, sulfur and nitrogen oxides, etc.). Recent research conducted on this worrying phenomenon confirms that there is a cause-effect link between exposure to smoke and diseases such as chronic bronchitis and emphysema. The poorest populations are most exposed to these risks. 4.0 Social impacts of current rural energy practices and policies Satisfaction of basic needs (food, health, housing, etc.) requires diverse energy sources. Scarcity and high cost of energy resources perpetuates and increases poverty in rural Africa. Indeed: - either the energy source is accessible to everyone (eg, biomass), but then it is gathered close to where it is consumed, contributing to environmental degradation, resource scarcity, and increased poverty; -or the energy source (electricity, coal, petroleum product, gas, etc.) is governed by market mechanisms, making energy services unaffordable to most of the population. In either case, limited access to energy results in the failure to meet basic needs. Thus poverty is characterised by low energy consumption, but more importantly, by exclusion of people living in poverty from the current energy transition and from ineffective energy policies. In effect, the principle aims of energy policies have been subsidisation of the energy sector as a whole, or subsidisation targeted to specific energy sources, or taxation of high income consumers. All global subsidies (eg, for LPG) benefit the wealthy population, which sees an opportunity to increase its consumption (sometimes leading to shortages), while the poorer population goes back traditional sources of energy which subsequently become cheaper. All targeted energy subsidies (eg, kerosene) result in suppliers rationing their stock to sell to a more profitable market (transport in the case of kerosene). Finally, a rise in taxes on products consumed by the wealthier class (particularly in countries with short supply of wood), often brings about a rise in overall energy prices. In other words, this type of taxation has a negative effect on the poor. Faced with the above dilemmas, human power has often appeared to be a way out. In certain rural areas, wood is more and more difficult to obtain, so much so that people have to travel longer distance to collect the woodfuel they need. To the extent physically do-able, a spontaneous effort is even made to compensate for the lack of energy resources by using physical human energy. There are many cases in the Sahel in recent years where people had to travel distances over 15 to 20 kms in order to gather the primary resources they need. If one also considers that the average distance to a health centre (which may be lacking in such basics as refrigeration ) is 15 km and that there is no organised public transport, it is easy to see that the level of poverty is maintained by the lack of technology and the frequent absence of any energy sources whatsoever.

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Overall, limited access to energy by the poor marginalises them from society and worsens their living conditions., while deforestation (over 2.5 million hectares/year in Africa) continually degrades their environment. 5.0. How should we respond to the energy requirements of the poor? The failure of energy policies is due mainly to the gap that exists: - between the needs of populations and the proposed solutions that focus on supply and ignore demand (grid electricity, new and renewable energies parachuted in from outside, etc.); and - between energy solutions and the other components of local development (disseminating luxury technologies, or extending the grid for political reasons instead of responding to basic water needs or conserving agricultural production, etc.). Faced with this situation, it is imperative to seek , stimulate and accelerate the transition to viable energy systems. In the African context, particularly in the agricultural sector, this is essential to ensure food security. This transition requires political vision and long-term mobilisation; it favours horizontal approaches to strictly vertical ones, and it includes a strong component of community development. 5.1 Integrated, sustainable, community-based management programmes Only community-based management programmes that are integrated and sustainable, whether in urban or rural areas, are capable of satisfying the needs of everyone and, in particular, of the poorest populations. This is because these programmes take into account the natural and technical resources of the region, human capabilities, needed financial resources, and the environmental constraints. In the savannah zone, a reflection on integrated and sustainable management of urban agricultural systems would provide a rich learning field for this effort. In effect, proposals to produce biomass energy from currently under-valued products (from agriculture, the savannah and the transformation of certain resources) and reduce reliance on fossil fuels hold potentially rich prospects for Sahalian countries. The integrated and sustainable management of new rural agro-forestry systems also offers interesting prospects in this regard. However, we must base our studies, now even more than in the past, on the maximum possible use of local natural resources. The energy problems of rural areas that are outside the national commercial energy networks (electricity, gas, transport, etc.), and full valorisation of food and nonfood oils produced from trees and annual farm crops, should be approached systematically. 5.2 A mitigated answer offered by renewable energy A return to renewable energy is often considered the solution to the energy needs of the poor who are excluded from modern energy systems. Arguments in favour of this position from a macro-economic perspective hold that renewable energy will reduce long-term dependency on oil and lower national debts, thereby improving economic conditions and benefiting the poor. This argument does not take into account the high cost of renewable energy that makes it accessible only to the rich and excludes the poor in towns and rural areas. To illustrate, the 500 to 1,000 $US cost of solar hot

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water heaters and photovoltaic systems makes these technologies inaccessible to poor people. In Senegalese villages where solar PV systems are available, less than 15 per cent of the population can afford them. Those who defend energy models "for a sustainable world" that are predominantly based on high-tech solutions and low energy consumption—and such proposals have almost become commonplace—not only exclude countries that are at a level of development in which they access only mass produced goods, but also exclude, within those countries, people without monetary resources. We are faced with global solutions that absolutely do not respond, at least in the short term, to the needs of poor people. In other words, the logic of renewable energy solutions that incorporate high-tech equipment for individual users leads to a market logic, of which the exclusion mechanisms are already known. 5.3 The community approach, taking into account energy needs The old debate between collective good and individual well-being always reemerges in discussions on distribution of energy technology. Ultimately, improving the situation of the poor, all studies show, means increasing their access to water and health care. This implies placing ownership of energy technology in the hands of collectives, run not by the State, but by decentralised villages, communes, rural communities, etc. An example is the successful community-based project, "Mali Aqua Viva", which doubled the amount of water available to people during the 1970s drought, and later enabled them to restart or initiate cultivation, provide water for their cattle in dry season and undertake afforestation activities. The recent experiences in Sahel of "Integrated Infrastructure Platforms" for off-grid communities offer interesting prospects for widening access to rural energy services. Presented in the context of the collective good, the introduction of energy technologies, including renewable energy technologies (wind, biogas digesters, solar PV, etc.) constitutes a response to the endemic problem of poverty. It enables communities to install refrigeration in a health centre here, develop agricultural activities there, etc. But this approach requires people’s collaboration and participation. In an example of village photovoltaic stations (leaving aside discussion on the benefits or disadvantages of such technology), it was observed that when the population is associated with the management of the station and adequate rates are negotiated with people’s participation, connections reach 95 per cent where conventional grid connections would have been only 10 per cent. Enabling access to energy sources and technologies so that poor people are able to meet their basic needs will require, in the African context, a decentralised but community-based approach in which local people participate directly in the management of energy resources, that is to say, a new and different approach to managing energy resources. Such a system would operate outside unaffordable commercial energy supply and finance systems, allowing the poor to provide themselves with energy. 6.0. What should be done and how should we proceed? Energy services have three components: - energy use which requires knowledge about the quality, function and maintenance of utilisation systems, user behaviour, etc.; -energy technologies or appliances required to convert energy into a useful service; and

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-energy itself, the type and amount consumed. Everything to do with the cost and nature of energy services can involve each of these components. A twofold on-going procedure is required: 6.1 Start with the needs of the most deprived This means working with grass roots groups (villages, communes, associations etc.) and supporting them as they find ‘ad hoc’ solutions from among the range of possible solutions that present themselves, eg in the framework of the Rio conventions (eg, desertification), in the context of projects to disseminate energy equipment, or through integrated resource management programmes (rural or urban). In this process, one is quickly confronted with the question of compatibility among local resources (human and natural), technology, product, and market. In seeking this compatibility, what is important is not so much the analysis of each factor separately, but the way in which they relate to each other. They have to be thought off as a group, not individually. There are, in effect, many research centres that work on technology, often in isolation; there are many small businesses (craft and non-craft based) that make products; there is potential demand, monetary or nonmonetary (as in the case of poor people). The answers thus have to do with the adequacy of the linkages between these factors: Local resources<->tecknology<->product<->market In all regions there is always a stock of local 'savoir faire' and of natural resources (whatever these may be). However, there is a vacuum, or at least lack of circulation, of information on how to use local resources (except for wood), eg on how to use the shea tree, biomass residues, etc. There are solutions, experimental practices, but these rarely reach a level of popularisation because individual components are not related to each other. For example, production of products requires training of skilled craftspeople (which is not happening), the product is too expensive to compete on the market, or it does not meet people’s needs. Priority should thus be given to research and action that experiments with new materials, adapts technologies, develops useful products, and demonstrates technical viability and socio-economic feasibility. 6.2. Support capacity building Some people assume that the basic needs of the poorest people will be satisfied when development policies (economical, technological etc..) are effectively implemented. They look then to public authorities and policy-makers to take action. But most of the policies that are carried out mimic policies based on consumption models particularly in the energy sector (gas, electricity, fuel, etc.) that are so costly they make energy inaccessible to the poor and marginalise them even further. Moreover, such policies tend to ignore the potential for developing local resources.

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How can we let decision-makers know that diverse local solutions exist that are based on local resources and local development needs? Advocacy at the level of decision-makers has less visible effects, in the short term, than action at the grassroots level, which is by definition carried out with the participation of local populations. Capacity building is a long process. It is the inverse of missions of experts, or commandos, who in no time at all produce results that, usually, ignore local potentials because they are elaborated without local savoirfaire. (Such missions usually prefer ready-made solutions to the analysis of problems.) 7.0. Conclusion The complex problem of energy in rural Africa calls for a combination of solutions. In effect, resolving the woodfuel problem will not meet the growing demand for fuel for motorised agriculture, nor will it provide energy for small food-based industries; it will not transform and/or conserve local production in agriculture, livestock or fishing. Singular solutions to diverse problems risk missing their targets, and they multiply costs by requiring adaptation to each specific problem, as was demonstrated by rural electrification. Moreover, the present equation of energy and environment issues with global sustainable development brings to reflections on rural energy a new perception that is above all based on the notion of diversification. This needed diversification is first of all ‘thematic’, refusing models that, mimicking the North, see solutions as "keys", as "panacea for Africa": the limited reach of African electricity grids is a blatant manifestation of this failure, particularly in rural areas. Supply-side thinking has long been dominant, but it is towards analysis of demand, by nature diversified, that the search for appropriate solutions must be oriented. This leads to diversity of energy supplies (renewable and non-renewable) and of technologies (traditional, new, hybrid). Improving traditional technologies is included in the range of measures adapted to the African context. There is no "exclusivity" among traditional and modern technologies. It is an appropriate combination of the two, one labour intensive, the other capital intensive, that leads to effective social solutions. ‘Geographic’ diversification then imposes itself. Diversity manifests itself regionally, even locally, in differences of resources, climate conditions, peoples’ behaviour, and degree of participation in the global economy. Various solutions will have priority depending on the context: hydroelectricity, biomass, wind energy, etc. The continent needs economic and social innovation more than it needs technological innovation: the "technology graveyards" in Africa are there to prove it. Failures have resulted from giving priority to technology (more generally to supply), and overlooking the socio-economic conditions for technology dissemination. Successes result from taking into account the socio-economic conditions in conjunction with the diffused technology. Successful development of energy technology requires on-going analysis of the technology-product-market relationship taking into account place-specific social and environmental constraints. ‘Financial’ diversification is finally becoming more effective. The international community seems disposed to open new lines of finance for projects and investments that promote the mitigation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, the enhancement of GHG sinks, and the successful adaptation of local communities to the impacts of climate change. African countries should position themselves in the front lines to benefit from these new opportunities, especially for rural areas.

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Thus the energy/environment problem helps us to rethink, for rural areas, the problems of development and the fight against poverty by reaffirming that we do not have to repeat the mistakes of the past, and that diversified solutions exist if we draw on our imagination and our realism. ^^Back to the Top

Energy Security in Africa: Opportunities from the Global Climate Debate Ogunlade Davidson, Director Energy & Development Research Centre (EDRC) University of Cape Town email: [email protected] 1.0 Introduction Ensuring the provision of adequate, affordable, efficient, and reliable high quality energy services with minimum adverse impacts on the environment for a sustained period is not only pivotal for development, but crucial for African countries in which most are struggling to meet present energy demands. Further, this continent needs such energy services to be in the position to improve its overall net productivity and become a major player in global technological and economic progress. Unfortunately, despite the abundant unexploited renewable and non-renewable energy resources in the continent, this task remains unfulfilled for the countries of the continent. Currently, the continent is the least consumer of high quality energy globally on a per capita basis. Reversing this situation which should dominate the minds of energy decision-makers and professionals requires major changes in energy sector of African countries. Such changes may include increased local and foreign energy investments, more access to energy supply and use technologies, improved technological and economic connectivity between African countries, and adequate energy human and institutional capacities. See table 1 for the general characteristics of Africa with respect to other world regions. Achieving these changes require overcoming some major economic, demographic and political challenges. However, there are signs that Africa is presently going through an economic transition with economic growth rates surpassing population growth rate. Since1996, the growth rate has shown an upward trend, 4.8% in 1996, 5% in 1997 and 4.9 % in 1998. There also signs of slowing population growth rates, 2.7% in the last few years with expected lower rates in the future. Growing urbanisation with rates doubling national growth rates is a cause for concern due to limited social services provision in urban areas. Despite current political conflicts, the number of countries with democratic and participatory governments are on the increase. The positive features of the continent can provide the right environment for attracting both domestic and foreign investments in the energy sector. Current debate arising out of the possible threat of climatic instability provides Africa with an opportunity for fostering the development of its energy sector despite Africa is estimated to be the most vulnerable to the

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likely impacts from climate change. This vulnerability which is due to the state of development in the continent which can be greatly reduced by making available improved energy services to the vast population because it will improve the quality of their lives substantially. Hence, this short paper will concentrate on commenting on the energy situation of the continent, and then identifying the opportunities of the climate change debate to improve the overall situation in the energy sector. 2.0 Energy Situation In Africa The energy situation in Africa can best be described as a continent with abundant, diverse and un-exploited renewable and non-renewable energy resources that are yet to be extracted and processed for improving the livelihood of the vast majority of the population. Though lack of adequate capital, infrastructure, human and institutional resources are blamed for this deficiency, but major policy shifts are urgently needed in the energy sector to exploit the opportunities such as the climate change debate. In this section, the energy resources of the continent are presented before a discussion on how energy is produced and used in the continent. 2.1 Energy Sources of Africa As mentioned previously, Africa is endowed with vast quantities of both fossil and renewable energy resources. Africa’s share at the end of 1999 of coal, oil and gas of global reserves were 6.2%, 7.7% and 7.2% respectively, and if they are exploited at current rates, these resources will last for 268, 98.3 and 28.2 years. Further, it is the only continent in the world with new finds of substantial oil and gas. Hence, exploiting these resources for the benefit of many is crucial to its future development. However, these resources are not evenly distributed in the continent. Oil and gas are concentrated in Northern and Western Africa and even that they are mainly in relatively few countries, Algeria, Libya and Nigeria. Other countries with significant oil and gas reserves out of these regions are Angola, Egypt, Gabon and Congo. However, in recent times more countries with smaller but significant oil and gas reserves have emerged. These include Cameroon, Sudan, and Tunisia. Countries such as Mozambique, Namibia and Tanzania have significant gas but no oil reserves. As shown in table 2, Coal reserves are dominant in the Southern Africa region with over 95% of the total of which over 90% of this total is in South Africa alone. This poor distribution of fossil resources makes over 70% of countries in the continent have to import these energy resources. This feature coupled with poor fossil fuel infrastructure and weak integrated energy networks has contributed to the relatively low exploitation of these vast fossil reserves in the continent. It is important to note that new oil and gas deposits are found in the continent at significant scale, a feature that accounts for the growing reserves in the continent as shown in table 3. In the past 20 years oil reserves has grown by over 25%, while gas reserves has even grown faster by over 100% for the same period. There are geothermal deposits in Eastern Africa along the Rift valley and is concentrated in two countries Kenya and Ethiopia. Hence, Africa is in a unique position of exploiting energy fossil reserves that has well developed technologies and associated services.

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Currently, Africa has over 10% of the world hydro resources and significant renewable energy resources. Africa being mainly within the tropics, most countries in the continent enjoy long hours of sunshine with significant radiation that can be exploited. Agriculture accounts on the average a third of the continent’s GDP, which means the generation of significant quantity of agricultural wastes for the production of both high quality solid and liquid energy is possible. Wind resources are available in selected sites, mostly along the coastlines in the Northern, Western and Southern Africa. Africa therefore is not short of energy resources, which can give the continent the energy security it requires. The challenge is to develop strategy of accessing the well-known technologies through overcoming the major barriers that exist. 2.2 Energy Production and Use The production and use of both high and low energy in the continent has`been growing in recent times but because of the equally growing population, this growth has not had the full impact on the economy because of increasing population and other difficulties. The production of commercial energy in Africa doubled between 1970 to l997, though its share of world production remained at about 7%. One of the most prominent feature has been the faster growth in the production of natural gas, faster than that that of oil. Also, there has been shift in relative shares of the energy production of fossil fuels. In 1970, oil accounts for 86%, while coal accounts for only 11%. By 1997, oil has dropped to 63%, while the share of coal increased to 19% and the production of natural gas, which was insignificant in 1970, has increased its share to 15%. However, the unevenness in the occurrence of fossil reserves is reflective of the pattern of pattern of energy production in the continent. Southern Africa accounts for 99% of coal production and South Africa being responsible for almost all of it, while natural gas production is concentrated in Northern Africa by mostly few countries, Egypt and Algeria. Crude oil production involves a slightly wider spread in North, West, Central and Southern Africa. Among the countries involved are Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon and Angola. Due to infrastuctural and economic problems of most countries in the continent, Africa has remain a net exporter of its fossil fuels for some time now, with over 50% of all commercial energy produced exported out of the continent. Further, the poor integration networks in the continent has made many countries import these fuels using their meagre foreign exchange while the others export them out of the continent. Table 4 shows energy exports from the different regions of the continent. Every region is a net exporter of commercial energy except the eastern region, while the northern region is by far the largest exporter. Most of the exports go to Europe and USA. Northern Africa export oil and gas, while West Africa is mostly oil and Southern Africa is coal. Consumption of commercial fuels by African countries has been growing averagely by 2.7% annually between 1980 to 1997, though it has grown faster between 1900 to 1997 of 3.1%. However, higher growth rates are required for the continent to compete with other world’s regions, though the remarkable aspect has been that consumption rate now exceeds population growth which has been around 2.7% per annum and is predicted to be around 2% in the next few years. Also, there has been a slight increase of Africa’s share of commercial energy consumption globally, from 2% in 1970 to 3% in 1997. This accounts for 3.8% of global coal consumption, 3.4% of oil and 2.4% of natural gas. These shares are very low in comparison to other

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continents because we have 14% of the world’s population, though they have increased from 1970, 2.7%, 1.7% and o.1% for coal oil and gas respectively. The production and consumption of commercial energy is far from even. Northern Africa produces almost half of the oil and gas, while around 80% of these resources are consumed in the North and Southern Africa (see table 5). In 1997, South Africa, Egypt, Algeria, Nigeria and Libya accounted for 78% of all commercial energy consumed in the continent and these same countries accounted for most of the commercial energy produced as well. With the exception of these countries mentioned above, most countries are net importers of commercial energy. Despite the total of these countries is relatively small, but it is difficult for them because it involves using their meagre foreign exchange receipts for oil payments. Electricity generating capacity in Africa with respect to the population is very low, as of 1997; the capacity was only 94 GW accounting of only 3% of the global total far below the global population share of 14%. Out of this total, 76% is from thermal. As shown in Table 6, the generating capacity vary among the different regions, 88% from thermal resources in Northern Africa and 81% in Southern Africa, while hydro is significant in East and West Africa. Also, coal dominates southern Africa while oil and gas is predominant in North Africa. Due to the proliferation of hydro capacity within the continent, 22% of total electricity production is from hydro with East and Central Africa being dominant. It accounts for over 80% in certain countries such as Cameroon, Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Ghana. Nuclear accounts for only 2% and is located in only one country, South Africa. Geothermal accounts for 0.1% and is in only Ethiopia and Kenya. Due to the low electricity generation in comparison to the total population, access to electricity still remains very low. As a result of the low use of commercial energy, the use of traditional energy sources in the form of biomass, mainly firewood and charcoal is very high in comparison with other regions of the world. It is estimated that this constitutes over 60% of total primary energy use. The use of this low quality energy is far from uniform in the continent, very small fraction are used in the North as opposed to large quantities in West, Central and East Africa. High biomass use raises serious problems because of its very low conversion rate of 15% or less, high wastage, and poor quality method of production. Also, the health and other environmental problems associated with its use are significant. The use of new renewable energy is still limited to a very small fraction, less that 2% of the total consumption. However, there are signs of growth in certain technologies. Wind pumps have been successful in Southern Africa and Solar systems in East and Southern Africa. The most successful have been the solar home systems as shown in Fig.1. However, with recent developments in this area, renewable energy can play significant roles in niche markets especially as more of these technologies become more matured and their market potential are realised. 3.0 Energy Growth Options For Energy Security Transforming Africa from its present situation in which most countries are struggling to satisfy their survival needs to a state in which majority of the countries are achieving their sustainable development goals should be the main interest of decision-makers and academics in the continent. It should be noted in satisfying sustainable development needs, social welfare and environmental protection are just as important as economic growth. The energy requirements to satisfy this task are huge and could be achieved by developing its vast renewable and non-renewable energy resources. However, there are options available to

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the continent because of the large pool of technologies in the public domain that could be exploited. However, access still remains a thorny problem. These options include the following: • • • • • • •

Energy Efficiency (supply and use technologies) Development of Renewable energy technologies Energy Institution development Energy Pricing strategies Regional Energy Trade Energy Trade development Energy Research, Development and Demonstration

3.1 Energy Efficiency Technologies Utilisation of efficient production and use technologies can be an important strategy in the increase of the supply and use of high quality energy in the continent. Due to the current trend of technological progress in world markets, a significant number of improved energy efficient technologies are available. As mentioned previously, an energy strategy for development of the huge fossil fuel resources in the continent is required. The current projects such as the West African gas pipeline that aims at supplying four countries with high quality energy is an example of developing the fossil sources of the continent. There are now improved technologies with energy and technical gains that the continent can access. This also present opportunities for African countries to access to use exciting power generating options such bas combined power systems such as combined gas turbines and combined heat and power systems. Improving the efficiency of existing plants offer significant opportunities for African countries. Most power plants are operating at efficiency far lower that either prescribed standards or in comparison to other regions. This deficiency varies between 5-10%. Using well-known technological practices, 5-10% more power can be available to satisfy the huge amount of suppressed energy demand in the continent. Promoting demand-side management (DSM) in the energy sector provides new opportunities for African countries. This is useful because it also promotes economic efficiency as well because energy costs are reduced for the same output, hence for the same energy cost; productivity and competitiveness will improve. Some studies have shown that use of technically proven cost-effective energy efficiency measures can result in 10-30% of energy consumption. As an example, it is estimated that at least 15% can be achieved through housekeeping measures in Ghana, and 40% of electricity consumption for air conditioning could be saved with more efficient equipment and practices. 3.2 Development of Renewable Technologies As discussed above, Africa has significant renewable energy sources that can be harnessed for satisfying certain niches in the energy sector. The most pervasive are min-hydro sources, which have associated matured technologies, and solar energy that also have Associated matured technologies. Wind energy is only available in few countries. However, due to the economic situation for most African countries only matured technologies will be useful at this point. Biomass energy is yet to be exploited significantly as a high quality energy source in the continent with the exception of agro-based industry that uses agricultural residue for steam and electricity production and ethanol production for transport fuel in a few countries.

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However, Due to recent technological progress and market success of limited renewable technologies, certain off-grid systems are becoming cost-effective and their use in African countries is increasing. Solar PV systems are among these technologies that are been used for households and a small number of commercial purposes. It is estimated that about 100,000 small-scale systems have been installed in Kenya, South Africa and Zimbabwe. Also, the market for such systems are estimated to be up to 1500 MWp, over 10 ten times current level. The potential for other systems such as small-scale gasifiers using biomass residues, increased exploitation of wind energy is great. The use of ethanol as the price of petrol keep increasing is also important because of the widespread availability of sugar industries in continent. In addition the technologies associated with sugar is improving. There are opportunities of using other renewable systems such as biogas for specific situations. 3.3 Reduction of Energy Subsidies The use of more rational energy pricing in African countries can assist to stimulate use and ensure equity growth in the continent. Wider use of cross subsidy that aim reducing subsidy to the rich and assist the poor will lead to improvement in economic efficiency and environmental quality in the energy sector. This will also help to improve the quality of government expenditure. Rational energy pricing will encourage energy services be adequately paid for by those who can afford pay for them and the poor being assisted to achieve a decent livelihood. Studies have shown that removal of subsidies can result in reduction of primary energy consumption by certain groups that can increase supply to dis-advantaged groups. However, subsidies are provided for different reasons depending on the macro-economic environment of the country. Reasons may include, encouraging consumption on an equitable basis, protection of local employment and protection of local industry. They should support energy security as well as social reasons. There is need to search for initiatives in energy policy that will satisfy both social policy and energy security. . 3.4 Regional Energy Trade As a result of the present energy production and use patterns in the continent, there are major deficiencies, which can be either substantially reduced or eliminated by strengthening regional cooperation in the energy sector. Such strengthening can include promotion of energy trade, harmonising energy standards, and establishing common energy framework, improved information exchange through sharing and better use of human capital. Though energy trade exist in a number of countries especially in electricity from hydro resources but there are potential for more of such practices. If suitable inter-connection facilities are established more of such trade will be made. Proposals have been made to have such systems in Southern and East Africa, but are yet to be undertaken. The current work on the South African Power Pool is a possible project that can minimise not only power losses but also environmental impacts and maximise economic benefits. However, for such level of cooperation, coordinating centres will be required that is efficient and suitably manned. Also, aspects such as legal and fiscal frameworks need to harmonised.

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The energy standards in many countries, which are due to their colonial past, need to be upgraded and improved to ensure harmonisation and compatibility. This will assist to improve the design quality of equipment and operating conditions. Also, there will be need to ensure that suitable mechanisms are put in place to ensure compliance. Strengthening of information among countries is very important for future developmeny6t in the energy sector. Present development in information technology should be fully exploited for this purpose. 3.4 Energy Research, Development and Demonstration Energy research has been given a low priority in the continent mainly due to the economic situation in most countries. In addition, the agenda of energy research needs a shift towards fossil fuel technologies. Due to the fact that most of energy research is externally funded; the agenda is not always in line with national priorities. Substantial investments are required for energy research that will be geared towards scientific tracking, testing and technology adaptation. Apart from research, which can be maximised also by establishing of cooperative networks, the need for extensive testing through field demonstration is important. Most of the equipment used in the continent especially for renewable energy technologies were not adequately tested. This is because of the lack of suitable testing facilities and adequate policies.

4.0 OPPORTUNITIES FROM THE CLIMATE CHANGE DEBATE

4.1 The Climate Change Problem The threat of "Climate change" is a result of the accumulation of certain greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere, mainly carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide that trap heat in the lower atmosphere and lead to "global warming". This will change the current climate system, which will result in profound impacts on the ecosystem, and agricultural systems. As a result of this threat, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was signed in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992 and later ratified in 1994 when it came into force. The ultimate objective of UNFCCC is to stabilise global concentrations of GHGs in the atmosphere at a level that prevents dangerous anthrpogenic interference with the climate system. This should be done on the principles of intra and inter-generational equity, differentiated responsibilities, precautionary, cost-effectiveness, and special needs of developing countries. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established in 1988 to provide an assessment of the state of knowledge on climate change science and its implications on other aspects of society. The Second Assessment Report (SAR) of IPCC in 1966 concluded in its findings that there is a discernable human influence on the climate, though detailed predictions still remain uncertain. It should be noted that the objective of the UNFCCC was to reduce the emission of GHGs while promoting sustainable development in developing countries. However, reduction of GHG involves many economic activities especially those relating with energy production and use since this sector accounts for over 75% of carbon dioxide emissions which is by far the most important GHG. Hence, satisfying the obligations of the UNFCCC raises both economic and political issues, since actions from governments and other agents of countries are required. Another aspect was that this Convention calls for a new type of cooperation between states especially between developed and developing countries.

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In December 1997, at the third Conference of Parties (COP3) adopted the Kyoto Protocol (KP) to the Convention in Kyoto, Japan. KP is an attempt to have legally binding obligations on Annex 1 parties (mostly developed countries) to reduce their GHG emissions by an average of 5.2% below 1990 levels by 2008-2012, known as the first commencement period. Each party has individual targets. The Protocol also included three gases to form a basket of six GHGs and it calls for demonstrable progress by 2005. The Protocol establishes three mechanisms referred to as Emission Trading (ET), Joint Implementation (JI) and Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). While the first two are transactions between Annex 1 Parties, CDM is a transaction between Annex 1 Party and non-Annex 1 Party (mostly developing countries). In the case of JI, it is expected to be a continuation of Activities to be Implemented Jointly (AIJ) that was agreed to be a pilot phase of JI and should last up to the year 2000. Therefore the only instruments that concern African countries are AIJ and CDM. African countries hardly involve in the AIJ projects since it started in 1995, though in the last few years, some AIJ projects have being developed while some others are in operation. Based on present aspect in the debate the CDM when started will be of more relevance to African countries. Hence, a few comments are made on the CDM. The main purpose of the CDM is to assist Annex 1 Parties to satisfy their obligations of the KP while promoting sustainable development in non-Annex 1Parties. Also, projects under this mechanism should contribute to stabilising GHG concentration. However, several aspects of the CDM are yet to be decided upon such as the governance through a Executive Board. Among the components that will shape the CDM is that the following: GHG reductions should be real, measurable, verifiable and additional, the CDM projects should be compatible with national development objectives and assigned a baseline of the host country. These projects would raise other key issues such as relationship to other financial mechanisms, evaluation of projects and development of baselines. 5.0 OPPORTUNITIES FROM THE CC DEBATE As the CC debate has progressed, certain opportunities exist for African countries to use in achieving energy security. The main opportunities can be grouped as follows: Technology Transfer Capacity Building CDM 5.1 Transfer of Technology The UNFCCC provided for the transfer of financial and technological resources to non-Annex 1 Parties by Annex 1 Parties in its Article 4.5. The IPCC in its technology transfer report of mitigation and adaptation technologies outlined several measures that could be employed by developing countries such as those of Africa to access climate-friendly Environmentally –Sound Technologies. Among these are the following: • • • •

Settings up clear well-enforced regulations for taxes, codes, and standards and reflect true costing as best as possinble. Setting up simplified transparent procedures for project approval. Create awareness about climate friendly technologies Technology needs and needs assessment

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• • •

Encourage demonstration programmes Develop communication and information infrastructure Develop National Systems of Innovation (NSI) This system integrate the elements of capacity building, access to information and creation of an enabling environment for successful technology transfer.

5.2 Capacity Building Capacity building through the UNFCCC provisions includes the building of human and organisational capacities. To access the climate friendly technologies, a wide range of technical, business, management and regulatory skills are required at local level. These skills can be acquired by looking at all these skills, both hardware and software skills. Also, improving competence in associated services such as organisational know-how and regulatory management is essential. Building organisational and institutional capacities are also important. Activities for building such capacities include the following: • • • •

Development and expansion of business firms Encourage industry and professional associations Develop stakeholder forums Develop national information systems and improve network to international systems

6.0 CDM The CDM when it becomes operational will provide opportunities for Africa to access energy technologies, but it will need the African countries to develop certain activities before the CDM becomes operational. These include: National Institutions for CDM with the activities of project development and selection 7.0 Conclusions This paper has attempted to demonstrate that Africa has vast renewable and non-renewable energy resources that if exploited will contribute significantly to the continent achieving energy security. The possible growth options were discussed and the current global threat of climate instability provides the continent with opportunities to access these growth options. However, accessing these opportunities will require overcoming certain technical, financial, information, and institutional barriers, but with suitable policies some of them can be overcome. Table 1. Selected Energy and Climate Change Parameters of Africa and other Regions 1999 GDP Region/Country per capita ($)

Energy Production/ Consumption Ratio (1997)

Carbon Energy/GDP Emissions/capita Ratio (Metric Tons) (1000Btu/1997$) (1997)

Africa 738 2.33 738

2.33

0.27

19.2

21

0.27 19.2 China 820 0.99 820 0.65 41.3

0.99

0.65

41.3

FSU/E. Europe 1,976

1.15

2.05

65.2

Japan

33,904

0.2

2.35

5.1

Middle East

3,532

3.42

1.42

26.3

Other Asia

964

0.72

0.36

19.2

N. America

25,039

0.88

4.28

12.2

S. America

2,889

1.28

0.58

13.2

W. Europe

20,123

0.64

2.19

7.4

World Total

4,919

1.0

1.03

13.6

Other Asia excludes Australia and New Zealand Carbon emissions excludes gas flaring Source: Adapted from EIA, 1999 REGIONAL FOSSIL FUEL RESERVES (1/1/99) AND CONSUMPTION (1997) REGION

Petroleum (1000 bbl/d)

Natural Gas (Bcf)

Coal (Million ST)

Northern Africa

1151

1534

6.11

West Africa

471

221

0.263

Central Africa

83

4

0.261

East Africa

149

0

0.12

Southern Africa

588

85

176.97

AFRICA

2442

1844

183.7

REGIONAL DIFFERENCES OF MODERN FUELS PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION STATICTICS

REGION

PRODUCTION (Quads Btu)

North Africa 12.01 West Africa 5.445 Central Africa

1.89

CONSUMPTION (Quads Btu)

NET EXPORTS (Quads Btu)

4.393

7.627

1.349

4.08

0.29

1.6

22

East Africa

0.113

0.4

-0.307

Southern Africa

7.03

4.95

2.09

AFRICA

26.47

11.39

15.08

CRUDE OIL AND NATURTAL GAS RESERVES IN AFRICA, 1979-1999 Year

1979

1998

1998

1999

Crude Oil

57.1

58.8

75.4

74.9

Natural Gas

5.96 7.55 ^^Back to the Top

10.22

11.16

ENERGY NEWS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Namibia: New Source of High Quality Photovoltaic Modules Quality Program for Photovoltaic: World Bank Cameroon: Electricity Sector Reform Nigeria: Improved Power Supply in Lagos The Village Power Partnership News from CADDET Renewable Energy News from GREENTIE News and events Heavy Hitters Move into Fuel Cells

Namibia: New Source Of High Quality Photovoltaic Modules We herewith have the pleasure to introduce to you our newly established Photovoltaic Module Manufacturing Plant, called Power4Africa. Power4Africa is situated in Tsumeb, Namibia and has structured itself to supply high quality Photovoltaic Modules to organisations all over Southern Africa. Our newly constructed factory will start production on 1 August 2001. The product rage initially will be modules between 35Wp and 110Wp. Typical panels will be 35, 50, 60 80, and 110Wp. Solar modules will also be custom made upon request. By dealing with Power4Africa you will obtain the following advantages: • •

Very competitive prices You will always purchase the latest technology

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• • • • • • •

You will receive fast response on all your enquiries and queries All products are backed by excellent after sales services You will purchase guaranteed products You will deal with a company doing production locally You will deal with an internationally backed company having a string international network Products purchased will adhere to international standards You will have the advantage of customized products if needed

For products and services enquiries, please contact Erich Feierabend using the following contact details: Power4Africa P O Box 1316 Tsumeb Namibia Telephone:+264 67 222219 Fax:+ 264 67 222219 E-mail:[email protected] ^^Back to the Top

2.Quality Program for Photovoltaics: World Bank Projects The World Bank Group has been one of the leaders in financing photovoltaic (PV) projects in our client countries. Ensuring PV product quality has been important in our efforts at establishing sustainable PV projects and programs. Bank staff involved in PV projects are being encouraged to take advantage of the facilities available through the international organization, "Global Approval Program for Photovoltaics." The Bank Group is supporting PV projects in India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, China, Vietnam, Philippines, Lao PDR, Morocco, Argentina, Mexico, Honduras, Togo, Benin, Cape Verde, Uganda, Kenya, among others. Since the broad application of the technology is at a relatively early stage, the projects have led efforts to develop and apply quality standards for PV components and systems where international or national standards were unavailable. As such, these standards were project- and country-specific. These standards have led to improvements in quality and importantly, a greater awareness and acceptance of PV product quality requirements. Nevertheless, it would be more efficient and cost-effective if internationallyrecognized quality measures were adopted where appropriate. There is now an international organization established to further the aims of quality improvements in PV. The Global Approval Program for Photovoltaics (PV GAP) (http://www.pvgap.org) established in 1997, is a not-for-profit international organization, registered in Geneva, Switzerland. It promotes the utilization of 24

quality PV products and distinguishes them from products of unknown quality. PV GAP is achieving this by having a close working relationship with the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), (http://www.iec.ch), (the IEC is the organization that issues PV module standards which, are accepted internationally, including in Bank-funded projects). The PV GAP approval system relies on the IEC standards, but can also accept national standards as PV GAP Recommended Specifications (PVRS), This was already demonstrated by PV GAP accepting the specifications for PV controllers and inverters established under the Bank/GEF-assisted China Renewable Energy Development Project. PV GAP has formal liaison with IEC's Quality Assessment System for Electronic Components (IECQ) (http://www.iecq.org), which is currently providing product approval services for PV GAP. This includes the review and approval of accreditation certificates of PV testing laboratories and thereby provides reciprocity, i.e. testing results of a laboratory in one country are accepted in other countries. IECQ product approval requires also, that the manufacturer holds a valid ISO 9000 certification. After IECQ approves a manufacturer's PV products, the function of PV GAP is to issue a license for the manufacturer to apply the PV Quality Seal on PV systems and the PV Quality Mark on PV components. This visual recognition simplifies for customers the selection of quality products. It also eliminates the need of country-by-country re-certification, as the credentials of the PV manufacturer and the product were established by PV GAP (IECQ). It also satisfies the World Trade Organization's "Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade," which makes standardization and the assessment of conformity to standards an important part of the global trade agenda and cites IEC as one of the major partners in establishing standardization. It is evident from the above, that a PV product displaying PV GAP's PV Quality Mark and/or Seal can reasonably be expected to comply with the quality standards the Bank Group is encouraging or requiring for the procurement of PV components and systems. This eliminates, for products so marked, the review of the credentials of each product a PV manufacturer wants to sell for a project supported by the World Bank. This simplifies administrative procedures, is less costly to suppliers, gives the buyers a greater confidence in the quality of the products, and can encourage inter-country trade. Therefore, as a means of assuring quality in PV projects, World Bank staff are encouraged to inform clients undertaking PV projects that "PV components or systems eligible for use in Bank-assisted projects should either comply with: (a) relevant standards issued by IEC, ISO or similar standards/certification organizations of international standing, (b) appropriate national standards, or (c) bear the Global Approval Program for Photovoltaics (PV GAP) Mark or Seal.

3. Cameroon: Electricity Sector Reform In July 2001, IFC successfully concluded an advisory mandate with the government of Cameroon on the institutional reform of the electricity sector and the privatization of the electricity utility, SONEL. The winning bidder, the U.S.-based company; AES Corporation paid $72 million to acquire 56 percent of

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SONEL through a combination of capital increase and secondary share purchase, valuing the company at $213 million after capital increase. As part of its mandate, IFC advised the government of Cameroon on creating a new legal and regulatory framework, establishing a regulatory agency and rural electrification agency, defining a privatization strategy, marketing the transaction to investors, drafting concession agreements that set out investors' obligations for the next 20 years, assisting the government in negotiations with investors, organizing the bidding process, and closing the transaction. The mandate was completed in just under three years. SONEL's privatization concludes a wide-ranging reform program established by the government in 1998 to promote private sector investment; improve the quality of service; increase electrification in urban and rural areas; boost efficiency in production, transmission, and distribution; and provide electricity at competitive prices. As part of its contractual obligations in taking over SONEL's new concessions, AES has committed to a four-fol d increase in the number of electric connections over the next two decades and to substantially enhancing the quality of service. ^^Back to the Top

4. Nigeria:Improved Power Supply in Lagos Residents of Lagoswonder if under-performing public company NEPA will sustain its improved services in Lagos and its environs Is the current relative stable power supply in Lagos and its environs for real? In the last two months, residents of Lagos and its environs have enjoyed relatively uninterrupted power. What is the magic? A curious consumer in Egbeda asked a National Electric Power Authority, NEPA, official that had come to drop the July bill in his house. Godwin Osakwe, general manager, Lagos zonal office, said the improvement is for real. NEPA has repaired a number of its broken down facilities for effective distribution of power in Lagos. Some of them that have been completed are located at Abule Egba, Abule Iroko, Alagbin, Festac, Lekki, Ajangbadi, Maroko and Okota while work is still going on at the Ikorodu industrial layout, New Idumagbo, Amukoko, Satellite Town, Agege, Abesan and Olorumpelu distribution substations. Osakwe is optimistic that as soon as these projects are completed, Residents of Lagos will once again enjoy full power supply. "Consumers in Lagos and its environs have no cause for worry. The good times are back again," he said. Another reason accounting for the improved power supply is the working arrangement between the authority and ENRON, an independent power producer. Going by the initial schedule, ENRON ought to have begun the supplies by April and complete the final phase by August. The supply was staggered in three months of 100 megawatts each. The initial supplies of 100 megawatts was slated for April, and another 100 megawatts for June while the last supplies of 100 megawatts was scheduled for August. The schedule could not be kept because of the problem between the Lagos State government and NEPA over the ENRON project. The matter was later resolved and ENRON was allowed to sell power directly to NEPA. At present, ENRON is selling to NEPA about 70 megawatts to complement its power supply to Lagos. As a result of the improved power supply, many artisans who had been off business due to erratic power supply are back. Some of them who spoke to Newswatch expressed satisfaction with the services of NEPA. Akin Idowu, a welder, said his business has picked up. Idowu was off business for several months. He lost most of his customers because he could not afford a generating set to facilitate his work. He has won back some

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of his customers since NEPA improved. "There is no day we don't have order to do a job," he said. Mabel Nwakpa, a housewife, said she can now preserve her perishable food items in the fridge without fear of losing them. Nwakpa said even when NEPA had cause to take light now, it returns after a few hours. According to her, this was unthinkable in the last two months. She hopes that NEPA will sustain the tempo. President Olusegun Obasanjo has promised Nigerians uninterrupted power supply by December 31. Obasanjo said in order to achieve the set target, the government had so far spent N200 billion to procure plants and equipment to replace NEPA's obsolete and broken down facilities. Joseph Makoju, managing director, NEPA, said 26 broken down generating units out of 79 owned by the authority have been repaired. NEPA is looking at other options to sustain the present tempo of power generation. One of the options is its policy of rehabilitation, operate and transfer programme. Afam and Sapele thermal stations had been put under this arrangement. Another option is to privatise the operations of the existing power stations. Egbin and Delta IV, Ughelli thermal station and the hydro-power stations located in Kainji, Shiroro and Jebba in Niger State have been earmarked for privatisation. Late last June, NEPA called for bid for the operations and management of the three hydro-power stations. The stations are operating below their installed capacity. Kainji Dam which was constructed in 1968 with an installed capacity of 760 megawatts has never worked at full capacity. Only one out of its eight generating units are working. The situation is the same in Shiroro and Jebba. Shiroro has a capacity to generate 600 megawatts from its four units while Jebba has an installed capacity of 578.4 megawatts. A fortnight ago, NEPA also called for bids for the management of Delta IV, Ughelli thermal stations in Delta State and Egbin gas turbine station in Lagos State. The final bid for the take over of these plants is slated for November 19. IPA energy of London has been appointed by NEPA as the consultants for the privatisation. An official of the ministry of power and steel, who spoke to Newswatch last week, said the injection of private investors into the power sector "would increase NEPA's operational efficiency and reverse the trend in deterioration of its plants and equipment as well as improve its financial performance." ^^Back to the Top 5. The Village Power Partnership E-Village Dialogue discussion is being held between September 25 to October 12, 2001 hosted by several of the Village Power sponsors - the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, the Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP), the U.S. Agency for International Development and Winrock International. The purpose of this discussion is threefold: 1. to obtain an update on planned and on-going Village Power activities worldwide. 2. to identify next steps, and organizations interested in helping to implement the Village Power Partnership Communique agreed to at the closing session of the Village Power 2000 Conference. 3. to determine a mechanism for conducting, coordinating and tracking global Village Power initiatives. The Village Power 2000 Conference concluded with a Communique calling for a global partnership to enhance rural development through the accelerated delivery of modern energy services. The vision of the

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Village Power Partnership is that more effective provision of clean energy services in the water, agriculture, health, education, and telecommunication sectors will lead to improved incomes, increased productivity and enhanced quality of life for both end users and service providers. The Village Power Partnership Communique calls upon governments, the private sector, NGOs, financial and development organizations to collaborate on a 10-year initiative with the following outcomes: 30 countries with national scale renewable energy based rural development programs. 300 million people previously unserved have access to modern energy services. Over 50,000 new community systems installed (schools, hospitals, clinics). Cadre of trained entrepreneurs and institutions capable of developing and implementing village power projects and programs. Documented improvements in productivity, income, environment and quality of life from rural energy services. Since the Village Power Conference, discussions have been held with several organizations including the World Bank, bilateral donors, private companies and NGOs, and there continues to be a strong interest in and commitment to moving forward on achieving these objectives. The challenge now is to move from words to action, to solidify the partnership and to put in place the projects, programs and financing packages that will yield results. For further information, please visit us at http://www.VillagePowerPartnership.org Judy Siegel E-Village Discussion Moderator

6. News from CADDET Renewable Energy There are no new publications for CADDET Renewable Energy to report this month, however do have a look at our Web site at http://www.caddet-re.org where the latest news and events are continually updated. The Renewable Energy Register database now contains 544 entries. You can explore the Register, searching for project information in a range of technologies at http://www.caddet-re.org/html/register2.htm

7. News from GREENTIE The new GREENTIE website is still under active development and will be tested by our GREENTIE Liaison Offices around the world in early November. No live date has been fixed yet for its launch but it will certainly happen in December. The latest GreenTimes issue is now available on the web and this focuses on renewable energy technologies in Developing Countries. The next issue will look at waste minimisation.

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Universities could cut their energy usage by 40 per cent, a study funded by the European Union's Fifth Framework's International cooperation programme has concluded. The project, which involved 28 universities from nine European countries as well as Israel was launched in 2000. The study comes to the conclusion that universities in Europe are important key players in the promotion of energy efficiency. They could save energy costs of around one hundred million euro per year if they carried out energy saving measures, the project found. The study also estimates a saving potential of around 40 per cent, based on more than 40 case studies that have shown annual savings up to 1.4 million euro per institution. In addition, universities with about 17 million students in Europe must be perceived as eminent social multipliers in efforts to promote energy use compatible with sustainable development, claim the project participants. This applies in particular to two fields in which universities in Europe could contribute most: the promotion of energy efficiency and environmentally friendly electric and electronic equipment (EEE) as well as the utilisation of renewable energies. For further information, please consult the following web address: http://www.cre-copernicus.de/seiten/good_practice.html DIO LIGHTS WIN ICLEI "INITIATIVE OF THE MONTH" AWARD The revolutionary energy-saving DIO lights, installed on the St Kilda foreshore in Australia in July, have won the International Council for Local Environment Initiatives (ICLEI) July "Initiative of the Month" award in the Cities for Climate Protection Australia campaign. Port Phillip mayor, Councillor Julian Hill, said that the "Initiative of the Month"award recognises outstanding projects or work undertaken in either the community or corporate sector that support the campaign to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The council's award is profiled on ICLEI home page: http://www.iclei.org/ccp-au Cr Hill said that the DIO lights were a world first in public lighting. "The DIO public lighting along the foreshore reduces electricity consumption by up to 80%, significantly reduces greenhouse gas emissions, and reduces visual pollution by providing directed light." The Council is also installing solar panels on various foreshore buildings to feed directly to the lights. It is retrofitting 290 lights along the foreshore and will eventually replace all public lights under its control with DIO lights. Installing these is expected to save 110 tonnes of CO2 gases and AUD 36,368 per year. As ever a comprehensive list of events in the energy efficiency and renewable energy spheres can be found on the relevant CADDET websites. Click below for more details. ^^Back to the Top

9. Heavy Hitters Move into Fuel Cells Well known company names are appearing with increasing frequency in fuel cell news and in new areas of fuel cell market. Automotive heavy weights like GM, Toyota, Ford, BMW and DaimlerChrysler are exploring stationary as well as automotive fuel cell applications. Energy companies such as Exxon Mobil, Sanyo Electric Co. and Osaka Gas Co. have begun to move into and expand their presence in the fuel cell sector. Collectively, these heavy hitters have signaled their belief in the future of the fuel cell market. The potentially lucrative nature of the stationary markets likely sparked the interest of Sanyo Electric Co. and Osaka Gas Co., a natural gas utility serving more than 6 million customers in Japan. These two entered relatively new territory when they announced in late August that they will jointly research and develop a

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fuel-cell -based co-generation system for household use. Caterpillar Inc, in conjunction with Nuvera Fuel Cells and Williams Bio-Energy, is also developing a 13 kW PEM stationary fuel cell system, and was awarded $2.5 million in June by The US Department of Energy (DOE) to fund their work. Even so, much of the new interest in stationary applications has come from automotive companies. For years, these companies have funded research into fuel cell transportation applications. Moving in a new direction, Toyota announced it intends to develo fuel cells for residential energy generation. In early August, General Motors (GM) unveiled a stationary fuel cell generator to be used either as a backup generator or as a primary source for electricity in individual homes. The GM generator is based on the technology developed for the company's experimental fuel cell vehicles. These stationary applications have a side benefit for automotive companies; the work the automakers do in developing stationary generators can lead to breakthroughs in their area of primary focus, transportation applications. Automakers have also tackled a major hurdle to fuel cell commercialization: finding safe and effective hydrogen production and storage methods. Many of these companies have entered into research collaborations that can save money and accelerate the development process. Amongst other projects, BMW is working with United Arab Emirate member state Dubai on hydrogen production feasibility study. GM acquired equity in QUANTUM Technologies, a company which works on autmotive hydrogen storage. Other companies with processor technology experience have also entered the market. Exxon Mobil recently joined the California Fuel Cell Partnership, looking to adapt its gasoline processor technology for use in fuel cell vehicles. The company also announced that it has decided to merge its fuel cell fuels related research with that of GM and Toyota. The three companies will share resources and results in an effort focused particularly on developing and testing fuel processing technologies. Other new market entrants have annunced plans to support the emerging fuel cell market. Early this year, DuPont, stating that it expects the fuel cell market to be as much as $10 billion by the year 2010, revealed it has formed a fuel cell business unit and intends to become the leading supplier of materials and components to the PEM fuel cell market. The company has also forged agreements with other fuel cell industry companies. In August, DuPont announced that it has entered into a partnership with Mechanical Technology Inc. to develop fuel cell components, based on DuPont technology, for use in Mechanical Technology's micro fuel cells. H Power Corp., a fuel cell development comopany, announced in the first week of September that it has also partnered with DuPont to develop direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC) for portable and mobile applications. Whether these heavy hitters will end up obtaining a large share of the fuel cell market remains to be seen. Much of the research and development work is still carried out by smaller fuel cell companies that are themselves growing in size and influence. However, as large companies seek to capitalize onlthe potentially large fuel celll market, they can help push fuel cells over the final technical and practical hurdles to commercialization.

Job Opportunities RESEARCH ASSOCIATE-POLICY, PEW CENTER ON GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE

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The Pew Center is a non-profit, non-partisan, and independent organization dedicated to providing credible information, straight answers, and innovative solutions in the effort to address global climate change. For more information about the Pew Center, visit www.pewclimate.org. The Pew Center is looking to hire a Research Associate to work with the Director of Policy Analysis (see descriptions below). Pew Center on Global Climate Change, Research Associate-Policy Start date: Immediately Duties: 1. Research, maintain, and communicate to staff updated information on domestic climate change policy and related legislation; 2. Work with Policy Director in oversight/editing of Policy series reports; 3. Attend and report on climate change meetings, conferences, and hearings on Capitol Hill; and 4. Help organize workshops and briefings for stakeholders on climate change issues. Desired qualifications: Undergraduate degree or higher in environmental studies, environmental policy or related field; understanding of the climate change issue-science, politics, economics; well developed writing/editing skills; attention to detail; willingness to learn and pitch in at all levels. Send resume and cover letter to: Vicki Arroyo Cochran at the Pew Center on Global Climate Change, 2101 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 550, Arlington, VA 22201, or electronically in a Word Document to [email protected].

Consultancy Announcement Renewable Energy Specialist-UN/DESA The UN is seeking the services of a consultant for the job described below. If you have or know a qualified candidate who is interested, please submit his CV. Thanks and regards. Yehia Abu-Alam UN/DESA - Energy and Transport Branch New York Phone 212 963 8599

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Fax 212 963 4340 Terms of Reference for Renewable Energy Specialist Post title: Renewable Energy Specialist Duty station: Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire (with travel, as appropriate) Duration: 1 year initially (with the possibility of extension for another 2 years) Starting date: August/September 2001 Duties Under the supervision of the Chief of the Energy and Transport Branch of UN/DESA, upon advice from the head of the African Development Bank (AfDB), Environmental and Sustainable Development Unit (OESU), the renewable energy specialist shall initiate, co-ordinate and undertake activities as outlined below for solar (electric and thermal), wind (electric and shaft power) and small hydro (electric and shaft power) energy resources and technologies (hereafter referred to as renewable energy): * Carry out economic and sector work, including identifying policy /institutional issues to provide the framework for the AfDB assistance in the area of renewable energy; * Prepare training material, training programs and provide training for AfDB staff, notably the project officers in the country departments to create awareness and sensitise them on potential investments in renewable energy activities; * Prepare training material, training programs and provide training for in-country personnel (National Banks, Ministry of Energy, Electric Utilities, Private Sector, NGO's) on the identification, preparation and evaluation of renewable energy projects in those countries targeted by AfDB for investment; * Co-ordinate the identification and preparation of feasibility studies (business plans) for renewable energy projects to be included in the AfDB lending portfolio; * Assist in the project appraisal process of renewable energy investments, to be undertaken by AfDB. Project appraisal will be carried out on the basis of the business plans developed and needs to address the financial, economic, institutional and socio- technical issues; * Implement and supervise renewable energy investments to be undertaken by ADB; and * Co-ordinate with ongoing programs in the Africa region to avoid overlap and identify complementary activities, especially those where making investment capital available will accelerate the development of renewable energy activities. Furthermore, co- ordinate with donor agencies and mobilising resources (grants and/or buy-downs) to be packaged with AfDB renewable energy loans.

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Research Grants and Fellowships POSTGRADUATE TRAINING FELLOWSHIPS THIRD WORLD ORGANISATION FOR WOMEN IN SCIENCE (TWOWS) Postgraduate Training Fellowships for Women Scientists in Sub-Saharan Africa and Least Developed Countries (LDCs) at Centres of Excellence in the South. DEADLINE OCT. 31, 2001 TWOWS in collaboration with the Third World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) and with funds generously provided by the Department for Research Cooperation of the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) has instituted a fellowships programme forfemale students in Sub-Saharan African and Least Developed Countries (LDCs) who wish to pursue postgraduate training leading to a doctorate degree at centres of excellence in the South (developing countries) outside their own country. The general purpose of the scheme is to contribute to the emergence of a new generation of women leaders in science and technology and to promote their effective participation in the scientific and technological development of their countries. The specific aims of the scheme are: - To improve access to educational and training opportunities in science and technology for young and talented women graduates from Sub-Saharan Africa and LDCs - To increase the scientific productivity and creativity of women scientists in sub-Saharan Africa and LDCs. -To empower a new generation of talented women to assume a leadership role in science and technology and their application to sustainable development. Closing date: 31 Oct 2001. ENQUIRIES: Leena Mungapen, TWOWS Tel: (+39) (40) 224-0321 Fax: (+39) (40) 224-4559 E-mail: [email protected] WWW: http://www.twows.org

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