Electric motors, part II Synchronous motors The flux in this machine is produced by a direct current. The pole structure of the synchronous machine is the inner part which rotates and the armature is the outer part and is stationary. The synchronous machine is a special case of the induction motor and the d.c. machine is a synchronous machine with an added special device (commutator). The rotors of the synchronous machines that have six or more poles are of the salient pole type. The rotors of the two or four poles machines are of the nonsalient type (cylindrical rotors). The speed in r.p.m. for any machine is calculated from the following formula: n=120f/p where f is the frequency of supply in c/s and p the number of poles. For example, a 60 c/s machine with 4 poles will rotate at 1800 r.p.m. and for 2 poles at 3600 r.p.m. The d.c. field winding is placed in slots in the cylindrical rotor and is held in place by heavy metal wedges. The general shape and construction of the stator is similar to that of the induction machine, the core is laminated. The punching of a salient pole machine may include slots for the damper or amortisseur winding (squirrel cage type of winding). This winding is found in all synchronous motors for starting purposes and in certain generators to damp out oscillations which may occur during parallel operations. The damper winding has the bars of each pole connected to segments, which are bolted together to form a complete ring connection around the cylindrical rotor. The major elements in a rotor are:& the end winding retaining ring, the ventilation fan, the slip rings through which the d.c. exciting current is introduced (or rotating rectifier), the rotor winding and wedges that fit the grooves at the top of each slot. A synchronous machine is able to operate both as a generator and as a motor. Cylindrical rotor machine (higher speeds) is chiefly used as a generator and salient pole rotors are used with most synchronous motors. The stator and rotor of the synchronous machine are connected to power sources. In general, the doubly fed machine has 2 speeds at which the torque is uniform: 120(f1 +/ f2)/p. In synchronous machines the rotor is fed by a d.c. supply , i.e. f2 = 0. The single speed at which a unifrom torque exists is the synchronous speed and is equal to 120 f1/p. In order for the frequency to remain constant, the rotor speed has to remain constant and to be independent of the torque. The synchronous machine represents a special case of the doubly fed induction machine. It is also a special case of the transformer. It has the character of a current transformer. The current transformer when operated with a constant primary current has a large flux variation between no load and full load. At no load, its flux is fixed by the mmf of the primary current alone. At load, its flux is determined by the resultant of the primary and secondary mmfs. The primary current of the synchronous machine is the d.c. of the field winding and the secondary current is the armature current. The rotors of the synchronous machines run at a speed of 120 f1/p (the rotor has p poles and the stator current has a frequency f1). The stator winding of this type of machines is wound for the same number of poles, as that of the rotor. The speed of the stator mmf with respect to the rotor is at standstill, i.e. the stator mmf is equal to 120fl/p. The main flux of the machine (which is produced by the stator and rotor mmfs) travels at synchronous speed with respect to the stator and at a standstill , i.e. zero with respect to the rotor. The rotor winding (field and damper) appear open with respect to the main flux. Xad is a variable quantity as the permeability of the main flux path is a variable quantity, because the synchronous machine acts as a current transformer between noload and full load. For the induction motor, the flux changes little between no
and full load (specially for large and medium size motors), the main flux reactance can be considered constant. Salient pole machines are treated differently (not like a cylindrical rotor). The salient pole machine has salient poles followed by interpole spaces. Thus the reluctance around the pole is variable. The axis going through the center of the pole is called the direct axis. The axis going through the center of the interpolar space is called the quadrature axis. The armature reaction in the synchronous machine has a lagging current opposing the field mmf in a generator and supports the field mmf in motor. For the leading current, it supports the field mmf in a generator and opposes the field in a motor. It should be noted that the power factor angle does not determine the character and the magnitude of the armature reaction but the angle between the armature current and the emf induced in the armature winding by the field flux. The field mmf (neglecting harmonics) and the armature mmf (neglecting harmonics) are sinusoidal waves, the amplitudes of which can be treated as phasors. The basic variable of the synchronous machine is an angle between the terminal voltage and the emf induced in the armature winding by the field flux, just as the slip is the basic variable of induction motors. A torqueangle characteristic takes the place of torquespeed characteristic of the induction motor and it is this angle that determines the magnitude of the torque. When the machine is saturated, the resultant mmf of the field,, the armature winding and the flux produced by it must by considered differently. The armature reaction reactance does not appear in this case as it is taken care of by the armature mmf, which is a component of the total mmf. Only the leakage reactance of the armature is to be included in the equivalent circuit. Kinchoff's mesh equation for the motors and generators are given hereafter, respectively: V= E+IaRa+jIaXl and V+IaRa+jIaXa=E. E: the emf induced in the armature winding by the field flux and armature flux (i.e. the flux due to the resultant mmf of armature and rotor). The generator characteristics will be covered, briefly, in the following paragraphs. They are no load and air gap ch/cs, short circuit, load, external, regulation wave, short circuit ratio and the determination of the direct axis synchronous reactance. The short circuits characteristic represents the armature current as function of the field current or the field mmf with the armature terminals short circuited (at the synchronous speed). The short circuit generator appears to be loaded with an almost pure inductance because the resistance of the armature winding, under this condition, is small compared to its leakage reactance. There is no saturation of the iron in the short circuited machine. The characteristic triangle of a synchronous machine (potier triangle) contains the armature reaction mmf and the leakage reactance. The load characteristic represents the terminal voltage as function of the field current or field mmf for a constant load current and a constanct phase angle. In a fixed load current, the field current required to sustain the noload voltage increase rapidly with decreasing power factor. When the power factor = 0, the load characteristic can be determined from the no load characteristics and the potier triangle. The potier triangle can be determined from the no load characteristics and two points of the power factor = 0 load characteristic curve. The external characteristic represents the terminal voltate as a function of the load current Ia at constant field current If and constant power factor. The regulation curve shows the field current as a function of either the load current at constanct p.f. or of the p.f. with the armature load current constant under terminal voltage. The short circuit ratio (SCR) of a synchronous machine is defined as the ratio of the field current required to produce rated voltage on open circuit to the field current required to produce rated current under short circuited terminals. The significance of the SCR:
a small SCR indicates a large armature reaction (a machine sensitive to load variations) and a large SCR indicates a small armature reaction (a machine less sensitive to load variations). The direct axis reactance is determined from the no load and the short circuit characteristics. Xd=Xl+Xad where Xd is the direct axis synchronous reactance for a cylindrical rotor, Xad is the armature reaction reactance in the direct axis, Xl is the leakage reactance. The synchronous reactance, in per unit, is equal to 1 divided by the unsaturted SC ratio. For salient pole machines, the two reaction theory should be applied because of its interpolar spaces. These machines have two axes of symmetry, the direct and the quadrature axis. When two mmfs are acting on the direct axis of the salient pole m/c, the field mmf and the armature mmf, only one mmf is acting upon the quadrature axis (the armature mmf). The armature mmf must be resolved into two components, one acting upon the direct axis and the other upon the quadrature axis. The flux density is directly proportional to the mmf and inversely proportional to the reluctance. Introducing effectiveness factors to reflect the real flux in the interpolar spaces (reduced levels) is necessary , this factor for the mmf in the direct axis is 0.85 and for the quadrature axis is 0.45. In the case of the unsaturated machines, three mmf's and three fluxes will be considered: the field flux, the armature flux in the direct axis and the armature flux in the quadrature axis. In the case of the saturated machine, three mmf's and two fluxes are considered: flux in the direct axis produced by the resultant of the field, mmf and the direct axis armature mmf and the armature flux in the quadrature axis. Power balance of synchronous machines. For synchronous motors: Pin,stator = Ph+e + Pf+w + Pir,rot + Prot(f) mIa2ra + Po/p,shaft For synchronous generators: Pin,shaft = Ph+e + Pf+w + Pir,rot + Prot(f) mIa2ra + Po/p,stator ; where Poutput = mVIa cos
, Ph+e is the iron losses, Pin is the total power input (stator or shaft), Pir,rot is the
rotational iron losses, Pf+w is the friction and windage losses, Prot(f)is the electromagnetic power (supplied to the stator or rotor). For a constant induced emf in the armature, due to the flux of field, the electromagnetic power and torque of the synchronous m/c depend solely on the angle between the terminal voltage and the induced emf in the armature due to the field flux. An increase of the field current increases the pullout torque (the ratio of pullout torque to load torque, the overload capacity, increases). At a fixed load the power factor of motor can be changed over a wide range by changing the field current. At a certain value of field current, the power factor is unity, decreasing the field current below this value makes the power factor lagging, while an increase makes it leading. The field current of the synchronous motor is usually adjusted in such a manner that the motor operates at rotor load at either unity power factor or a leading one. A uniform torque can be developed when the mmf of both stator and rotor are stationary with respect to each other. This condition is satisfied with synchronous motor if it is running at synchronous speed only. At this speed the stator mmf and the rotor mmf have the same speed ns = 120f/p. Synchronous motors need special provisions to have them starting. For induction motors, the rotor is not connected to a source of power, but establishes its current by induction from the stator (the mmf
waves of stator and rotor). Thus the induction motors are capable of developing a starting torque. In the case of synchronous motors, the mmfs are at standstill with respect to each other at any rotor speed including locked rotor (standstill). In order to make it possible, for a synchronous motor to start, it is supplied with a squirrel cage, similar to that of an induction motor. The squirrel cage winding is called the damper winding. They are placed in slots punched in the pole shoes. The cage is not complete as there are no bars in the interpolar spaces. Just as the squirrel cage induction motor does, the synchronous motor takes a relative large starting current from the line. When it is necessary, to reduce the starting current of a synchronous motor, the same means can be employed as the induction motor, i.e. autotransformer, reactor in series with the stator winding, part winding (each phase of the stator winding consists of two or more parallel parts and only a part of each phase is used during motor starting starting. Since the damper winding is to be used only for starting (not for running), its resistance and leakage reactance can be freely adjusted to suit the required starting current and torque. At synchronous speed, the rotating flux cannot induce an emf in the field winding as the flux is stationary with respect to the poles. During the starting period, the field structure speed is less than that of the rotating flux, a high emf is induced in the field winding (it has a large number of turns) and this induced emf may lead to a breakdown of the insulation if the field winding is left open. To prevent such destructive emf, the field winding is short fed through a resistor ranging from 5 to 15 times the field winding resistor, during starting. As the rotor reaches the maximum induction motor speed , the resistor is removed from the field circuit and the d.c. excitation is applied; the motor falls into synchronism and it runs as a synchronous motor. At synchronous speed the damper winding is ineffective.