Dr. H. Ramesh- Phd_synopsis

DEVELOPMENT OF CONJUNCTIVE USE SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER MODEL FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF VARADA BASIN, KARNATAKA A synopsis report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy By

H. Ramesh Register No. 03221005 Under the Guidance of

Dr. A. Mahesha Asst. Professor

Department of Applied Mechanics and Hydraulics NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KARNATAKA (A DEEMED UNIVERSITY)

SURATHKAL, P.O.SRINIVASNAGAR – 575 025 MANGALORE, INIDA FEBRUARY 2007

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Synopsis Report on DEVELOPMENT OF CONJUNCTIVE USE SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER MODEL FOR THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF VARADA BASIN, KARNATAKA

1.

General

Water resource management should preserve or enhance the environment’s buffering capacity to withstand the increasing stresses. As the environmental carrying capacity is put under increasing pressure due to the growing needs of the population, and improper use of its resources, environmental vulnerability too increases. In this context, mismanagement of water resources leads to water scarcity and water pollution problems which threaten the security and quality of human life.

1.2.

Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM)

Giving proper regard to the unsustainable trend in water resource management, the second World Water Forum (Dublin, 1992) acknowledged the term “integrated” which embraces the planning and management of water resources, both conventional and nonconventional surface and groundwater resources. Social, economic and environmental factors are taken into account in the management which includes surface water, groundwater and the ecosystems through which they flow. Integrated water resources management depends on cooperation and partnerships at all levels, from individual to governmental and non-governmental, national and international organizations sharing a common political, scientific and ethical commitment to the need for water security and for optimizing water resources use and planning. To achieve this goal, there is need for coherent national, regional or interregional polices to overcome fragmentation and for transparent and accountable institutions at all levels. The resources should be managed at both the river basin and at the aquifer levels. Active research should cover field and laboratory evaluation, assessment and monitoring, development and implementation of suitable water management strategies. It requires enhanced basic and applied research and large number of tools ranging from field techniques to advanced

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technology for water control and regulation such as models, remote sensing, geographic information system, decision support system and spatial analysis procedures. All these tools have to be considered under integrated approach for addressing use, planning, conservation and protection of both surface and subsurface water resources to achieve sustainable development.

1.3. Conjunctive Use of Surface Water and Groundwater As broadly outlined above, water planner can achieve a better management through basin-wide strategies that include integrated utilization of surface and ground water which may be defined as conjunctive use (Todd, 1959). Conjunctive use is the coordinated use of surface water and groundwater. Until late 1950s, development and management of surface water and groundwater were dealt separately, as if they were unrelated systems. Although the adverse effects have been evident, it is only in recent years that conjunctive use is being considered as an important water management practice. In general terms, conjunctive use implies planned, coordinated management of surface water and groundwater, so as to maximize the efficient use of total water resources to understand the interrelationships existing between surface water and groundwater. Thus groundwater may be used to supplement surface water resources to cope with peak demands for drinking and irrigation purposes or to meet deficits in years of low rainfall. On the other hand, surface water may be used in overdraft areas to conserve the groundwater storage by artificial recharge. Also, transfer of surplus water (groundwater / surface water) could be from water plentiful to water deficit areas through canals.

1.4. Scope of the Study Agriculture is the backbone of India’s economy and it has to produce food grains for 1.2 billion people. The thrust on water resources has increased considerably from last several decades and will continue in coming decades. The scenario of Indian per capita water demand varies from 35 lpcd to 55lpcd in rural areas and 75 lpcd to 135 lpcd (Jal Nirmal Project, 2003) in the urban area. Traditional methods are now incapable to satisfy the rapid increase in population, industry and agriculture. Hence water must now be treated

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as finite resource which has to be used rationally. Uneven distribution of seasonal rainfall causes variation in both surface water and groundwater storage. At the same time, groundwater is also being over-extracted in some areas through public, private tube wells and open wells to augment the water need which has caused depletion of groundwater table. In Karnataka, 2.7 Mha of land is being irrigated by surface water supply during the year 2003-2004. Most of west flowing rivers of the state are being not utilized. Hence surface water and groundwater resources need to be integrated, well managed and protected for effective utilization water resources. Failure to do so will result in groundwater mining and declining agricultural productivity and ecological imbalances. Hence conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater studies is required for sustainable development. Little work has been reported in the field of conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater in India. The present study considers water balance based surface water model followed by a finite element groundwater model which will give complete interaction between surface water and groundwater. The study also involves optimization model which will help in the allocation and withdrawal of surface water and groundwater to meet the required demand. This gives the solution in the form of strategies for water resources development and management in a catchment / basin. The conjunctive use model has the capability to predict the interaction of surface water on groundwater for long term and short term management on sustainable basis. The allocation of surface water and groundwater resources individually and in combination for irrigation, drinking water supply etc for different seasons in a catchment area would be decided by the model. At the same time, sustainable development of these resources is assured by the model. The study thus would be useful for the sustainable development of a region/ basin in a period of increasing demand for freshwater resources. 1.5. Objectives of the Study The specific objectives of the research are: 1. To assess the aquifer characteristics and safe yield of the Varada river basin. 2. To develop a conjunctive use surface water and groundwater model. 3. To develop a conjunctive use optimization model. 4. A GIS linked input and output of the above two objectives.

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2. Study Area The study area is located in the Karnataka state, India. Vardamoola, the place where river Varada has its origin at an altitude of 610 m above msl in Sagar taluk of Shimoga district, Karnataka. Varada river basin is chosen for the research purpose which is located between latitude 14٥ to 15٥ 15 ‫׳‬and longitude 74٥ 45’ to 75٥ 45’ as shown in figure 1. It has a drainage area of 5020 km2 and flows for about 220 Kms towards the north-east and joins the river Tungabhadra.

Figure 1. Study area- Varada basin Physiographically, the Varada basin consists of western ghats on the west and plateau region in the east. Varada river is a major tributary of Tungabhadra. Sirsi, Siddapur, Soraba, Sagar, and part of Hanagal taluks are covered by the western ghat region and form a dense tropical forest zone with rich in culture and ecology. The remaining area falls under plateau region. Agriculture is the main occupation in Varada basin for about 70% of the population. Important crops grown here are rice, jowar, bajra, small millets, cotton, sugarcane, pulses, groundnut, and bananas. The major forest products are teak, eucalyptus, cashew,

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casuarinas, bamboo, soft wood, etc. (Shiva 1991). The normal rainfall varies from 2070 mm in the western ghats to 775 mm in the plateau region. The meteorological data are available for 11 rain gauge stations from 1991 to 2003 in the basin. The characteristics of study area are indicated in table 1. Table 1. Characteristics of Varada basin Basin Topography Land use Soil/Aquifer Bedrock Average depth to groundwater level Mean annual Temp.(○C) Mean annual precipitation (Cm) Basin area Years study Rain gauges Stream gauge Major Surface water Reservoir Observation Bore wells Lift Irrigation Schemes Minor irrigation Schemes

Varada river basin, Karnataka, India Plain, low relief, gentle slope 70% cultivated, 30% Mixed forest Black cotton, laterite, loamy type & confined Peninsular gneiss, schist 8 meters 26.56 207 Cm to 77.50 Cm 5020 Sq. km 10 years, 1993-2002 11 (@ taluk centre) 1 (@ Hosaritti Village) 1 ( Dharma Reservoir near Hanagal) 50 65 (Irrigated Area= 378.43 Ha) 200 (Utilization of water = 5278 Mcft)

3. Methodology 3.1. Aquifer Properties In this study, step drawdown pumping test was carried out to estimate the aquifer properties and safe yield in the basin. The step drawdown tests were conducted for eight hours with two hour each step. Pumping test data were analyzed for 48 bore wells using the ‘StepMaster’ software (1994). It is also observed from the results that the storage coefficient in Varada basin varies from 0.01 to 0.00001 which confirms the aquifer is predominantly confined. The transmissivity values vary from 25m2/d to 364m2/d. Both the methods are compared with recovery test data and it is concluded that the results of Birsoy-Summer (1980) method is reasonably matches with the recovery test results. The transmissivity and storage coefficient values are represented in the figure 2.

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(a)

(b)

Figure 2. (a) -Transmissivity and (b) - storage coefficient distribution 3.2 Sustainable/Safe Yield Estimation Safe yield refers to long-term balance between the water that is naturally and artificially recharged to an aquifer and the groundwater that is pumped out (CWAG, 2002). When more water is removed than is recharged, the aquifer is described as being out of safe yield. In general, the sustainable yield of an aquifer must be considerably less than recharge if adequate amount of water is to be available to sustain both the quantity and quality of streams, springs, wetlands, and ground-water-dependent ecosystems. To ensure sustainability, it is imperative that water limits be established based on hydrologic principles of mass balance. Hill method and water balance method were used to estimate sustainable yield in the study area. The sustainable yield estimated by Hill method and water balance method were respectively 317 Mm3 to 358 Mm3. 3.3. Conjunctive Use Model The conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater was developed based on the principle of hydrologic cycle. It consists of three sub-models viz. surface water model, groundwater model and optimization model. The methodology of the present research is outlined in figure 3.

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Data: Groundwater level, Bore wells, aquifer properties, Hydrogeological,

Data: Rainfall, Hydrometeorological, Stream flow, Demand, LU/LC

Surface water Model

Recharge

Groundwater model

Domestic, Industrial & Agricultural demand. Change parameters

Change parameters:

No

Develop. of optimization model [hydraulic, stream flow constraints]

No

Yes

Implementation

DSS Performance of the model & selection of best policy

Figure 3. Conceptual model of conjunctive use methodology

3.3.1 Surface water model The schematic diagram of surface water and groundwater model is presented in figure 4. From water balance concept, I  O   S t

(1)

where I = total inflow, O = total outflow, ΔSt = change in groundwater storage The flow in the saturated zone i.e. (groundwater reservoir R3) will be simulated using groundwater model. The net recharge of a catchment area is then given by following equation.

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R1

R2

R3

Figure 4. Conceptual model of surface water and groundwater (after Sarwar, 1999) Q  RFR  DPF  RDM  RWC  RLC  INFL  ROF  ETC  EFL  PSTW  PPTW  SD

where

(2)

Q = Net recharge to the aquifer

RFR = Recharge from rainfall

DPF = Deep percolation from field

RDM =Recharge from distributary & minors

RWC = Recharge from water courses

RLC = Recharge from link canals

INFL = Inflow from adjacent area

ROF = Surface runoff

ETC = Crop evapotranspiration

EFL = Evaporation from fallow/ bare soil

PSTW = Pumpage by public tube wells

PPTW = Pumpage by private tube wells

SD = Seepage from water table to surface drains

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Seepage from water table to surface drains (SD) is not considered. Pumpage by public and private tube wells are considered together and represented by pumpage from tube wells (PTW). RCL is considered here within the basin which irrigated 6060 ha of land. The net recharge to the groundwater was computed by integrating water balance considering R1 and R2 together. The components of equation (2) were computed based on the guidelines given by Groundwater Estimation Committee (GEC, 1997). Evaporation loss was estimated by CROP WAT (FAO, 1956) software by considering a data of meteorological station (IMD, 1974) located in Shimoga. Runoff is measured in the basin at Hosaritti village and other components were suitably assumed and some of them are taken from literature. 3.3.2 Groundwater Model The Galerkin finite element method was applied to solve both steady and unsteady two dimensional groundwater flow governing partial differential equations. The groundwater flow in an aquifer is represented by the differential equation of substantial saturated thickness (Jacob, 1950)   h    h  h   S  G ( x, y , t )  Tx    T y x  x  y  y  t

(3)

where Tx and Ty are the x and y – direction transmissivities respectively (m2/day) h- Groundwater potential (m), S – Storage coefficient (dimensionless), G(x,y,t) – Recharge intensity (m3/day) and t – Time (days). This equation is solved using finite element method with the following initial and boundary conditions. Initial condition h xi ,0   hl  xi  in Ώ

(4)

Where, hi is spatially varying functions of initial distribution of heads. Boundary Conditions The governing equation is subjected to the following boundary conditions h  h x , y , z , t 

on A1

(5)

and

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kx

h h h lx  k y ly  kz l z  q  x, y , z , t  x y z

on A2

(6)

where h = ……, lx, ly and lz are the direction cosines between the normal to the boundary surface and the coordinate axes; A1 represents those parts of the surface where h is known and is therefore specified. For the remaining parts of boundary referred to as A2; q is prescribed flow rate per unit area across the boundary. For the general case of transient flow with piezometric surface moving with a velocity Vn normal to its instantaneous configuration, the quantity of flow entering its unit area is given by q  Vn S  I * l x

(7)

where S is the storage coefficient relating the total volume of material to the quantity of fluid which can be drained. I is the infiltration or evaporation. Well Boundary Condition This condition incorporates the pumping or recharge activities through wells at specific locations, mathematically



Qhw ( xi , t )   Qmw   xi  xim



for

( xi  xim )  

(8)

m

where Qh = a well function, Qmw = pumping or recharge rate of a single well (m3/d), w

X im = coordinate of a single well (m),

Computer code was developed in Visual C++ (VC++). Finite element discretization of Varada basin is as shown in figure 5. Linear triangular elements are considered for the discretization with 329 elements and 196 nodes. The elemental matrices were computed based on shape function and assembled in global matrix of size number of nodes by number nodes. The initial and boundary conditions were then prescribed for the respective nodes in the global matrix. The systems of equations were solved by Gauss elimination method for nodal groundwater head.

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No. of Nodes: 196 No. of Elements: 329

Figure 5. Finite element discretization of Varada river basin The model was calibrated for the period 1993 to 1998 and validated for 1999 to 2003 data. The simulated and observed groundwater head and statistics of the performance of the model are given in table 2 and the performance of the model was found to be good.

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Table 2. Performance statistics of the model Error

Well Location (Node No.)

Measures

6

14

43

105

139

175

185

ME

-0.08

-0.31

0.47

0.55

-0.21

-0.43

-0.08

RMSE

0.65

0.46

0.73

0.78

0.56

0.76

0.69

0.83

0.89

0.89

0.89

0.91

0.78

0.86

R

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4. Model Application This calibrated model was used to predict various management scenarios for the years 2007 to 2010 and a few cases are tabulated in table 3. The rainfall and pumping data were analysed for the last 11 years. It clearly indicated that, there is an average decrease of rainfall of about 6% with respect to the normal rainfall and pumping increases of about 6% every year (average year). Similarly, an increase of rainfall and pumping of about 30% and 20% respectively leads to wet year (1994) and very less rainfall of about -70% with gradual increased pumping of about 10% leads to dry year (2001). Based on these statistics, the five prediction scenarios are defined as follows. 1. 2 % increase in the pumping rate of 2003 every year up to 2010. 2. 5 % increase in the pumping rate of 2003 every year up to 2010. 3. 5 % increase in pumping with 2 % increase in recharge rate of 2003 every year up to 2010. 4. 10 % increase in the pumping rate of 2003 every year up to 2010. 5. Proposed inter-linking of Bedti-Varada river along with three irrigation tanks. The groundwater levels are predicted over a short duration (up to 2010) considering the growth in the extraction rate (Fig. 5, 6 & 7). The figures indicate considerable depletion of groundwater levels with 10 % increase in the extraction rate every year.

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Table 3. Predicted groundwater levels in meter for the scenarios – II & IV (January) (Groundwater levels are in m above msl)

Node No. 2 5 6 10 14 16 32 43 49 80 92 95 97 105 114 139 144 179 180 185 189

Village Yadagigalemane Talaguppa Alahalli Ullur Keladi Bommatti Hosabale Yalsi Tyagali Kuppagadde Isloor Jade Anavatti Agasanahalli Makaravalli Motebennur Adur Haleritti Negalur Yalavigi Out let

Long (Deg)

Lat (Deg)

74.994 74.899 74.941 75.107 75.017 75.103 75.047 75.05 74.874 75.114 74.886 75.05 75.152 75.156 75.167 75.483 75.25 75.55 75.617 75.4

14.139 14.219 14.201 14.142 14.222 14.172 14.317 14.372 14.481 14.476 14.681 14.572 14.564 14.608 14.65 14.717 14.783 14.9 14.883 15.033

Jan-03 608.612 578.728 572.79 628.195 577.702 609.13 592.088 574.993 546.102 565.748 626.632 553.349 542.337 540.053 549.354 576.445 545.556 517.911 513.596 596.408 501.08

Scenario-I 5 % increase in pumping Jan-07 Jan-08 Jan-09 Jan-10 606.801 605.078 603.441 601.883 578.637 578.541 578.439 578.332 572.518 572.233 571.935 571.622 625.132 622.222 619.458 616.832 577.582 577.466 577.356 577.251 606.854 604.688 602.625 600.661 591.681 591.293 590.924 590.573 574.719 574.447 574.178 573.91 542.663 539.053 535.262 531.281 564.844 563.981 563.155 562.364 626.696 626.763 626.835 626.909 552.326 551.251 550.121 548.936 542.256 542.169 542.077 541.981 539.92 539.781 539.636 539.482 548.968 548.562 548.136 547.688 575.897 575.379 574.89 574.429 545.193 544.811 544.411 543.99 517.716 517.513 517.298 517.073 513.473 513.344 513.207 513.065 596.364 596.317 596.268 596.216 500.791 500.489 500.171 499.837

Scenario-II 10% increase in pumping Jan-07 Jan-08 Jan-09 Jan-10 604.989 601.723 605.682 596.662 578.546 578.343 576.554 571.249 572.246 571.65 569.694 566.041 622.069 616.556 621.053 609.253 577.461 577.241 576.319 574.494 604.578 600.464 605.309 596.531 591.274 590.538 591.494 586.25 574.444 573.907 571.905 565.716 539.226 531.661 499.33 436.29 563.94 562.293 562.717 559.217 626.76 626.902 624.856 613.349 551.302 549.049 537.382 511.321 542.174 541.991 538.416 525.947 539.788 539.497 537.996 529.975 548.581 547.731 541.809 525.138 575.349 574.374 574.688 572.631 544.829 544.03 538.717 523.453 517.522 517.094 518.973 502.615 513.35 513.078 513.432 512.297 596.319 596.221 594.513 588.735 500.503 499.869 495.023 481.406

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Figure 6. Predicted groundwater level contour maps (5% Increase in Pumping)

Figure 7. Predicted January groundwater level contour maps (10 % Increase in Pumping)

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5. Conjunctive Use Optimization In the present study, optimization problem was formulated as a linear programming problem with the objective of maximizing water production from the wells and from the streams similar to John (USGS, 2003) with a little modification. The optimization problem is subject to the following constraints: 1. Maintaining groundwater level at or above a specified level. 2. Utilization of stream flow at or below maximum specified rates. 3. Limiting the groundwater withdrawals to a maximum of 10 percent of the rate pumped in 2003 every year up to 2010. The ultimate objective of the optimization model is to provide estimates of sustainable yield from both groundwater and surface water. Sustainable yield is defined here as the withdrawal rate from the aquifer or from a stream that can be maintained over a longer period without causing violation of either hydraulic-head or streamflow constraints. The optimization problem was solved by graphical method as shown in figure 8 along with withdrawals of surface water and groundwater limits.

3

0.3

1.6

Figure 8. Results of optimization model for the scenario of 2003

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Table 4 indicates the various options available in the management of surface water and groundwater. From table 4, it is clear that the total sustainable yield of 11.8 Mm3/d arrived by conjunctive use of surface water (1.6 Mm3/d) and groundwater (10.2 Mm3/d) in the Varada basin is the optimum condition. Table 4. Optimum withdrawals rates of surface and groundwater Feasible

q well

q river

Z=Σ qwell+Σ qriver

region points

3

[Mm /day]

3

[Mm /day]

[Mm3/day]

1

1

0.3

1.3

2

1

1.6

2.6

3

10.2

1.6

11.8 (Optimum)

4

10.2

0.1

10.3

5

3

0.1

3.1

Specifying an upper withdrawal limit of 10 percent of the 2003 withdrawal rate which continues every year (scenario-1), the sustainable yield from groundwater for the basin is 5.81 Mm3/d in the year 2010 (Table 5). In the case further increased demand, the only option available to sustainable yield is withdrawal from stream flow has to be increased. The different withdrawal limits from stream and groundwater are tabulated in table 5. Total sustainable yield from the Varada river is about 1.3 Mm3/d. This large sustainable yield represents a potential source of water that could supplement groundwater and meet the total water demand, But to do so it requires the construction of withdrawal and distribution facilities, which will have legal, political, economic, and social consequences.

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Table 5 Sustainable yield under different upper limits on withdrawals.[all are in Mm3/d] Sources Ground water ( wells)

Surface water (River)

5% increase of 2003 every year 10% increase of 2003 every year 5% increase of 2003 every year 10% increase of 2003 every year

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

3

3.15

3.31

3.48

3.36

3.85

4.04

4.24

Upper limits

10.2 3

3.3

3.63

3.99

4.38

4.81

5.29

5.81

0.3

0.315

0.33

0.35

0.37

0.39

0.41

0.43 1.6

0.3

0.33

0.363

0.399

0.439

0.483

0.531

0.585

6. Conclusions In this study, mathematical and optimization models were developed for the conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater resources in the Varada river basin. The major conclusions based on the results are as follows: 

The Varada aquifer is predominantly a confined aquifer as evident by the field tests and observations. The transmissivity of the aquifer ranges from 50-120 m2/d in the plain area and 80-170 m2/d for western ghat. The storativity values ranges from 0.001 to 0.00001.



The sustainable yield of Varada basin estimated from the water balance and the Hill methods ranges between 317 Mm3 to 358 Mm3.



The study evaluated the effect of recharge due to rainfall and other surface water bodies on groundwater through field observations and methods proposed by Groundwater Estimation Committee. These were incorporated in the surface water model to estimate the net recharge to groundwater.



The numerical solution was effective and accurate enough to simulate the aquifer system with mean error range between -0.43 to 0.55 and correlation coefficient between the ranges of 0.78 to 0.91.



The basin is capable of sustaining with 5% to 10% increase in pumping rate every year from 2003 up to 2010.

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

It becomes crucial to supply canal water to meet the water demand of basin prevents the groundwater mining in the study area.



The optimization model provides a compromised solution considering different water demands (domestic and agriculture) and available groundwater/surface water resources. Considering a maximum growth rate of 10% every year in the water demand, the optimal solution over a short range i.e. in the year 2010 is 5.81 Mm3/d from groundwater resources and 0.585 Mm3/day from surface water resources. The effective implementation of the developed policies ensures sustainable groundwater development in the study area.



The study focuses on the importance of conjunctive use optimization of water resources in meeting the increasing demand.

7. Recommendations Based on the investigations, the following recommendations are made to conjunctively utilize the water resources of the region. 

Construction of recharge structures like irrigation tanks, nala bund in the study area to arrest the surface runoff and thereby increase in recharge. An increase of about 2% recharge can ensure 1.88 m of groundwater level improvement



Utilization of about 25% of 242 Mm3 transferable water by inter-linking of BedtiVarada river in the Varada basin through a network of canals increases the groundwater potentials significantly.



Suitable crops and cropping patterns need to be adopted to suit the predicted water availability to achieve sustainability.



Awareness on community based management of river basin would be more effective in the management and development of both surface water and groundwater resources.



To achieve the predicted results, imposition of policy on excess groundwater withdrawals control may be introduced such as cut down the power supply suitably i.e., more power supply in monsoon and less power supply in nonmonsoon seasons.

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

The present model and results could be improved by thorough field investigations to accurately assess soil properties, hydro-geological properties, and groundwater flux through boundaries etc. Intense database on groundwater level, riverflow, periodical change in land use / land cover would add to the above for more accurate simulations.

Reference: Birsoy Y. K. and Summers W. K., 1980. Determination of aquifer parameters from step tests and intermittent pumping data. J.of Ground Water, 18, 137-146. CWAG, 2005. Citizen’s Water Advisory Group information bulletin ,PO Box 13145, Prescott, AZ 86304 (928) 443-5353. FAO. 1992. CROPWAT — A Computer Program for Irrigation Planning and Management. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 46. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. GEC, Groundwater Resource Estimation Methodology - 1997. Report of the Groundwater Resource Estimation Committee, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India, New Delhi, June 1997. India Meteorological Department [IMD], 1984. Climate of Karnataka state. Printer: Office of Additional Director General of Meteorology (Research), IMD, Pune-411005. Publisher: Controller of Publication, civil Lines, New Delhi 110054. pp 1-143. Jal Nirmal, 2003. Jal Nirmal Project report, 2003. Karnataka Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agency (KRWSSA), Bangalore. John B. Czarnecki, Clark R. Brian and Stanton P. Gregory. 2003. Conjunctive use optimization model of the Mississippi river valley alluvial aquifer of south eastern Arkansas. USGS Water resources investigation report 03-4233. USA. Miguel Solanes and Fernando Gonzalez-Villarreal, 1999. The Dublin Principles for Water as Reflected in a Comparative Assessment of Institutional and Legal Arrangements for Integrated Water Resources Management. Global Water Partnership/Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, S105-25 Stockholm, Sweden, pp 1-48.

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Sarwar Asaf, 1999. Development of conjunctive use model, an integrated approach of surface and groundwater modeling using GIS. University of Bonn, Germany. (PhD Thesis) pp 1-140. StepMaster, software. 1994, Star point software Inc. 7027, Windword Way, Suite 246, Cincinnati, OH 45241, USA. <www.pointstar.com> (March 10, 2004). Todd, D.K. (1956). Groundwater Hydrology. 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York.

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