Doing Task-based Teaching_text.pdf

DAVE WILLIS & JANE WILLIS

Doing Task-based Teaching

Alio publldhcd In Oltferd

Handbooks for Language Teachers

IculIuihj

American English Pronunciation

Peter Avery

and Smart Bhrlich

Success in English Teaching

PaulDavies and Eric Pearse

Doing Second Language Research James Dean Brown and Theodore S. Rodgers

Doing Task-based Teaching

Teaching Business English

Mark Ellis and Christine Johnson Intercultural Business

Communication

Robert Gibson

Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom

Dave Willis andJane Willis

Tricia Hedge

Teaching Second Language Reading Thorn Hudson Teaching English Overseas:

An Introduction

Sandra Lee McKay

Teaching English

as

an International Language

Sandra Lee McKay

How Languages are Learned 3rd edition Patsy M. Lightbown

and Nina Spada

Communication in the Language Classroom Tony Lynch

Teaching Young Language Learners Annamaria Pinter Explaining English

Grammar

George Yule

OXPORD UNIVHRSITY

rUliSS

OXIORD vuiw

CONTENTS

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clfparlmenl of the University of Oxfbtd.

objective of exceUence in research, scholarship

by publishing worldwide in

New York

tJxIbrd

Auckland Cape Town Dares Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuula Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City fJairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto Willi

iillici's ill

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Italy

Acknowledgements

Chile Czech RepiibUc France Gr^ Japan Poland Portugal SingaporeV^i

oxford bngiish

n VI Ts ty Press in i

the

are registered trade

marks of

UK and in certain other countries

1

University Press 2007

riglit

Oxford University Press (maker)

1.3

auii 3010 2009 aoo8 2007 in 1 fl 7 f> li 4 3 2 1 Ati ii).|iiM,.vivcd.

"

ii'in''v[il

form and

starting with

meaning: alternative

approaches.

inibliBhed 2007

I'li'Nl

The basis ofa task-based approach 1.1 What do you think about task^based teaching? 1.2 Starting with

moral rights of the author have been asserted

almse

Introduction

'

Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam

i

1

ixloitl

ituI )iil

i

.

lija^iil

ilunsi^iry

1

No

part of this publication may be reiaoduCetl, system, or transmitted, in any former by ai^means,

wilting ofOxfbrdtltiiversits' Press (with III'' ''''< '^''TiiniHirpiiororopyingcaniedoutunder the conditions, stated l'.ii.ir,r,i].h iKM.led I'hoiiH'npying'), Or as expKssly pennitted hy law, or uiwln lei ins a,!teecl with rhe appropriate reprographics li^ts organization.

.4

as meaning Meaning and tasks in the classroom

Language

1.5

Characterizing tasks

1.6

Why not start with grammar!

i"i<"' i'''i''"i^Jiion in

liiKiiiii ii's

"'"cernmg reproduction outside the scope of the above should

In' .NfiU

lo ihe liLT Rights

ii(k]iv
above

Department. Oxford University Press, at the

2.3.1

I'lioiiK'Opylng lln'riiMisher grants permission for the photocopying ofthose pages I'l.il'if'ai fording to the following amditions. Individual

marked

I'll" liasrrs

^''""1

I"'

does not extend to additional schools or branches

Undil* no circumstances

may any part of this book be

Any

photocopied for resale

wchsilf.s rclcn-ed n> in this publicallonarc in llie public Ihclr iKlili esscs are provided by Oxford University

domain and

Press for information only.

Oxford UniversHy Press disclaims any responsibihty for the content

I'l

2.3.2 Exploitingwritren language 2.4 Second language acquisition research and

purdiasKs

own use or lor use by classes that they teach. uiay make copies for use by staff and Students, but this

(n.iv iii.ikiMoplL.s Ihr their

IMIN

on form Focus on form at the end of the sequence

2.3 Building in focus

You must not circulate this book in any otJier binding or cover nnd you must impose this same condition on any acquirer

'I''""

2 Task-based sequences in the classroom 2.1 Task sequences 2.2 Planiiiug a task sequence

I

iiiU'il

f

1I7H 0 U) ill

Cbina

4422109

3 Tasks based on written and spoken texts 3.1 Introduction: reading for a purpose 3.2 Discussion tasks 3.3 Prediction tasks

3.4 Jigsaw task sequences 3.5 Student as question master

3.6 General knowledge tasks 3.7 Corrupted text 3.7.

1

Factual gap filling

3.7.2 Linguistic gap filling

3.8

Ways to

recycle texts

3.8.1 CoiTLiptcdtext

3.8.2 Quizzes 3.8.3

S.SA

Group dictation C

loiiiinimul

memory

TBT

3.9

3.K.6 Personalizing tasks

56

Spoken

56

3.9.

1

texts

TJie nature ot spoken text

3.9.2 Sources of spol^n }.

i

0

56

reset

59

Rcvifw

59 61

3.11 Follow-up activities

4 From topic to task types:

listing,

sor^li^ aald cfessi^^iing

creative tasks

Projects

5.6

Sharing personal expatlenees!

5.7 5.8

Review

6.1

67

6.4

Priming Language focus

6.5

Focus on fomi

Games based on listing:

quizzes,

for a focus on 6.5.1 Identifying items form 6.5.2 Correction as focus on

68

4.3.4 Tasks for real beginners

69

70

6.5.3 Finding texts

71

6.5.4

72

6 5 5 Putting

4.3.7

task

and post-task activities

Summary

72

4.4.2 Rank-ordering

73

6.7

Preparing for examinations

4.4.3 Classifying

75

6.8

Review

Games

based on

Visual support:

4.5.2

classificid sets

cliarts, tables,

mind-maps,

and tables and storylines

4.6

Integrating reading

4.7

Review

4.8

Follow-up

78 78

Mind maps

4.5.3 Timelines

6.6.

77 etc.

and writing

79 80

7

7.2

7.3

1

7.5 85

7.6

Teacher roles

5.1

Introduction

85

7.7

Review

5.2

Matching

85

7.8

Follow-up

5.2.1

listening and matching

5.2.2 Reading

and matching

Comparing and 5.3.1

Compai'ison

5.3.2

Games:

taslis

find die .similarities or differences

Problem-solving nisks and 5.4,

1

Preparing

Iciirticrs

|.mi/.z1cs

for

problem-solving tiwkB

activities

tasks: seven parameters 8 Adapting and reEning

^^53

8 1

Introduction

90 90

8 2

Outcome, and

8."

S.anInr.r.>nH.,(.>Masb:inputandtumngatprnmngstage

91

H 4

Pie uisk

8.5

Com:i:olofV^mliumdtuHkstrvicture wnd purtunpant roles lmerac:(l<J"

contrasting: finding similarities or

difFerences

5.4

85

87

93 tj;(

8 6

140

Artificial tasks

Spontaneous spoken discourse The social dimension

From topic Co task t^es.* matchii^, comparing, probiem-s<^ving, and s^:oryt41ing

Real-world tasks English for specific purposes 7.2.2 Everyday English communication: writmg and readmg 7.2.3 Electronic

7.4

projects,

The pedagogic corpus

1

7.2.

82

84

X9

Thetask-baseddasstoomandtherealvsrorld outside world Classroom language and the 7.1

83 activities

^

texts together

4.4.1 Sequencing

6.6

jj„

torm

o2nLglfnou.ge4ocusedandfo.-rn-focusedac«tes

72

4.5.1 Charts

').3

_

^4

Some form-focused acuvities

Tasks involving ordering and sorting

4.4.4

4.5

6.3

43.5 Evaluating a

4.3.6 Pre-task priming

4.4

Some basic principles Asampletask:'Hawstriawereyourparents?

6.2

memory challenge,

and guessing games

107 i°7

113

64 66 66

4.3.3

j

form focus 6 Language focus and

Selecting topics

Brainstorming

^

,

task generator^

63

4.2

4.3.2 Fact-finding

.

,

A summary of task types using the

63

Tasks involving listing

stotyteUmg, anecdotes,

reminiscences

liunxlucrion

4.3.1

5

and

5 5

4.1

4.3

94

scenarios task .a\uvnccs and 5.4.2 Prnblnn-iolvlng and puwles l>,(,bU ni'Snlving games

pu

.

.

precision inicrim goals: the need for

|Mi.uM.n

.v;

andplanmng ^^^^

pmvm

8.7

Pressure

on language — w production: nnr J,

iU

1

'

pujihi.ig ^

--.J-,

output to wubUUb 165

Post-task acrivirlpc

i

10.5

10.6

uscdtoTlV!'? How can I motivate

(

1^8 i-uiiow-up rasKs tor recycling texts

t

168

1

1

0.0,4

icpetinon l-

r'f

1

J-

1

170

worK

1

0.0,5

Evalufltinrt

unA

lie view

8.1 0

Further exploration: investigating your teaching

8.1

Follow-un nrffvin^

1

10.7

9.2

vv

utii

jz/oi

How

0.8

174 ^fr 174

1

174

10.9

j'^."^

r-ngiisn ror examination purposes

I'rotTi i iijiii

SMrrincr oitiiLing

9.4

COQISC DO{>K 1-,

lie lAJiitcpc

or caji Granino" tactc

179

10.12

How can you do tasks with mixed ability learniars/ on

10.13

difent levels, and ensure aH students can do die task? Ifwc take upTBT, what exams are there that are truly

183

and grammar into

Foll©W*up

m the 192

199 199 lOI

and activities that just need

LW^d-lVllig

-01 1

0.2.2

Rt'-ordt'riinr

>ct\\t\\'\i^c iiLii vines j

10. 2, .1

10.3

Acldiniraiid inieuiaiiiif (oi n^icJ

How can wc find tcssonji?

of teachers who contributed tasks: and advice

time to design

References

expkin«linthe index (with page numbers in bold where a wordis text)

activities

laLiuiryiiig taslis

^

his t

Intioduction WW m,Lii./ii anfl nrnhl<='mc rti»f^*=«™J aiiu. piuuicina percciveci ..j-ut'dt' wiHl J, D J. luw L.m 1 intcgKite tasks into my textbooks?

i.isk.s

i

iylfc

and nhuiTlVI'

2,51

Appendix 6 "Word frequency lists

( low o integrate ifil with coursebopks, and other jErequendy asked questions

1

^35

Appendix 1 Sample task-based lessons Appendix 2 Sample projects and scenarios

2.55

198

u.^.

2.27

^59

teach lexically

9.7

1

TBT

187 189

woros

The process of syllabus design

lU.^

Teacher's tips for implementing

191

9.6

lO.I

task-based?

0.14

1

Appendix 5 Sample tasli-based course plan

192

How to

225

tS7

i

t^OVerin? imnnrtant IpvIc

9.5.2

classes

Appendix3 "Banscripts oFtaskrecoirdii^s Appendix 4 Designing and using contmunicative tasks

185

i>ylJd.UU.O

H1VJ3L v^uiniiKjii

222

difficukclasses?

One-to-one

183

.

9.5

How can we give learners a sense of their own progress? How can we control and keep discipline in large or

182

uO

iiiLcgraungiexis, tasiM,

221

1

4-dnguage coverage ana the pedagogic corpus ^T. X i ne peaagogic corpus 9.4.2 __j The A Ilk. lui*, role of ui rhp Liic mnrc*!! cuuisc rl/^drt-r^ii.aesigner and teacner .-I.J

220

post-task dt3 we tep learners' interest during a

10.11

181

'ran ci-oi-*>moni-i. j i_(tii Ari uu iLdccmenti to tasKS and. texts J-

9.3.2

fmm

ii.uilJ iriC f-.^ri.-/.,i

^

my students to do more tlian just

177

179 t8o

ror general purposes

who aren't

report stage?

179

i-iiigiisn

i

project work?

courses

y.^.j

9.2.5

9.3

uu icdmcrs want to mean

yon liangc attitudes of students

^

173

177

iiHsuung-Dasea -ippioacn

2-13

tasks in class?

with the same Li to use English during pair-work and

10.10 (jniiip cirllok.itman. Litiactl oylldDllS 6 a r;isli"-Katip.HI O 9.1 A nc idJigudgc-DasiJci syllabus

do

171

rf^t»r~ttirtn

8. 'J

to

minimum? How can we prevent overuse of Li and encourage learners

i-k

PoLSr-ta'jli' X a n (TiuclIic 1 do-fi «ri-iflv uiiL Ltiai^. itti.iv

1.

I

the

169 '1 C 1/ ia.sK

fi <1 u-".,'

make dme

How can How :mi

lO.-^j

Ic'Vi' ;i('('M

09 JO

253

^63

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

When we

began planning

teachers worldwide tasks

book,

this

who were

which had worked well with

plans to go with them.

we sent out TBT. "We

involved in

We also

a request to language asked them to send us

rheir learners together with outline lesson

asked them what advice they would give to

other teachers hoping to implement

TBT, and

to report (fflculties

and

problems they had encountered themselves and had heard of from colleagues

TBT. The response vras magnificent. So first, and most we would like to thank the contributors listed at the end of tbis

in connection with

importantly,

book, not only for sendii^ustbdtrta^and ideas, but also for responding so willingly to our follow-up requests for

find space for

ail

the tasks sent

eve^'Giid^s advice has been oollaced

book, and especially in the this

also like to

in—

details.

title:

Sadly we were unable to

^we received well over

—but

loo

and Incorporated at relerant s^^es in th«

final chapter. It is their

book truly worthy of its

We'd

more

co-operation that makes

Doing Task-based Teaching.

thank the large number of teachers and

trainers

whom we

have met and talked to over the past ten years at conferences, workshops, and

Bk^, Canada, Chile, Garoany, Greecei Ireland, Italy, New Zealand, Pakistan, Portugal, South Korea, Spain, Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand, Turke^^, UAE, UK, and more recendy at lATEFL conferences. We would also like to include participants in the TBLT 2005 tails in A^entiiia,

Japan,

conference at Leuven

who

sent us feedback through Steve

attended that conference. By asking questions and

filling in

Mann, who

sHps of paper in

workshop sessions, teachers have, sometimes unwittingly, contributed advice and ideas that have helped to shape this book We should aliso thank Masters students at Birmingham and Aston Universities who, through their assignments and research, have given us useful insights into classrooms over the world

and demonstrated how'I B

—

I"

all

can work in practice.

—

^whose names we do not know read various early outlines of diapters and commented diougihtfizlly and constructivdy on many aspects, helping us to reshape and fine-tune the contents. Steve Mann gave us detailed feedback on the last four chapters, which certainly clarified a few issues for us, and helped to make the final version more readable. Roger Hawkey kindty wrote a short section on testing for our final chapten We are very grateful to you all and just hope that we have done justice to your Several people

and

drafis

suggestions.

-

INTRODUCTION

Bding Td^r-i^ed Teachmg}m been written for language teachers who want to a better tmderstanding of how task-based teaching (TBT) works in aims to give beginner teachers the confidence to start using tasks and help experienced teachers to widen their repertoire of tasks and task sequence. It draws on the classroom experiences not of pjactice. It

in their lessons,

ortfy^

the writers themselves, but of over 30 teachers in twelve different countries. These committed teachers have sent in examples of tasks they have designed

and used successMy in their lessons. In die book we take further account of the realities of the dassroom by looking at ways of combining a task-based approach with current cxtiitsebooks.

Chapter

begins by exploring

some commonly held views on TBT and some common misconceptions. It distinguishes between approaches that b^n with a focus on grammatical form and those chat begm with a focus on meaning, and looks at the principles that imde^in them. It explores the meaning of the term ^isk' and argues that a teachercontrolled locus on grammar should come at the end of a task cycle. 1

addressing

From Chapter

2 onwards, the emphasis

is

very

much on

doing task-based

teaching. ChajfJtcr 2 describes four practical sequences of meaning-focused activities leadmg to a focus on form. These sequences are ti^ to illustratea cob^t ''^^'''^^^ ^P^^^o^i of some basic dieories and principles behind

TBT

The next t^ree chapters (3, 4. and 5) focus on designing tasks. They illustrate avanety ofdjfierent task types, and look at ways of grading, appraising, and evaluatmg tasks. For each task type, there are examples of j^edSc^^lsed in classrooms round the world, as described bv the teachers who used diem Ihere

is

detailed advice

on generating

effective tasks for different levels

ieamer and on mt^mtint ceading andiwiting

of

activities.

Chapter 6 distingmjte betweai a focus on language in use and a focus on torm in isolation. It explores stages in a task cycle where learners ate naturally concerned with improving rheir language and becoming more accural^ (language focus). Turning to a focus on form, die chapter illustrates how ditterent items can be identified and t^n kom the language of the spoken

m

l,K„,M>l ,.„.K,M-,v

M:,„y examples are given and

Itoui ibc leadiers wliu

Am

i,

advice

on

1

ips for teachers

Reader

SSrf Th r

^"'^

c:iSSo

"'"^

^^P'°-

^'^^ '''^^''"^^ '''^"^^

" -n be °f the world

f"^"'^' The use of task, opens up a fer wider potential for real "^^"^'"S -.dents with specific n d

outs de out.s,de.

m

worU

cST/'^'-r''"'^!'^ ...p.c-, describes real-world'

tasks that incorporate everyday English It lists typical features of spontaneous

and

it

who hop4 to Implement TBT

ends widi dieir most useful

in the future.

aGrivities

activities

aim

to help readers to reflect constructively

before or to prepare for activities

A

hook and followincluded alKfevsls ArSu^dd chapters. These aadSLilffifeKteading appear at the end of most

activities ate

what

is

coming

on what has gone Thete are also

in the nact section.

of a mote practical nature, applying die ideas

in the preceding

It

iHustrates task sequences leading to role-plays designed to highlieht the «oc,al

activities could be designing fotm-iacttsed exercises for those features. Many written used to promote constructive discussion or provide the basis for

y'sU

commumcation.

examples of which can

and

spoken

be

brought into the

ctesr^r

dunenston. Fi«Jly.

it e^kres the Jes of f TBT te ch f_a^ a ''''^''-'^ ^ m»naKcr„fd,seo,me:aswenasapurveyor of knowledge.

n

:lu|„

(

« illustrates

ways of adapring and refining tasks to

ecsely to the needs ot specific rd agajnst

B a

l.--d

i'

m.mmal

lesson

classes, to

make then,

diem more engaJnTaTd to

tailor

nrore

participadon by

.nvolves

atterns

less modvated learnerf Planlt a making decisions about pre-and

and the degree ot accuracy, and/or spontaneity. The chanter need to devise very dear instruions. Eachofthe

-ikn

lustratcs the

Xbro d ^'a;.H.,ers task design further broken down into specific pects A« cu. be adjttsted or 'tweaked' in difl^erent ways. Readers are encou aL m «penment by changing one such aspect to ° see what diff re„c mXs n thetr lessons and to plan a small-scale u,

1

is

action research project.

Chapter 9, on task-based syllabus design,

lom an .tenn.ed language-based

outlines

syllabus

mZ^! uHuses based h T"f' on learner outcomes or «»

respon i I

s

HUo

,lu-

r:rv"' tr:,

reported

to quest,,,ns that arise out

d?

presclH.I

TBT can be solved

through use

probleX^ TBTZltl

""^'"^

«<>

unmariva,.d and unwilling

HI

m^S

Jig

of diese'problems. such Is in ornsebook. It looks at ways of turning teftbook

I

^"^ .

,

at different

coursebook based courses, as wel can do' statements Stardnp v^rb

mg..i u,g systematic language coverage in

»umma,y of the most commonly

4e problems with starting

and looks

'^"'^y

m dL,

assignments on teacher training programmes.

The Appendices indudc

post^ask

,

tasks

designing a section to the reader's own teaching context, for example, dieir own, planning a specific task and writing task instructions for a class of in a text, and features langtiage useM task-based soquoiee, identifying

Ice r.,n,c

r

up

nuniibuted

dean,,;';

u

:

learners, eo.nlM'.n,,

dwa. The chapter mdudBui^wvlvdvU

•

'

and

lesson plans

scenarios, tape-scripts, a

and commentaries

for tasks, projects

sample course outline, aftd a sample handout

supply teachers that can be used in a workshop on task design. The aim is to with their own out these tasks with enough data so they can adapt and try classes

and plan

their

own form-focused materials.

Note on terminology The book k entitled Doing Task-iased feaeUngsnA we have on the whole usedTBT asdjeshott form to refer to task-based teaching. Of course, where or so we hope! The reader will, thereteaching goes on, learning docs, too when we ate quoting fore, findTBL used from time to time, particularly

—

from the work of others.

Dave Willis add Jane 'WilUs,

ICendal,

Cumbria, February 2006

THE BASIS OF A TASK-BASED APPROACH

What do you think about task-based teaching?

1. 1

Vtopontnts of tesk-based teaching (TBT) argue that the most effective way ro teach a language is hj engaging learners in real language use. in die classroom. This is done by designing tasks discussions, problems, games,

and

TBT

—

—which

on

so

require learners to use the language for themselves. But not the same the world over. Teachers who begin with the notion

is

that tasks should be central to teaching then go

which

fits

J. Willis

their

own

classrooms and their

own

on

to refine an approach

students. (See

Edwards and

on to discus TBT in greater detail it is look carefully at some of the things which aie important in a

2005.) Before going

necessary to

task-based approach.

READER ACTIVITY 1A The essentlafs ©fa task-based appnoaeh Think about what you have heard about TBT and say how far you agree with the following statements; 1

Many people can operate effectively in a foreign language even though their grammar Is limited and they mal<e a lot of mistakes.

2 Learners will not be able to do a task unless they have the right grammar. 3 TBT accepts the importance of grammar.

4 TBT is not suitable for learners who are preparing for an examination, 5 You do not have to be a highly experienced teacher to use TBT effectively 6 You cannot do TBT unless your own English is completely fluent and accurate. 7

TBT

can be used to teach both the spoken and the written language.

8 Tasks are always done

in pairs

or groups.

Commentary Here is a commentary on these eight statements: 1

Most of la tomv sonieona: who fits this descrlp^on. Some y^f^ ago we wer« shown round the city of Prague by a Czech friend whose English was limited.

He was

rarely able

very produce a full sentence without at least one or two

'

supplemented to

reflect the lort of question that learners will face in the

exannlnatlon.

5

Any teacher will need

basic classroom skills—the ability to motivate learners

They will also need to bo able to demonstrate and explain important language features. So an experienced :ind

organizp

ncriviij('s in llu;

clas.sroom.

teac'h^rwho already lias these' sklife important thing

in

TBT

is

wil! start

with an advantage. But the most

the willingness to engage with learners

in

communication, and to allow learners the freedom to use the language. experienced teachers find I

very

difficult

some of that control. Teachers who come to

the classroom with an

open mind, whether they are experienced or inexperienced,

Whatyouwant?

I

Some

because they are used to controlling

orderto avoid mistakes. TBT requires aWfllihgnesSto

earfier language in

surrender

this

will

learn to use

TBT effectively tf they have the confidence to trust the learners and give them every opportunity to use the language for themselves.

6 Sometimes teachers ^^''^°'^'"'P°''Eant things about

,

I

TBT is that it

tliat will

niist.ikos.

Once they

happen

in

strictly,

so that they can predict almost everything

the classroom. But

if

learners are always controlled, they

will

never learn to use language freely. They need an English-speaking model, and

^

haveastockofwordstheycanbPainm.^

who don't have confidence in theirown English respond

by controlling learners very

the best model they can.getis a teacher whotTi they respect. So try to use English freely in the

classroom even

a natural part of spontaneous use.

if

you do make some mistakes. Mistakes are

Once

learners are involved

in

a task which

engagesthefr interest they won't even notice them. So use your English to talk freely to learners: don't deprive

possibly have.

recorder, or believe

,e.ne.w,,,.ea.:r::r;::™::~

encourage learners ^.engage

,n

meaning with the

la

g^e

1

7 rl

L

ev

t

them of the best

You are much more valuable

as a

learning aid they could

model than the cassette

CD, orvldeo screen.

Many people believe that TBT focuses almost entirely on the spoken language. Them is ceminly a lot of talking In theTBT classroom, from both teachei^ and lea!;ifi#S»butTBT can also be used to teach reading {see Chapters) and to

provide valuable writing practice as illustrated 8

many task-based

in later

chapters.

learners to work in pairs or groups. more opportunities to use the language for themselves. But TBT can certainly be accommodated within a It is

true that

This

is

teachers

like

generally because this gives learners

teacher-led classroom {see Chapter practitioners of

TBT, N.

S.

7),

and one of the most successful

Prabhu, used a teacher-fronted methodology

(Prabhu 1987), working always with the class as a whole.

hM,,„., .6 ,

"""''^ '^'^"^^

w,. w,il

!° r look n, fo,,„

T examinations of

fo<:uso,l activities within

this kin.l

the contex of

TBI

''^'''-'"'"'•'°--''«'v,tewhi^hfollowat».l
Staningwithform and

IJ

altemattve approaches to

staningwith meaning: • teaching

|)liiiisc!i to help Icui iicif. .sliupc their message. When teachers do this they are acting ds participants in the interaction. As long as teachers are doing this in
language. stage of learning, that

^'

u,

leamen n nT]

°* ^

^

mem rlipt gnunnulal"tr~rf " thetaUfo^Sa^n^wt:^^^^^^^^^

focLis <„, fi„-m

we

specific

a

"I"-" r,.„tained in a single lesson '-ns wi,h .„

t

aceeptabletefXcX^

sequence.

which occur in the oFa task or an associated text. They may exemphfy, explain and practice these forms. This we will call a focus on form. Teaeheis should take care that et)urse

By a

°*

"

^'''^^^

ill is

focus

way

to

learner

1

and

^ust.:^-^^^^:'^'^'^-'^^ ™^ °'

'^^

do

on form does not this

detract

From a focus on meaning. The simplest

to withhold this focus

is

on form

completed. Sometimes this focus on form

and

offers correction.

the learner

ih;ir

form,,

teachers direct learners' attention to specific forms

I'Mially.

is

This correction

aware of the correct form.

until after a task has been

incidental. is

The

teacher stops a

aimed primarily

at ensuring

not offered to help wiih Meaning. Wiien teachers do this they are standing outside the interaction and is

It is

commenting on learners' performance with regard to aocuraey;

We are, then, looking at a three-way d^ttnctlon: •

A

on meaning, in which

focus

participants are

concerned with

communication. •

A focus on

language, in which learners pause in the course of a meaningfocused activity to think for themselves how best to express what they

want to say, or readier takes part in the interaction andacts^aS'k&cilitator by rephrasing or clarifying learner language. • A focus on firm in which one or more lexical or grammatical forms are isolated and specified for study, or in which the teacher comments on :i

student langtiage by drawing attention to problems.

Long

(1988)

makes

a similar distinction, btit uses different termin()lt)j',y,

on form (singular) with a focus on forms (plur;il). Roughly speaking, what he refers to as a focus on form, we have referred to as a focus on language, and what he refers to as a focus on.firms (plural), we have contrasting a focus

-ueh

cI«room

a. possible

to use the

ev

^

frSer^^^^

angSe fof ^'u

™* opportunitie. n

referred to as a focus itt

"^'^'''^^f"'"InSf [nX " '-'"'n. s„n,lim™rftl„ example, s^pltTf LtfTolSr JjltT'^^^' "^l^ focus

on meaning.

^l^-' involves a

' '"^^"'"S-focused activity,

will

w,ll. lot

ti

r

eX

;i

a.

the following characteristics:

2

j

,

(singular),

A meaning-focused approach normally involves a focus on meaning and locus on language hefore focus on form. Meaning-based approaches have

1

specified by

on firm

the

The teacher does not attempt to control learner language. The success of the procedure is judged on whether or not CO m ni u n ica tc

n,:""" 3

At some

.vu

cccss fu

I

learners

ly.

stages during a meaning-focused cycle of activities learners

and on language. Learners will pause to think how best to express themselves and may discuss difFcreiitopiioii with fellow students or look for help in adictionary or grammar book, li ji liei s will p.ii iit ip.inteachers will focus

,

in du;

to my.

inuTaciioM by lielping learners to

sli.ipc .iiul

i

liitily

wliai liny w.nii

b

sd

app,..„d, wli spend

w

ich pr„n,„te

w,,

I,

:,,

Mv,

ICS

Structure 'subject • verb ,nu.st

of the

dme

.n the class,

„„ -.uZuW.

,

commumcative language Use, but w:ll .upplen.ent designed to promote accuracy. Cou« boote whick

these

take a

l-""i-lwsed approach encourage teachers to devote a lot of time in the classroom to form-focused activities, presenting specific forms of the anguage to the,,- stttdcnts and pracdsfag- those forms. They will, however, .^most ce, ta,nly e,nforce these activities with opportunities for commun,

iciicive laiij^uagc use.

13 Wl.™ book

Language as meaning .hiM,vn begin table .

Dependmg on the context and intonation and may be interpreted as 'The book iS

pt,t the

this

book on the

I

"

We

I

Ic girl

Icel

table',

gitL

" ' ^"'^ ""^^

Mother say litde girl go see grandmother. MoAer give Mother say 'You take food grandmothet .Jt

many of you will have identified the Red mdi„s Hood. It is not true to say however

"""^

"

'

1"^ """t' give. Say

fbo°d girl dri tll""''' food httle mother

NISI

would .111(1

^ '^^^

reasonably confident that

the sequence-

Yo„

I

big basket food.

opcmugof the story of

.n.|.oss,

or 'Shall

" little

certainly have

^""^

^"^""^her go see gtrl f 'Grandmother

found

little.

Basket big

food take you ... ' mother

diis

mwk

more

difficult,

e,to,,,terpre^ ilii'.sccoiut

is

possible to

tell

perhaps

gniminar,

and

toiiform lo

It

Ibllows the rules of iinglish

phfSsff 'strtew*^

t

word

i

.

and a

and no other determiners such as 'this/that' or 'his/her'. There are no verb tenses. This raises an interesting question. If things like articles and tenses ai« unnecessary why do we bother with them at all? The answer, of course, is that articles and tenses are far from of the

our

listener

by using the

story,

full

make things much

resources of the grammar:

mother who had a Utde girl. I'he little girl was going to sec her grandmother. Her mother gave he^ a big basket of food, and said 'Take this food to your grandmother*.

Once upon

a time there was a

So grantmar is vital

if

we want to make things reasonably easy for listeners or

readers.

complex abstract meanings witliout grammar. was playing in the garden with her two-yearbottle son. He Was filling a wim water ftoin an outside tap, pouring the old water in a liole he had dug and watching it disappear. Jenny was thirsty and asked laim for the bocrle. Wlicn he gave it to her she drank some of the water. It

is

also difficult to express

One day our daughter, Jenny,

He was horrified. 'No/

he

said, 'that

water not for drinking.

for putting in

It

-for + -big to cxprmpur|TOse, and it is difficult to see how he could have got his message across efficiently without that complex little bit of grammar.

hole.* He uSed die form

It is,

then, possible to

us go through

life as

make meanings with a very limited grammar. Many of

foreign language users with a very limited grammar,

and

most of us know people who can manage quite effectively iniEaaglish even though they do not have command of basic grammar like the past tense and question forms. But if we want to express meanings in an efficient, listener/ reader ftiendly manner we need more than vocabulary and word order. We also need a grammar that identifies things clearly and relates them to one another: articles and determiners.

temporal setting: a tense system.

versions of the stoiy?

'big basket' the

a story quite adequately v^di a string of words

articles in the first version

the accom-

observation as a starting point, one might argue that early

gJamman Mother

it

and

very limited grammar of structure. Thei!e,:ai?e JlO definite articles or indefinite

language they communicate without

on the fable', or put the book on the table''
liuglisli

order, the rules of English clause

easier for to use their first

ill

sonic of the rules of

So,

little girP

unnecessary. Even in the telling of a simple story we can

"VM,,; gestures th.s

I'.;

.Klic iivc i
phnues

In th«

IVoMi oi (he iHiiiii. .So ihf (iisi vcr.sion (.Iocs

We need a grammar that places things in a And we need a grammar

that

is

capable of

expressing abstract relations, phrases like 'for + -ing' to express purpose.

u'*'

'''''

^''''^

mir£';'' r"'^ makes sense. More precisely, you might say convenaons of English clause and, phmse

-^^^^

fi^^t

version

the first version follows the structure. Each clause has rte

This suggOMs two possible starting points for language teaching. possibility

would

bi

i"

lo

dcvelopmt'iil,

iini!

line we would

<Mui'ut,i|ii'

communiciite. A«

1

',fc

meaning

(omi li

wic lniVn'

m

u,sc

ihe language as

viK'«l)ul«ry

Id

central to

One

point Rtr huigiiage

dcvfloping from meaning.

tlMM|^ (o

mwy

as the starting

If

much

wc

take this

as po.sstbic to

communication, »o

topic, but

would

11

iiut

be ncccssaiv

in

the s-imc w-iv .„

i

I

These arc golden momenw lli » langiiai^i; classroom. There is involvement, with an accompanying increase in confidcmr

Almost ccnuinly mil. ucllcn. Wc. w.uld srdi provide learners with guidance to heln thorn cvc op an accep table gra„.™ar of the language. An! we would seu

en,«

«

.

,llu«r.te the target

Mil.nidu,.„ed to encouraging learners to

worrying too

much about

grammar. But

me

The second possibility is to see form as

d l^rot^

would b

the langaa^ fely, without

formal accuracy

prc,grat„t.ewouldbejudged in terms die language for communication.

this

The ,ucce«

^f

U°

,

oftheLles rel="nofollow">o2^^ wing aoiiity to use ^

we seek

Z:tl'"'"'''""-^'""^"^'^""S«languageandthentJ c^rneis w^h opportunitie.s to associate these

nings. Teaching procedures are designed to teach learners to p' du of grammatical sentences. This doe, not rftean that vocabulary gmned and that there is no focus on meaning.

Vocabulary

-H, K

is

i

taught but

We

can thtak of these sentences as grammatical frames VouibularystmpIyprovidesitemstofiUoutdieseframes. s.

I'i^ :'l-P"HKh does not ignore meaning J B.:u,unar has bee,, tnughi k.uners are

n meaningful situations.

ability

and

cofflimttnication.

Once

the

provided with opportunities to use

The primary

focus,

howevc^Js

i

oTg^fmlTc

some of the .k^;uagi: used in

it is

toproduceformallyaccuratesentencesinthetstgetlanguage:

,„„st approaches to language teaching seek to provide a balance between form and meaning. Teachers will provide a variety of lessons whh ome of them offering a primary focus on form, and others, often a led

^

7^

-

^

lassroom. Spontaneity cannot,

I

Some of the most successful activities

"ho

"7"-

L

definition, be

learners' interest.

are not tdffiKgstories

class will

be genuinely involved

it

for

in

to order. I'here

acdvities.

Can we be

How do we know that all

discussion or story telling?

Can we

be sure what language will occur to provide opportunities for form-focused work? It is very difficult to provide language suppbrt on the spur of the

moment. Will the teacher be

immediate advantage of form-

able to take

(ocLised opportunities which do occur? Let us look at a brief sequence of activities which might help us meet some of these possible shortcomings of a

reliance

on spontaneous engagement.

There are a number of burning concern almost

all societies.

class at a

social issues in l3he

One of these is

on the subject.

the use It is

modern world which


drugs.

Many

quite possible that a teacher

reasonably advanced level could introduce a success-

newspaper article and expressing an opinion. The class might well respond to this by expressing their own opinions and engaging in argument and discussion. ful

and spontaneous activity simply by

referring to a recent

you can prepare students by offering a series of statenienis

mntmeom

activity

demonstrates

They respond with stori^

SAMPLE ACTIVITY SEQUENCE

Drug abuse

The

teacher helps

.,

to say

o,^,2 ,lie,i own opinions and u useful discussion cLc,

c

^

far they agree

their opinions.

with each

The following sample

Here are some statements about the problem of addictive drugs. Look at these statements and give each one a mark from 1 to 4, according to the following scale:

,

„„i„^

how

how this maybe done,

arelLnigwi^h int

on.

•vM-ncI w,ih

produced

about such spontaneous

and asking learners as individuals statement and to give reasons for

in the classroom involve a

d! the

.,

m£ use

Let us imagine however that the teacher decides to take a rather more if you want to promote discussion of any

ty "•""^'^Tr^^ odd vocabulary item and by occasionally stepping in and lc|„.,,s„,|., learners contribution. The same kind of ihhig lUu ,e Wl.l, d,..«,o„. The „.acl,er l„,;|,. ovidmg ; p

by

sure that a given topic will engage learners' interest?

controversial topic

wl ch immediately engages the

of classroom exchaB^

structured approach. For example,

Meaning and tasks in the classroom

1.4

this sort

impossible to guarantee this kind of spontaneous activity in the

jicoplc have firm opinions

'I c,,,,,.sc.

'I'licy

form-focuseelTVOi& lii this or a subsequent lesson.

with an adult (

clcvclopnicnr.

which has been worrying them for some time. They'liia^^'^didjenly find, for example, that the question forms which have been so elusive begin to come spontaneously and fluently. A gifted teacher may be quick enough to analyse

of the

i-i;^'

l;ingiia|;;c

pick up the odd usef ul phruiic oi vocabulary item From the language they are exposed to. They may fij^ the aii^wa: to soiue igt^aiMa^eal problem

are also questions to be raised

forms with appropriate

m

rx(KTirni r sonir

personal

.ind fluency.

will

But primary. If we take this view,

lc:iriK-rs will

real

1

= strongly

a

"

agr«(S

agree

3

4

=

dlsagi-o«

strongi/ dlNAj||r«n

1

Commentary

drugs should be legalized.

All

a So-called soft drugs,

nsver be

like

cannabis, should be legalized, buL liaid drugs should

'j^^

legalized.

There are

at lea^t

si>c

possible advantages to

be gained from formalizing the

\

discussion: 3

4 5

6

All I

nnvicted drug dealers should be given long prison sentences.

I

hu property of convicted drug dealers should be confiscated.

It

1

which

survey, explaining

reinforce the habit.

This opinion survey could be central to 1

2

Tln' iTMcher introduces the topic and highlights

Hie teacher introduces the survey,

one or two i

asequence of

issues,

work as

asl
drawing attention to some of the

4 Lean lers

statement of opinions on lexis related

compare opinions and decide on

to

a

3

It is

scale,

and to

group

rating

on

involved

in

the statements.

If

easier to express an opinion

do so with

Interesting.

6 Learners read a text on the issues and compare the author's views with their

own.

on a very

specific issue than

you say to someone 'Do you agree that all

All learners are

4

will

in

is

more

likely

'What do you think about dangerous

the 1-4 scale.

their

what

prison sentences?', you are

5 Teacher chairs a general class discussion.

7 Teacher chairs a discussion

much

topic.

to the topic.

individuals

work in groups

useful in the discussion.

issues.

to set down thefr opinions on the 1-4 think of supporting arguments. Learners

be

will

thoughts as they Learners are given the opportunity to gather their discussion. group the opinion survey, before they go into the

2

activities:

one or two

a mearfmgfUl e@nfeexfeS
of the vocabulan^or^^and phrases— goes through the opinion The vocabulary will be introduced as the teacher

made from drug dealing should be confiscated. pointless to send drug addicts to prison. In most cases this will simply

Profits It Is

In gives the teacher the opportunity to Introduce

work with

on a general

drug dealers should get long

to get a response than

if

you simply say

drugs?'

with the topic. required to form an opinion and to engage topic less interest. Others may find this particular

lively

But they will

all

be engaged

at

some level.

apart from the opinion on the issue, #»ey may stand opinion by .entering to an themselves committed discussion. But once they have likely to defend that opinion. it as ai^. they are more learners have

5

If

6

The

which learners compare the author's views with

own.

no

real

procedures are designed to provide a focus for discussion and reading by providing a clear outcome. The survey provides a -very clear outcome.

for form-focused questionnaire and the text will provide material sequence. It is possible to identify activities at a later stage in the teaching are worth focusing on, This before the lesson those langu^e. items which

Individual Icanicr.s express their opinions in the

means

I'lifsc

arc then required to justify their opinions in a

rating.

They

group discussion. The teacher

the

outcome of the group discussion with questions like 'Ramon,

you r group,

how many people agreed that soft drugs should beie^Hzed?',

then in

form of a 1-4

elicits

iHid follow .\]\\vv

up questions

like

'What about your group, Maria? Did you

all

or wviv rhere disagreements?'

When learners go on to read the text, they have a clear purpose. They want to find the writers opinion inieieMecl

hy

now

on a number of specific

to BxtA

oUt

how &r

issues.

the writer

They

are probably

suppom

their

own

Whai wc

that the teacher will

have time to prepare form-focused

activities

before the lesson.

above

When we offer the learners formalized activities of the kind dfiSccW activities we axe en^gmg m their participation in meaningful to

Mitate

learners' spontaneous mterest task-based learning. Instead of relying on the will help promote mterest and reaction, we are designing activities which

of this kind which we call tasks. Task-based CI.T (communicative language learning and teaching is a development on emphasis on the design ot tasks and the development

and

interaction. It

teaching) in that

particular views.

Some

it

is

activities

lays

of task-based teaching. h;ive

done here

is

provide a formal

fr^ework

to

promote So we create tasks to

discussion and to provide a reason for reading.

facilitate

meaningflil activities in the classroom.

topics are not a substitute for interesting

READER ACTIVITY

they can enhance that engagement and

IB

Why should we structure a discussion? What do you think Is

to bo gained from formalizing a dlscuislon

In this

way?

which

interest.

Tasb

engage learners mterest, but

L5

Characterizing tasks

If you ask the question vo.. w,ll f;.ul,

Nmiu- would

a task?' in the context of languag. tcachins, from different researchers and practitionerl almost any classroom activity a task is

call

assumed to

purpose of

refer to a

facilitating

simple exercise type to

range oFwork-pIans which have the language learning—from the brief and

more complex and lengthy activities such as group

pfqMem-sote:^ or simulations and decision-making. '

'"(nnunauly

(Breen 1987)

this definition

langLuigc classroom, so

it is

k

task-based teachmg in order to distmguish it from other kinds of teaching Let us look at some more sharply focused definitions:

READER ACTIVITY Characterizing

1C:

list

'A pifcc.

c)f

lutcomi^aiid

(

(Hiicome.

it

in

^,itating

Includes it is

important to achieve an

Skehan suggests that a classroom task should relate

luestions. 1

someway

The more

confidently

is

by asking the following

we can answer yes to each of these questions the

Does the activity engage learners' interest? Is there a primary focus on meaning?

.

.4

in

termis of

lore task-like the activity.

I

S

in

the real world.

We can, then, determine how tasl<-like a given activity <

or repeating something

outcome by suggesting that

says that thfl assffismiQint of the Eicttvlt^i^slt^Mft^tseen

Finally,

lu an activity

6.

Is

there an outcome?

Is

success judged

Is

complettan apriority?

^

'

in

terms of outcome?

Does the activi^ relate to real wodd activities?

riic first

literature

of the features of a task these writers refer to.

most complete

the

1

a

It

tasl<s

Here are four definitions of task taken ffom the

Make

rii>',ut

else;

task comp/et/on has priority, In other words that

1

includes anything that might happen a not very useful if we are trying to characterise

fliniply

been told by lomBOne

that they have

crcn. answers

'[a,sk is ilKTcloi-e

overall

mat

producing their own moanlngi, not

on task-based teaching

Which do you think is

definition?

I

his

is

Focus

of these introduces as an additional feature: the notion of engagement.

because without engagement, without genuine

on meaning or outcome.

they have to

Learn^srs have to

interest, there

can be no

wanttoatHfeVe an outcome,

want to engage In meaning.

classroom work which involves learners in comprehending. producing, or interacting In the target language while

nuini|julating.

their

attention i.

Is

pHfldpally focused on meaning rather than form.'

arc] activities

'\Ta'.V',

where the

communicative purpose 3

'A task

an activity is

in

target language

(goal) in

is used by the learnerfora orderto achieve an outcome.' (I. Willis iqq6)

which

pHn^ry

learners are not given other people's meanings to regurgitate is some sort of relationship to comparable

'

•

there

•

task compfetlon

•

the assessmentof thetaskisintermsof

real

world

activities

haasome sort of priority outcome.'(SI«hani998)

we define a.:/anguoge use task as

'.

4

is

meaning

•

(Nunan 1989)

.

an activity that involves individuals in using language for the purpose of achieving a particular goal or outcome in a .

particular situation,'

(Bachman and Palmer 1996)

Commentary In

the

part

of our earlier discussion it is not surprising that meaning plays a large these attempts to characterise a task. The first definition (Nunan)

light

in

highlights

n-.-on,r,;;.

Definitions 2 (Willis) and

&oal \Nv havn -.hown

how a

4 (Bachman and Palmer)

highlight

3 (Skflhan), Skehan Includes meaning, and suggests that

li-at

nui-,

I.

J.

Those

criteria will nol pri ivldi-

task, but they tasi<"lii<e In

-.

Does the dctioity engage the

learners':

outcome or

task can provide a formal

framework for meaningful discussion by providing an explicit outcome orgoal. The mosi: coniplH,. .(rfinition ll

i-'i^nrc

,l.(

will pi

uvldn

ui.

ir;

that they Involve mnl

h,.

Skehan's conclusion!

willi

.1

watertij^ht dcfmliion of wfiat ronsiiliMi".

wlihy.i midline!, lor the design of acLivitius IttnuiUiiiiP

ui«. This

Is

very

much

In line

which are with

a

...

soincnf

ih,. liincil ni.iy

two

label 'task' since the

specfflc structures

bo

to decide wlioth^rinictlvltymsHts the

ilifflcult

iiiKlcrlying characteristics of tusk-;, itvtiiiiiiirp

and engagement

In

jNoups,

worthwhile meanings, are matters of

degree, ratherthanbeihgeategoricai. (1998: 96)

gM on with the dlieuiilen or, while moving round the

leaves the groups to

nf

div

fncilltntes the

u'.sImh,

t,

If

the teacher provl#&'k?6lTcfvi?^^p

this

Evaluating a task it

meet the criteria

then

this again

other hand the teacher gives ,

If

probably

the activity

intrinsically all

engaging for

many

learners.

The

task seeks to

opinions and supporting arguments.

u-affickers

On the other hand,

it

would

dctrFict

from

little

be

should be sent to gaol.

Level

in

On a

1:

producing meanings which

your discussion:

they

will

task-like the activity

be

will

will

on three

rodiice a

concerned with form rather than meaning, and the becomes.

number of vocabulary

on vocabulary,

it

may well be

useful in the real world. interest.

1

his

They will

also

ought to be rather than simply on

be using language that

in

be using

be expressing

how it

already familiar to them.

is

will

In

is.

some

In

other cases

new

We might call level 1 the level of meaning.

common in

necessary

everyday

They

life.

explaining, elaborating,

items to enable students to complete the

will

be

fesipressing will

We might

very

opinions and constructing

be agreeing and disagreeing;

and organising their arguments;

produced by others; and so on.

is

relating to

arguments

call this the level of discourse.

is

Level

grammar before begJnnir[g.t^ie task.,

3:

At yet another level they will be engaging

quite easily occur

some future 3

They

Level 2: AtanOthefleverthey will bepmctlsiiigakind of discourse which

less

the purpose of the teacher explaining the opinion survey and Initiating a brief preliminary discussion. But there isno need to focus on activity.

levels:

more

bfe

Since communication depends, crucially

a teacher

gives learners the opportunity to engage

arguments to support those opinions. They ini

have

detract from the

be stretching their language resources to enable them to express

meanings.

learners are likely to

it

activities

do with a topic of general

how the world

oplniofwon cases they

try to control the language that learners produce, the

very general level

vocabulary to

siuiuld bo punished', 'should be confiscated"

1

this will

on the

so.

6 This, activity relates to real-world

legalized.

Try to use the following forms

<

If,

valu;© to thfe ce>fielusiofts that students

'

be encouraged to do

like this, there would be a stronger tendency for learners to focus on specfficforms. This tendency would probably be even stronger if students were given explicit Instructior(s.such as:

I

a serious

Students should be given reasonable time to complete the activity and' should

I,

Alturan introduction

So the more we

on to

becomes.

if

ihink soft drugs should )i iij;

this leads

encourages them to express their opinions, the more task-like the atStiviiy

there was an introductory activity practising passive modal verbs with sentences like:

I

if

enhances the importance of outcome.

The more a teacher values students' opinions and

liandles the activity.

is

the activity as a task

I

groups are given a chance to

if

As with meaning, the focus on outcome depends on the way

learners.

introduced without any preceding language study then it is certain that there will be afocus on meaning, on the exchange of

.ilnio.st

the importance of

importance of outcome.

secure engagement from 2

language, expressing. opinions

which values ihe studetrtftMssion,

activity

oached and moves on rapidly to anotheractivlty,

l

Commentary is

If.n ncr-

enhances the importance of outcome. So

class discussion,

set out above?

topic

liyin)',

express their opinions to the class as a whole and

Look back to the opinion survey about drugs above. How^3oes

The

11

Lliun this reinlorces

outG^me*.

READER ACTIVITY 1D

1

1.

1

and agreement or disagrtjemunL,

"lli'M'iiip^^eof the.^iPibn,surveyTs.predseIyifils:to .call

this

the real world.

in

occasion, be engaged

the level of

It is

in

an activity which could

in

quite conceivable that they might, on

a discussion

on

this

very topic.

We might

activity.

Insic.id of just having a general discussion

liMnirt

s .iro

without any definite conclusion, asked to commit themselves to a ratingfor each statement.

'

So the

I

rl.iiJonship with real-world activity

engage with th«

4

I

his will

depend on how the teacher handles the

activity.

If,

teacher moves round the groups correcting their language critcsrla

for success towards accuracy, and the focus of tho

form rather than outcome and meaning.

If,

on the other

for example, a

this

moves

tictlvlty

huncl,

activities

rwal

w(

ir

Id 01

1

all

my trngHX^ only on tho

is

a

complex one. Some

three of the levels first

two

activities

we have listed. Other

levels.

the

towards

lh» tnncher

Noi

all la'.ki. nitMiii

examplui aIui

i>I

1

1

in

1

t>.il

wh|

|i|

<

idm

inn :n --.atisfartorily

|,iIii^immim iiviUiit.

which do not

There

are» for

reluie precisely to the

UM of linguig. outild* the

dassroo,,,

ou, fc„ „

,

Yim

A

V

are using lots of languagp and hnp, activity

shouWrelatfto te a useful and motivating task.

*«=y

u

t.

wX^^^^

M

is

^

'

"

^

'°

Manchoswrf

loni'i

'

'

l.

And your name

A

°"

live in

iiijoci'

B No.John.

11

aowq! Soint: contestants %t¥£lld concentrate so

/. 6^

ITAj/

«or start with

grammar^'

miL.

activity-.

teaXrT Bm

ta,,k.

" ''''''

'°

^ communicative

ifyoulike on particular forms Let urimaSrZ.^''' liking

and

ri.en

'I

P™^^ '° fo™^ '^'^^^ °'

'°

^0^7^;:^^^^^Z^l^"" like «P«etf to pVia^tetiisZv?l' '"^^ listening

disliking

.sentences like: niusic',

'"T T^^

'I

hate cooking'

ask learners

to

™

TwC'.

work k

'T

t'^^

^„^^^^^

'

'

to

r*^'™'^'

tead.er

A

1 nne's nearly up. You're doing really well,

ij

Yes.

meaning at the

'l'''"'''^""'

1

ge^lfiTv

^nl^tswerT X T 1"

f°

V""'

T

^

?»-

1"'^

W T^mC

wuh.,utsayi„g yes- or found it extremely dfficul t

VES/NO challen^. A^d

Id

ed

T'^"'^"^'"™^^"™^-^^ ''""'^^ ^^X^ r w" fo>

-.yoaetowin

au&17r?^'''^ i.ugLrwtrotrt':rsr" '^r^^^^^^

t^e sometliing which seemed „ with

'"^''S^'

gong. •

Wh.

s ,

The quizmaster wo Jd your name?' and

start off

merenuf

-.«ver so you would get a

sequ^ceSf

w>h

r

'™

you?

game seems to us to show tliat it Is extremely difEcidt to (iiKx-ntratc on what we are going to say and at the same time on howwQ are j^oing to say it, in the sense of what words or forms we are going to use. The contestants found it almost impossible to take part in a question an^ answer vsion and, at the same time, to think about the form of rheir answers, how simple

I'll is I

were answering questions, so

as to

avoid saying

yes' or no'.

apply to learners? If they have been asked to Luiicciitrate on producing tbrms of the language which they have only just been presented and practised ^for example, the^ng form of the verb ^will

low much more

I

fTr

aren't

gong!

\\\v.y

time, part icul u ly at

our in the end:

'.t

anddisiifcc.iv-trfdtSfo:::!ii;;;:;:';s

-complished lan^ gnunuK. i„ which

tiiat

words became very hesitant and unnatural. But they were nearly always

ilu-ii

i.iii^^lii

in the

hard on what they were saying

will this

—

—

be able at the same rime to think alxnit what it is they want to say? It seems to us that learners will be obliged to follow one of two possible ilicy

Kira regies:

•

the

^ct that

produce the target form. As a result their language will be halting and stilted. They will be imable to concern

They might

try conscientiously to

themselves with real-time communicarion because their attention

is

taken

up with thinking about form. If this happens they are onl^ getting practice

banged

'i^-tions

L

making sentences. There is not a primary focus on meaning. They will engage with meaning aid will ^ftore ^e '&ct daat they are supposed to be producing a particular form. They will engage in a in

•

A John?

meaning-focused activity, in spite of the teacher's intentions and wishes. If this happens then learners have transfbrmed the activity into a task with a focus on meaning, but from the teacher's point of view rhe lesson has

B

failed in its declared

A

Wlut'i;

B John.

yourname?

Yes.

their riiey

aim of helping learners incorporate the

spontaneous language

may

meaning,

ol et)uise

switch between these two strategies,

then, posfjibly in

target

form

in

use. first

focusing on

response to teacher correction, focusing

on

the

target form.

So

if

we

begin wii

li

>i

['mnnnni rd (m us on form

learners toswiich niiiiK'dMuly m.i locuh

il

is

on meaning,

ainio.si i

'lie

impossible for

byndiisola locus

on meaning

language they have forms.

They will be

be

equipped to

less

make

will be lost. Learners will not if

I

the most of

heir efforis are tlireeietl lo repriuliu

the other liie

target

grow in fluency aiid co uliJcnce. They

less likely to

Itse tile

all

iiif^

will

language ou^ldie -die ^W^£^.

li^liii'n

the space of a single lesson incorporate it into their sponWe all know from our experience as teachers

taneous language production. that

take a long time before learners have spontaneous

it

command of 'do-

'What do you want?' or *'What does X mean?' have been presented and intensively practised, learners go on prt)ducing questions like 'What you want?' and 'What mean X?' The same is questions'. For a long time after

forms

continuous

and present simple

meiltioii. TMs^appare^nt feilure

or teachers are incompetent.

mental process which

comes about not because learners are careless comes about because learning is a develop-

not subject

is

almost any learning item you care to

It

forms will not lead to mastery.

it

attd

1.0

the learner's conscious control.

takes time for language to develop, 'i'he

will

he more

likely to notice the

It

new form

until they

h&eti a pait of the consenstis

studies of the late 1960s

and

first

treatment of a

may aid developiiaent

new form

or

in that the learner

Schmidt 1990) in future once not become a part of the learners'

(see

has been highlighted. Rut the form will

spontaneous repertoire

have had time to assimilate

on language

it.

This has

learning since the interlanguagc

early 1970s. (See

Cordcr

SeHnker 1972.) of strategies for second 191^7;

These studies described the learner as operating a set language development which are influenced, but not driven by a concern with language form. There is a certainly a place for a focus on specified forms in a cask-based approach. But form should be subordinate to meaning and, for this reason, should this in

more

come

detail in the

after rather

than before a task.

next chapter and again in Chapter

We will

discuss

6,

Further reading Ellis,

R. 2003. Task-based Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford; Oxford

Xftiiversity Press.

Chapter

1

gives

an overview of tasks used in

SLA

rcseaftlii

and

in the

language classroom.

Skehan,

Willis. 2001. 'Task-based language learning' in R. Carter

Hw (jiiiil>rid<^c (hiidc lo TatrfiiHi^ liii
(eds,).

Other Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University

ofes a

brief

summary of

Press.

the rationale behind task-based

learning and teaching.

P.

1998.

A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Chapter 5 evaluates the second language acquisition research relating to bflsed Instruction.

Willis,

D. 2003. Rules Patterns and Words:

task-

Gmmmar md Lexis

in English

Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chapters i and 2 look in more detail at the relationship between grammar

and lexis. Willis, J. 2004. 'Perspectives

J.R. Willis

like

true of past tense forms, question tags, the distinction between present

It

D. and J.

D.Nunan

is

look at language acquisition research in the next chapter (Chapter 2 (2.4)). I'his research shows that it is very rare for learners to be exposed to a new

form and,

and

This paper

an even more important reason for rejecting an initial and continuing focus on form: the procedure is likely to end in failure. We will

But there

Willis,

(eds.).

on

task-based instruction' in B. Leaver and

Task-based Instruction in Foreign

Langua^ Mducation:

Practices

and Programs. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University

Chapter

i

(pp. 3-44) gives

relationship

Press.

an overview of the origins of TBT, explores

with CLT and other perspectives on task-based practices.

its

2

TASK-BASED SEQUENCES IN

THE CLASSROOM

2,1 Task sequences In Chapter

i

(1.4)

we gave an example of a task-based sequence which, began

with a teacher-led introduction to an opinion survey about drugs. This was

owed by the d;^ woiJdl^ on the opinion survey as individuals. The not k was a group discussion, which led into a teacher-led class discussion. there was a reading activity, which would again be followed by a

i-»ext

discussion

and evaluation of the writers arguments. What we have here

is

a

sequeflcecKf tasks^ isajcfeof ^Jte-Stagisibcjye could be described as a task. Tllfe task sequence prepares the

way

for a

number of form-focused

activities

which could then follow. Learners have been concerned with meanings which involve, fer e^tnplci tht: passive fturm of thte modal 'should.', as in 'should be punished', 'should be confiscated'.

go on to look in

detail at the structure

They

are, therefore,

and use of the

ready to

passive with should'

and, by extension, with other medals.

So a task-based lesson would probably involve not a single

task,

but a

sequence of tasks. These tasks t@ktte to one siiiother. TTie tea>dier-kd iatPOduction

is

a task in itself

It

involves a genuine exchange of meaning, in

which learners are required to process language for meaning. It also serves a priming ftmction. It prepares or primes learners for the coming reading in

two useful ways: •

It

helps leamets ifecus

on the topic and engage their own knowledge and

opinions on the subject. •

an opportunity to introduce the vocabulary associated with the words like 'le^ize' and addicts' and phrases like 'hard drugs'. This is done both in the written statements which provide the basis It

affords

topic, in this case

for discussion,

and also in the subsequent teacher-led discussion.

Responding to the statements on the opinion survey as individuals is again a task in itself. Learners will be working on their own to make decisions and constrlict al^amcnts, even thoi^ tfaey do not voice t^ose arguments at this stage.

But

this task is also preparation for the next stage. Learners are

.S(t

r

A ?hi, n

"

- -I-™ tho,c ideas i„

,

'

.xumpic take note of the passive modals should be be p„n,,s.hcd-. and wonder how these might be

r:„glth.

«>..ld

is

often

Afferent from a teacher-imposed focUs

l"itc

.solat.on

h nd

ater stage,

of a part.cular form which learners

L

d use

,t,

then they

comTt^g

known as minfng ^But t .

will

form. Hrst there

then

cusston wh:ch follows. If they belreve th. form

d,

and

legalized'

used in

m#t be t«rfbl as output « a

feel

and thcy

c n

»ay

Wl

passives fluently

learner do not have

this confidence,

and accurately

ihey

If

may chooL

onT

to av

d Secondly, thetr succM in the disoBsion will n6t be judged by whether or not they mcotpotate any particular form in their arguLielte So d

e

„

teaeher-controlled focus

on form and assessment on

the bas.s of form.

The next

activity because learners will be rfadin^ will be checking their own opinions a s

J

h expressed by the author. These two tasb are probably the most tm;ortan h ,

,

^

^'^"^ world mo^dos Tr'T also^^^Z'^V'^ probably the starting point m planning

Thev weie They

the sequence

WV-liave

(We

w

1

look n, ntore detail at teacher-led tasks in Chapter participation

|....lu.,s

class

The

I

I

The

Ofte t^fc

as individuals

by students

and interested hsteners. The next o»e, the Lding, T he sequence is punctuated by teacher-lcd

is

Ano'e,' both

as

of the individual survey, discus^saaad of thereading.

there

iliroiis'li ilu- .sft[iicncc rlicy

will

be attending to

each stage, i'hc sequence also provides a way of repeating those and the language that is used to express them. By the time they the vocabulary

and

2,2 Planning a task sequence important to plan a task sequence. The planning starts with uii'MiKying a topic, in this case drug abuse. The next stage is to decide on a tavsks i.ir^et task or tasb. In most cases, chough not always, these will be )l)viously

(

th^

it is

which closely reflect activities wMeh learners may efigage in the real world. he group discussion and the reading are target tasks. They both reflect l,mg,iiage use in the real world. The teacher then has to decide how to prime I

—how

how to focus learners' how to explain or demonsequence: aiid

to introduce relevant voKtbtilary,

minds on the content of the cask M r;iie what will be expected of them in chc carget rask. In chis case chcrc is also the leed f<5r a preparatory stage at which learners can chink about both topic iind language. So the planning proce».i» thKti^^ei'fe^ins with the target will tiisks, and then involves building in priming and preparation, which we 1

prr/i/tar/m^ x-dHks.

I .ill

wc have calked as chough che sequence is covered in a single lesson. But K may be useful to plan ahead. In the example we have been discussing, for enample, it would be possilsle to go through priming in an earlier lesson and Sn

lar

do the preparation as part of their homework. So in one lesson he ceachcr would introduce the topic and the opinion survey (priming) and iL'arncrs Co

.isk

learners co respond to the opinion survey (preparation) for

homework.

next lesson would then begin with a brief summary from die teacher followed by the class discussion and the reading. I'hc

a purely

discussion bl eflv

results

is

ly

2 2 of

introduction to the sequence senses the purpose of priming learners for

'•I'vuliuilre.sponsetotheopinionstirveyispreparatoiy.ItJIowslearne^^ „. prepare for the next class discussion by thinking about the contenTof the task, ,n this case their opinions on drugs. In doingso they will inevii iblv ' rehearse and prepare some of the language they will use at the next .mgc

m

iiieLinings

I

?.)

leceptlve task.

summatizmg some of the

Icnrners pr()t;ivss

r,

and on meaning at all

cliaracteriscica

a focus

come to the focus on form, learners will have heard grammar associated with the task several times over.

,!',!<

,

A.s

Iiowt-vc

is

ituaiiliig ;u

then.aseriesoftasfa,Oneofthem,theintroduction,isteacherl^

espondurg to the opinion survey is done by learners ta 1 the group discussion, involves

The important thiii).-,,

purposes.

Ic.iincrs

task k the class discussion. This ,s the task that the other activities have been preparmg fo, but it also leads in to the ne=tt mk, the read^ Th aga n .s a task, a mean mg- focused

wtth purpose^ They

sequence of tasks whifli have different

no

is

chsose to do so. By the time learners haye ached a stage at which they are capable of handling a discus^onttthis they may be able to produce modal

WW

u

obliged fuse in

useful

is

li.ivL-

,i,i|',fs.

.r,l.U|..

.|

wc

'I'his

approach has the advancage chat

ir

affords plenty of cinic for prepara-

tion. Learners will have ciine to prepare what they want to say Conscientious learners may well consult a dictionary and a grammar book as part of the

They may even make wricren notes to help them with the Wh;U we have here is a Focus on language in the context meaning, li is not a locus on lorni as delined in chapter (1.2). Here we

preparation. .

oniing

ol

(li.seussioii,

(.

have a focus on

The

i

language in a search for ways to express the right meaning.

learner begins by asking 'Wliai ideas *h)

I

waui

(o cxpre.ss?'

and

ilicn

bcM express those nieaningsi"', belore going on co grammar. I'orms will be identified by the Icarnctp consult the dicitionary or and will be a« niimy or f«w iw die learner fccU nccc««ttry. There i» wo teacher IVtes

on

It)

.say

'How

cun

ttit

I

(

2.3 Building in jhcus on form i-t.i

I

Wis (HI

Akliough we

(oriii a( llic

liLivc ai

end

sequence

ol the

j^ucd the case against focusing

on

specific

forms before

le«e»S engage with a task, there are good arguments for studying specified foriTis at tlie end of a task sequence. There are at least three good reasons for locus

,1

on form

It

READER ACTIVITY 2A

helps learners to

look in detail at some of the forms that have been used. Since this focus on form comes after learners have experienced the langtiage in use, they have

A conversational task '

a context •

Can you

teW

one way of

•

building a task sequence:

asl<,ng t

a ^'

"^^'^ ^ "'^^^^ things they did on their ^" busy day. Therm.»y use dictionaries to help them with thistask.

brr°?K'^^'™.'° (If

to

make sense of the new language.

you plan ahead, the prlmingcan be:don. attheendof one

class,

and the

new

and

We

this usually^

means they

have arguedabove that

IZIT T ^T"''

^'^'P^ °' '^'^^ °'

They should

know why diey have been want to know what they have

it is

unlikely that they can learn to use

form with any consistency over the course of a single lesson. This

no matter what methodology we use. But we still need to show learners what learning opportunities they have been offered in a given lesson. By putting grammar at the end of the cycle Lhere is every chance that we can increase motivation. While learners have been grappling with tasks, they have been working with meanitigs and struggling to find the

applies

language to express those meanings.

^

Once

likely to be learned.

learned.

em to listen to a recording of

someoneTalking abL Ibu y and encouraging them to ^ asl
them

provides motivation. Learners want to

It

studying,

or b

will help

highlights language they are likely to experience in the future.

It

more is

which

language forms have been studied they become salient. That is to say, they are more likely to be noticed in the future. And if they are noticed, they are

Commentary I-

end of the sequence:

make sense of the language they have experienced. First listened to their teacher using particular forms and seen have learners those forms in a reading passage or heard them as part of a listening activity. After this a form-focused stage offers them the opportunity to

•

plan a sequence of tasks around this target

at the

When they come to the form-focused

phase of the lesson they are likely to be receptive to ways of expressing those meanings. The focus on form provides answers to questions about tell

each other

dSrd""'^

the language that they have already b^?m to ask themselves.

look at a task sequence based on an idea from Aurelk Garcia teaching in Santa Rosa, La Pampa, Argentina. The sequence is designed for I1-12 year-

l,et's

4

P/onn/ng

Groups ^^easMtoh^lpthepersoe wtththe most tell the whc^kxlass what they have done.

prepare to

Two or three learners who listen and then vote on who

5 rarget.ns^

omVtn come to

t

P""'"'^

^

interesting storvtn

^

(ilds at

the elementary

level. It

begins with a teacher led discussion about the

on the timetable. 'How many subjects are there?' 'How long do you spend on each subject?' 'Which subjects are the most useful?' 'Which subjects do yoii ihlnk need more time?' 'How many maths lessons would you like?' 'Are ihcrc any mui c subjects you woukl like on the timetable?' And SO on. Learners are then nskcd to work in groups to draw up their ideal timeinblc. I'hcy ciitll wmk in Sp.uiisli if ihey wish, but when they have subjects

are aske^

had the busiest/ hardest day.

^^^"'"g-

^hat by the time learners

f the target tasks they are able to perform effectively.

finished dus

i'h

M.ijv' '^"'H'

English, AIk'i

Bnul timetable

iIipi. In

tlu

it

mm^l

is

m

will lie .iski-d

ImmIk-i h-.u

hi-i

let

prescnl

llicir

linietahlc in

led discus.siiMi in luiglisli until j

TfatmehM-ted dlwuMlon

will alio invite learners to st "^^>"

'iKre are

other,

will Ic

n^

uu,r v„

• I

I

,

""^l'

*

and,:^rjet;r~ -

a„y otl,er subject,

they

I

T'-''

^ ™"

wouidXr^

~

Ik-

-''''-^

tcadie,-

^l^^d

if

tiiiisc

make their presentatlonn

llii'..

Oiiriiij;

in I'.npllsh

the prescntalions,

ilic

and gives them time to pre pure

for

ic.kIkt asks questions to cUcvk

groups intentions: 'So you would )» ii

rhcre only .u

leads

lie !

II

liku ui liavc madis five times a week?' 'Why one history lesson?' and so on. After the presentations the a round-up discussion aJidfE0diiCesa.t^p:,iEHl:eh^

of the dass as a whole.

marizijag the. views

Anirlia was able to round off a sequence hke tliis^witii a real life encounter. Mie persuaded the school co-ordinator to come in to class to hear rhe

and to comment on them and ask a few questions. This gave the 11-12 year-olds a real sense-©£a(dilevemenfe learners' ideas for their ideal timetable

1

acttvattngpreyiousknowledgeinourst'uder't are

propping

fi;-^.cl,,aUy

at,d. litde

by

iittrwhUet

turn to Engiisi,/l„

^"^ ''^^ ^"^^-^"^ °f **f'"''^^"»«"*e

I '^^^IT

^""^

^>"^'^-

hie of the features of this task-sequence, like built-in repetition.

loi (.1

Ar each

many others,

Js

that there

stage rherc will be talk about subjects

inning.

Once

ihere

a need for expressions like

is

a

and

moves on from the real to the ideal tinietabkwe want' and we'd like'. At each stage Km 111 crs may wish to minedie knguage they have been- scposedto inorder to lind kmguage to help them express their own meanings. Rut again this is not h)eus on form. The primary focus is on meaning and learners are free of is

die emphasis

.1

leacher control.

They can make

their

own

ehoices as

tt)

how

they express

themselves.

h=rc a.«roo™

«

'Ik' 1..

b

«'I-KV.

Alter the ideal timetable task situation.

She

belt

v

among Aemrfye. and h

better to take thi,

H,a„ .0 pretend

it

,

w

ind

°f

ar,^'","^f*

th ,

"t

ll

fill

comes a form-focused

out sentence frames Hke

activil^.,.l4^?^ers are

this:

-/level will

f'"'

i:?!™!"^'^

.iskcd to

?PP°" '""'''"S

^'^"'gs are

"

^S;i:^^bSSr-^'^^-^'^^vesthetnata^^

''^^

-^i^

Wc have four I'd

like to

lessons a week, but I think we should only have

have more

...

produced

1

Comments

less ...

1 hey could then be asked to memorize five sentences like this for homework and be ready to repeat them to the class in the next lesson. This has all the

characteristics of a focus

Lessons per Tveefc

and

on form.

in a controlled fashion,

It identifies

and

specific fonns- which are to be

learners' success will

be judged to a

on how accurately they produce these sentences. But, when it the end of the sequence, this focus on form serves the three

large extent

comes

at

Inn cL ions outlined above:

it helps learners to make sense of the language they highlights useful forms for future acquisition; and if p rovides motivation. But, because it comes at the end of the task sequence, it does not detract from a focus on meaning.

have experienced;

it

2.3.2 Exploiting written language

Here level:

""' '-'^^''g'^mws '•noimli rows for fnr f-Niom — _ them to enter -iH^

is

another

setiutiiicc

of

tasks

which could be used

at the

elementary

I

I'hc learners arc

asked to look

.

.

ac this piccuroi

9 Learners arc asked to

the picture. 10 For true

The

homework

The

are

.

work ftom memory

teacher m»k« ilicy arc givflU

.

.

out true sentences about

four sentences to complete, to

keys between the

next to the

... is

lite

ft

to csdl

of their sentences.

make two

lalsc sentences:

and two

There

.

.

.

and the

. .

. .

.

Thi^isa.... on the r^t of the The... are on the left of the...

. .

one true and asked to produce two sentences of their own, lesson and marked one false. This written work is taken in during the next

They are

also

by the teachen orally without looking at In this next lesson learners produce sentences at the picture, try to looking theirwritten work. Their classmates, without

U Figure 2. 1 Objects on a tray

remember

The teacher checks that learners have the z Tin- picture .nake a

'

list

removed and karncrs are asked to work as individt^al. to Enghsh of as nuny things as they can remember.

false

they must be

READER ACTIVITY 2B Tasks and real-world

"

\ZZ^tZ.

^se. If they are

corrected.

necessary vocabulary.

is

,n

if the sentences are true or

activities

1

Do any of the tasks in this 'Objects on a tray' sequence relate to real-world

2

Wliat are the target tasks

3

What is the purpose of stages 1-4?

4

In

activities?

4 The teacher

worlds with the class as a

whole

to build

up a

list

between diem, they can remember all the things n the picture.

to sec if

i

5

The teafef writes up a few sentences on There is an

the board:

pound note is in the middle of the uay There is a glass on the left of the ruler. There are some keys between the coins I'hc ten

wrnc sentences of

P^n,. .vrniciue.s

a

The

and three

W

their

What is

6

How might you follow up this activity?

1

work

of these tasks are real-world activities

things

we

normally do

in

the

m

the pictur^three true

is

sentence and

which

arc false,

corrcci.s .he

sen.enccs

world. But

This contrasts with the 'Ideal timetable'

false.

removed. Learners read out their sentences and the other Students are asked to say from memory if each sentence is true or fidse 1 he teacher gives feedbaclc after each

real

in ail

the sense that they represent

the

way through

learners are

expressingthe concerned with real-world meaningsJn-thlscasetheyare work at stage 7 they will pair In the another. location of objects relative to one responses. another's evaluate one also be involved in real discourse as they

are true or false. are asked to

None

world task involving learners picture

11?

Commentary

and learners

own about

towards accuracy?

the purpose of stages 10 and

5

and the address book.

7 The sentences are rubbed off Ae

sequence?

s^s 5 and 6 learners:are working with written language. How do you think

this will affect their attitude

book is on the left of the coins. The keys are between the coins and rfie banana. There are some bananas at the top on the left. exercise

6 Learners are asked to say whether these sentences

in this

real

2

In

activity,

which

is

very

much a real-

using English to express feelings and opinions of

concern to thom.

i,r,l",inrhosnnseofta5ksrelatinf::tothe A'.w(>lKivr-,r.>n, ili.i.-.ii-M-in;r' m wi .tl' in^ low.irdb the memory game at stages / r(.-,il

world,

Lkil iIk' w«iu«-ii.

r.

A 4 Th. fact that the sentences

in

stage s are written gives the learners an

J|K.rtun,tyformining,t^,ngtofind4ahg„agewNchwll

b

cs.sliillv

I

methods

us^^^^^^^^^^

7 and

8.

Nor will

they be judged at any tag on

w;iy, hill

I

may

learn languages

.nul S]);ul;i C(ininu-ni iliai

.ij'Jiiliinvii

'. .

.

w;tN

ii

uansliuion und audioliagual

produce fluency and accuracy in second language learners which the d.evelopment of more communicative appioaclics to teaching In to

Most teaching programmes have advanced beyond grammar li'aiKsIation and audiolingualism, but very many programmes are stiU based, on the beUef that we should isolate structures and teach each one intensively h^iCe offering learners the opportunity to use it thf

a.^^t.prod.cespeci«cfo^^^

illis

ill

licqiicni liiilurc uf tniJiliuiiiil grainiuai

ilic

Irtl It)

r-,;ot tnsl<s at stages

highly motiviiied rtmi hinhly plfted learners

IV-w

'.111

*e r

lirst place'.

The

'get

it

approach

right in the end'

is

based on the belief that what learners

need most of all are exposure to language and opportunities to use language ineaningfuUy. Given this exposure, learners are highly creative problemi

Once

learner, have

been through asequence

pc.r,once to play sinnilar games

he e obilt" objects and where they are. earners to place objects

w uld'bbe would and also

*

It

in

they can use the

will

thefutur.. TheteaChe^ crald take a tray

°"

'""P^y

learners

Or she could take In an empty

o

mLmbi

In the get

°' ^" objects o '^^y way of revlewinB a ran^e of .JJh ^

th.gr«ma. involved in this task

i

TN

right in the end' position rlie

who hold

this position

emphasis

is

primarily

argue that there

ifbrm-focused instruction and correction. The research

.

.

.

has

is

on

a role for

shown

that

second language learners benefit from form-focused instruction which

'

provided within communicative contexts.

^

2.^ Second language acquisition research and TBT

it

meaning, but those

trar^^dTet Thlscould lead into a dIscuTsbn task n wh h

' 1° a challenging and useful

They will develop a language system which works, even thoU|jh .?h^ make mistakes on the way. Lightbown and Spada say:

solvers. like this

l

ight balance

The

challenge

between meaning-based and form-focused

is

is

to find the

activities.

We are arguing the case for a task-based programme of this kind, one which also allows: for

a&cus on accuracy and a focus on form. But there is anofer

important reason why meaning must come first.

Corder {1973) argues the case for language teaching programmes with 'high surrender value'. This term is taken from the world of life insurance. If you have a

life

insurance policy with a low surrender value you must pay into

for a very long time before early

you

get very

little

it is WQEtil;

retum on you investment. But

with a /'/^/'surrender value, you can cash still

get a

it

very much. If you cash in your policy

it

if

you have a policy

in after arelatively short time

and

good return on your investment.

Until they reach a very advanced stage, learners' language will display deficiencies at every stage

confidence and fluency to

have gained very

little

of their development.

make

from

If they

do not

)x0rt the

the most of their limited language they will

their course of study: their course has a

low

if they are confident enough to make the most of their shortcomings and inaccuracies then they have acquired Ii(e, ilu-y have high surrender value. They will have gained

surrender value. But

language with a valuable

all its

skill (or

a lot (roni ihcir

anything I

like

hey simply

11

ajui'fit*

h.ive A

dcvclopMicnt.

of slULly,

complfftc ftkill

Once

(liry

\\wy

even

i[ it finishes before they have achieved ordu- grammar of the language. Nor do .ipplv. hey also have the h.isis liir language

commnnd 1

bitiii

iiii

mv

I

tlu-

language outside the chussroom they

go on learning. So theyhaveaskill which will grow In value. Ifihis is die t..sfilu.n.)iK„|ilu- most valuable things we can give learners Lstlic abilityto iiKikc the most ohheir language in spite oCiis ticfic ie.u ics. Ami die best way to do this is to give them plenty of opportunities to use will

classroom penalize

m

dieir

an atmosphere which rewards

3

TASKS UASliU

ON WRITTEN iy^^D

language in the

succtsMWmi does

SPOKEN TEXTS

not

inevi^le failings in accuracy.

Further reading

R and N. Spada. zm6. Htm LMnguages are Learned (Third Oxford: Oxford University Press.

l.,ightbowii, I'.ililion).

Chupter 6 contrasts the get get

It

it

Nunan D.

from the beginning' approach and the which are briefly reviewed above.

right

right in the end' approach,

2004. Task-based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press. C

:haprers

sequence.

3

and 8 look at die components of tasiss and at the notion of a task

1

.

Introduction: readingfor a purpose

/

We

may read a newspaper or read for a purpose. interests us and we want to learn more Miiii^azine article because the topic to find out Perhaps we have strong opinions on a subject and want

When we ,,b
read a text

it.

wli.M Others I

we

CM an

think about

we bet'in to speculate develop. In

all

die

our curiosity. "When we on what happens next, and activities

and we

to predict liow the

Mory

we engage withatext tor apurpose, and

means reading for meaning.

applies to listening. Just as

same

eye,

read a story For enjoyment

of these

pin ptiseful reading

Much

Sometimes a headline catches our

article to satisfy

1

will

it.

we

read newspapers and maga-

on radio and iclenews programmes and In everyday lile tutorials. viMon.Inaaaeademksettingweattend lectures or and telling anecdotes. So vv, listen to people recounting their experiences

we

zines, so

discussions

listen to

Miusi ol" the reasons

for reading also

we have

hav«

tfieir

counterparts in

listening activities. In rhff .1

dassroom there

is

a danger that

void, without purpose or challenge.

rea^ng or But

it

is

listening takes place in

possible to design tasks

order to provide provide a context for written or spoken texts in or Hstenlttg in the real he purpose or challenge which is basic to reading activities in themselves and b\' world. These tasks are valuable learning Ustening into a meaningproviding a context they also make the reading or

which

will

I

activity.

ibcused I

n ihis chapter

wriuen

texts,

we will look at a number of ways of designing

become

familiar n. Iciiners.

teachers

who

almost

all

how Many

and go on to see have

.id\

u.sed

tasks

based on

these texts can be recycled so that they

of these techniques

them

will

be familiar to

as the basis for skills lessons.

Indeed

reaching are already of die ULhm.iues involved in task-based

expcrlenml irnehers, li is ilie way Muse lechniqucs^will look -M IVH^j- U. ....Inrdaiuldeploveddi.u m,.L d.r .lil[r,e,u e. lere wc' familiar to mo.'tt

I

build

.1.

I'lnally

livilies,

we

ULiMV

will gt)

uu

nl di.

m

to .tppi)'

ille.idy

humliar, into a

ilnf.fcittW?

i.isk ba.sed liaiutf^tj^'li.^

ic^hniquc'* to Jipokcn lgXCB.

3.2 Discussion tasks

iui

I

In c:ii;ipiL;i (1.3J wc gave an t;xam|jle of a discussion task based on an opinion survey on the suBj^ct'of 'toger^us drugs. TMs was part of a task sequence leading to a reading text. We made the point there that:

o

Lhe headline Ironi

lb

»i

nhut

i

ntwHiapor article abouta man who jumped

off

the Empire State Bulldlngi ont ofthi highest buildings Id New York:

1

we

create tasks to facilitate meaningfiil activities in the daMro©tn. Tasks are not a substitute for interesting topics which engage ...

learners'

interest,

but they can enliance that engagement and interest. all learners a chance to give their views.

And

...

Hello, I've just Jumped off

the Empire State Buildings

How could someone who has just jumped off the I

alive to tell

can.

the tale?

Empire State Building possibly

Work in groups to think of as many explanations as you

You can use simple drawings to help with your explanations.

group WGrk g^ves

So a discussion based on an opinion survey or questionnaire helps to involve learners, to engage their interest and to provide a reason for reading. When introducing any text on a controversial topic, it is worth going through some procedure to get learners to commit themselves to an opinion on the issue. An opinion survey is the obvious way to do this. Alternatively you cotild take i

Uv s:mie

sot

of statements, give two statements to each group and ask the

grtjup to produce one

Statements.

argument

for

and one argument against

e;ich

of their

They could then

read out their arguments and compare dieir ideas with other groups who had considered the same statements,^ This

would promote discussion

in the same way as a survey involve the groups in a short writing activity.

So d iscussion topic.

33

and would

also

a good way of leading into a text dealing with a controversial Other tasks can be designed to lead into texts of other kinds. is

Prediction tasks Figure 3.1 The Empire State -Building

All reading involves predieti'On, but prediction tasks work particularly well with narrative texts. As soon as we see a headline or the tide

begin to anticipate what follows;

we

read

we

of astory

we

begin to ask ourselves questions. As

we

find answers to our questions,

and these answers prompt other

and so on. By setting prediction tasks we help learned by providcontext For reading and by guiding the reading process. Teachers it)uiinely involve learners in some kind of prediction exercise as part of the preparation for reading comprehension. This can be formalized and built questions, ing

;i

into a task

Stage

I:

which is just as important as the reading itself

Priming for prediction

Students work together for a couple of minutes to come up with possible explanations. After working in groups learners are invited to share their ideas with the class. Explanations we have heard include! 'He vr&s wearing a

'He was abseiUng; 'He only jumped from the ground floor'; 'He was bungee-jumping'; 'He had a safety net.' All of these explanations can be expressed very simply by a competent speaker of English, but learners do not have the appropriate vocabulary and have tO' be quite resourceful, saying parachute';

things like: 'He have thing on his back, like rubber, like elastic. He jump like of a bungecthis'. This is accompanied by gestures to indicate ihe effects

Here is a prediction task sequence we have often used. It mirrors the reading proa ss bt L auM-, s socm as you see the story headline, you begin to speculate

jump.

on what could have happened and how it could have happened.

UKTl

;i

They

what

tell

certainly

accompany

vnhiablc exorcise In iii'i

.11

lively lunl

careful not to Ui

i*i 11

a coinuiuiii'

can bcii

nlmosi

will

drawings. This

*

d,

n|M).il«li

lhe

i

.111.1

hfippriii In ili^ o'NI

t

their

explanations with

retching their language resources to

ifihc le.n

,n iiviiy,

l»l*» wliii. Ii

si

iu-r

is

)bviously

cHiilnniitions

is

riu(uirai',iiig anti helpful

al iliis

it

poini you need to be

right or

which one

is

nearest

TIiU wodld n\un\ the prediction task which

Stage

Prediction taak

Here are some words and phrases taken from the artlolt.TH«y appearin the same order here as

in

the

W

alone

safety

kiil

himself— the 86th floor— held on to the

fence— over i.ooo fe^tfeefov\^ narrow ledge-^the offices

tnlcvision

Work in groups to decide what happened. Try to Include information

from

as

which takes place in

the real v^orld outside

^e dassroom. Here, to

prompt the discussion, we have taken a numhcr of phrases, from the text which is to be studied later. With another text it might work better to take the two opening sentences, or perfiaps the opening sentence and the final sriiinur. Anorhcr possibility is simply to take a number of li^ -words from the text. There are no hard and fast rules about what is going to work best. There are, however, a few things worth bearing n mind: the task

lot to rulk

Give plenty of clues, so that learners have a about and also hav^ a good chance of coming up with an is

'doable'.

accepialile solution to the problem. •

rii.

resources to enable

pronoun

prepared to adjust the taskfor asubsequenr class. f you have given too help the first time so that the task is not very challenging you may choose to withhold some of that help the next time round. If you given too little help, you may choose to be more helpful the next time. The first time you work with a particular text, however, it is always wise to give too muEjfeMp rather than too litde. This goes back to making the task doable. Students can get very frustrated if they do nothaveenoiffih to

,uhI ihc

h^

in

Si;ij;e3: A

I

I

il

Preparing for report

his stage

.iiifMiage

i

say five questions that will he answered in the text. If yuii demands oflh.- lask you will probably have to vary ili<- Inc, .

example,

11

you

.isk ilu-ui

uj

lisi

five qucsiiun-s

theheadlinB ftnd the phnuen: 'decided to

kill

you

tni);,lii

,r.

.•,Mii|ih

limigc the well.

For

nlvr ihrni

hiHi»cir:j.MvuiiuiM''. iiiuiow

group

to

work is taking

place at this, stage?

How does itbuild oh what

has gone before?

Commentary 1

he purpose at this stage

try to recall

tjisk in

I

\< •(

Stage

is

preparation. Learners pool their ideas to produce a

of their story.

It will

build on what has gone before

about to

tell

their story to the

but they

will

1

optable and

nflci live

thebcM

for help at this stago

whole

will

class,

want to

they will be

tell it

with

some

also want to present it in the best language they can. Their

focus on accuracy mciiins that they

.ii^iuudbout

that they

and incorporate the phrases which have were used to define the

.iuse learners are

fluency,

in

1.

uncerned with both fluency and accuracy. They

.11

t

tlieir

that story to the

use preparing for a reporting task

Wli.it useful language

(

what is required of learners. Here we have askrd hem to predict the story Instead you might ask them to list a ntmibei ul .|ueMin(i.s,

tell

ADER ACTIVITY

will

also vary

one member o(

class.

You may

few key phrases.

to prepare

ihc story tliey have decided on, so that he or she can

whole

I

you should ask learners

[jolished veratQH

you give learners. In this case we have sugj^ested giving the headline and a few words and phrases. An Atetmthe would be to give the first and last sentences and a few phrases, ox you

notice the collocation 'strong wind',

items will be salient because the learners' attention has already been

workwidi. also vary the clues

may

himself, or they

'kill

iMi|',ht.

I

I

You migin

to

ihe notui modifier in 'safety fence' /fhey will be seeing these items again,

.11

Ik'

niighi simply give a

them

through the phra^es^ the readier -mil be priming learners, introducing will die lopic and preparing them to tackle lexical difficulties which they opportunities for i-iiinunrer in the text. Priming inevitably involves lnii|;uage [earning. Some learners, for example, may take note of the reflexive

I'l

much

•

most important feature of ihe prediction stage is that it involves .iniiig-lbcused language use. Learners will be drawing on all their lan-

Ih

n

i

•

,

IVtIng

possible.

kind of prediction task involves speculative discussion and can be regarded as a taj^et task since it involves the kind of speculation and

Mal« sure

•

lory story or to prepare their questions.

his

discussion

.

l'u,i|'c

Chrisl:mas

I

'

work togedier to put together a satisBut in presenting the task to the l.u l.'.uiu-is ihe teacher will also make use of opportunities for priming and u .u hing. Learners are going to encounter these phrases in the final text; by

of a

station—the strong wind—poured myself a stiff drinka great

many of the clues as

like

article:

New York— decided to

in

'lelevision station'. If

Mil,

I

All

you do thin, ibey will then list questions hy did he want to Idll Jiinudf ?\ Wliich storqr did h« juinp

ilp.e',

l.

11

icy will

vi-iMon.

t

will .il'."

propose phrasings which they believe to be '

nn^t

lir» n-.i' i^'t

.!

i.

i

nnc another and, on occasions,

'mI<

I

l>e

lo ciiMiiniPiit oti «c;t;eiptiiblllty

ready to respond to requests

and to resolve disputes.

Stage

4:

Report

Members from two or three groups listen in

order to compare

identified in

same kind of curiosity as a reads tlic iieadlmc. This and newspaper reader who piclcs up a magaaSiia'e'bP of their guesses, or the means thai iliere Ls a focus on outcome: the checking guesses and satisfy their isfaction of their curiosity. In order to checlc their

.u

Chapter 2

stories.

(2.2),

This rep|f§:itscif':i

because

with language in the real world, in function here in that

it

their story ro the

tell

it

whole

targci

i;i,sk

who

class

of the land

we do But it serves a special

represents the kind of thi ng

this case storytelling.

encourages learners to focus on ktigoage as Well as

curaic. I'hcy will approacli

Story with the

thfl

...n

I,

,

riosi ty

becomes they wili'be reading primarily for ineanii^, S0 tb|e,m#^

task within a task

.1

meaning.

READER ACTIVITY

over Christmas.

Language use

Building.

1

2 3.

In

a target task

What is happening at this stage in terms of language use? What might the teacher ask the class to daasthey are teningto the stories? What might the teacher usefully do to reinforce learning?

He took the I,

)r

He decided to

lift

kill

where he held on

hundreds of cars moving along

Fifth

1

H^ili floor,

The individuals who have been chosen as speaking practice.

storytellers Will

The young man was so

committing

suicide.

fell

towards the

Avenue, overi;ooof66t betow. himself on a

outside the offices of atelevislon state,

l)k>wn him.

New York

to the safety fence

and said a quick prayen then threw himself off

Wl len he woke up half an hour later he found

Commentary

ailalonein

by jumping off the Empire State

hirhself

to the top floor, the 86th,

moment. He

a

work and out of money and

aged 24, was out of

inn Burney,

narrow ledge on the

where the strong wind had

relieved that he decided to give up the idea of

have valuable

They will be trying hard t© remember the

ideas that were

provided at the preparation stage. This is a target tasl< involving storytelling, a

common everyday activity.

1

1(^

knocked on a window of the

was on duty there

at the time.

offices

and crawled

couldn't believe

'I

in

to safety, i^ike Wilson

my eyes', hesald.^'lfs. hot often

the 8sth floor poured myself you see someone comfhg in thrtKighli^s window of stiff drink, and one forjim too/ 1

2

It is

important that learners have

some reason

to

listen to

the different stories.

Forthefirststorythe teacher should say 'Listen carefully to X's story? Is it the same as yours? Does X miss anything important Out?' For subsequent stories the teacher might say something

like

'Now

listen carefully to

Y as

he

tells

the

from X's story in any way? Does it have any more details? Does Y miss anything o ut?' In this way learners are set a listening task to encourage them to process carefully what they hear. Listening to stories Is also story.

a

3

Is it

it

Jim

Burney himself not only survived.

Invitations to

Although the reading As well

The teacher might

retell

the story very quickly reformulating language

(

where

made mistakes. Occasionally she might comment on these reformulations and draw the dasS's attention to them. More positively she

the storyteller

might draw attention to the storyteller's achievements. She might take notes during the telling so she can comment positively on useful words or phrases

which were used appropriately.

as

ulBls the

stage,

if

the task sequence

is

important in

itself it

may

take relatively

little

time.

target language it providing reading practice and exposure to the function of providing a ration^e for all the language

important

reactions to the story.

things? Later they will

become femtlmf

^

before.

You may,

after this reading, ask for learners'

Did they guess everything correctly? Or just some go on to recycle the tasks© that the lexis and grammar even Scetaon 3-8 below) and meanings will become

will look in detail at certain lexical

clearer. Finally

and grammatical

of die text. (See Chapter 6.)

to be spread over two lessons, you could

ask the learners to write up their story for

homework and compare It next

lesson with the real story.

Stage 6: Focus

The

focus

contains a 5:

is

work which has gone

i'cutures

Stage

Christmas dinner!

different

target task.

4 At this

He had a great Christmas— he got a lot of

Kciuling

SludcMl.s ruul ihcMory. Again wt; liavL a uu gci

in

on form

on form comes at the end of number of i-xpirssions of place:

New York

.-(1

1

l,r

i

ini-iir Stfltc

Alien lir pirvn mis .stages

held on 10 ilw

-..(Uiv l-n^

Icarnars should be curious to road the story tPifio^JJjJt; irfliwiljtuciiws are

cars— movinti

uhmg

ia.sk,

»

I'Ifih

the task sequence. This text

Uuilding— to

the top [looi—wlicre he

ill^BW hlmselfoff—towards the hundreds of AvcHum- - over 1,000 feet below— on a narrow

.

ledge on the

Hsili

door-oucsicle the

officei.

of ft CflMlon dtacion—where

•

on a window of the offices— cniwlcd in Lu suicty— on duty there— coining in dirough the window of the 85th floor worth asking leaites to go through and underhne all the phrases to do with place. The phra§a 'took the lift to' is an important one. You could point It is

.

out that 'rook the/a to is a phrase that can be used with any form of public transport, but normally only for shortish journeys. Ask learners how many words or phrases they can fit into ikt frame: .

.

.

.

I

took, the

. . .

From

.

'

...

to

...

The most

interesting grammatical feature in this text is the use of reflexives ime example of the reflexive used for emphasis or identity 'Jim liiinuy hini.sclC. There arc tlirec examples of the reflexive used as direct objca 'to kill himself; 'threw himself off; 'found himself on a narrow ledge' The last of these is one of the most frequent of all reflexive phrases. Finally I'hciv

is

:

there

IS

helps

li

the stronf. vviiul h.ul hl„wn liim- knodu-d

1:0

really tal«: notice

Sl;igc7:

I

would then n

.

|,Mi(|ue will

Willi a

n(

be familiar to

many

teachers as

away

of providing learners

odier ways purpose for communicating. Let us go on to look at some

providing a jigsaw.

Siii];c

Splii

discussion?

Is there too much use of their modiei' tongue? Is ihe sLoryielling generally successful? You will be looldng for answers to these

and other questions. They will help you to decide if the task is worth doing again and, il so, how it might be adapted^to meet the needs of a similar tkss more precisely in the future..

1:

Pre-task

Wru- are four possible ways of setting up a jigsaw

How

with a discussion different paragraphs and asked to icKt. Different groups could be given before being given the whole against, reconstruct dae arguments for and igsaw the text. This

I

\

Did they

feci

the language was

You could give them a few of these questions to help with discussion and e\!^m^0n.llmMnd0f dassmluation and iil^

their

group

discussion serves

at least three functions:

involvL^s

meaning-focused language

discussK.n which

ha.s

a real

outcome

is

use.

Engaging learners in genuine

the best kind of language practice

they can possibly gel. • Like your critical observation,

it

will

help to jidjust the task for future use.

for example,

Andrew Wright has demonstrated an intriguing vray of up the gsawing a text. Type it on one side of a sheet of paper, then screw not are paper into a ball and give one ball to each pair or group. They can read some allowed to unfold the paper, but can roll it around. They

Crumpled

paper.

i

i

good idea to check learners' reactions at th? eftd of the process. You could ask them to talk about the experience in groups and jot

wiih vocabulary before the reading stage?

would work very well,

text.

a

down their tcehngs. Did they find the prediction task too difficult or too easy? Would ihey have hkcd more help? Did rheylike the story? Didthey need more help

task:

information, as described above.

1

Il

one in which one

have just looked at ail the information together. In the prediction task we in the form of a set of clues to ihr learners were given the same information of die informadon to some some the Moiy. It would be possible to give other groups. They ^-roups of learners and quite different informatbn to bis need to pool their information to predict the story.

Hvaluation

nif;aj',c in ival

•

is

pill

course you will be monitoring learners' reactions at each stage of the process oudined above. long does the prediction task take.? Do they

usef

task,

individual or group ludivi.liiai or grotip has some information and another they have to outcome luNquiiedillerent information. In order to achieve an

Of

>

of cheir reactions.

A ligsaw task, sometimes caileia split-information

J,

als.

you involve them in i^^m^fnafcing and

J,4 Jigsaw task m^Mmces

I

's

if

a reflexive used as indirect object:

'I poured myself a stiffdrink'. You could ask learners to pick out the phrases with '...self and use these to introduce some work in their grammar books on reflexives. They could then go on CO look for reflejdves in other texts that they have studied.

1

motivate learners

woi-ds,

some phrases and some whole

Tliey then exchange ambassadors, d iscovered, and bit by bit the class v|

ligsaw note-taking. Joann

sentences, but not the whole text.

who

tM

tell

other groups what they have

meQ«:.ttot the whole

Chernen working

in

text.

Vancouver Community

course with trainee College offers another kind of jigsaw. On an EAP them all to bakers she labels learners as As, Bs, Cs, and Ds. She then asb text. For of die aspects different on same text but to udce notes read the

responsible for example, in a text on making chou paste, the As are the ingredients; products and reporting on die main poims ofchou paste niixnig responsible for leporling on the main poims ol ihe of the points main on the reporting for procedures; the: Cs urc rcspfmsible die main 011 repornni', Ibr aiv responsible piping pmccdurcit; mid ihc logcthsjr come points of the bukliig luul ImndlinH ptutcdutcs. They then IVs

are

I

a

C

groups, each one with an A, a B, a unci u U, iind hrrwcen them construct a summary of the text. So all the leameM Wfttl n( [lu-icxr, but ihcy cotKcntnm- on tlirH-rciu aspects of tht tdJCB^ and then bring their OS

dif'T't-TLMll

Stage III

involve the role of 'ambassador': a

At Stage

to other groups, II

The group work

sLagc the groups prepare their stories.

i!ii,s

umber,

3

here will

member of the group whose role is

A

each

group

ambassador, to one of the

as

B

answer them. In

is

to talk

going to send o£ie of

groups to compare

stories

ndvanee of the

with

.juesiioncrs.

U Kt

I

for

on They will work as individuals to prepare a set of questions as decide can they dass in together homework. When they come

group on their

I

24—

all

help you predict the story;

alone in

up

1.1

n;

idea

Wl icii yoii

—-poured myself a

stiff

—decided

a television station

B:

have prepared your story help your ambassador to prepare what he

Here are afeW clues to

decided to

kill

help

—the top

himself

working hardon the

groups prepare answers. Dxxvmg the reading lesson the mt. to th referring questions will be expected to do so without .nul to

Stage

tell Group B. Ambassadors may write down work with Group B.

ten

words

to help

of lour of questions. Mesmti^iile the other groups asked will be text to try to predict the questions that

final list

who

answer

to give

drink

yoing to

Group

arc

New York over Christmas—jumping off the

—the 85th floor—

mpircSiinc; Building

and

cases the reading lesson consists of a

m

,

Jim Burney, aged

for teachers to ask questions

to prepare questions for A vcTV productive alternative is to ask students identiiyiug or handing out the text iheiuselves. This can be done by students to act as lesson and asking one group of about four

i^ieir

thcni.

Group A: Hera are afew clues to

many

is

texts and the coursebook or iru iurI a set of questions. The students read the assess their comprehension. ihe teacher then asks the questions to

Putting the stpa^together

2:

uoi iual piocedLUC in the classroom

The

For students to

pLTSfK-ClivcS lOgCthcr.

'

X'i Student as question master

is

It

Select a text

would be quite

li

probably better to use a text which

them

one used above, but it is rich in information, such as the

possible to use a story, like the is

following:

you predict the Story:

floor,

—over

the 86th

narrow ledge— Mike Wilson was on duty

at the

Helping people Click

—

1,000 feet below

time—had

a great Christmas.

When you have prepared yourstory help your ambassadorto prepare what he is

the stigm;i ofonlinc dating fading, the internet is last becoming the choice

Will: liir

young

writes

professionals

Emily

town and are now living 'happily ever ^er' London. Ed and Mai^am's story may be extreme, hey met is becommg but the way increasingly common. While dating agencies

in

1

Oiibberley.

Group A. Ambassadors may writedown ten words to help them work with Group A. j'/'inj: If)

mil

Miles married known each had M.aiyaEQ Hussein. Tbey than othei* fbr tiiree years and Spent tntare In

March

yo;ir,

hist

lid

.000 hours talking but they'd only spent 12 iliiys together, face to face. IRC Ikl iuid Maryam met online, via 1

In this

example

it is

suggested that ambassadors should be allowed to write

down up to ten words. You should choose an appropriate number of words which will enable the ambassadors to do their job, but will not alidw ^eitl to write

down the whole story.

Stage This

is

3:

similar to the Preparation in stage 3 of the prediction task above.

from each

A group goes

to

work with a B

An

group, and vice versa.

'hey exchange stories without referring to any written instructions. Ambassadors then return to their own groups and the groups pui together I

their final version

The

of the

story.

stages thcti follow the

report— retiding

—

Within a few

days of meeting they were chatting for four hours each day, but seeing each other posed a

problem: Maryam lived in the United Amb Emirates and Ed lived in London.

Preparation

.inibiissador

linlcrnet relay chat) dating.

This can be done orally or

same sequence

focus on form

—

Allcr niliny

in

counllcsH viMi iipplicalions

and formH. they married

in

Miirydm's

people's

chiinged

has

According

to

Matchcom,

perceptions.

the world's biggest

more dating site, 81% of users are now comfortable admitting they use a dating And service than they were t year ago. Datingdirccl.com found that 68% of people think online dating

is

better than

its

offline

equivalent.

People like 30-year-old Simon Newman. has been using dating sites for six months support this. 'I'd never join an agency or place a personal ad, but using a

•^Q

website seems less desperate.

It's just

a bit of

fun.'

Guardian online 22, 1 .04

home

in writing.

as in the [)rcdictl(:in

evaluaiion.

Over the next three years, the couple spent most evenings in front of their webcams, visited fhiiitiiig over Inslanl Messenger. Ed Maryam aTul. in I'ehruiiry 2002. lie proposed.

used to have a stigm;i attached, the internet

mk

above:

hnrochK-clbL'i.ipu in

r.nloiv

llic

iwu

.I,uiii,i .i|V in i.-. in

<

ln.ss.

You

will

\v\vs>M\\ Mu'.iiiin|-,s nl \liik': out-

nlmosi u-riainly want

i.s

wli.u ycMi

dc with

a

people realize they arc going to get on very well mucilicr, (iHii.inu'iiiuI

jiisi

clicked straight away".

lor lionifwork. A.sk

group .slu)Lild,

ilwn

about the

text.

us

one group

Then ;isk nilicudents

ro :icr

;i.s

'Wc

us in i»>

'ipicsiinii imiMi'i'.

hil-i ai

prrpuiv

ilii-

Mcmlicr.s of

hoincwoik, prepare a number otqucstionii they can ask ote i^aups'^laf atpected to

I^^^W^

Explain to ih&

answer detailed questions oti the text but without the text in ftont of them.

terms of focus on

III

uses. llu-

starts

die

with the marriajv of

second sentence

I

line

back

sliitts

takeg'^#®

lul aiiJ

Mary am

time before their

to a

ittie tkey Stst met.

of tense

Then second The marriage.

March

in

last year.

The tod paragraph

is

about

meeting and their marriage. Paragraphs four and five about how dating services are used now. Given [he present time of of the time perspective it is not surprising that thereare a lot

between

.iboui

this text pn.viJes insights into a range

fmm,

their

—

ihis shii tmg

In class allow the questiort'imistef group time to (]iicMi
pi

Ii

an agraph ,ii(

Stage 2

tihi*^<>^

Slagc4

Meanwhile

a,sk

dedde on ten

the other groups to anticipate questions

final

and be

eparcd to answer them.

'spent more iilmeexpressionsinthetext: 'inMarchlastyear', 'for threeyears', together\ and so on. Nor is it ih.ui i,ooo hours talking, 'spent T2 days

hurprislng that

an almost bewildering range of tense forms

is

used.

Three

(orin-focused activities suggest themselves:

Stage 3 question-master group: then take turns to read our their questions and the other learners, working as individuals, write down the answers. They then compare answers and decide on a final

hke

list.

If you adopt

• »

it

ensures that

Irai'uers to recall the tenses

'o

i

n

s

I

ea n he allotted to

used and

in the blanks.

fill

all

answers from each small group I

I

some procedure

members of the group answer the questions in
I'iek out all the expressions of time. Pickoutalltheinstancesofthe-ingfbrmandclassifythekuses. markers and asking Vraf the text as a cloz.e passage, removing all the tense

•

The

in turn,

with the ^asdier acting

'his

I

could lead into a review of a number of tense

uses.

General knowledge tasks

as referee.

way of can >romoting discussion. You cm use this as tiie basis for a task cycle if you is to begm appropriate texts, like the one below on whales. One way

Iraehers are used to engaging learners'

each group for a correct answer and entered in a grid

like this t)ne. I

knowledge of the world

as a

(ind

Question Group

A

B "

1

-

C

D

E

answers. This wiih a short quiz. Students answer the quiz, and discuss their turn to the text to students discussion before L an generate a good deal of class groups to ask confirmwhethertheywcre ri^orwiong. Another way is to wiik> seven facts about whales they are sure

of Both these

tasks can generate

actually read the text to f>ood deal of class discussion before students could then classify the I'hey t.onfum whether they were right or wrong. .1

2 3

habits, life cycle, points into categories like physical characteristics, food,

other.

4 5

lere are

I

based on a text 6

which might be set for high school class about whales, downloaded from the web (www. enchanted

some questions

for a quiz

learning.com/subjects/whales/).

7

Read these sentences about whales and say

if

they are true or false.

8 9

1

The

blue wh.ilc

2 Fish breathes by

10

lli«'

l.iiyrM .minial in the world,

whales breathe

dlnoinurii t lm blun whale 1 Apart from

existed

Pigureja Answergtid

i'.

lllUn inj; w.il.nr, l)ui

4

Wh.ll'-*.

c

yyhiill«i'

on

air

through their blowholes.

the biggest creature that has ever

liinrtii.

.11-' 111''

I

is

'

tlielr

'Mlf in«)nitii»k )hi*l.

i*tvv h.iH.

|||||||uy|to||ugM|»^^^^^^^^ iiiiiii

life In

water, .....u-

,

I

wliolu

J,,

6 AbluowluiluLaiiiiruwLo., k^UHLhof 7

It

eats

about4 tons of

8 Like fish whales are 9

sinnllpst

10 Wliales is

Whales aquatic

iM Ai

silent creatures.

1 1

Tho

Here

aimo«6omotr«i

every day.

fish

iJi

whnlcs arc

loss

odLicG milk to feed tUe\rf0Ur)^_

large, magnificent, intelligent,

mammals. They breathe

air

I (

How do you thinktbese would affect language use?

I

Commentary lungs,

• whales have

hair (although they havea thaw land mammals, and have

lot less

through the x^ter. They are the only mammals, other than manatees (seacows),

I

cliissgo

almost none as adults),

ijijit

I

they nourish their young,

grows

is

the blue whale, which

m be about 94 feet (29 m) long - the

height of a g-storey building.

Whales breathe

mammals

that

enormous air.

They are not

spend

fish.

They are

their entire lives in the

water.

krill

each

itisonsus

(

'

I

li

J

1

that

about4 tons of tiny obtained byfilter feeding

The smallest whale

is

the

dwarf sperm whale

which as an adult is on/yfl.^

m)

got

wrong and to explain why.

Rr(allyyay.ean g6tthe

go on to check their answers against the

kiarners

u( ;/false

text.

questions are probably the easiest to prepare, but multiple choice

On the subject of whales you

like:

animals eat

ciay,

Whales

•

through baleen. Adult blue whales have no predators except man.

(2.6

1

)

might ask questions are:

A

fish.

n

reptiles,

t. mammals. Whales have:

A

a lot of hair

B

a

c

no

little hair,

hair.

A large blue whale will

•

mammals

how many they have

view of the class as a whole and write this on the board. Only then

questions are better for promoting discussion.

These

•

Cetaceans are the group of

class to say

or wrong on the basis of their general knowledge. As teacher you should

suggest whlchansweft are

Size biggest whale

ask groups or individuals to read

bu careful not to give away the correct answers. The class can then go on to

• Whales have a four-chambered heart.

The

deal of discussion teSfeMthe

ortWo others. You can then

out their answers and ask the restof tfce

• whales have mammary glands with which

good

on to read the text. You can begin by asking learners to compare their

.inswers vsfltirone

a high body temperature),

life

true/false questions can generate a

1 III'

1

• whales are warm-blooded (they maintain

'

the water, and

the only mammals that have adapted to In the open oceans.

mammals;

• whales breatheairinto

easily

in

generate discussion

low might you use the true/false questions to generate class discussion? What other types of question might you use apartfrom'true/false?

I

Like all

through

blowhole{s) intoJungsfurtilke flsh who breathe using gills). Whales have sleek, streamlined bodies that move

thai live their entire lives

3c

Y

than.t®q;%m.[ij^

the text which gives you the answers to the questions: ,-irc

i

ijM|iiestions to

II

.

AC ivn

n

II

be:

A

about a hundred feet

B

about fifty feet

c

more than a hundred and fifty feet long.

long.

long.

long.

The ^)lue whale

is

the largest animal that has

ever existed on Earth.

It is largerthan any of the dinosaurs were. They are also the

etc.

Alternatively

you might use open-ended quiesllQRS

like:

leydesLaoimals on Earth.

How do whales brnathe? I

low do

WliaLdo

i:\\cy fi-rd

thwir

young?

dieytiJitf

etc.

Open-eindflcl

or multiple

i

<:|i

lontlnriH

In 'k

n

i

Iwflrly

i|M(>iiiii.ii'»

I

1

lu

|i

Urn

more extended answers than true/false work In group* to produce written

tMr itor* cwn

^ n

.

,1

wlu

your toxK carefully, cIc-pcullnR example may no, be suiMr (o,

,„ ,..|,v,

,

n

0.

lor

.,

Lc

,.n y.,ur ,

|,,.,„

rmng (www.enchantedlearmg^offl/Home)-has

The

«u
„, ,,|,|,,, i„„

text

„„,|j

The biggest house

number of

acttvmes on each topic. w,th worbheets and qwzes already prepared.

has (b)

other file

mnsf

T'he

and

is

simply a

label for a text

which has b«a.cfaaaged in

pxpe/i.sivc It was

housv

ti\

learners asfad to fiH the gaps. Alternatively the order of sentences juices or

a challenging problem-solving activity based by om.tting factual information from the and askin. li.e learners to complete the text. This works particularly well with a text which IS rich numerical information. The examples below "^ve been used « have oeen successfiillywith low-level elementary learners. text

Lt

(li'M.s

is

the Hearst Ranch at San Simeon,

owner in (d)— (e)

at a cost of

,uul

Si

It is

ten feet It

North Wales

a cottage In

is

((i)

built in

cms) high and measures only

has a tiny staircase and

the

six feet

two tiny rooms.

D.Willis

.i}.',c3:

A'.ls

Planning and report solution with a group. Finally ask

ii-arners to share their

members from

i»ne or two groups to read out their answers to the class. See

Pre-task going

US$

adapted from The Guinness Book ofRecords for 1986 for use in J. Willis

m

Tell learner they are

US$(a)..

30 million; 4.1 million; 48,100; 1922; 309; 250; 182; 100; 39; 25;

Vou can provide learners with

i:

Noi?#«iN3lte-"

Hnre are the numbers, you need:

3.7.1 Factual gap filling

Stage

worid

smailestliouse tn Creat Britofh

((l)xms) across the front.

wntt™

tht^

the newspaper

built for

nin(-tGGnth century

Sortie

paragraphs JBay be changed.

™

In Ashvllle,

(f).'k has over ^g) rooms and a garage for (h) cars.

3.7 Corrupted text text'

Blltmor* House

s1;\ikK in .m (•.mic of (c) hectares.

rooms and

California.

'Corrupral

Is

USA, belonging to the Vanderblltfamily, liwas builtimSgoatacoslof IL

a

the

In

.l^',lee.

to read

about the biggest and the most expensive e,s m the worid, and also about the smallest house ,n Great Britain bxplain to them a bit about the houses and ask them to

As

teacher,

it

which answers arc ,iiid

may

hoW

far

they

them

be a good tactic to hold back from holding back engenders discussion telling

correci. at this point, as

creates a further learning opportunity for the next stage.

guess:

The

mo,st expensive

you think It

house

in the

The

biggest house in the world rooms do you think it has?

The

world was built in 1890.

cost to build? is

in

North Carolina. USA.

smallest house in Great Britain

i,s

a cottage in

many rooms do you think it has? Mow big do you Write

down their guesses

St age z:

to see later

How much "cii uo do

who

is

Stage 4: ChecMiigtkesalutiQn

How many'

There are a number of ways of giving the solution. You could simply iiMMounce the answers as they are shown below. This would give learners could |)i.Kiicc in listening to numerical expressions. As an alternative you

How

way of read out the full texts including the numbers. This would be a useful Finally numbers. practice in let yding the text for listening as well as giving

North Wales

you could use an

think they are?

closest to the correct figure.

.ilViin

to check theitanswetiS;

The answers

Reading task

OHT to give the answer, requirmg learners to lead the text

are: (a) 4.1 million; (b) 250; (c)

million; (g) 100; (h) 25;

(i)

309;

(j)

48,looj

:(45 '^9^^^ ¥)'39'> (f)

3°

182.

Give learners the gapped text and ask them to work first as indiyiduals:

Three houses

' ''i

—

3.7.2 Linguisiic gap lilling oiien

Texis R-.Kf .bout the biggest

house in the wo.Hd. the. most. ^en^ve house in the world .md the smallest house in Great Britain. AH the numbers have been left out but they are given below. Can you put them back to complete the text?

toiiiain

iiiFormiiiion

which

story,

argument or description. This

Siau-

IViildiii]?,

supplementary below.

Irxl

in

.Scdion

S-^

inlbl'llUllliHi iiiul ,i:.k

is

is

supplementary to the main

ivnainly ihe case with the

mul

s.l

;il>nvc.

llic leariieis

I'.nipiiv

Yon can cut out the

U) ivplace

ii.

as

we show

Siagc

A member of one group ivxdH out their version of the story, while the other I'.KMips listen and compare. Attcrniuivfly the readier may read (uii ilir snny nr play a recording of it, while the groups listen and check their versions.

Stage a: Reading task Here

Report: checking NolutioiiK

3:

the story. Nine phrases and sentenced ha^eTeen in the text to show where thev hlTh phrases and sentences ^ ! are ii«^H hlT

Stage 4: FoUow-up: meifto3h}rchalletxge

is

brackets, e.g.

"""'^ *^

right place?

left

oZ,Th ^'^^''^ ^'^'^

P« them back in ft*

ihoy can

.ii.iv

recall

rm. Ii.iuge stories

Tliis

Hello, I've Just Jumped off the

are ajSked to worlc together

I'.iii s

removed. The nine

Empire State Building

is

without the text to see

how much

of the

memory. They can then compare versions and check the facts.

or write from

re-tell

with another pair to

a useful consohdation task.

Re-ordering

7.3

i

and

corrupted text exercise, in which sentences and phrases lint make up the text have been re-ordered. The leari^cs' Caski&tO l^©re'the nriginal text. This is a very common textbook activii^,,.butitis^als&'One that U

I

re

a different

is

I

moving along

Fifth

Avenue

In Appendix 1.2 based on a text Craig Johnston by ynM will find a sample mixed ability class iilled Profit motive and the media which is suitable for a III .itliilis. Our i^aniple task here is more suitable for children. The rext is the liMrners could be asked to prepare for other groups to do^

""^^

'^^"'''^^^

°f

'text puzzle' lesson

(j).

I

up the idea of co.n,itSIuicide

'

" ^*° -«-^

decided to give

ofa story called 'Franky helps Monty'. The story was written in boy in the Uiutad States called Eric Rt)SS: Wdnhetg/We^fbimd it on

liiM pait

hm by a

thewebathttp://home.eardilink.net/''jjweinb/eric/fi:ankyf.html.

s^^nginftro^hthewindJlIf^^S^^

Stiige I

monster called Monty, Yon can encouragethem to say if they know anyone

h u. roduce the story Explain that the stdrjr is about a Jim Burneyhimsernotonly survived. a half an

He had a g^at Christmas.

hour later

(„)

is

afraid ofrhe d.uk. afraid

is

.

binNewYorkoverChristmas c

who who

h

the 86th

d of the offices

^L'™'

lliemselves.

°"*«%*floor

<; rcature

if

they have ever been afraid of the tlark

What did they do about it? The

How

Monty'.

of the dark or

do

tk^

title

of the story

is

think Branky ni%ht help Mcsnty?

'Franky helps

What

sort

of

do they think Franky might be?

I

e

where the strong had bteWn him

f

'°-fpeopleinv,tedhimtoC:nwineT

i ovt°r'°f^''"';°r

Si age C^iive

2

the leafnets the jtimbled story.

Ask them

first

to

work

as individuals,

and later ask them to compare their solution with others in a group. You may -etl ro give them some help with some of the words, or allow them to use 1

generate discussiont

^ol

h"^™""'^"^ ™

task than the previous prediction a reading activity whi5.

^mt^h """^

mirrrr:d

activity here

is

filling activity.

much more

^^^^ '-g-e-focu.,ed

t r/r^^^ frH T '''r

artifiri.,1

"^^.^^^^

T.

;

'^^'^ 'i^c, lift

the

1

1

t-lituonaries.

Wii

.ira

going to look

Weinberg. The

readmg

Monty was

'^""P^^^ « preparation for the gapI

li-n

-

an

-

1

a

ni a

Moi y rallGd 'Franky helps Monty' by

fiiM .(micim " ol iliu story

bi),;

be ncMi

Eric

Ross

is:

iiioM'.h't

witn

wntilnin.wi)

(

.itii

yuu put them together to make thu

lirit

Nu„i y

.

w,r,

fnr his ,yy. ,,„d should

I

hav*

D Hew,i:, .iliauJof thedark. c

d

He was yellow with

big spots,

tach

ciosed

night,

when he

and he had

Icrc

I

•^omo berries.

you guess

what chey were? big

orange ears and a v.ry big green

cave with the giant boulder, Itgot very dark

One evening when he just coufdh't sleep,

die second paragfiipiv with the Imi six words omitted; can

is

One his

e But Monty had a probiem. f

bMH ibltMeirt inyone.

when

evening,

some

gel

lie

just couldn't sleep,

herries. Wllilc

he decided

to

nniieed something shining in the blackberry patch.

^

he decided to go for a walk and get

1

1

1

nking that

i

might be a flashlight with

it

go for a walk and

picking his favorite berry, the hlackheiTy, he

He

hid

down low

a person behind it. But the light

it blinked on and off This was interesfilB^v "Wte was He reju^hed mt with his claw and caught the shiniiig CteSW^,*

was v^ttysnaaEj ^and '^'"^ °^

°^ *^

""'"'"^ '° ^

it?

of'the night'"

'Well hello there.

The little light answered in a small, soft voice, 1 am just a firefly. I didn't mean to disturb you. My name is Franky.'

Stages Ask

ilu.

learners to read

out what they have written. If there are any

"

virrpReada"" out the paragraph or put version.

Monty wa.s-

a big monster.

'° 'l^^ide

'^"^

He

it

up on an

dis-

tt

got very dark.

1

le

used to

lie

l,e

with the giant awake, afraid of the dark, listening

learners to check their answers as they listen or read could ask them to put thcit answers away as they listen to or read the an rect version. 1 hey then go back to Aeir answers and make any "wngcs chanl they want to make.,

to

'In fact, I

would

like to

...

you

them to continue the story and write a suitable ending, thus lending into a new task cycle, where they end up writing or telling their ^nding CO the class and discussing or voting on the best endings. By the way,

(

OLild ask

I

le

I

original version of the

home', but your learners

You might .simply ask (

you

)ncc learners in pairs have thought of a possible group of six words,

(

spots, :,nd

of the strange sounds of the night. One evening, when he just couldn t sleep, he decided to go for a walk and get some berries. to a iQ

you are not disturbing me,' replied Monty.

invite

had bie orange ears and a very, big, green nose. Monty was big for his age, and should havebeen able to scare anyone. But, Monty had a problem. He was ..'.-c of the dark. Each night, when he closed his cje boulder,

(

on the be«

OHT:

was yellow with blue

Who are you? My name is Monty, and I am a monster.'

i.

.

H Ways

second paragraph ended with live with

me

in

my

may have had even better ideas.

to recycle texts

yoti

it is

a valuable learning resource. It

which will be useful to the leamcts in a number of valuable words and phrases which they will be able to use in ways. There are range of contexts. There are good examples of the use of tenses, modal verbs, prepositions, and other grammatical items. These examples can be recalled in grammar lessons so that you can draw on a familiar contexi to ilhistrare the grammar, as we will show in Chapter 6. It is, therefore, usciul lo ccyclc texts to help learners become familiar with the wordings of the texts studied for comprehension. This makes it more likely that learners will acquire for productive use the useful language they have met in the text.

contains language items

11

Stage 4 IF the rcsr

)ncc a text has been studied in detail

i

of

story

is

on the web, there are a number -of things you might

you might work through the story with a series of '>-lHn.,u.s. You might start by askiligthed^^^ -Ivc Ins problem. For the second part, for

cama-.s wi,at happens

and suggest

that those

eadtl es

tasks using different

example, you can simply te^ can read should find and

who

otyontheweb.Alternatiyelyyoucoulduseavahetyoftechmques work through the other paragraphs. For ^miph you might give them a MUMihcr of- words and phrases and ask them to predict the second paragraph B P Again you might have to give some help ^ with words.

i

Tlierc are a

Memory

number of

challenge' ihai

possible

ways of recycling

we suggested

texts in addition to the

in 3.7.1.

to

^"MuMhingshini^gi,,,lu.^I,,^h,^.ypa,;ch-^hiddownl^w.. |H'r,son

very small.,

moiuccr-a

on and

off-

caughi

ly-Prunky^jive with

,1k-

shining.

inc-~xyjjj,,|iystlri^,

Alier

.1

(CM

(kshli^ht™ a

licrn pio*

h.i.s

used u> recycle

nmurc.-J[un

firef

Corniptt'tl icxi

3.8.1

ii.

Von

Ix'cn studied or yctu

lime

1,11(1,

you

(-..'.ed

mii|pJii

1

lor inclining, c(trriipled text exercises

liou.se (o

\my hoimp

iii(|flH

i;

link

lo

Ini'iu'in

do

do It

ihis

some time

h) rtml

can be

innnediately alter the text has later. If

you do u some

through the relevant text for

The

online

text oil

(illing task for

ciiitinj; (i-s).

lor

good gup-

Stage 4

a &)rm-focused stage. H^pritor

As soon

example, would nUu mala'

consolidation pui poSes

afe

.1

'1000 needed. There are ten phrases with numbers in the text: ten tlays', 'Four hours each day 2.nd so on. You simply write all

prt'piiriuion

hiiurs\ 'li

is

on the board from the lowest number to the luunlier phrases from sequence. thdtelaiSSGari M^f^u order them by calling them out in jrhest number the minus 'hen they turn their texts over. Read the text out loud the text

li

lie

I

on

they hate completed the text they must take it to have taken and writes it teacher The teacher takes a note of the time they marks them and adds teacher the papers are in the

tlieir

iliiriy

as a gr..M[) believes

paper.

When all

seconds for each mistake. She then annaunc^s the results.

—

i

'I

-saying 'beep instead of the phrase. Pause while learners write the dt)WM ilic luissing phrase. Learners can see \vhether theif answers are text, to original the re-reading check by same as their partners. Finally, they lihrases

sec if they

now have the phrases where they occur in the original text.

Variation

With full

i

a short text like the

Empire

graphs.

Variation z Instead of giving learners

to take

them

in

any

The idea then is to get as many one wrong. After learners have processed a number of texts before getting you aii hiivc a Grand Quiz and ask them to re-read a number of texts for to H nework. You can then set a quiz based on these texts, or ask the learners

order they

questions as possible right,

like.

possible to use the

tedious.

be You can use quiz questions to check learners' recall. Questions may the through going of Instead open-ended. inic/ralse, multiple choice, or

from i-io or whatever, you can allow learners

it is

danger that the activity becomes text. With a longer text there is a section, perhaps a couple of paraIt might be better to tala only a

3.8.2 Quizzes

tiuestions

State Building text

a bkik paper at stage 2 you can make the task gapped version of the text. With a easier by providing them with a heavily to work on the napped text you might give the groups some time the fuU version posted reconstruction iiom memory before letting them read on the wall.

l

I

1

1

quiz for each other.

sei a

also a well-estabUshed activity used, for

is

Rinvolucri (1988) and sometimes referred to as

Stage Type

Communal memory tasks. All

(doLip Jictation Tiiis

3.8.4

example, by Davis and

'running dictation*.

I

reconstruction This works on the same principles as dictogloss text but not all learners will learners will have had access to the same afrer a pre-task stage remember the same things about it. With dictogloss, the text once only at out reads where ihe text topic is introduced, the teacher much as they can to normal speed, without pausing, and students write as to reconstruct it as near to the jog their memories. They then work together original as

the text in large, clear, well-spaced type

and prepare

five

or six copies.

Put these copies on the walls of the classroom distributed roxindas evenly as face-down round c )r iliey could be on pasted on to card and placed |), the edges or

down the centre of the room. '

Stage 2 Divide the

class into grpiip«,

Fronde each group with a blank sheet of paper.

^ey can.

With communal memory tasks, you can an

earlier task.

Begin by

)Li

i

1 1

I

hat each gr(.)up

is

going to write

down the teJct.'The members ofthe

I

j^roup will take

it

in turns to

go to one of the copies of the

text

pinned on the

as they can. They will then come back to have read and remembered. As SOOn as this ihe group and tliciaic what ihey goes to read the text. 'Hu: nim is to Is finislicd the next member of the group

Willi

and

II

y lo ri'iiienibcr as

much

reproduce the original text word for word.

work as

individuals to put down

m

but without looking

much as they can remember about the Then ask them to work in pairs to pool at the actual text or their notes on it. work with the class as a whole their ideas. Move from pairs ro fours. Finally between theffl. You might stiU be able to to see how much they can recall text,

note form as

ask questions based on these gaps. identify gaps in their recall. You can to check their own copies. Finally you can read out the text or ask learners

.S(:ij;<.'3

1 '.js

use a text they have already read for

asking learners to

If

you

try these tasks

out in

class,

you

will

probably find,

as

we

did, that

group interaction, the learners

during the reeonsi ninion stages, in pair and discussion of lexical move from disuissing lacts and content vocabulary, to resolve language other each helping and grammuticvil puiiTniliiRN and 2002..) problems. (l-'c»r moi'K diNt iWNion on this, sec Storch

Summaries

3.8.5

Ask

working

learners

ii'tics. ilu'M

numlicr

ol

pill

(lif

in pairs to re-risad^^'ifc

k'xr ;iway

woals. You

'Helping people

Ed

involves

and summarize

44 words

Mariam Hussein

Miles and

internet. After three years

it

(rnin

memory

using a stt

example, ask them to sumnimisc che text

miglii:, for

click' in exactly

and take up to ton words of

to

produce something

know

got to

like:

finally^

and becoming

met.

Mariam arc now happily married. Internet dating like this more and more common and more and more acceptable.

whereas writing

is

pmauccd by one

normally

participant

is

what

others

have written.

number of words presents learners with To reach the precise number of wards, they need to

Setting an exact challenge.

grammar and wordings.

How

a linguistic 'juggle'

with

wotild you, for example, reduce the words

luTc to 37, without changing any meanings?

A tip to help you here; when deciding how many words to set, write the summary yourself first, then count the words you used. And what did we change

words

word count? We used 'became friends' first line, and left out 'and more' twice in line 4.

reduce the

to

in the

and received by

aiioiher.

are u.selul

lu-se

I

distinctions .uul account for

many

of the differences

a mistake to thmk that the it lu ween spoken and written language, feut language is entirely clear ctu. For ilt.stinction between spoken aiul written with the spoken language used rs.iinple email chat has a lot In common

m

lecture has a lot in common everyday conversation, whereas a university and .evefydarc^ersation chat wiih the language ofa textbook. BdiiiemEdl and they are both language, taking turns inproducing

nivnive participants in

Learners can then read out their summaries to compare with

lai>!.ii..!r,

i

each other through the

of internet chat tbey

of active y^^u.^yM^^s in the production

two or more

to replace five

make

(o

,r,..d

friends

and

to pass the

time

wid:i friends.

On

the other

hand

one participant as the hoih university lectures and textbooks involve as receivers; and simply participants producer of language, and the other information, imparting diey are both primarily concerned with teaching materials. Some important to take account of this in preparing information transfer as ..nnlun texts, particularly monologues which have h

r,

he

,

i

saffift Way as writteri primary purpose, are most usefully treated in the of this knul Leamefs need practice in listening to spoken monologue used to activities of the sort and process diem aurally,

r

(cxis

should learn to

,Mi.l

^pli.it

.

monologue

in the classroom will have a lot in

lechniquesiKed to expioit written

common

with the

texts.

3.8.6 Personalizing tasks

Much of the

lexis

and iome of the grammar

iiskinj; learners to relate

the

ia.sk

ro their

own

KTADING ACTIVITY 3.3 be recycled by

In a text can life

some way After the

in

lunpirc State Building text, for example, learners could be asked to talk about their fear of heights or about experiences with high buildings. After the

Monty

story they could be asked to recall their

whether they were afraid of the dark, or to the dai-k. Tasks like this could be set as

sequence. This would for useftd

own childhood and

recall experiences

homework

encour^ learners to

on a dinosaur. the go with the lecture. Can you think velociraptor,: together with tv/o.piGtures which !

lore

of

is

the transcript of the

The Veloclraptor

end of a task and mine them

at the

review the texts

O K, so let's take a look at the flesh-eating dinosaurs, themeat eatfers. slaf^tM^hthevelddraptsr. This will

1

3.9. 1

The nature of spoken tCKt

liinguagc

often

distinguish

between spoken and written language by is generally interactional, whereas written

is

generally transactional.

What this means

is

generally, tiiougli not always, used for social purposes

pass

really scary.

The film

ilif

on ihc

that

—

to

spoken language

make friends, to

(ime happily with family and friends and so on. Written language, oilier

hand

is

and

if

And

let's

you've

In

it

was also oneof th«^mG(Sfeidangerous. We

often think

rex. but the veiociraptor

pdini ing out that spoken language

is

's

intelligent dinosaurs

be very familiar to'a^iefeof you

humans. the film you see the velociraptors hunting shows that the veiociraptor was one of the most

seen the film Jurassic Park.

3S

exploit this text?

involving fear of

langa^.

Spoken texts

part of a mini-lecture

one or more tasks you might use to

1

fingnisis

first

generally,

though not always, used

information. Another important difference

is thiit

to

convey

spoken language usually

tyrannosaurus of dinosaurs as being huge animals, like about one metre high and two metres dog— large a size of the was only about lived about 80 to and it normally weighed between 10 and 15 kilos. They long stood on two legs they picture the As you can see from 8,5

million years ago.

and had

a lonj',

tail.

an.Hlioy iiM'd'ihdr

I

h«7

'

'

"il'l

m. .ve very

lonji Mils lu lurlp iliein

to balaiK:c so thejy could turn

up to 60 kilnmetres per hour— to turn very quickly hey used them

fast

rwiilly
"I

They used to hunt In

groups offourormoro(iniMMl'.i
fllaoui

lu

t,Pini.iniHLi

liW- wnlv(-,orll<.n',

«s luinj

but

it

packs,

in

dotoday.lt

had ina-edlbly

ltwouldmeanthatth«lrflwwpoiu«toih6i»xtwin:ltsoriginalspote^

•

.

would r.producr

1,

listen in total

study context.

rl.o

ignorance.

We

When we listen to a lecture we do

not

information have strong expectatioris as to what

v^flis-'tiotitai^isa—Whatpe^tionsv^r

be answered.

the learners with much of the would provide an opportunity to prime understand the lecture. vocabulary they would need in order to

.

Ii

,

ir

knowledge of velociraptors you you know that learners have some previous

the lecture. You mightth^fT listen a quiz before they llstfenecTto were of the discussion to decide how sure they to their answers and lead a class they have no previous knowledge of answers before listening to the lecture. If

could give

them

to prepare to the internet, you could ask them the subject, but they have access have would This them the quiz in class. the topic for homevvorkbeforegJving

KguKi.}

the same advantages as 2 above. Velociraptor andhadrosaur

You could summarize the main

,

up

their prey, the animais they Wiled

retractable-the very sharp.

It

its

T^e^ jZ^^

foot abo!,r

velodraZlulH H *°

I^to k«l

used

^.^^'^ ''^"^ '° ^

plant-eate'rslikethf^adrZr

h

7

'"^ "'^

"^"^

=°

'V"'

clawwas

of the numbers

n

a

rthem t^ou

could then

listen

to the t^tTo

vinble

but

wo*d h^a

It

Z

h

"^i

'^^"^ ^

*^ ^PP^°P™^^ P'^«^' They

--'"V be a

he ^

will

come

in.

to prepare a quiz for

other groups

one group of learners and askUiem

homework They could then give their questions to

who would listen

the

thequestions. to the lecture and try to answer

3.9.2 Sources of spoken text The easiest spoken texts to Gnd a.id adapt

;ven:;:t:;'^:~^'r"^t"''"^^ t,-,s,<,

'

^'^/^

Conimentary ^

script of the lecture to

You could give the

,

'"''"'''"^^'""-"'^'"'y^^'^^^

*

note form,

They

"^f l°ng- This

in

predict the sequence they change their order, and ask learners to points. then listen and number the main

poworf.il jaws with teeth up to t centimstwc ln„„

main weapon was a claw on

points of the text very briefly

for task-based use are recordings

have transcripts of their hstenmg |,om your coursebook; most coursebooks contain sustained annprtosion materials. Radio inwmews often

to questions that bear a strong resemblance responses to the interviewer's are There web. easily be found on the ransactional monologue and these can ,

CDs

and

cassettes

always possible to scvenil students to

and it is BBC World News uems (or get audio record available on the do so). Often transcripts for these are

of

stories,

or shof t

TV or film dodtmentaries,

BBC website (http://www.bbc. co.uk).

3.10 Review openlngthreesenCc

If

h

re

are a for working with texts. There k is important to give learners a reason learners the Ideally do this. to number of ^miliar techniques designed

t^cl^

material which provides should be reading or lisH-ning 10

irs

own motiva-

uml.swlMMHlnTiiiKln.gaging.sioricsatanappropruuclevelandso have

thL adviT

"^^^

''^'^

would

„n

In.iih.s.M

po.ssiblc is

fosclca

lw,o'^|uWlbk^A|)iutfromanythingelse,lt^snol:,lw.ys

mmM wbU:h

not always poH^lblc to

pimll..

i

will

engage everyone

in a f.,.ven

with .cruimy just what

topics

c

I

,.s.

.nd

An.l

^cKl^

-1

wll

mouvacion, whatever ihc

Icnirnr. nl

.

l.-.iiiu'i.s

Even

if a text

imnn.sically interesting,

is

it is still

wn,,

Invl

i

^'^"^

mtroducmg, in a meaningful contew. the vocabulaly they wiU need ' /

^

process the text.

Thefraaiworkw^U ensure thatlettners approach as we approach tat processing in real life.

a

wrMen

or spoken text

providing a

A

.

lesoiirce,

-"^^-Ws

to

The framework willprovide a contextin which y«u eto prime learners by

.

we

the text ,n the

We

rarely

same way

help create these expectations fbr learners

text.

in

chapter involve some sort of ^edtctton. In some cases the prediction is explicit-as when learners were asked o predict the outcome of the Empire State Building story. When asking earners to predict in this way it is importantto provide the right level

T

IT

*cy

'°

when

learners begin with a general

knowledge

qui?, the

activity still has the effect of encouraging on the contents of the text. Here again, you should make sure that there are questions still unanswered as learners move on toihe

k;an,ers to speculate

u

k

,s

to

m

The job of the teacher settmg up and orchestrating a sharpen learners curiosity and ensure that they will read or Usten

lexical Icaiures ol'the

and ideas contained

'^^^^^^r^i^g

|"ul iKsicning strategies

with the wordings of the

depend very

text.

miA

meaning

is

Good readL

on high level processing, witf earner. pred.ctn.g as they read or listen, and checking out and adLtin. he r pred.cons as the text unfolds. This means that thfy will pay Jentl^ o the lay w,.rds a text, but the minutiae of syntax and phrasing will pass -vcn .his. it is important to recycle texts in such ha

m

learners

done

W/take

partly

L.y

carciul note

of the actual wording of ,h.- us,

by precisely focused language acuvities whiJ.

i.u,.

language.

in this chapter.

similarities

and

differences

between the two

classes.

}.

Try out a set of tasks and ask students for {written

anonymously by

theii"

feed-back after each one

individuals, in the last three or four minutes oi

class time.)

Try asking students to find

and bring

to class

one text each on a topic

that

they are interested in reading. (Sources: internet, library books, recordings, recordings of interviews conducted cassettes/CDs, radio,

TV

written in English, print-outs of people's biographies books (e.g. Asterix), or even textbooks.) I rom individual websites, comic Give learners a deadline to produce these, make sure they write the source in English, letters

reference

text,

to process text for

and one which ihr

Follow-up tasks

and date on the

hrst task can be for

r^l'r^h "''''-n'^^^r' tha hey will not be concerned

represents a valuable learning

recall for themselves,

lihrji)

thi.,

cading or istening.

and

of students and notice the

S

overt, but

Once

Try out one or two of the tasks ilkistrated in this chapier After the class, while it is fresh in your mind, write down what you did and what you noticed happening. If you can, try the same task again with a different set

I

means you™ll sometimes need to practise 1 restrainr and hlldbaekwhat you^know to be the Mghf answers, and not give away too many

,s less

ii

text.

I

iasi«

his

l-vcliction

with the wording oi a

,r, pir.'.ilili-

learners can

a lask cyi le.

fornr he texts they have processed. Chapter 6 gives more suggestions for interactive spontaneous I.I, used exercises and for ways of working with :pnken language. Meanwhile here are some ideas for exploring some of the .1

have a

u'l^X reasonable chance of making worthwhile predictions. But you need to keen cnotigh hidden to ensure that they still have a reason fbr reakg or I^^^^^^^

In oihei cases, as

by the end of

can be used for follow-up tasks, either immediately after the iniiiai audy of a given text, or some time later. But it is certainly worthwhile to precise wording c'lisure at some stage that learners pay close attention to> the

3J1

^'""^^

one which

|M;unnialical

this

S'™"

I.Minli.n

thill

iiMchcr can recall for iheni lo provide well contextualized examples of

(

approach a text

purpose and context for reading or listening well designed tasl< will help to provide or enhance the motivational

Most of the techniques oudined

.r,

ImpurtHllI

!,-\(s

to

real

Challenge involved in processing a

haoMie

U

^

be .

h.ive

ii

has been processed lor nu.ining

u-xi

,1 ,

icw. Wwi

ilir

lopic.

Ihn,

,

un he

uiuuhu-

and take note of its copyright

each to present a very short

status. 1'he

summary

shordist of texts to

ol their

be used

in a You can then select the most popular ones and design a set of

persuading the

their lessons.

them

text,

class to

choose

it

for

tasks for each one.

The

next

i

wo

of task taking

(

li;i

piers will provide

topic;,

or hemes I

.is

more

ideas for generating different types

starting points.

4

FROM lOIMC O

TASKS: LISTINGj-SORTING, l

AND CLASSimNG

Introductwn

li

ways of designing and using text-based chapter, our starting point wiU using texts as our starting point. In this that 'HoUdays , or 'Mlies\ specilc topic or theme, sudi asr each For knowledge. cxp^eilces or world

Chapter (.is|.:s '

3

we looked

at different

,

.

m

own

,ws

lareely

M>i.

leading into another. we can design a sequence of tasks, each one

Some ^^^^ the sense that they reproduce diseoturse

icse will be target tasks, in Others wil be fecihtatii^ „Ks which we might carry out in tiiet^ world. carry out the target tasks. their function is to help learners xo .1

'

1

:

in diat

,,..,!.,

(>cc

Chapter 2

(2.2).)

wo

the topic for one or example, 'Volcanoes' might constitute teadief tm^t stage, where, for example, the k-sM.ns. After an initial priming her experience of them the show some pictures ofvolcanoes ^md talk about facilitating tasks of hstmg tacts .,nlv,.quent task sequence could include foUowed by labelling a diagram of a crossI ,u ,KT.s know about volcanoes a teacher's ^planation; these nun of a volcano, having first listen^l target tasks: comparing two ditkrent could thtflbefbllowedbyoneor more about a specific volcano; or recounting lu.uls of volcanoes; making a quiz

Sn

,

(or

heir

own experience

erupting. (from TV or other sources) ofavolcano

Note on taxonomies oft^ks book, the task types ^are classified listing and ranking This ditters cording to cognitive processes such as typologies which often Ust opinion exluun most earlier taxonomies or and problem'decision-making 'jigsaw', 'infornKuion gap,

In .h.

taxonomy of

tasks

this

used in

.

,

cliange,

.,lvln,\ Jsc^rate c

»

W

t.sk lyiu. {Pica

l.isMliauion, tliougl. not waictiiglu

,

is

more specific and more

generative as

with particular cognitive processes aL.vc ...sk ypcs; for example, opinion

gcncraial .00! for teachers to use. T:isks

in

mind

will

ofn-n

excli.ini-cs ,iiul

i.wnlv

iiiluiiniMion

.1,. y,x\>s

w.mid

nccdcd disciJln,., lui cxaninK-. qn.ili.ic«

on

u purdcidar order

(,-v«liiuiioM luul

dainion

of rm)kh»B nuildiiK.

will

n.Muially

ocau wl.cn

by a world

lisung and

leader. Later,

agreeing

ncccwarily involve opinion

gapii.

A Hi.

Ik

I

I

i.i'.k.-,.

.liMiiu lion nlit-ii iikkIl-

M.iny

iii.sks

in (his

t

between 'rcal-worlH' tHtib

is

h.ipicr involvf afiivii ic,

,iiu|

—

well liu or talk

(n|H<

,

tind [icilii^ogic ilui

tmc

iiiighr

about outside the classroom choosing liulitlaiy-s, eanhquake safety procedures (Gommonly called 'real-world' tasks), while others, like the picture dictogloss story activity, nature. Chapter 7 goes into this in

would eertainly rank a's ^pedagogic' by more detail.

4.2 Selecting topics So how can we

select suitable topics for tasks?

•

h-;uure in our learners' English textbooks

•

lypically appear

We can choose topics that

on examination papers or in on the school oirriculum

• appear olSiwhcre

oral tests (i>r

example, in geography,

liiMory, or current affairs)

•

are of topical or seasonal interest

• often figure

iii

casual conversations in social settings (for example, in

coffee breaks, with host lamily, in bars or clubs)

• learners

want

cvi

to be able to talk about outside class with foreigners they

niiglu meet, or write about to email

pen

friends, or 'chat'

about in web-

based chat sites.

One way to raise motivation

is to ask learners to suggest their own topics, or choose topics they like best from a list of topics that have [irovcd popular with previous learners. In fact getting learners to select

to get

them

to

and rank topics they

could form an excellent decision-maldng task at new term. Many teachers have reported that giving learners a chance to choose their own topics has significantly enhanced learner like

the start of a

engagement.

Not

all learners will be equally keen on all topics but, if an engaging task is any reasonable topic can engender enthusiasm, especially if it is explored from a new or unusual angle.

set,

The clioice of potential topics is boundless. For intent, take a look at this map of the world and skim through topics chosen, %r English teachers in different parts of the

Ai

[

his point,

world for their task-based lessons.

we suggest you

you

stop for a

moment and

note

down three or four

would be suitable for your ckisscs. In the following sections we will look at ways of designing different types of task and you can dcsirn .some la.sks based on your topics. This is bcsi tUne uigctlicr with a {up'ics that

tee!

Icllow language teacher (or two) as ideas often

evaluate the tasks you thought tasks that

How

of, refine tin: hcsl ol

you can grade, write instructions

for, niul

6s

niou' 1

li.

hem,

»m' In

vlv.

Von ran

iind •.cKx (

Um,

1

ilien

a sei ol

0^

BOJ 2^;

ttminscorming can cither be Coaclier-led involving rht- wliolc Lla,s,s. or with .|"Mt^ ill p:iirs or small groups brainstorm inj', anioiu. ilu inselves. Or as a nmil.iii.iuoii of borli - .sntriing witli a teacher-led class brainstorm

rti

I'

which

MMnicrs then continue

iWa/il Kt

sonic

N- .iiv

I'

I

M ig I

•

1

1

ua

for listing tasks that teachers in Japan,

have

New Zealand and mei«me<^essfi%ofbn starting with adassbrainstor dien

on

complete tkdr list in pairs or groups:

i

1

L

i

to

idciia

cs o f a

rin-ria For

wo rl d leader

choo.sing a place to stay for a vacation or

•

I

•

l.uidniarl-cs typically

•

1

1

i 1

in pains.

iigs to

used

weekend

when giving directions in your area

mention when describing a specific animal

to include in an

earthquake kit, with areasonfor each one, tend to do/like doing • household chores (and who does them in your home) • St ategiesibrtenijig EiigJish outside class. lU'iii.s

•

•

1

1

lings that cats

l

MnM

Lcachers advised giving learners a specific number of items to aim example, Hvc qualities For the 'world leader' task. Then learners

Ini

know

wlicii

Figure^.2

do the

to set,

(

wiih a colleague.

4.3 Tasks involving listing

^2.

i

Fact-finding

linding involves asking learners to search For specific :fects in books or or on a website, or to ask other people outside class. If you Introduce (he topic the lesson hefote and do a priming' stage for the task then, I

orsnort phuises or even quite comnlex

=

To judge what number

I

I

r\

diey have comj^leted their task.

Mk yourself, then deduct one or two—so that learners can achieve the task without Frustration. If you time yourself while you are doing the task, you ,iM siimate a suitable time limit to set for your learners. Better stiil, do this

GeneraHngtasksfrom a topic

scntcnrc-< \Yr,rU

for.

.H

I

I-mIIcis

you

nnid set a Fact-finding task for homework. Then they work out how to rxpi-css these facts in English and come to class I5eady |?repared with a draft: <

Mst.

•

sentences.

Even more complex would be

'"n^'-^^-^you^hcdpubUc^^^^^ Listing can u^efclly be split into

4.3.1

? !tJ of Jrecommendanons '

'°™P'™ for

I'Mid out hve facts about the volcano Mount Etna to share widi other students next lesson. Write them down. Also note down three or four

I'ind

1

ihcy Nke cats or not? List the reasons they give. Prepare to rcpoi views in Liinglish in your next lesson.

fact-finding.

Brainstorming •

"-f"' -^hnicues for

t

their

out the bin hd.i v.s oFscvni people yon or your Family know. Write the iiiiine ol (he per.son, who ihey mv, and the date of their birthday. Bring hint!

your

brainst<»;:i;f

words or phrases about volcanoes you could teach your partner. out what Uiiee people outside this class think about cats as pets. lo

iisL'ful

•

two kinds, brainstorming and

Some examples follow:

list

to class.

listing often forms a stHri

ini^,

potm

lor

more complex

u\s\w

Wood

• Loric

gave three wi K.siks (m ccotourism and

learners to design a trip

nplK

.uIvhih

r,l

'I'hcy begtiii

by

iwld-tl lin

ccoiourism principlof. identifying those principles uiid listing them, [li.n

kl

4.3.4 Tasks fbr red beginnen kikcM

niori' slowly, this

lor

•.iiii.iblf

•

At the beginning of a project oii irefugM caMp^, ¥^l^fe#eaia€'ry gave her intcniK-cliate students some websites to look at to find out and list the facilities a refugee camp should have, Groups were then asked to design their own camp.

Games based on listing:

quizzes,

h .illenj;e

he

give

Liiii

memory challenge, and

games

I

he lisiing process can form the basis for

many

simple activities like quizzes,

by changing somu of the statements

wriiiiig a true/false quiz, ihai they are not true.

I'Ana to give

Or

they could write

five

another pair to do, or to ask the

competition, with the class divided in two orally

to

the

true/false statements,

or ro

questions, with points being scored by each

Guessing games can

:isk

team

1

s

Mount

nnd .inswer each other's

also incorporate listing. For example, they

I

ilieir

li-.M

I

of the objects they remember.

list

And finally, after seeing all

f

y

in

her bag.

To make

it

turns to

tell

the

mora-fon,, this could also be

(with the objects concealedliri^di learner

been faentioned before traiil all die objects

naming

are back,

of small tasks offers plenty of opporttmities for learners to names of common objects as well as exposure to natural interaction (eacher talks about them and the activities themselves. lie

iiers

is

an example of a teacher-led

of complete beginners.

classes

It

listing task that

to speak,, Cinly to listen and understand as tnuch as possible

pi'onouncing some words.

It

can be

does not put pressure on

and

to

helps beginners to get used to the flow of

and to recognize words they know in that context. It works because few English words have become intemati®nal; but ©f course the Ml M liber of familiar words also depends on the learners^ own mother tongue riij,;lisli

can involve

the class asking the teacher questions (or vice versa) such as 'Guess

had

put back

'liiiernational words'

for right answers.

the objects ^nce''&^1^i^''been taken out.

can draw or write a

memory challenge

done by most

turns to respond

memory

could subsec]^uently be turned into a

clues if they get really stuck early on.

to

be

new

seciuencfi'

(|iiite

•

;i

also

ihc

then to see which pair can remember the most objects. You

is

ling diat has-HOt

1

v» le

'I

,1'.

This could even become a

hal'v^es taldtig

I

.IS

in their hst so

quiz questions about

class.

M IIU

i

I

what

lu-r

niK

niciiiory games, and guessing games. For example, the volcano lesson could begin with each pair collating and finalizing ikek Hs£ of facts, and then

diem

we carry round with us') would

Icarnfrs need cmisolidaiion ol

he objects again, learners (or teams ©f learners) cML

\''.u

I

hallenge

t

II

game by covering up

n learners in pairs

lu

I

I

j^iiessing

task ('junk

liist

k'.n iut'..

vni ,ibul;iry, a task like this I

1

4.3.3

lu'j',inru-i

what I

for brealcfast today', or

a

.ind their life experience.

• students Wtiting five short sentences about their chosen animal

reading them or saying diis

is'

(see Appendix 1.4),

• the well-known

Here

a

is

them for the class,

bricl-

and then then asking 'Guess what animal

I'Topic: International

or '

game 'Guess what TVe

got in

my bag'.

account of how Sandee 'i'hompson does a version of this

Tho words

teacher starts with

'television',

up ('Who

'supermarket'.

likes football?'

fKpfe!-,sion to help

Junk

we carry

in

The teachertalks a little about each word

'Who plays football?

talks

about them

input. This can lead

—

a

in

her book-bag that day. After

good example of teacher talkforming

them understand. The teacher might then ask

on to a

classification task (described in the

tHtemaiioH/iLtmrds

next section). After

learners db tfie

differences they hear

in

the style of interaction.

1.6 for a fuller

temU

p^Uce^

lidprohLmo!

They repeat the same task with

another partner and report back on what they have noticed. (See Appendix

It

comes

learners to

thorn the English way.

con-iprehehSffele

same guessing task with each other, in pairs. They then hear a recording of Sandee doing the same task with a colleague and note down

this,

as

You?') using gestures and facial

accepting guesses from th&dass, Sandee then Psveafs the ob}eetS 'Orte at a:tim©.

and

some

English, e.g. 'taxi', 'football',

M ip|.ily other words of English they already know, and to practise pronouncing

round with us

Sandee gets learners to guess what she has

English

brainstorm, drawing or writing on the board

the learners probably already recognize

last

task with her low intermediate learners.

words of a class

account and to see what Sandee did next.)

Sb^m^kM HUIo Uiuk&r OX mdUi ^offM

disco

tml

how many

At rhe end of the lesson, learners count .ilir.uly

II

(.(•ni/.c.That they

1

warclK ol

know so many is usually a Surprise to ilum.

[i;isir

principle oi'I'BT:

it is

4.3.5 Evaluating a task

What makes a good task? A good task not only generates interest and creates an acceptable degree of challenge, but also generates opportunities for

Evaluating tasks

terms of language use

dskud Lo agree on a

^ftrti '\

of the following

tasl<s

would be

likely

to generate the

Initial

name or explain

any national

English

in

like special, birthdays parttes ar^" held- c^rtit^Sof passage

,

,1

I,

,1

1

free

[irnpli'

,.J.

of language use: 'Cats often damage too, usually generates a wide range 'They miaowwhenthey arahungry'. 'They sleep in the sun',

,1),

„

|„. in

,

'They

warm

places'.

They wal<e you up

at night'.

They catch

mice".

'They

here and so on. Most of the words and phrases ,|M K .u Kl bring them inside' always can don't know words like '^m^m' they lulie common, and if they .

Ill

|.

be usable as an

u( live (
.1

most useful

And which two the least useful? Which

y^jr

they

could provo language use would be quite limited but counti7 and their about customs in ..Hiilil l.M-iHTs noeded to talk to foreigners teacher-led brainstorm in a priming inn them. IHowever, if done quickly as a thus learners'dectdewhatklnd'Qf partytci discuss plansfor, and -lar.- It could help variety of a generate to likely task such as e) which is more «.| .lire the way for a most when time and lorances lii<e. 'Well, you'd have to choose a day

I

language for Intermediate learners?

if

.(hool-leaving.pi'artl^s;

„'

III

Which two

when

events


list

simple task requirin| learners to

lay. (jr

„

I

a

,1) Is

i.,|.

,

and activate as much language as possible. This applies but the examples below are for listing tasks.

learners to experience

4A

reason., for

language use, especially .|„,„, .wlmhinifjil w<-llrrn.-i,ii.-.iliiil''morc

far

RF_ADER ACTIVITY

more useful by adding 'Give

I'hi.s

.

to all tasks,

murglnelly

it,wlf.

more positive lo hnild on what your leiii ncrt; uli eacly know, than to start with what they don't Jaiow. As one teacher put it, think of your learners cup as being half fiill, rather than half empty one

illiiM niics

mada

but could be

ihcy

might

I

.„

,

but brief teacher-led brainstorm to lead into a topic? |Mit

.iphrase or use gesture?.

4,

V6

Topic: Cats a

Make

b

What different breeds of cats can you think of? Make a list

c

List the different

a

list

colours that cats can be.

In

r,

,1

in

your country might people celebrate by having a party? Make

a

list.

c f

.

I

list

of things you have to do wlien planning a party.

Who might you

invite to

your next patty? Make a

list

I,

of people you would ask.

H I

,

Malce a

lot text-based task.s, learners

would need some priming bciore the

.,|.,

IhmI

What events

and post-task activities

activate relevant schemata, recall sn that they can understand tlie topic, on the afiii get ideas flowing. Depending M, .^k ftirusefiil words and phrascs lopic, ihe words associated with „,pM yc.u could use pictures, or brainstorm K)r example, on has personal experience of it, and so on.

n

How many can you get?

Topic: Planning a party d

Pre-task priming

of six typical things that cats tend to do.

lui

,

„

ifanyone

M ,r

,nul

mk

a> abovfii We usually start by priming stage bdfbre cats. We have a ^nod learnerS"#k#rff- likes cais and who doesn't like

>ie

ol cats, at a

who

hates cats so

we

lell

ihem why. Some

learners will

jom

we used to have and that our chi drcn pn M We ihcn tell the class about k a picture of him and .M.nrd Xlarfield' like the cartoon cat. We show like Learners inlunarin};. and some J,n,ii ilie diings he did—some funny a cat

1

1

,

i,.

Pick

one

think

task

from the examples above that would generate

what you would do

at a priming stage.

useful language and

Wliat steps you would take to set

it

|,..,Hin}.'

aboiii teachers

up for your learners to do?

may h;wc other

One obvious question v/pu|d be 'Dp learners really need to know the words for different breedscif.Ga#':Such'Words are very rarely used,

teaching these would b&fer betterspent on

Colours of cats might generate

a

few

common colour words

Equally, a

list

of

b)

and

c).

then

names of people to

like 'tabby'

seem to be the

4

)ni e learners

^nd possibly

and the time spent

more common words and

and white', 'sort of orangey-brown', but others

These two,

ideas that

would

lives,

so this usually

get learners listening

worl«

and

well,

bm

interested

you

m the

ropic,

Commentary

lass useful.

personal

phrases.

and phrases, 'black

or 'marmalade' are far

hnr

have done the task they can compare their

collate their ideas

invite to a party (f)

worthwhile

would have

value

rtjul in

lists in

a report stage

They migh.

hear a

list they made. Fma ly, movt wlui uMs do. and sec il ihcir ideas are on the lanj-iiage with the teacher highlighting useful hil'o a focus-on-Form stage,

tasks.

little

li.st.

lor example talking about ol oiher people doing a similar task,

K,„,uT.. pi;u ilsr

^.,,,1

least

making

one longer

phrases

m

dicii

own

iiv-liil

'phrase luniks',

patterns,

and record

u«eh,il

words

V?

-i.

Siiiiiinary 1

lo SLMnniamc, the oura.nu-

Ot

list,^

which can be drawn,

ui' .

lis.inj.

written,

task will

of

anmv

i^.sk.s IS that-

remember

remembered, compared with other

dillereiu

nnd

W-

sequenceof tasks with one or two simple

Ic-ai

tasks,

ncrs are tacldingmore

.11"! I'lirascs

listing

yocabylary. In fact helping to lighten the processing load when

CompMmh.ushy^t% tllanxofthetopicwords

usedforlistingwillalrea^rbefamiliar.

A,..„lK-r benefit

of starting with a

urdei ed or sorted or classified in

mmd-map, allotting items

This

.ig.iin.

sei-ve as

hey act as facilitating

a fairly precise

students

a useful introduction to thetOf)i^:,-and ptbVlde dian.ce lor settmg the scene and introducing relevant

ii

I

ihcy can

nil give learners

liiffercnt

peoples, or turned iit^.a^e5si:rtg,^e-or quiz. T'he advantage oflmrtihg a

1

some form

In-

is

some way or other,

for

on

be

lists^cafi

example by making a

to categories.

Learners csuld

list

and

tiicn

the top; they could

stimulate

how much

4

Tasks involving ofitkring and sorting

This

be chronological sequencing, for example, arranging a scries of iuinbled pictures to make a story, or a jumbled list of events to recreate the order Ml which they happened. It could entail describing in sequence the steps of a particular process. It could call upon learner's prior knowledge their imagination, or knowledge gleaned from a written or spoken or visual ^

source.

UAE, and UK

use, learners

•

have used include:

t

I

a

)esci ihe

in a

rt

—

With

worldng conditions,

likely levels

of stress, suitability for a working parent

with children of school age, and so on. 1

leic are

some

ideas iLsed

preceded by listing

popularity with

iiccommodation, I

riteria that

by teachers

for tasks involving ranking,

the

class,

facilities,

or

based on ai

i

iviiies

and then ranked

criteria

on

offer.

such

These

as

in order

of

weather,

price,

are in fact the actual

Correira's class in Brazil arrived at through an earlier

teacher-led brainstorming session, after calking about places they ro

some

tasks.

Rosane

had been

on their vacations.

eight qualities of a world leader

a consensus, agreeing

phone box

in

on

five

and then

in pairs or groups, to

come to

of them. (Both these steps work better with

your country.

Then, learnei^ as individuals arrange diese criteria

clip

of a

or a film

.idveii. Phiy learners the

ask them to try lo

list

trailer, or a longish video once or twice with the mumuI off Then

from memory exactly what scenes

shown, iurangmg them extract carefully. listing,

in

sequence.

ini.l

When you arc plmuiiiip,

and counting

evmK

wen-

It)]-

and

referring to cttTEent World leaders.

groups rate each of those leaders out of

list,

according to

This prepares the way

5 stars

on the board, and

according ro their agreed

criteria. '/iilking l;ip;in

vou can

a ranked

a secoiiti lask, where real world leaders are introduced

w,.<J, du-

the difJercnt NcaufWm.iiitn*!

five in

they have chosenj.>an4.ne^ dfecuss together, debating and justifying

ilieir decisidiis

V

the topic of professions/jobs, criteria for ranking these could

detail

Sequencing can also be done as a memory challenge using a short lilni exn ac. on video (not more than 2 minutes) I

of

timehmits.)

how to make your favourite food. exactly what you have to do to make a phone-call overseas from i

cases, to

justify their order

(ludities ofa world leader: Mikey Kelly in Japan (inspired by an ideafromhis former colleagues) gees his learners Co brainsCorm, first silently ©n tkeiT own,,

Order the steps in a baking recipe (where information may be given jumbled form, usmgwOfds, pictures, or line drawings). nescrilir

home. In both

can be asked to

include ranking according to rates of pay or likelihood of job satisfaction,

lip to

•

and Glen Poupore^

rank fheir school suhjeets whii their favourite list seven kinds of pet and then rank them

Potential holiday destinations could be listed

may

Tasks that teachers in Canada^ the

5

ranking.

criteria.

Sct]ucncing

I

are nearly always

showing the video before asldng students to do a

can be ranked according to niftny different criteria like cost, populadty, practicality, or fun value different topics will obviously need different

This broad category includes a variety of cognitive processes, including sequencing, ranking, and classifying, which all require a little more thought and cogn,r:ve off.),-, thnn simply listing. Some involve ordering items iiccordnig to purely lactual criteria, like dates or prices; others involve a ccrtam amount of decision making, based on personal choice or opinion. '\A.

cask to set

lists

bcfoi'c

trouble they are to keep at

more language

Lists

4,

so their

lUnkor^eiing

4.4.2

lines at

that items

would be a good

hi'KSy:

and compared

disi'iisset.!

comparison of two similar film extracts. (See Chapter movie scene comparison task in Appendix i. j.)

.iccording to listing task

c:in

number to aimfe¥heiftteregtlng thing is,

dillerent

ah$fJ p"n/i<^

expkitu Iimw

hmv

Iu' Min

sirk't

arthvm- your pmrtitsfV'ww March^ind in

rrnik

up

alter

an

initial

explanatory priming

,

This task sequence has three stages: a listening stage, & .stage lanHiMK^ iiii'l .s|nMl
Commentary

icasons lor their ranking.

wanting to learn to speak their mother tongue, finding foreign residents to talk to

,1

I

evidence/

Learners

net,

simply to

is

Ai this polm, to promote class to

rank

dieir parents

more

—

tallc

class discussicm^, you

ivporrs: 'I've

used

CDs/tapes

and it always goes pretty well

he students have no problem finding things to say abour their parents, ah hough there is sometime a debate over whedier "easy-going" is

()r

L

to highlight

iinsolidare features of that language. (See

(iK used activities

Chapter 6 for ideas and the recording transcripts for Tims task.)

for

form-

Wi' have seen above that selecting critci'ia for ranking may be done by the students themselves, in a class brainstorm, or they can be decided by the teacher. For more insights into Sfelecting criteria, try the activity below. lU Ah[^:R

ACTIVITY 4B

where

Given

this

English

list

Stimulate

).

or

(I)

below might stimulate the

Whicli of them might be best

in

richest interaction forthis particular task?

a list

more

of

English outside class.

five possible

"hands up

\t)

company or

is

not

likely

to

if

you would

like

to try

this

this'

was done

RanMng according to

etc.).

—

wasaclass survey using a

if it

approach, very

little

interaction

would

happen, but individuals interviewing class-mates and then reporting back might stimulate more.

It is lil<ely

discussion, especially

if

that c) and d)

learners ranl<ed

would be most

them

likely

silently first,

to stimulate

and then formed pairs

and then fours, and were obliged to come to a consensus within a time

I^eginning with silent ranking helps learners to

limit.

commit themselves

to a

and engage personally with the task, as they can get their ideas and plan how to express them, before talking to others about it. It is a way of reducing the mental demands and pressure of the task itself. Niilution I

(

igether

find out whick criterion for ranking

al!

is

best

is

to

^eriment

four kinds, with four different groups in the same

class.

tasks, and then let whole dass. Horice which ranking system work best. Ask each group for their feed-back, too, once they have

Observe the groups carefully while they are doing the t

hem

report their results to doe

lieai'd all

Ways to Improve your English outside class learn

a charity shop,

spoken...

is

would depend on how

.seemed to

your context?

On your own, make a list of four ways

in

much interaction^ as many of these Ideas ihvotve yery little ^pense

.md try out

The first activity below is a listing tasl< which serves as a lead-in to the ranl
buying and reading English

circle,

of suggestions, ranking according to expense

A surer way to

Appraising criteria for ranking

person

note-book and writing down expressions they

newspapers or nnagazihes, getting a voluntary job

popularity

The fbcus-on-form stage offers a chance

depending on

hear or-read, finding a foreign or English sp^klr^'^rl-friend/boy-frfend, attending

(except extra lessons, buying books, magazines,

Here the Hstening stage introduces the topic that the learners will take up hucr and provides valuable cxpo<;Lire to rhe kind of language that can be used in this context, 'i'his provides excellent priming for learners who are about to

English,

or travelling to work or school, taking extra

a positive

attribute for parents!'

task themselves.

v^hile driving

English lessons, keeping an English

I

do the

ways to improve their

or starting an English speaking club or social

could attempt to get the

^from softest to strictest!

this rask several times,

kinds of

English, offering their services as a tourist guide to foreign visitors, listening to

l-nglish

place I'ini

all

where they llve'^d wheretheyaremidyfng. Ideasinclude: surflngthe emailinp, pen friends, reading comic strip books in English (including Asterix or

Tin-Tin), reading bilingual bool<s, exchanging conversation lessons with a

ill

he spealcing stage

with a partner and cliscuss cheir feelings tovrards their parents, and report back to the class whose parents were stricter. 1

come up with

their age,

the results.

4.4.3 Classifying Learners can eidicr be asked to

which' p.^ple in your situation could

Then exchange ideas With a partner and agree on

or to

alloc

items in a

list

work out

their

own categories for classifying,

to categories already given.

ways. i'or

Then, widn your partner rank order your expense, b) popularity,

list

according to two of ihrsc

c) practicality, d) likelihood

of success.

rrii nria:

C^iv.- y< >ui

a)

n msoms.

her 'Iiink

we

1

,iri\

muild with

learners lo ihihkul w.iy. ol

oCcatcgoncJJ like hlnipr that

us' task,

i'lti'isilVing

(ift hitij^ul.tr

Sandee Thompson asked her

rhe things from her bag. 'They thought

or round), diings with perfume, things

make u iioinc, uhlvvu nuln wiih money,

DifFcrcnt learner*

came up with

rich discussion.

It

also

makes

Si

for intccscing i..,cl,nm

'

'^"^^

When t

priniinR le.mcr. to choose their on. or two .deas hrst or to do a

urn

yun uui

cU,

categotics.

it is

hdpful

with the whole claSs.fyl^,fc.ceBtents of a classroom cupboard or a desk drawer if

uc th,s

to give

mmlo

It

makes u

may also

a

mo»«raightforward

reduce the

you choose

task,

amount of language

use

supermarket

will generate.

Which

and ^hen ask them to Food Learners

.

_ean classi&

list

into 'nice things'

food items

and

^"-l

,

lot

r.wu/yjakes: agr,e or .S"..

dh^eif Vor

tO/KU

joal

raJio

is

dUco

singer

3df

into

first

into ft-od that

u u"."*, reasonably healthy (that you can cat a lot of) and food that considered 'unhealthy' if you eat a .

TV radio

'not such nice

provided) twice:

(list

'

disa>

many theaia:

haveleamersmakealkofthings cats tend to do

sort their

stop'

media.

depend on the degree of challenge your learners ^.re happy with. Here are some ideas for categories you can give. We o we start 6 with two-way categories. /

. After the task about cats,

burner

teaxker

keJIo

O.K.

will

Giving positive/negative categories works weU with

coc^coU^

singer

class like

sometimes feel having only one stage

it

KOprohlmv!

TV^

police^

t^ task Instructions give the categories, learners

"".IV sccte.

alternative

uuc

ttmu own

parallel task

However,

,l,c- s

timViiea;rc:n bV:;;

is

generally ^

Figure4.4 International words

(2)

of it.

this task,

Shaun Manning gave

his

K<,rean learners a set of slightly controversial statements and asked each earner to decide whether they agreed (put a tick) or disagreed (put a cross) with eaA statement. Then, in small groups, they had to reach

Games based on classified sets

4.4.4

I

,

a n.nsensus and change tie wording of the statements the group disagreed wuh to make them acceptable. They presented these to the class compared their adapted statements and discussed the changed

wordings.'

°f """^ *ith a simple t^vo-way ^/°°t"''"'P^' and builds up to a serious decision-making task involving I »'T,"Maied outcome: the list of adapted statements. (For the full t^, wjm ««.. wlh M.ileinenis and evaluation, see AppendixiJ.)

dltilr^r'' classification

The

ab,,ve

examples of classification tasks were

i doAes""

"

-"-Animals

all

can be

based on two categories,

classified

m many wfys. so

eic.

classified lists

The teadi.-r draws columns on

the board for !,..« r.i,™.rics 'Uid for each (figure 4.4), liven beginner le.inie,., . .,„tv h catcgoiy die listed words best fit and possibly add on,. „i u ., ds u,

can be used

as

a basis for designing

'Odd word

.md/or 'What do these have in common?' quizzes. Sets

like

out' games,

the following can

used to revise topic vocabijaxy. Try them for yourself.

l>e

What.do the ItKns jn each set have

in

common, and which

item could be the odd

one out and why? a

apples, bananas, biscuits, oranges

b

fisii,

c

car, taxi, bus, bicycle

chips (-French fries), hamburgers, cheese

Once learners have sets like this

;U'

answer keys.

•International words' (see the Beginner's task in 4.3.4) can be chmified into: ^ungs to eat. things to drmk, sport, transport, electronic media, school

woids,

(

—

'biscuits' 'fish'

MX

as

got the idea, they can be asked to build up three or four

hiimc

10 test tlie ckiss.

I'or L'xjniplc, in a)

the others

thcorhtTs .uv

fruit;

iirt* .ill

I

rhc b) set

is all

also be asked to write
sweet but the odd one out

all

savoury, but the

is

odd one out is

NimIiIk .iMlu-yare high in fat content. In c) they

It

all MK.-iUi'. ol'ii,iii'.|i"'i

They can

they are

bill iiiilv

lui yi

li-'

is

environ incnially Friendly and

1

gives an

example

w

hcallliy.

I'licre will

ilw.iyn

hi' nilici

vv.iy.s

ol

i.

la.ssilyin}^,

and

it

is

ilii>s

iliai

I

provides added intPiTHi,

I'im'

i'Kiim|ilr, (ur b)

you could argue

that 'cheese'

i,s

,

Cilcn

onCi

i;ho

odd one

out km

iliin

nihi^i«

iHi"

nil

^iMirrully

cooked or

fried,

or 'chips'

4.5 yi^tmlsuppon: charts, tabks, mind-maps,

W„re » ITZ 2 f

.ttaulate more interaction' as spaces. So, if columns nre .unnl^Tj

°™

t

ca^b l^ed To J. Wtl of a dictionary need^£ golf. They mightfed tL n^d to a it th

- more word,

'he help

t

to each

u'l

fill

vdiir

earthquake

group

abovl

col«nn

(with

Tamphlets and

^^^^ ^^d

(ither

;yes,goodo„e,butwesay'Lkeb here to escpand oa learners' verbal i-%n.,gee'o.uretdird

earthquake

any

task

'^'^

During an

earthqualce

You and

etc

"'^^'^ to

'

(4.4.3), learners

Before an

groups

"^ESH^'n^'T^ S'"''' "^'- K^Aer gains a chance „

"litSi^;

"df"^

exposureshouldforrncon.preSL^:^Xriir^^^^^^ 4-5.1 Charts

and tables

"l^^^t^

^ -1

hi{{_iire4.^:

in

Earthquake safety

Her li)

niise

h;irt

I

the degree of challenge for

;i

cks.sifying task, give learners

or one with only a few headings.

Ask them

to think

an empty

up their

own

headings and thdi ordef the headings so they begin with general information

^LvKlcd

nuo

'before', yuring',

and after"

s^^lli':!':^^^'

and go on to the more specific. They can then write them into the table.

4.5.2

Mmdraaps

Mind maps hate leaflet),

™'

adding locally relevant inV

HK-irchart,,,TLyclV«edX^ CO". So the charf^re'su Appendix t.: for a full a

Charts and tables also lieb doing listening

'"T^}'' i^""^"

'i'Z

'

^'"^^ ^^vice

'™

""'^

Ik'xible,

n» pi

.elevLt

facts ro

fi

Learners can use their

more open, artistic skills

make them look attractive. Like charts, they can be started on the board in on and filled in by learners.

climinary discussion and then built

READER ACTIVITY 4C learner.: ro (

Drafting a mind

I t^rCh^n

help learners to think of tha "^n and how to organize I'lnncwork within whiA to wqA^.Iso

easily.

"''T'^^^^^^^^^

tasks-thTcLXt.™^

li.M-cn f„,-

the same adl^tages as charts but they ate

and can be added to more

?

T

""^ "k?

'^'^ ""'P'^ '"^ *° ^^^^i"g^

.2:!:^:::^^:;^ -Wwrite about,^ r.^

^

1

2

tPie

Select tliree topics

from

wiiicii miglit

^

map

Add afew ideas to

'Planning a party' tine

'World map of topics^ (Figure 4.1

lend tliemselves to an

Spending no more

tlian

mind map. (See next page).

initial

one minute on

in

section 4.2)

brainstorm to build up a mind map.

eacli,

rou^h out a possible mind

map

suitable foryour learners to extend.

shouldallowlanguagetoflowi^Jk^ir *l

caching learners

in icHcH'.

how

to

do mind maps would make a good

ccacher-led task

justify their story picturCK to 1

hey can.

On

each other by telling

story in English as best

subsequent re-ielUng, they refine even more.

Whereas dictogloss acti^ties focus I

ilu'

learners'

attendon closely on the

meanings in the story, these picture MMMKiKe forms used to express the learners to listen for the story events they

encourage reports. about what they don't quite catch. David notworry and uMd.i'stand

,|„ ,;,..lnss

activities

normal format of havkg them words. At their linguistic, and motivation, recreate thestory in their own picture very well. However, I have found the Ic'vel this did not wo^. I

originally tried this exercise in the

ve rsion usehil fbr

I

pointing out just

how much they really can understand, a reaction in a way they are good at.

once they are allowed to express extra, cheeky details, but_ tt is Sometimes they embellish my story with Once we have had a laugh, 1 ask them to try writing il ways good-natured.

own meamn^s

exactly constitute their

what diey can in English. This may not communieation, bttt it does allow them to want ol iheir

own

pictures. I

l.inrua^e class atmosphere, }-igure4. 6

4.5.3

to express the

see the value here particularly

which

'tasks'

m

de-stressing the

can do very well.

Mmd mapfirplanning aparty (for learners to adapt and complete)

Time lines and sfoiylmes

A

Linear visuals are excellent for tasks based on sequencing. time line could simply be mLide from a long piece of thick string or a washing line

running

along one wall of the classroom. To tlii.s can be attached dates and pictures with captions denoting historical eveius (for example, history of our school/college') or stages in a manufacturing process (fer racample, 'Cheese making: from cnw to retail outlet'), or events in a story narrative. In

A

children's classes, storylines are often

card.

drawn on a poster or a wide piece of The process of making a storyline or a timeline involves deciding what

and how to draw or verbalize it so that it is. clear t®' others; as such it is an engaging process and at the end there is a concrete outcome something to show others— which can be interpreted and enjoyed. Different j;ioiips can produce dieir own and thisi display tliem, and,pre^nt them to inckidc

t)raiiy to

other gnjups who can dien ask questions about them.

Out- use of a storyline using pictLU'es/drawings

Coulson

lor his EUse beginners in Japan.

It is a

is

exemplified by David

based on

a dictogloss activity

but instead of getting learners to reconstruct verbally and write down the story he tells them, he gets them to work in {^rs and draw Whatever they can.

On

a

second

encouraged

telling,

they refine their drawings and, at a later stage, are

add any words they can catch. This results in learners Hstening out for key words and trying to get the gist of main events which they can draw. Finally, they compare their results with neighbouring pairs and try to to

David's students Vi^im 4. 7 A picture dkm^ku (hm by one of ilhisiraiion

\\\mmmm the learners did IHnm>4.7 ^\\om everyday mxy about h nmmnilc dog wlio nwam borwecn islands

to

oFa meet

Hi« ow,K.- could never work out why he can.c u

licr SLT ol' luiitlujiiakc Sufijty J^^^^

Ji;iri

and prcsniial

[laiiiphlt-ts i

IroiJii

nformation

of-

several

sources.

Design a task with

'

Learners

(-our

read

and compared the

people talking about their parents and discussing

some

idea of

themselves. So he started off his sequence of

'

drawn up a

Bcaudry brought in pubhshed

pamph lets and used some of it for refining what they had in ilicir own charts. Tim Marchand played his class a

Mrict they were, to give his learners

READER ACTIVITY 4D

learners 'kad'alfeaidf

in the

iilrcady wriEten

recording

twb, when

their (iwii idiMs, Yvoniir

ta^

how

to

how

do the task

witli a listening task

(nllowedby transcript study. Once you have chosen your topic, if there is no suitable text in your textbook, you can do a search on the web to find somediing that your students will find interesting and incorporate that into your sequence of tasks.

some vfeuai/organizational support

4.7 Review In this chapter, we have explored the process of selecting topics and looked at ways of designing two broad kinds of task and around ten subcategories of task. (See

icachers

Section 4,1 for a note on dassifying task types.) Also, thanks to the sent in their favourite tasks, wc have presented ideas for tasks

who

on around 25

topics, ilhistrating

some of them

in detail.

We

have also begun to explore various aspects of tasks like linguistic and have practised different teaching skills, including evaluating a task in terms of potential language use, givii^ visual/representational complexity,

6 Integrating reading and writing

snpport (charts, mind maps, laslis.

etc.), and planning and grading .sequences of Your task sequences can be further extended when you read the

Mowing chapter, where we covM anothef live broad types of task 4.8 Follow-up activities General topics like ^pollution' or 'naniral

disasters'

caa be narrowed

down

and made more specific.

READER ACTIVITY 4E Narrov^lngdown tasktopics(i) Work out ways you might you narrow down these topics for an intermediate class:

AI(li.ni}.hthcta«kshichischapterti0notgeherdlv
u

1

polluiinn

2

nauiral diiiistcri

i;

Hport

3

family

6

l.i(in«[)ui-i.

4 clothes

—

h

Gommantary ,

1

„< „

,

I

With

you mlgKM#,*llfetefet.s on on. or narrow it down to one or two

;pollution',

pollution,

area or region where your students

specific

live.

explo,,nh«*cts of different types of

in

the focal

You might then design a tarl' pollution on local people and another

PROBLEM-SOLVING,

by brainstorming with your

AND STORYTELLING

ask.mtehtbe to propose a long-ter™ solution to oneof those probtems '

"^'ght begin

'"Tt

different kinds of natural disaster

and exploring which

,
you could choose one kind thatyour learners 3

With Tamiiy ^^l

Iways remember; middle

'Clothes'; old clothes

many angles possible: family trees; a family you children; how to be ideal paLts; fami

Introduction

/

fit;

Miw

between two major cities;

^

'

tasks that

We

results

of

a

we

explore ways of generating five

more

rv'pcs

nCuisk, many of which will lead out of the pn-ccding ones. This will enable culminating in a project or an IIS Lo extend our task sequence, possibly

lutGome that can be shared or made public.

(

getting to school

air travel, ferries

or

.

'

I

map

how

sorting.

with tasks that involve matdiing and comparing. These are innmon classroom activiiies and not dlflicult to demonstrate to learners, cxtbooks tend to use a lot of them, and so do examinations. will begin

READER ACTIVITY 4F Narrowing down task topics(2) the topic

from the cognitive processes of listingand involve sorting can often be based on the

liosen topic. In this chapter,

(

bargain'

most dangerous "pons, sports-

work; a disastmus journey; future.transport sysLs;

Choose three topics from

we outlined ways of selecting topics and illustrated two broad

preceding listing task. In other words, things on lists sequence based on a classified. We looked at ways of building up a task

;

travelling

;iiapter 4,

can often be ranked or

5 Jporf healthiest sports; cheapest ways to keep sports in your neighbourhood.

ways of

(

types of task derived

" tasKsforthen^^eg

you remember; buylngctethes; your best clothes

;

11

1

y vies

favounte clothes/most hated clothes/childhood clothes.

6 Transport

class

>rJZ^ ^

as topic there are

^o^St w". chi^rr^wi^S"''^*^-''^''^ 4

n'd

PROJECTS,

(e.g. earthquakes) to investigate further or suseest twos) choose one kind themselves.

(In

TASKS:

MATCHING, COMPARING,

form of

sources of pollution

ROM TOPIC TO

5.2 Matching in

Section 4.1 that you could use with

A whole range of tasks can be generated here lliem can be teacher-led

exposure befiare 'Total Physical

the 19605, the

and are thus

—

suitable for

ideal for real beginners

having to speak th^nsdves. In

Response (TPR)

all levels.

activities,

fact,

Many of

who need lots of

many

can be done as

as formalized by James Asher in

and described recently by Richard

Frost. (See Further reading at

end of this chapter.)

S.2.1

Listening and matching

Iwcn true beginners can r.iiige

lisicn to

and watch

their teacher talking

of objects (for ex.iniplc. food items like fruit) or pictures

wi>rds and phrases 10 nuMiiinHs. Icatliers often pick iclcvantohjcci:(s) wliilc

buiuinas.

Mmni

I

lnve h.m.nia'-

Who likes bananaH? Who din-Mi'i Ruir buntinas? Cun you

m

i.illniii' .il-nui I

f

lor

like Imtitiiitisf

m Imw tnnnyf

)

up or point

example, 'bananas

eal uiie

about

and

—

a

relate

to fhe

nice yellow

ur two bananas every day

How many have wc got here?

m thld aids comprehension. After a

bil, Icamas can suu-l ,„ uk;n\iy wind, pic.re or ohj.ct kIms ,„ what thev hear w,chout the teachc, showing them ('Who poi,„

ow

banana).

J

OK^

..K,ny J,,,

X^Z^

,

bananas ate th^e?draw a baaaua-just here, they are marching sounds or words with obje* and

Comm«ntaiy There are several ways of sequencing these according to

level lenrners.

common in dultes language lessons,

and can be used for adults too eveT

beforeleatnmgthealphabet, reading, orwtiting.

.

tjlving

on the idea of an

of people,

1

andten

a

description of one them, in order to identify d e per on deTcribed th^ hear all descriptions and simply match 'each to Alternatively they can hear rhree descriptions and identify which person has

So—

aTcte

^'^^^

'^'^^

used

^"'^

I

f^™

asltentfand assessment "d th die pictures can denote anything from simple obiects patterns with shapes, to buildings, house plans,

start with b)

and maybe turn

class (talking

how familiar your

local

it

landmarks. For low

into a

memory game

by

about them as you give them out, so the

remember who has each one, {Learners place 10m face down on their table and hold them up when they are identified.) Then on to task c)— predominately a listening and identifying task—where^students put an X and a number on their map for each landmark; Continue with d), maybe M

I

rask for slightly t,igh„ levels is based Learners arc shown four pictures

"""^'"^

you could

out pictures to the

names of

words for the landmark are heard several times). Then call out the landmarks

Apopular matching Identtty parade

map

ners are with the area of the

tiMi

and the

map'

I

1

I

one to see

ly

if

the class can

1

the class to

.i'.kinjj

And

finally

do

a),

make the gestures

which would be a

typical testing format.

To help

i

liey

listening to

test situation.

more remote voice, and

learners get to grips with

imes over, with pauses, but without

have to keep

the speaker would use for each direction.

less familiar,

l

or street^' ne.

A graded sequence

'

telling

learners

if

It,

a

Is

yottcouid play

it

several

they were right or not. Thon

double check. This also prepares them for a

typical

Gtite done, they can com pare' their final destinatlor^'v^lth people

near them.

A sequence

of tasks on one topic can be Iniilt up gradually, so they form a graded sequence of tasks, from easy to more

^matchmgta^ (all H^t^ng activities), may are no longer m a graded sequence.

challenging.

Here

is

onTsuch^et

but ti.ey'iuve been mi^ Tup, ^ so

You may well justify a difFer&ntssquenee, dependingon how familiar your learners ,M e with these concepts. You may for example feel that task c), which gives lots of

A',

READER ACTIVITY 5A

would be better before task

i'X|)osure to useful teacher talk,

,1

b).

rollow up, to introduce a focus-on-form stage, you could replay the

rtjcording, getting learners to repeat

and practise phrases indicating location, (for

example, 'the tiifrd turning on the left'), then phrases indicating movement and/or iliroction (for example, 'turn left', 'go straight on'), then perhaps phrases

Grading a set of tasks ToptG Understanding street directions

indicating distance

may also be

or time. There

instances of repetition and

clarification thjit would beWafthpolntlilg'OUt.

c ass? Be

pmparBd to justify the order you have chosen and say how you might set ^^-^ ^" i-ne 4on! What wou " be a good r„dT N '""r^:''' follow-up ta5l< for your learners?

5.Z-2 Reading and matching can read, then the above tasks can be adapted to incorporate some reading and/or writing components. For example: If learners

Tou a™

here pent, but not knowing what their final destination will be They draw the route on their street n.ap. Do they all end up In the same place?

landmarl<

nearest to?

,s ,t

They can do this several times with

What

labelling objects, including things or people in pictures, shapes, colours,

•

different

destinations.

b Learners

Cite.

listen

example, post c

and match words or phrases denoting office, petrol statioa)

• matching caption cards or short texts to pictures or photos local landmar|<s (for

The teacher tells them about particular local landmarks and how to find them

on the

street

map

they have.

d The teacher demonstrates with a section of street map on the lu-H..v,,,r.H,,l,,h,M-nute she needs tot I'k.-

ni;urbinj.',tleMTi[Mi()ns in |iiilnres

•

tocormspondfufplctums

uiinkia. nghL/fcio straight on'. 'second on

right'. «t(;,

•

matching wi ilU-n

•

matching wol'cU

«

readingstreetdli't'i.iti()ni»mui

bo.irU, (Jkin,

on I

Ml

1

.sunuiiiii ies tu

longer written texts

to iiimliled tJefinicions

matching them to

a route, or

drawing a route

a street niiip.

1ll-.

Umwii

l,iM I'H.inipli'

oil,

,

UHI

<

I

'1

1

1.

1

'

4lll *ri'iV^lililiiimiliiitllBiiliJiilll

li

lit

Iters

lliMlf'

11

in.ip will) (oMi ilililcifiii niiile'.

m l'"'"^-

l'i-'iitiiL'r,s

li.Meii

(u ui le.ui

three leti of directions aiul match cid, -uu. w:,. not >' describeriVo'e

,„,

,

"

hi

"

''^'-'"''y

''' '

was

lo writ I'

worked to give

them

a street

map

route they hear. Tasks like

ending up with learners

oZ t

with no

t..k

'^"^ ™AlsZm tr^t"'^' Tr^''^ '""^^r ta.k

rivinTdire^don

^^

sequence.

n'lKirifd that

I'iiii

would be

lif.iiiiig

about

ilic

111

I

)

other, too.

ti

Gwmg directions' task sequence

leafneiJS

novelty of seeing a teachers personal photographs and

own hohday

his

n|.;agcment in the tasks that

t

cai'li

^°"°^"^*-«-wh^ere?het;rS™^^

posu.ml. tlr.scribmg their holiday; Fontfti

ilu-

in pairs helping.cach otlier.

Tim

is

caught their interest and increased their

Mowed. They enjoyed

sure that 'personalization

is

drawing posie^rds fo£

the ktf to keepinga

less

vated oi low level cUss. -1 1

'

.

KTADER ACTIVITY 5B Canada^At the asked then, to

tell

They did this as

^^g—

'

Wmm.

aTe ,l«

c

°" '"'P thT;^rt^,t::f''t to Aetr home from d inTIT wh^ their^^^ T*.'^' "^P ^°

best they the learners found out

v-y

lintited language.

di-ctions to

them

to places

Appendix ^^he

For he

on

X.7 for the

Ae

"

as a result.

yi

^^em. So

two

—

^you

Han

J

also

aware of thek

^^P^'^'^^^'^-

<

1

at the end.

map

of your local area that learners

^hey

pass, In

maybe

>ute

your head, mentally rehearse the

you would give learners to get there and see

how long this takes you.

directions forthis ratite.

on the map. Give the mapto'someO'fieelse and

Do not mark your

time so you

Can

play your recording.

hey follow your route? Note down any questions they ask. Record

it

a second

now have two versions.

andphrase.iX-t!;?CS""'''""°^^''''='^» i' iLi

above. gav^ lrectionT;

might

Identify

tr oCho'ultd h"

hers were living. In the next

ukcn of hts own Lmme after

be

you can, record yourself ^vlng

like

clestinatton.

le-n

will

lown any landmarks you would

(

I

own

Write brief instructions for each task and be clear about

—

If

were probably

a teacher led brainstorm to activate or present

a 'i^ystery tour'. Find a street

directions

notice words

you could use with one of

introduce the topic and task at priming

and mark this with a cirde. Then decide familiar with. Choose a starting point where you could walk to in 20 minutes and which route you would take. Note

'^'^^^'i- See

frf"'°-'

how you would

may want to do

whnt the outcome

'

t,"^'"-^ " "

Think

useful vocabulary.

used

1 P°'"' ^"'^ *hat happened outside dass

Ao»u.gM,j„,di„tothLo

different tasl<s involving matching that

)ur classes.

Mage

°f ^n^ten

--^h

T""

" t^fooLt

I'lesign

1

~

u

fulSn of SnJ

continued the lesson from

''^'P

^

man

hoose one of the topics illustrated above or take a topic of your choice.

the school,

'''""S'^ '^ey

mainTT'I

hefo™ holrandt

om task design to task instructions

Ti

in Halifax,

e«mnl

.

T'^'"''

SZ^S;?* ""''^^'f

^"""^ ""^ where Photos he had

thesummerbrelSilStwr^^^^^

'

I

The advantage of

in class

you their

their directions to

when you next do

having a recording

times and rest while students ar^

listening!

If

is

a direction-

that you can play

you transcribe

it,

it

many

(or parts of

it)

you

have an excellent textfor some form-focused work.

Tip: to III

telling

where he/she ends up.

giving lesson.

f

do the same, without

loose one of your recordings to play

will

^f^rnmerMdaf task sequence

to ask a colleague to

Record them doing this and see if you can follow

make it more

(( liriiis i'ox

Interesting,

befohS you start plying your 'l^ystery tour'

your lenrners to guess one place you could get to

in

a

20-minute

walk and put a cross on the map. See which learner gets the closest to your

W

destination.

"1

'''' prepared students for "''''^'"'S task some of he ^^' ' ordering task. His '^^^'^ ^he learnersThen wen o^^ class to find out what th wl7'°"r'r?''^"P~P'-"^'^™-

y

^PPtopriateplctutesonablinaS;---^^

t)nc

l)ig advaiUii|j;t' ul usiiiff. l.i'Jvs

very rich cxpoHura to

Framework.

laiiniiujf,i'

mvolvMig

inutcliing,

is

that learners gain a

wlrhln die security of a tight and well-defined

III

dilTcrent countries, Of

l.t'

iliiics in

two

two

tlilltLicni-

moixO ikhIoimI

(or

lypcs of volcanoes, or the tounat

paries; tiic possibiiitics arc endless.

5.3.»t1®^i)si{son tasks

•

hmiXy

trees

^ ^ of ^^-e .en

and

information on what to do either 'before, 'during', or

i

fa„.,ie.

what

rarihc]uake to

and wo«ea in

on iwt) or more icxts or rranscripls on iwo or more tlilflTcnL ncwspaptTs.

a

VvoniK- Ikuudry distributed authentic pamphlets on 'Earthquake salety' Irom the Red Cross and other organizations. Her learners then compared (lie official

^test?

al.so ln' ha.^cd

ilicnic, (ur (.'XiHiiplc (cxis Ironi

iiiiiiiLii

• their

fan

uiiiniii'isoii l:isks

I

thej^

ha4 already written themselves

'after'

in their

an

own

li.iri.s.

^^"^"'dvvorst clothes bargain

•

loi iiK'd

I

• *«'^JanguageIearning«rategies

•

I'or his

pari

()(

a

whole

oFtasks; see

^Moulm Rouge movie

tle.'.ij',neil

auilienee.

Appendix

i.i.

Glen Poupore, in trailers, one For a North American audieiice, an4 one for a Japanese He got his intermediate level students to watch them twice and

South Korea, used a

note

set

down

as

many

trailer

comparison'

task,

0VD which contained two different

differences as they could. Later, they were asked to

—

explain the reasons fbf

tihte difceijces in the trailers which led to a about cultural fMbrences. Finally, to promote a focus on language form, he gave them transcripts of the trailers to study.

fruitful iliscussion

^

a folJow up ro

rhi,s

-j

r

'

vi

ofthe most in ere

'

P 'n^^^^^

bnef

description of each pkce a„d parsed round fer the

otl.L

'•"-pared inmoredetail. with SaiKlee

wlw

to

Thomp«,„

,

V »

"

'^""-^ couJd

''°f^ d,ey had ieard ^"^^"^

d'scussion.

and compared

wlrir/,""' /"'"""S^™"--- and

family .aiues-

task

own

(Appi^J^^ "1

Hegot groups ofiearners

to read ch

(fomample, Children should

P'^«s. with

:

recording

their

about, or

"-"W hen

^'t^*''

'"'"^

^

f"^ 'P'''''^'''

chosen for comparison,

more specifically the process of contrasting can be based on media versions of the same news story, or film review or obituary, inking stories from two or three different -newspapers, or different TV or I

-rXs 10 practise

ilifieivm*

a

Mail-order catalogues, ffot dothcs or household items or have whole pages where very similar items are illustrated ami

latlio stations.

nuisic)

^e

described. Learners can be asked to choose three similar items

which to

is

best value.

—

Mniilar product 1

liallenge

fo''

-^'^n

-

°^^»g«-g= and for ^l-^ficsocialcustomshicew^ZC.^^^^^^^^

teachers use recordings

of two TV good

car adverts are a possibility (and also

sequencing

flanlg^

5.3.2

tasks, as

Games: fmd the

"^^™enf

and decide

adverts for a for

memory

we saw earlier).

similarities or difiFerexLces,

(Comparison often forms the basis for games and other challenges, for differences', or talking about personal experiences to find

example 'Spot the things in

common.

R>cusing on

7'-

Some

and matching

and then compare ° " '^t^'^^^^^i^Al theirlist with o h r r their own ""'"^""P^ gtoupi opinions. ^"""^^d one that matched

?e:^:r :s

T.5.

haying the same

^'^^ ^'-se. Shatin

.nlStTT'^l^'"' ^

account, see Appendix

b

differences.

of aduit learners

Z^-^^^^^l^^iSl^;^^^^^ Aemselves. They then heard a

oi a lull

l

Write a comparison of u;o ^f d.^ »hort summary

^^-^ out

a^ut

culture can be

rhifii's in

similarities) die following taslts are generally productive:

annnioir.'VvW

liuic oi the year.

three things in

Then

vui liiid

common

minutes you have

patiui'i

whal you usually doal weekcud.s

at this

oui wluii your pariner does. Try U) lind at

nr %vv

in ciitinirioH,

how

leasi

nnuiy things that you can find in three

'Will your paths cross?': Talk to your partner about

what they luc doing over the next few days. Find out if your patlis are likely to crossat any point over this period. For example, you might be going to the same supermarket for

You may want them to examine and explore any useful linguistic features of the tt'xtsyoii (oiik! UM-; ihi', <
(J

wf

.1

luo'cl vouiljulary for

landmarks before the 'Giving directions'

alter the task for a form-focused stage.

your shopping.

Find someone who has the same birthday: Use the list of seven birthdays that yonBiade earlier (see 4.3.2,). Choose four birthdays and commit them (and the people) to memory; fold your list up and put it away. Go round the class asking others what birthdays they found out about and see if you can find someone else with the same birthday. Note down whose it was before continuing. (Por

inih

some statistical reason

there

is

6

Show your dt^lfeisefiiufeftG&toa colleague and talk It through with possible, try

out the tasks together This

and could give

you some idea of

Write or record

/

N4aiching and comparing

y pes

I

can in fact be done two ways: co-operatively, with two people

in collabora-

iire

both pictures and helping each other to spot a certain

number of differences and writing them down in a list. Or, it can be done in A/B pairs where each learner looks only at rhclr own plctm-c, and rhcy find the differences by each describing their picture in turn, and stopping when their partner thinks they have found a difBsrence to diedc it out and write it down. Oty

iniStead

their picture,

There

of decribing,,

and then change

A can ask B

questions about the details in

over.

mentioned in the last paragraph. Stop on the patterns of interaction and language use that each possibility might give rise to. "Which one might your class find easiest to do and which the hardest to do? (More on this in Chapter 8, for a

are in fact diree possibilities

moment and

Section

allow you to foresee any

If

difficulties

how it might go in class.

clearlnstrtjctfons for each task, giving exafnples based

(as well as

processes for activities focusing

at

will

him/her.

on your

topic.

Spot the difference: This classic game, based on two nearly identical pictures,

looking

or

a strong likelihood of this

occurrir^ if more tfaaa 30 birthdays are involved.)

tion,

task.)

Write some suggestions.

reliect

5

make good

on language form. And

the above task-

all

fedlitating feisb fer^f ^tJfeUM-soI^ng taskSs

which we

now going to look at.

A

Problem-SQlving tasks andpuzzles

Problem-solving tasks invite learners to offer advice and recommcndari(tns on problems ranging from the very general, like global warming, to the very in your specific, like what to do if your neighbour's cat is causing trouble garden. These t^sks can stimulate wide-ranging discussion and also offer Mopc for a variety ofwriting activities, including note-taking, drafting, and Hnalizing proposals for solutions.

There laslcs.

8.5.)

can

ordering and classifying) are also useful

are

many

topics that naturally lend themselves to probleni-.solviag

Take a look at the mind-map on

p. 94.

These ideas have been proposed

wide range l^y teachers in different countries, teaching different ages and in a of social contexts. See which ideas would best suit your

READER ACTIVITY SC

own

classes.

Add

your own.

Plan a task sequence ending In a comparing task 1

Take your topic and thfhk up two

different

comparing tasks for classes you

2 Write the steps you would take to set up one of these comparing

tasl<s.

Think

whether you want to aliiswtearnefs apportunftles to write rather than speak,

ora balance of both. 3 Preparation stage: what priming activities might you do at the start of tine task sequence? Maybe one or two facilitating tasks listing, ordering, or matching?

—

could, for example, start off with

Or ask

learners to brainstorm and

into consideration v\/hen doing the

list

a teacher-led brainstorm or listing task. criteria

to help cells.

or aspects that could be taken

them organize their Information.

support: If

so,

some

draw

this

kind

und

ofa chart or table fill

out some of the

ta^

can stimulate rich discussion

if learners

have already

thought out some ideas to share. They will benefit from time to think beforehand; they can then get to grips with the problem and work out possible solutions and how to express dnem. In some cases there may be a Miitablcwebsiiror pamplilcr that gives some useful bacl^round inform:! tion This means it is olu'ii Ih'M lu iiuroduce the topic and do a relevant priming phase in a prcviouji lesson, explaining the nature of the problem and telling solution to this problem. learners that the IhhK will I'f i" disi uss ;nid agree :i

Obviously

comparison.

4 Learners might benefit from some visual

Prepa*ixi^ learners for problem-solving tasks

Problem-solving

teach; write a short set of instructions for each.

You

5 .4.1

Icarruirs .ur

load one that one that they

mmhi

lilu ly

lu

become engaged

ulTtxHi tliviii. ui oiu' lhaf

M <m\Hm

itt

trillUnnubmii.

within

their

il

die

own

problem

is

a

experience, and

Global/intemaiional issues 'pIc

• drafting notes for an oral prciematlon of recommendations or advice

Smuggling

• writing

Illegal ficticjq

up a

final

proposal for others Co read.

Sonic topics, for example, what to do with your cat or pet while you are away doing two or mlj;,!!! not w;irmm more than Ji Fc-w miiuiccs pair discussion

«Eaaiabb,resburces oil, coaJ,

ilui-c

ol"

the above niini-tasks: there are not

holiday care for cats and eadh

one would

omhne and evaluate. In the real world, ^''""'"'^ing

Environmental issues I-ack (Sparking in

and peer

prcssuj-e

•

•

Quarrels

•

Lack of money

•

Ladiofcoinmunicacion between parents

to-wn centres

Problems

• •

for tasks

and

teenagers '

options available for

rhis

would be

a sentence or two to

a simple advice-giving

an anecdote or a recounting of a not the kind of problem that would lend itself to a

inieraction, possibly interlaced with

Teenage issues '

many

retjuife o-nly

• •

N°pJa«ro hang our and meet up with friends on

Trafi^ccongesdon

Water shortages

R'verandseapolluuon Overcoming opposition

towindiarms

|HTsonal experiences It

is

serious written follow up.

A p roblem-soking task Sequ^ce on a more serious topic listed above in Figure 5.1) mi^t proceed Hke this:

(like some

of those

rirp^mmon and priming: with, a teacher-led class exploration of the effects of views or ilu' problem and the possible causes, and/or sharing personal \priicnces of the effects of the problem.

(

neutral territory

and report phase: Small groups or pairs could then be asked to think of rwo or three dilFerent soludotiSi compare them and dioose one proposal to lask

lorward to the wholedaSS, justifying their plan of action and saying why (hey think it is best. Preparing this proposal becomes the 'target task' as l>iii

Social/femiljr contexts

.lelined in

your grown-up children won't leave •

'^"ncliness at

home

Work contexts

an overseas •

i-inivetsity * '

'

MuvivL-

them

^^^';"g>^o"rprodticts-dMline w-th market eomperiu.rs

Dealing with death • '

ntqunhiyin ihc work place work :,„d family

bas^sfor tasks

x, 2.2.

Writingphase I : Drafting. After the whole class plenary learners can be asked class feedto write up their propo^ in draft form, taking mto account the back.

Rcingijutofwork Being Wind or deaf

Fi^res.i Problems as a

P'-epariiig for job interviews

Chapter

They could do this Individiially at home.

lesson Writing phase 2: Finalizing and 'pubUshing' the target task. The nexr final single up a and draw ideas or collate writing, edit their ihey can peer wall for classroom the display on to identified by a number version

—

—

others to read. Learners can choose three or four to read, note the number with the writers .Hid write a brief evaluation of each, which could be shared

authentic n private or put up on the wall for all to see. 1 f the problem is an &rm wind kml opposition t# a the topical issue, for example, criticizing recombest the proposal where there is a public enquiry underway, i

5.4.2 Prob Wsolving

ta.k ..quences

and scenarios

mendations could be sent off to the appropriate a local newspaper as a Letter to the Editor.

official

body, and/or sent to

learners have 11, in ilie course of their problem-solving task, explicit more a re-used for can be these material, sources of used written solve trying 10 people oFother have recording a focus-on- Ion ,i.i|;e. H vmi

Focus on form:

1

I

he probk

,ill('i

^<.Ma]MwuJiwiiic]uo«pp«|«p«uI,,„i,„,i,

A

ihr

1

ni, ihr.

l.r.L

iiule (HI

III

Kiiild

lie

exploited for useful language; see the suggesiions

I'lW-

JilW'"^

problcnt-Molvi»HJ,j^{|liJ

ii.i.h.l wjl|

Imi.

'I'l'i 't^'

Mm- iliiinv of Hngiiisiie challenge of fanuliarity with the topic, t'l*^

.

prepnr«,on, i„w .xphut the H,«.ucdons arc, aiul »< A v.,y practical "vn ,„ c,r,h tuddike the cat proble.™ above woflcl pmbubly b fkrless >l-n,„K ,n, l,„gt„st,cally than the second sequence

embassy Staff, would usually he iiuroJiM

v^\

wiili a

h;K:kgroiiiul, l!u' roles ofllu- ix'opli.' Involved

and

a

written description of the statement of die problem.

'

genetally possible to make a complex into a numbe» efsmaller(feciUtating)

problem

easier

descrlbi But it is by breaking * it down

'or

I

iwo examples, see Yevgeny

interview scenario in

Appendix

Slivldn's I'ictitious

2.5,

marriage

and Claudia Bet's

role play

'Peo,j>Ie sfiwj^;lii^'

scenario in Chapter 10 (10.3)

tasks.

Beginning with a text Sonrc problem-solving tasks can begin with a short text settmg out the p obletn, l,ke a problem page letter, which promotes class or graL or pair d.scuss,on. Davtd Cox for example, adapted this ,^k from 106;, tor his learners in Japan:

^7^1^^

Prediction tasks for content-based teaching

We looked at some prediction tasks hased on texts in Chapter 5. The purpose ..r I

ihfse

lie

gist

was to prepare learners for reading a written text or understanding of a listening text. Other prediction tasks can be set up as a stimulus

lor oral discussion or

a writing task. These

make

excellent preparation for

content-based learning. Here are two examples, one for

TASK 2

ELT methodology

and one for science. '

f

^T^^^'

Tu"^ your ideas and then agree on the

1-^^-^?

f'f

Discuss I

D^ar Angle, My husband and i are worried about our daughter. She refuses to do anything we tell her to do and is very rude °' """^ ""^^ ^^^^ friendly with a girl we dn "^t" like, n^v don't we don't trust her anymore because she is always ly.ng to us. Are we pushing her ^way from ub? We don t know what to do, and we're worried that she is going to get into trouble. Worried Parents

was designed by Heidi VandeVoort Nam for prc-.scrvlce eacher trainees in South Korea who also needed to improve their classroom

This task sequence

two best suggestions.

Lnigtiage.

Mcthododogy area: vocabulary teaching' As a warm up we played a guessing game, definitions.

Then

vocabulary

in English.

(2)

™*

^"""S ''°™

I'i^^

evaluatmg each

A

a letter of advice? and

r

the class

in the letter above

and

in the recorditrg that

David got

his friends to

the

Lookin Loofang

T7

'Y"^"""' at phrases beginning

ZnSr°-

word

- J°"g - they can'

with the wotd 'P or 'you' would highlight ^P"-f-o- spoken interaction for exam'ple! 'I

- ^,'"^^'y°"tnow...'andastudyofV %ah' leah tnd'M and No might even prove fruitful. ,

More complex problem-solving

scenarios, such as those used in b„,in,.„ '^"'^

""^ Johnson

15,94),

their

then gave the trainees

them

to predict

we

listened to a rcc
I

Prediction tasb are similar to puzzles in that they engage your curiosity

negativity; classifying these according to structural criteria (those with I ..egative verb those with an adjective, other) could provide a rich learning oppoitumty. In the recording there are several useful phrases with

''"^

and

predictions.

adt and

focus-on-ferm stage could follow. If you can get two fluent speakers/

Both

wol:ds

had made of myself teaching that same lesson to high school students, and the trainees checked their

"f advice

ottW according to criteria they select themselves.

on

methods of teaching a page from a high school

which words high school students would ask questions about and what method the teacher would use for presenting the vocabulary.

Tlxen

I™!id'"' they would give and then discussing their ideas, presenting some to They could end with learners drafting 1"'"'^

1

English tcxtl)ook and asked (1)

bstsed

the teacher- trainees brainstormcd

or for ,rai„i,^

and

there is usually a definite-solution. Here is one based on a science experiment for you to do.

READER ACTIVITY 5D

A prediction task Read the ©utline ofa simple science experiment which three of Lorie Wood's adult learners set up as part of a longer project on atmosphere and weather.

Can you iaper

is

predict wliat will suggesteLii"

Make

happen a

list

at the

end?

Why do you

think the black

of three predictions that children of twelve

|

might come up with. 'Mystery exp«rim«nt' PliiMK w,iir-i lioMl.-

(1

If.ii

plttntip,

iioicolaured), anicecube,

somevery hot

Experiment hc

.

bol:tlG

4^

Fill

2

Wait five minutes so the bottle gets hot as

I

There

whlh

well.

3 Empt^'^otit haff thf water out of the bottle.

4 Put an

ice

5 Watch

are

many

sources for such puzzles.

We googled and found a website someone

ailled

Judy

http://pages.prodigy.nctyspenceik/YPjanzoo3.hrml by logic problems, with single stars tor secti<M>s lor ynuno peoples

with hot water.

1

. isy

cube on the neck of the bottle.

1k,s

ones. The miportant thing

is

or puzzle yoli $dec^ Will give generate opportunities for learners

that the

game

useRU exposure^.la^^aSe and compare solutions. express themselves andlater to

Iciirners

closely!

10

How might you set this experiment up in class to generate participation

from each learner?

maximum oral What writing task could you set arising from

this?

For an outline of the complete project and the answer to the mystery, see

Appendix 2.5.

READER ACTIVITY 5E exposure and use Appraising the U$k'm terms of language

What mlghtyour learners actually say when

I

5.4.3 Problem-solving games

generate a different style oi pair interaction. Note however that if the cognitive load is too great, i e if the problem is highly cognitively detmtiding, learners will have less spare mental capacity for composing what to say while trying to f^nd the .solution in real tuoe. Their language is often hesitant aiid staccato—ail the more reason fer gimg learners at least some time to prepare a possible solution and to larepare to report their solution back to others afterwards, in a more tormal way. You may also need to show learners how to use a grid for working ° logic problems

problem about

Peter,

and you can, ask two people to do it while you listen transcript in Appendix 3.2 to see what two lake notes or record them.) See

Mary and john above?

and puzzles Other types of problems include puzzles and logic problems, for exampleRachel was born in winter but her birthday is in the summer. How comc>' These too start with a short text, but will probably

solving the

fluent

(If

speakers said.

problem task above. Which would

Lookatthe thfeefollow-up activities in the yWe most exposure to language in use? Which

;

is

most

likely

to get

them

talking?

leam^^mine'from the text? How h writing the true sentences, how much can

when

explaining

mlghtyour learners, express themselves the text of the For an explicit focus on form, look at

, '

above Underline four orfive

how they did

logic

problem and

its

rubric

pickup. useful phrases thatyour learners might ^

What might learners notice If asked to find eight examples ^

it?

of phrases with to

and divide them into two categories? of the puzzle How far would It matter If your learners did most of the first step task

above

in Li?

out.

Who did what? where? A logic problem for low level beginners

5.5 Projects and creative tasks

Peten Mary, and john

all went away last weekend. One of them went to Birmingham, one to Manchester, and one to London. One of them went to the theatre, one went to see a relative, and one went to buy a computer

Who did what? Here are two clues to help you: one of them went to to

visit

•

Work with a partner. Write one true sentence about each

•

Mary and John. Can you explain same way?

•

Now listen to the recording. Did you have the same answet^^id the

(

i

hi,s

same way

task

linsi

appeared

and D. Willis

1988.)

tasks can

be broken

be used t© set up

down

into a

evaluating possible

problem and ,a.uence of shorter tasks exploring the target problem. the to solution a to solutions, leading up

A ^mllat design

projects.

around

person—Peter,

eulminate in a specified end-product others to appreciate. Possible end-products or made public in some way, for arc

in J. Willis

hm problem-solving

comprises a sequence of tasks based .Simply put, a ta^k-based project with its own outcome or purpose, which onft specific topic, each task that can be shown to others, displayed,

how you did the puzzle? Did they do it the

as you?

saw above

process can

London

her mother; John bought a computer but not in Manchester.

to another pair

We

they do

it

shown here:

= £$£ $ £o fiindlng proposal for a local ImprovmMt £$£$/$

one

I

alst)

gets lier .idull kludciilh lu eaeli create their

have to read

Bportfolio

a class

magazine or newspaper

iind

some EngHiK kngutge newspapers and

own

newspaper.

collect

items from eacli genre (editorial, adverts, global issues,

own

wilic tlicir

sample etc.),

'I'iicy

articles

and then

pieces (she specifies what) in an appropriate style, Lorie

her class and give a presentation on which her students practice on each other and

.ni.inges for a local reporter to visit ( <

a short radio programme

CD

l

=—

)nd ucting interview^ after

dii

ii

ihi

ii

Once rhcy have written come in as guest speaker, to

iruerview a native-speaker for a 'feature story'. pieces, she also asks a

newspaper editor to

tliem-with the design of thdr fltewspapers.

hi lp

M&re

dedils in Appendix

UN EHT£RTAI[MMENT AliiTiiatively, learners l.r.'-.

1

a short

vidw recording

doing projects can get their

in small

groups

and buildings that visitors or might find interesting. In class, guided by their teachers, they d. '.i]',iied, wrote and illustrated in colour a series of leaflets in English on each at ion. These were laminated and lent to visitors to their village.

Some possible end-products

It It

A mure ambitious project for tertiary

up by

w.i.s .set

R&ADER ACTIVITY 5F

tt

End-products for your projects

Alicia van Altena

ond

1

lists in Chapter 4 U-^), orfrom your own Lookatthe end-products above and simply select two or three that

might be suitable for your learners to work on for each of your topics. You build on these in a later activity.

<

will

!angua<j,c in the

lumps

United

States.

of three students prepare a

Media

—

^an

Although thls^v^ designed to teach

twenty minute radio programme

which

is

ealletl

recorded in the prolessioiial

Studio of the Center for LaRgu^.Stiiidy(CLS) at Yale University. She

describes

on a collaborative basis, with learners in pairs or groups of three or four, but can be done by individuals. They are normally spread over a longer time-span dian task sequences, with tirne in between project-oriented lessons for learners

sLudents on the subject of Cuba

teaches 'Spanish in the

procedure could be used to teach English.

lenulia' Cintormal social gathering') liidio

yo}vas are normally done

level

who

ppcr intermediate course that uses the joumalisticgenreto teach Spanish as

Sp.inish, a parallel

riiooso three topics from the topic

1

by going outside

tdurists

^^j^

syllabus.

da;^.

Lanka, school children of n and. 12 went out

iottnd out about nearby local places

.Mitl

figure sa

In rural Sri

'Ibpic:

it

thus:

— two opposing views

Cuba

Sinail

The

prepare For each step.

and discussion with a recent Cuban emigrant iiboLit Oliver Stone's doCtjmietttary El Comandante, in which Lourdes t^6mez interviews Stone on C^tro's potk^f in Cuba and his film.

to research as individuals

and

can be mainly classroom-based but are often enriched by indudW by experts' or 'informants' from outside. For example, for her 'Firs! aid project on emergency procedures in a working environment, Lorie Wood asked a registered nurse from her local medic^ centre to visit her class l;irst she divided her cla.s into four groups and each chose a specific first aid .situation— emergencies that sometimes occur in their lines of work (electric shock, hypothermia, burns, heart attack). Each group had u. become cxp.Tis „> adniinisierin,; first aid procedures and demonsii^itr iheni and I

V(.jea.s

odier groups.

about

first

When

the nurse

aid procedures lor tliese.

had propurcd

came

in

and ^luvked

for choir presentations

umLiss, sMtd. 1..

were correct.

see

il

ni.,

.,-,ked iu-r

ihe pio. eduur.s they

how

to

make

a radio program. Followed by

L'onversation, evaluation,

•

v.siis

tcucli

project involves learning

The students

read excerpts from journalism texts in Spanish

on how

to

prepare a radio program. Discussions on the main characteristics:

•

precision and brevity. Students listen to Spanish radio programs and copy those models in practice exercises. Use of the voice: pronunciation and intonai:ion. Students' attention

•

Students read a transcript of Gomez's Interview with Oliver Stone.

•

Students watch the documentary El Comandante.

•

We

clarity,

can also be drawn to specific forms ot the language in the models.

use the

/.aritgoza

i.]i,ic\stion«

with

l-idftl

in

die interview

CflStro in

lOOO

done by Fcdcrico Mayor

for discussion.

.

What topics

iiiighLyour learners like to

make a radio programme

on? Even

if

you do not have access to a prdfesslonul reKJrdlng stBdio, you can use a tape v;cw, arc conflicting

sLmoms. Ex

I

^

recorder with a microphone

- 'heir

°"

a quiet

in

non-echoey room. (There are plenty of

websites with advice about making good quality recordings and radio).

'^ff

For an example of a radio programme project for young teenagers, seeAunelia Garcia's 'Radio Talk Show: Heaithy teens'

the general public.

^^''^"^ of the

^

CLS

I'or

for

the project above, AHcia

hpealcers for

her

in

Appendbcz.z.

found three Cubans who were native Spanish EngUsh in a big city it should

class to interview. If you teach

not be too difficult to find fairly fluent English speakers willing to class to talk to learners

*c inrer.ew. fetch a

draft

^11^70^7^^^^1° J'^^""^ Programs

warci.

of their radio pro^ramT,

d"<.r. the clas,, rime to general and .maJI group

^Clon^ disciXrof

"

"h

°

'"f""™"'

I

may

here

about their special

field

or an aspect of their

may

found and on a specific topic. using a web-based community like

be places where tourists or foreigners

readily be

and

politciy asked to take part in a survey or be interviewed

^=

Or

^'P'^"^.

;:^"agefoc.jkandth::°:^:::ss^

come to Or

lives.

a similar interaction could ,Jia^|)eii

Webbeads, set up by Vance Stevens ^2004) Tanziska Lys,

I

who teaches a German writing course in the USA, gets each of German (not necessarily a native

her students to seek out a speal^er of

g.

"up, but

unfortrmlcrd ue

ro

cl,

f

^^-^^d i^o three

°- Per

"

I

r7^°-^^''"pp-'ci;:;:gttES::-"'xw:e StuOem

evaluations of

tlie arrJvIt.

'""'^ ^!!";"]' an7i«e^t?VT.T™'''""^ .'n«dcast; high tech "''io equipment wTtr ^ ^ ™ pla '-teningsHls and benlficll ^'^"P^"'

from

their feedback

folW:

-.1 world'; 'fun to use

^

'

i"P "foncs head';

and seen

'it

in Stones

moS^

READER ACTIVITY 5G Identifying learning

ofared a rtil

Her students arrange to interview them once a week over a period of a term to hear about significant episodes in their lives. 'hey write up each week's 'episode' and post iron ihcir own web-page for the others to read. To do this they learn how to create their own web-page, how to upload photos, and search the web for pictures and illustrative details on the places mentioned in the life stories, check COpynght and add diose to speaker) living in the area.

^^S^:: SS::^^^ -

^ P"™^ ^

'I

I

lieir

website. I'hcy refine

and

redraft as they progress

ihcy have a fascinating website for others to li-

you cannot find

visit.

and by the end of term

(See Lys 2004.)

fluent speakers of English locally then

you can do what

'^nmments off the

Aurella Garcia does in Argentina.

-h-t wehadrld

(secondary school age) going out into the local town and doing surveys with local

people mainly in Spanish.

Many

to express the results in English, write

informal oral presentation to the

opportonities

class

entail learners

work out how up a formal report and then give an in English. See Appendix 2.1: 'A new

They then

^

of her projects

return to class and

cajtbtEuria'.

Shane

Sw^^^in

United Arab Emirates sends his college students out to

local businesses to learn

for example, the ''^^ '

I^"'"'

description Of i-heabove project and (i.tth

«that,ear.er.w,,,.av.had^r:S

—

showroom

about a trade and write about different aspects of it;

women might go to a local beauty parlour, men to a car sales

or iiuhistrial plant.

They make

several visits to explore different

Although they will do and present their projects in hold Vnd-of~project public exhibitions', and it is

aspects of the luisines.s or iiianufactLu-ing process.

X^r'°

much

ol this in Ai.ibtt., they

English,

;":X:!*:^::^:^-:---o.t.o.,o,,, ^ °^ '"'^^ language form? focus on "^'Sl^^ ^^he teiich.r

thrnnj'h

cnd-ol

They ftl«o have .1

i

to

(Mnlnii.iiiiiii nl

pi'oja;!

ivporti,

ih*

|M('.i

have

ii

rii

10 report

ndniiiuiioii giitlicring processes :md their iiinii',

,iiul

exliiliiiions

thai:

students arc

*>.

6 Sharing fiersomd experiences: story-tellings

iinecdoteSy reminiscences a maiket survey, interyiewimrT^v

"^°""'='^'=P""n'l'^sk, doing

III

our everyday social

ill

ink, in break- tiijies,

pi rsoflal

lives, for

example with

we spend

visitors,

with friends over a

a large proportion of time recounting

^petiences and teiling stories. "When giving advice, for

mmple,

back on recounting what we or a friend did when faced with a Minilar problem. When telling stories or anecdotes our aim is often to 'cap'

wr oh'cn

..yllabus-see

App nix

,

„T

of

«otour«m and

other top.cs on her

1

preceding story

u'

1

'.,1

fall

iiic

,iiid

—ours must be

story agaiJi to different people, so

make

it

more

more dramatic. We often tell the

better or

we

get plenty

of diances to refine it

entertaining or dramatic. If our learners are going to take

pait in social interactions with speakers of English,

it is

important they

feel

comfortable talking about their own experiem^* orembarking on a story, so they need plenty of practice in

wn.en,addLedd£Xret Hnks, well-defined goals.'and evd:: "11 i-heirnwn, nardvin nalt-c^^^

work

that

J'^'.r

n ^Srslrt^^'^^'r^^^^ F^^^cuures. Learners work parr

is

up a

lot

o7

invaluable.

eX dl *

P

everyone's .;nnc

IS

fi

^"^'"^

^

P™^'^"^

'^"'''"°"-^° fi"d«g a resource lilce

story might be

(

in

taslcs

stotytelling, fbr

social experience.

lo

The

and

(3.7.3),

book have contained elements of learners had to predict from the jumped off the Empire State Building' what the

described in this

example in Chapter

headline 'Hello! I've just

3 (3.2,

Reordering events to make a

tell it.

story, as in

Monty's

or recalling the sequence of events in a video clip would skills. Many of the topics suggested in this book ronnd of storytelling: for example, an earthquake

oniribute to story-telling

so far could give rise to a

Plannlng a project and/or scenario prolecwandscenanos

stQr)rte[Htlg OEUltributcs

enjoyment and generally enhances our

iiome of the

READER ACtlVITY ^H^ the sample

GOsd

true in the classroom.

monster

Rc.Tcl

class.

y

c:nllCC:X:^'^^^^^^

scratch takes

webquests

^^^'-'^

you remember, a journey that went wrong, your best summer holiday Appendix

2 f2

1

,r^.„H

K

,

u

experience.

web,uestsitesfo.p^,,,«,hat.ightbesUtTb,et:ii;:feS^^^

^"=:r^:^:i:f'-----(^--^^-etbeon.

Maybe because of our tendency to want to ''cap* stories we have just heard, many of the ideas for stories sent in by teachers contain superlatives: Your most memorable diildhood experience Your most frightening experience The scariest thing you have ever done

Plan

in

more detail some priming activities.

Your most embarr^sing moment The fiinniest person you know Maggie Baigcnt, who teaches university students story-telling tasks at all levels. Recently, she

used

in Italy, regularly uses

this

with pre-intermediate

learners:

Write

ail

aneiilou-

lioni

exciting/li lpjuciiini'./'.pci

She follownt

llii

iai

your personal experience when something happened.

i(jji,r\:

• indiviilu.il iliuilim|;/pii |Mhiiinii

•

5

minute«' dtum tlte ui

.u liuiiic;

lni>tlvii,kuil

vocubiilury queries,

prime rehearsal;

,

Mory

• tdJ

lo

p;ii

(iuT their reports.

Ontglri liys her dog doesn't

how does she know?

I

also ask what

he

likes

to go for walks.

like

to

do

I

ask why and

instead.

• pivpurc to retell

• change partners

•

and

retell

ation

and language of two

«^pnf cn.t5' lt' couisebook ,(f)Wiousl5rusedfe

Post-task

^

story

grammar

I**'''

similar anecdotes in practice)

• group/class story writing of a short video clip • write own story for homework

In With the remaining time, assigned for class Wbrk thevocabtitary section week Next traits. character and their homework book on describing animals 1

we are going to do the

unit in the

textbook on describing people's characters.

Eiviiluation

The conversations were noisy— lots of

laughing,

and

lots

of English.

I

have

atid Visknoticed that#K)m task repetltfon th^-emet^s more 'lan^age play' students to helps the really repetition taklng' as students get comfortable. The

open

up.

Overali the reports (

I

were very

garden. Th«re

iS

i^any funny stories about goldfish!

used different methods to keep a cat out of no doubt that students are taking their language to the

)no report was about iiir

interesting,

how a girl

limits.

about animals and

'Talking

hoih teachers allowed learners time to prepare in advance, and expected her learners time to learners to get on with their own planning. Maggie gave

pets'

had to before f^peatbg thestory-telling task, whereas Jason's learners rhcir learners to write up their rciicat the task immeciiately. Borh got to read or listen to, and thus others Mnrics/cxperiences afterwards, for nuioduced opportunities for some focus on language form. During this, drew focused more on story structure and organization, while Jason reflect

Priming: (10-20 minutes)

I

To save

time.

I

write ide^s for learners to talk about on the board:

Whaf s your favourite

kind of animal?

Have xou ever had a pet op do you have one now? How would you describe its character?

Maggie

IciU'iicrs'

Do you

have an interesting experience or story about a pet? Students do unguided planning-writing their own ideas down

(.and

checking words

attention to use of vocabulary and

grammar

.

Both

sets

of learners

teachers) seemed to enjoy each others' stories and reports.

READER ACTIVITY

5I

Planning a storytelling session 2

Choose one

Task

Decide on a P'''"'"

°"

a^wtd Eaeh allowed, P?.f' conversation to last 8-10 minutes.

^'•d-

N° notes or books

Next, students write a report ba*6d on theirte conversation. They work in their last conversation partner and draft one report They taTk fcout the language itself, wHat is the correct grammar, the rightlrd, e c, A „o - |nd ,0 help, encourage them to put in as much detail as the can,1

this chapter. of the task sequences you have been building up during task the complete would subject for a story-telling session that

might introduce sequence. Plan what you would do at each stage, and how you the end. task repetition. Decide how you would get feedback at

twos w,th

5.7

A summary oftask types using the

I

"i..l
the reports

.be end

i

more

Interestingto listen to afterwards.

read thnir rq,„n. ,0 h. i

I"

Importantly

I

try

,.,

|.„,,..h

tl„„-

class.

I

correct and

Wc will end have

,,m, ,.n<| |u,r

.,,p„f even more by o.pk,,

,n,

.» In'o

hi-lp is

by

UNiM|;,.i vimi-iI

n pn-M iinuion of the taxono my of task types wc

illusLTiU'cd in the Ihm iw..

you

liiiiil<

.

iip.i M'l "I (lllln.

nuL intended in

bt

*i

'task generator'

Ii.ipurIll

w.h.-ii||i,Iu

I'lic

ImmI...! .

uiniof this

i,i-.K'.
1\<s-a\u .ninii

'i;isk ).',riifrainr' is

lopiiMil'yur ilicsc la.sk

ilioicc.

to It

lypcs are not

or even

'"^^^ o-gninvc ^.ocSf^:™'"?^^' ^"''^ ^ccdote, n .,pcak„ " ^^"'"^ needs bo h dea l"^' or cl„„„ologicd "^"'^ order and dec de ^ %icaJ possible

READER ACTIVITY

all „1 ,Ik.

JJ

^

L" tw^" "fT

onefrom the topic list you Choose a topic you haven't usetJ^so-fer-imyb-e the topic of 'Cats'. made in Chapter 2 (2.2). If you can't decide, take

1

-

(amixoflMng, orderi^andTre^

Start at the top

.

left

of Figure 5.3 and take each tasktype

in

turn. Brainstorm

sort or classify list, ones you could aspects of your topic to find ones you could that you dould match, compare or or organize In a specific order, and aspects contrast.

Then going round the bottom of

>

topic Figure 5.3, think what problems your

'

mightbeassodalfidwithandwhatkfndstSf'solufionsmlghtbeWGrl^ble.For anecdotes, memories, or opinions might experience-sharing, think what kind of one or two you could tell your class your learners share on this theme? Think of at a priming stage.

bring, together some of of a project or an end-product that might for learners to create together to the different aspects and might be rewarding Finally think

.

give a sense of achievement.

Commentary This process of using Figure 5.3

to. generate tasks

brainstorming stage. Most tasks

will

need further

is

best seen as a preliminary

refining

and precise instructions

the comparing task suggested need to be written for them. For example, for pets?' you might end up with below: 'Cats or dogs—which make the best

will

something

like:

Which do you Mtk maJossthe bestpm, a cat or a dog •

for an only child of -leM^ years old, or

.

for an active retired person living

on

their

own and who likes travelling

overseas?

W '

rfc

^ask„or a taxonomy oftask

give at least three reasons for your Decide on one, discuss with a partnen and choice.

types

" " ^° P°'no to fflake at this stage^

by a group of mind, read the ideas below that were suggested levels in schools and coUeges: teachers from Malaysia, working at different

With

•

link togedaer&rly well; nor .11 topics lend

themselves

example,

dqudVwsn

we found that for 'CWir™

problem-solving tasks Pnrnculur class.t. If

just

abo„

ylu find

I

to

.11 c

"^^'^

"^T

'°

7"'''

Wes

this in

or four that

Listing

of task. For

Make a list of things that cats tend to do/like doing. like/don't like cats, ,ist reasons why people

^i"k °f snatching or ^"^W'^

^,

.

I

owners. riiink of three pim'.s ofiidvicc for cat

f°r our

Oreleringaml mrtiug, ,

it would V°P'= '('"''"'"B' oX '.-..beiesseas^.d:;:,:^::-:;::;:^::-^^^^^^

earthquakes',

''''^

1

,

"r

C.:ias.sify

your

nice things.

lioi

ol'tliliiKH

cm tend to do into nice things and not such

look at

will also

Matching

activities ac the

end of the-tsKk seqiien<^wMck wiEhtelp

learners to focliS: Oli si^d consolidate sonae

of the forms

thejr

have

come

across. ,

Cats or

IliFurther

dogs^which make the

On

best pets?

Problem-solving

,

(TPR)

Total Physical Response

^lost^ R. http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/methodology/tpr.shtnil.

^^ys to stop your neighbour's jf

reading

cats

fmr. r

,

On

•

^^°^^'^ginto)rour garden

webquests

A good introduction can be found

at

Teaching English Using the Web. http;//www.onestopenglish.

Shelton, S.

com. I

Interview rhree people about well •^•-^ll

-

'°

iTf

of the

cC'

-hort piece

in ,

family whe

to display

e^~

f-™ly with

'

'"""f

^« "P

'""^^

on a vSi

'^^^^^^M-J^,^:^

to

a

On tdsk design for younger leafn^s

Fi„doutwLht:he;;Lwri::^"^n'^-'^^ children or

more thorough look at an 'across the curriculum' approach, try the link San Diego University where it all began: httpr/Zwebquest. sdsu.edu/

'or

and J. Zanon. 1994. Planning Classworh .ondon: Macmillan ELT.

Ustaire, S. I

IMnter,

people in your

g^up

to

addphoto.pictu,e.andcaptio„:.:;

J t,d -fit:

'^''r*^"^-^

I

A.

2006.

On

Task-based Approach,

Teaching Young Language Learners. Oxford:

Chapters

hiivcrsity Press:

—a

and

5

Oxford

6.

desi^for adults and J. R. "Willis. 2004 Task^hasedlmtructim in F^treig^ Language Education: practim mdprogtams. Washington D.C: Georgetown University Press: Chapters 10 and 11. task

Leaver, B. L.

-h.dot,:rd^t;t:trry-~^^^^

On storytelling and projects Yeh, A. Telling True

5*8 Review

Tliis uses

«n-,w

*d

d^^Hlfc" n"*

'°

!^

««with a topic

•-U.ton.theie.tner^oinofX'^S::^^^^^ "l"-ce ot tasl. are dear. "''''" °»°'/owi„g a graded They wth a Msk and each subsequent task prelT , k7"'"^^'^ ^^P'-^ 'i"i"g' l"'S;"«.c ,

challenge.

ol the topic tasks,

Oncemned into the

vocabulary learnc'

eadi working towards a

„„i^^

c^^^'^f

dilCnfo,^ words and phrases and bnildin. uo n : : r™.":; t.»e„l ropi, vocabulary

iv

recydedT/ ^ic

"l>l".v dilicrc:nr aagles'of the ^'1

iIk-

Task-based classrootn work in Taiwan.

Stories:

htrp://dcyeh.com/syo304/2ndsem/groupb„projccts/stories/.

Jollowiim chiuuff w,.

III.

"g™"-

1^

-

Fried-Booth, D. 2002 Project Work (Second edition). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

f"''

T^' will

^"^ecutive be te-using

^?'''''"g """''^"^

Thus -l^''^^

'earne"

Birwood, and H. Dunford. 2000.

Philips, S., S.

Learners. Oxford: Oxford University I

'

a mbc of traditional teaching, mxdtimedia, and online chat.

'Jlis, iVl.

Projects tuith

Young

Press.

and C. Johnson. 1994. Teaching Business

English. Oxford:

Oxford

University Press.

Note A

pilot (n.'0|>i,ibl("

am

Ih- 1(.h.iiu1 in

can explored h\'

\^''

II

Appi

I'.

.Ill I'l

ihIik lypi'

.|,

I

bill It

i.

;in

be used for

|.i,ivfs Mii;),',fst

a

Task Design workshop

ions lor ;ispects ol a topic diat

nfiwik, und «n cmtline for a task-based lesson.

6 6,

LANGUAGE FOCUS AND FORM FOCUS

Some basic principles

1

In Chapter i we argued that tasks should be central to language learning. Tkis means diat iil otAet to promote language development

provide a rich diet of activities which focus on mraniagi

%

we should

sk>uM'HOt

form-focLised activities to detract from a focus on meaning. If we have spent trnie presenting and practismg specific forms immediately before intro-

ducing a task, then it is like^ diat leamcts will be concerned to display the target forms rather than to concentrate on getting their messages across.

The

taskis likely to

l^m^

become a 'further practice' of form activit)'. This suggests eomplete a task cycle before die teacher

that

isolates specific

fbnii^^StUiif. Learners are AaiiiMJielifedytotisc aferwiderice^itoiEeof language to express themselves during the task; they will deploy'

wliat^

language they have aheady learnt from earher lessons, and experimait witli lai^uage tfeey ate li©t aJte t£in order to get their meanings across.

At dffirent s^es in a task cyde ities for

diere will be different kinds of opportun-

ieamm to focus on langu^. A focus OB Jan^iage occurs naturally

when

learners pause in their attempts to process language for meaning and switch to drinking about die language itself They may stop to search for the n^twotd to €3tptess the meaning diey want, or to look up in die dictionary a word they are not sure of. Or diey may stop to wonder ifasemxaice they are

pknning to produce is grammatical, or if it can be improved Tht^ switch of attention can take place at any stage in die task can allow for cycle,

and

it

also

in

some way

cycle,

but

we

-^^cafy in the priming stage at the beginning of a task at times during the cycle, when we allow l^eis time to

prepare what they want to say or write.

The task cycle, dien,

is predominantly concerned with meaning, but there is on language, especiaUy on lexis—words and phrases— at die when the teacha n priming, setting up the task sequence.

ikely be a focus

begmnmg

There will be occasions during the task sequence when learners have ikasto prepare not only die content of dieir message, but also the kind of language they want to use to deliver that mess^e. We use die term 'focus on language

mmpleted

lo d learner, the opporwnity ol pa.p.nnB

q uc..«,o,.„uuc for usclul language. The ncx,

'lu- n,

l.vs..„

!,„ c.

Ln

could

b

l

iilc.is

by

So priming can be flexible. It will probably include a teacher-led intro ^..c, ,o„ „f .,nre land. This may be reinforced by the u« of a^ae,^ t^°

^

homework, or asking them

class.

tT primmg can also be The supplemented

There

to do it fanly quickly in by group work.

be at least two paiameters governing the teacher's decision as to t e pr.ming. The first question is do ^th (he f he task and the assoaated language. The second question concems^e

ow

shape

f

I

Z^^L^

couM begin by asking learners to work as individuals iission. Alice this tlicy amid he a.skcd to jXH)l ilidr

10 prepare for Uic rcptui stage. All

II

ports could then be read out, or put

S) leaking is

the

questionnaire,

and the opportunity

homework

for

In this case a teacher-led introduction might be

enough on its owi.

is

Ukely to involve

\

OHT

for the class to see.

on the other hand, allows time to thinlc So building written work into the planning and preparation

oiisideration of language. Writing,

.ibout language. i

on an

a real-time activity, in wfaidi diere is normally no time for careful

ncreases the likelihood of a focus

on language. But the writing does not talce

phice in a vacuum. It is going to be Ifn iis

is

primarily on meaning.

used to inform the rest of the class. So the focus on language in the context of a

It is a

i;()mmunicative activity, not a focus

om

of this planniri|;

This can be supplemented by written work. Learners might be asked to make notes to sammarize their discussion. They could even be asked to \\\ in- a report as a group, describing who had the strictest parents. These

ca reful that kaarners Ijy

level.

diM

pu'puiation, focusing at least partly on language.

will

,.,

"iput

the teacher

In siimni;iri7c llif

relying

dp not begin

on isolated forms.

We must, however, be

to use writing as a crutch

on written notes rather than spontaneous

when speaking,

speech.

We can, therefore, identify a number of opportunities for language focus. Wc can increase the likelihood of a concern for language by allowiny, more for

Lime,

6,4 Languagefocus

example by setting preparation work

'likelihood will be increased even

down

more

If

we

for

homework. This

ask learners to put their ideas

The required level of language Focus and the time given t{) it will depend on a number of factors. Tt will tend to be higher with low level in writing.

be probably be higher with an examination

classes. It will

general class,

and

it

class

than with a

will be higher if the teacher feels that the load

of new

language is particularly heavy.

may mine the questionnaire for useful language. If the questionna re followed by a group discussion learners "fA'Hu-r to c

is

ma/tafa the opportuniZ work anfy language problems. So we can provide oppoZJdel&r

6,5

Focm onform

6.5.1

Identifying items for afocus on&jrui

The choice of what forms to focus on normally depends to alarge extent on the nature of the task and the associated texts. It is

also possible to build in further opportunities for language focused

W

/ Th J. Wiilis N and 1996)

begin

nd 1

1-

this cycle

IS

a task

by doing a

their parents' degree .vs,

of the

un.c lor

ume Tlw

outlined

by D. Willis and J%fllis (rX) cycle calleds^-* planning^ report Leaner

task, in this case a difcus,,iou^of

of strictness. At a

later stage

thT

they are

about their discussion, but before they do planning sia^e. At tins s,a,e ihe.e will

pb™gin«

a,sl

ed

class a

spent on language locus, on prepaia.ion for ,l,e n pl»n.mng miglu be «ken in two ,,iages, One.

I

,

I

t

'

!, ,

Identifying topic-related items

Look at the two texts above recordings, Thn

i.ink li t(i

responslbllltltti,

nnd

section 6.2:

in

do witin

eli

I"^

,

VnIJi/ ,1,.

uf

h y

thiv

READER ACTIVITY 6a

,

usefully

be

i\)ih«d

prlvllflji©K.

ta ^kiijk

on

Givon

Ih

t

tlie

questionnaire and

tine

four

parental attitudes and with duties,

hittspi

tills,

what forms do you

toxts?

think learners could

.

Working with the recofdings, Tim Marrh.nH between 'make" and *Ief ^ and al o nn 7

me do any horrible chores'; 'He didj^t^i^y malce me do lionu-'; was lu'vi-r lorccd to do it'; 'She let me stay out late';, 'She malic me do my homework or force me to eat my greens'.

parents never made i

°"

iiuk

=°ritrast

Ii

'I

.11

would

.

.

.

Aiuuhei- possihility

also

*^ onZtZZT^:: 1 *^ "'°«f'^q"entwayof

one occurence

obligation.

•

would be to

start

from a given word. Learners could be

asked to pick out phrases from the questionnaire with the mjtd ^if . This would lead them to: 'did they allow you to'; 'did you always have to'; 'did expressing

iliey let you'; 'did

your parents make you';

'did

look at the listening text and pick out three

would occur in the

te.ts.

it

,

Phr««

g'SirSbS;^^^^^^ 'Tzr'

P^'^ive I

hen focus on the verb phrase with I(

'"^

might

'ng (chopping,

*^>"''^ '° ^o

usefu^Z v=c b ? Washoe cTdo *^ ^r^ 7""""^

'

'

'qiiite

direct

common

very

is

them

with

'quite':

open with me',

C which means

the

to the phrase: 'pretty easy-going',

use of the

to start

'force'.

word

from part of

'pretty'.

a

word. Endings

like '-ing',

there are a number of phrases containing words ending in

'-ly'

.

...

my parents were quite strict with me actually.

could ia!k U) diem as a friend

My Dad is

''^^d^

'make' and

Vble^ for example; can lead to interesting discoveries. In Tin^ listening text

I

identified phrase, ia che

'allow',

*''^«''?ardsn/housework/

. .

illustrates a

wouid

Yet another possibility as children,

ironing,

beds' etc; 'help with the

'let',

could then be asked to find another word in Text

which useful .^e^endthtis^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

would contain

'he didn't ^ally

also be useful ibr learners to pick out all the phrases

.same as 'quite'. This

list

'have',

([uitEStfictwithme'jTwasquite upset'; quiteliberal'; 'i'hey

The

.

made fni do &xy household chores';

me do m\xd\ at home'; 'she let me stay out late'; 'she v^o\AA sit me dowH', Illlike me do my homework'; 'force me to eat my greens'. The teacher could

-^-^

™

\

'was (never) forced to do

highlight: 'never

you have to'. They could then word phrases with 'me This

iu,ike

e/^^Tf 'T""'"^

i

:

list^Sg^

f^^'focused

me,Ietnic.aIlpwedmeto,didn'tmakeme ^ii: maKe

acuv.ty.

me,

infvc NIC to

T.m Marchand

... .

and I could usually get somt- pocket money

.

.

f ^ was forced

to,

would

for

it

.

.

my Mum was easy-going exactly. My father was definitely stricter than my Mum.

... I

I

really.

man really, he didn't really make me do much at home. a quiet

wouldn't say that

This highliglits the use of words

hot BcajCty,

of whidi tone

all

like 'really

and 'actually' and also the phrase

down a statement, making

it

more

tentative

and moderate, and which contrast with the use of 'definitely".: All of the phrases identified above are taken

from

texts that the learners

processed in the course of the task sequence. This

to do.

There are six of these

Dal they

Jet

you go

ott

phmses

holiday

m

th7

on^u o^

'

important because

it

means the forms that they focus on are rooted in a meaningful context. This will not only ensure that the meaning of these phrases is more easily recognized, it also makes them more merno^ble.

^'''^ '''"^

^^^^rft""

is

have

"u" '^"'"S'

It is

will

also useful

be useful

i
ask Icn iuTs lo choose for themselves phrases they think

and wntr

go round du- rlass This can be vai d i.

iIk-m'

a
lew

liy (iJ(klii|ii

paiajV'ipli ,Mid aiindii

ihcn lititenLaicluily

I

down

in ihcir

Iciinicrs

notebooks. The teacher can then

what phrases they have picked out. from one ond pai.ij'.iaph, and SO on. Learners

iHir jftroup oflcai'ncrs to pick phrases *i

it't

Lu,dittLl^igM||^^

....

'

READER ACTIVITY 6b

Phrases of time, place and quantity are so frequent

forms to focus on about the /oung man in Chapter 3

Identifying useful

Look

at the text

that text might

lol

,1

1

(3.3

Stage

5).

u'sc

1

you choose for activities focusing on form?

in

Other

their

on reflexive pronouns. There are

himself,

himself,

poured myself, Jim Burney himself

TliesR cover the use of the reflexive for emphasis ('Jim Burney himself); its use as a direct object ('l
location

is

liiinsdl

very

common. Ybu

yourself 'by myself The reflexive as indirect can practisethe forms of the reflexives ('myself, it

.

.

•your.i'ir. 'himself, 'herself, 'ourselves', 'yourselves', 'themselves') lu.irnurs to complete sentences like these with reflexives:

cui

I

.

.

.

ShugoL

,-i

by asking

will

You could ask

'lift'

in this

Ask them to see Who

phrase in


stretch their language to cover as

many

• the collocation 'strong wind'. You could get learners to use a dictionary to find what other words collocate with 'strong' (for example, 'current', 'swimmer', 'team', 'possibility');

we

also use

• 'the Idea of

it

to'

for drinks

like

and 'decided

tea and coffee).

that'.

...-ing'.

may not be "worth spending time On all these phrases In this particular lesson, but it is well worth making a note of them. Later on, when you come to deal with It

pronoun

indirect objects, for example,

you can refer learners back to

Most texts contain tedious to cover ;i

used

so

much useful language tiiat it would be

it all. It is

particular text

lie

ommonly found

this text

and

how many examples they can find here.

piece of cal<e.

...adrinic

etc.

(

the/a

...'.

lift'.

the place of

forms of transport as they can.

ask

They made ... a few sandwiches,

V.'i ].,

'telee

of words. This

in

'I

'help yourself 'do Is

list

• the contrast between 'decided

'found himself to express

in both Spoken and svritten English, so ftfs worth Other frequent phrases are said to myself...', 'He thought to .

object

The expression

particularly frequent

hljlliMTinp,,

how

means of transport: 'took the

many words they could put

with the longest

threw himself, feund

which to write new phrases.

other transport contexts l;s.

five reflexive phrases:

kill

in

interesting features include:

learners

to

notebooks

the use of 'took' with a

•

text provides a good opportunily to focus

the language that they justify

What Itsms from

Commentar/ The

in

of classroom time. Encourage learners to keep a double page for each of

and taking note of useful

later to reinforce

confusing and

a matter of selecting what can best be covered with

another

illustrative material

which might

text.

with a reflexive indirectobject are 'hurt', 'enjoy', 'teach*,

and 'cuf. These are worth exemplifying. You can refer your learners to ^'grammar book exercise on reflexives, but you should also tell them to keep looking out for

6.5.2 Correction as focus

them

do this, they are behaving as participants in the discourse, so we would regard this as a focus on language. Sometimes, however, teachers use

In

the language they meet, because the grammar of reflexive pronouns

Is

very complex, particularly the restrictions on their use. Like

many narratives the text contains several phrases of time:

over Christmas, for a moment, then,

'leachers often rephrase learner contributions to die discourse.

Loncction

as part

of a form-focused

activity.

When

This kind of correction

they

fulfils

three important functions: half

an hour later, at the time •

nnd of place: In

on form

It

helps prevent fossilization. Learners are alerted to the fact diat they

have some

New York, off the Empire St^e Buflding, to the top floor, where he held on

way

• If used sparingly

expect and want

\n

ih,. s.ifciy fence, threw l-iimself off, towards the cars, moving alongfil^h Avenue, over 1,000 feet below, on a narrow ledge on the 85th floor ontside the offices of a television station, where the strong wind had blown him, l<nocked on window of the offices, crawled in to safety; on duty there, coming In

still

to go in mastering a given form.

helps motivate learners. Abiost aU Jamguage learners correction. They see it as a necessary part of the teacher's it

,

.1

through the

window of the S^th floor

•

provides uscfol negative feedkick: Sonietimes negative feedback i^ ifce quickest and most efficient way of putting learners on the tl%hx track. For 1 1

example, learners often, produce sentences like

He suggested me to go.

and of quantity:

hundreds of

role.

cars, a lot of Invltatloni.

by analogy with

He persuaded, me to go. He asked me to gOi

,„K.d,cr with the

etc.

(1

Even when they are aware of the form

1

these t«tsirv Chapter 7 comldomblc dv.nt.g» of using

sources of spoken texts Indtiile

lit-r

ot«Souice«atedal,s (but l-mre supplied with coimeboofe spccc dialogues^unt,atural ™mples ihcd oroveraLd scripted "T'^bulle^m copied radio starions-for example, .,l„„ t recordings from programffl^«S particularly usefu

,

„,

.

o, cliag,s

.

He su^ested to me that I should go.

,

.

they may still believe that 'He suggested me to go' is an aceeptahlealternative form. They can never come across anything in the input to show them othei-wise.

.

we uher forec^ts, adverts. Phone-in c^find th;m because they have

The only way they can get this information is through correction.

all

the features, of spotrtaneou,

language schools in

So correction think.

We

is

useful.

Bur

it is

not nearly

as effective as

we would

like to

made by learrrers themselves. Mairy out to interview .nemb«^. ^LIpeaHng countries s«rd their learners g English-speaking environment le public If you are not based in an

. i.''coritgs

how learners persist in errors with forms Uke of constant Gorffectioli. So correction should be used

have already seen

'do' -questions in spite

sparingly. It

is

better to provide a positive focus

on appropriate forms than

friend^^ English-speaking colleagues or laTbe able ITpersnade Do^ they themselves. the leamaji Ltcrviewcd. You could also consult interbe to speakers who would cfti^ent know any proficient EngUsh

to

much time on correction.

spend too

6.53 Finding t^s

viewed?

We need to think carefully about where to get texts for language study. You may

be able to use the texts which occur in your courseboolt, even if the coutsebook is not designed for task-based teaching. In Chapter lo we will be looking at how to adapt coursebooks to give them a more task-based flavour. In the example we have jtist looked at, Tim started from the idea of finding a challenging and interesting topic for discussion. listening text

by asking some

learners were going to discuss. This

variation.

We added to this

He then decided

to create a

friends to talk about exactly the topic that his

produced a spoliEca.te^twithalot of rich

the possibility

of a questionnaire. This produced

awritten text which highlights very directly the relevant language items, but

which is much less

rich

and varied.

Spoken tesm So one way of creating a text for a focus on language or on forms is to make a recording which parallels the task in some way. Here, Tim interviewed four separate people so the results are four spontaneous spoken great advantage of making recordings like

gain the benefit of a text which

is

monologues The these is that you and your leatncrs

rich in

many

.

of the features of natural

spoken language. Other

tasks are more overtly interactive; for example, David Cox made a recording to support his problem page task. David asked two friends to actually do the task he was; ^sing to set for his class. (See Appendix 3.1.)

There

are,

facilities to

of course,

practical limitations. 'Tim

maite a recording of suflicientiy high

Man li.tnd t|ualii,y

he transcribed the recordings, read the texts out |.'iiv('

ilie iciinirf; ilie ir.iiiM lipi.

Spimuiiieoiis

lim

did

I.i,v.uhiiii

lil.<

use, so

dusn luul then

himsffll''iii

rccordiii)',-'

h.ive llie

I

rel="nofollow">nvid

I

\

\\\

,11

c

be native certainly do not need to Those taking part in the recordings !::ret:U'™ply-dtoprovideagoodmodelfc.le^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ uativ speakers group of leartiets would be est model for a monolingual I

iheir

own language who have a high level

of proficiency

rrr^sibility would be to provide a written ,l,e

,„

Y

.

library or

on the

internet.

12m

J

-t-l

at a task torn In Chapter 4 we looked numbc of precautions. Yvonne found a

ne Beaudry about earthquake provide supporting eate

,

m English.

These would certainly pr.w.dc a f°-s °n form, /d.^^^^

texts,

study and also for his friends to am created. Instead of asking text might be specially written " them to wna- down ,h. ,rtha chidhoodfthn could have asked helpful friends, leachers cot d r^ienc It is not alW^ possible to find the. co eag^^^^^^ or -uld for la„.,!;.ge

„

:, d or write

help

w

It is

down theiLwn experiences,

in tlu texts at an eaflier stage often possible to build in

For example we thought of s

lopicortask.

1

questionnuuv.s ul possible for teachers to produce depend on the will supplementary text diemsclvcs. rhe sort of

ten questionnaire.

lis kllfor

t.

It is

uid 10 read rapidly

READER ACTIVITY 6c

allowed 10

Finding or creating texts (spoken and written)

phrases accordingto their

Think about some of the tasks outlined

;,using activity.

in

Chapter 4:

•

I^akea'fet^of ththgseatstypiGaliy^io,

•

Dojicribc

•

Rank school

•

What criteria would you

Wl

in

detail

in

But

order of popularity, consider

in

Commentary these fourtopics could be supported by a listening text. You could record

a friend or colleague doing their version of the task.

If

you have the resources, you

couid gat a group of two or three people together to discuss the question and ni:ikc

lypK

rerording. This

.1

,il

of (ivoi

would provide a

listening text

With

after tliey

many of the features

W,

it

should be possible to

do not have access to (Try. for

find a

number of

recipes

recipe books there are plenty of recipes

in

English.

on the

If

you

internet.

example. www*bbG.COiUl
holiday brochures or, again, search the internet. For example, just google the l^nlrtysian island

of Penang, and see

learners a

how many tourist sites you come up with.

material for the favourite food task by giving

mixed up recipe and asking them to reorder it. You could write a statementsabout holiday resorts known to tile learners and asktilem

tlie

statements and guess which resort they referred

subjects topic, you could write sentences about your

subject and asking learners to guess

My favourite I

hated

... in

subject was

...

to.

own schooldays

work with them. You could make up

I ...

.

me do

...

me stay out afi:er ten at night.

iwrdnn^ grammaticizaHon. By this we of the grammatical markers string of words, removing many

taking a

and asking learners to restore them. You

been in trouble at say that tell me off. But I wouldnt siool, it was always left up to him to me down sometimes and my Mum was easy-going exactly. She would sit me to eat my greetis, force or her, make me do my homework in front of fether. scared of my things like that. I guess I was just more

My fatlicr was definitely stricter than my Mum. If! fiad

I

and ask learners to study

Icunitrrs to

look at a text and identify

father definitefy stricter

and ask them ilcni.s for rluMii.sclves,

an clement of discovery involved, particularly begin From m,caning. W( r.jvc .m i-xampk' of rhisabovci there

is

asked to identify tWm^s

iliui

people 'had to do' and

if

ihcy nrr

u.sla-d to

wliiprp Itrtuncm

were

llmi lllcy

were

liiln|i!H

it

carefully.

You couM then give them

this version:

up to hirn tell me torce eat homework, make/do me.down off. not say Mum easy-going, sit scared father, greens, things like that, guess more

ideas of your own, and if you and materials with col leagues. you will certainly come up with arlch

a.sii.

might, for example, take this part oi

the listening:

to

AltL-rn iiiv.-ly ynii

When wc

the dishes.

exercises It is also possible to create

to:

Some form-focused activities

.

etc.

variety of texts.

6.5.4

to

.

finish my homework before supper.

I'hey never

You will have certainly h^e come up with more |ioo| idons

.

through some grammar-book exercises exercise for example: exercises of your own, a gap-filling

omitting the.

much homework.

and

demon-

because was quite good at It.

the thN year because the teacher gave us so

W,

also identified the other phrases

how these phrases work and also useful to explain to learners ot refer them to their grammar book strate their use. You could

For the school

what subject each statement referred

and

It is

numl)(>r of

to read

is

own

m

mean You could provide supplementary

and work tiungs

mmt^m of the

this exercise

'allow', 'make',

yday conversation.

the food task

initiative

likety to increase dielt

have to appfy their

have done

'let',

My parents l-or

mea^. We can think of this as a consciousness-

they could be asked to say which others, so that they recognize that cwo verbs behave differently from the Askmgthem infinitive, without make' and let 'are followed by the plain It may effects. beneficial can have two to work things out for themselves look to learners encourages make the insights more memorable, and it they are exposed to. carefhUy and criticalfy at the language

with

choosing a holiday destination?

1,

Any of

.earners

I

through a ^m^B^mKifM^pMm

language.

how to make yourfavourite food.

subjects

1

out for themselves. This process

supporting texts (spoken or written) might you find or create to provide for language focus andfocus on form? 1.1

do'. Tlicy

ihen give

back A

at

work .

ot

If in trouble school, left

original 73 words and questionnaire, to look carefully at die

groups to restore the text to

its

them looking vnifum. which they have to complete widiout

o.il.l a.sk

ih. in iln.s

llie

in

Mum.

i|/,iiui!:

think puKinlHHll'liiA'^tM' H"'"K''*y*

b allowHtnyouilmiMii^ilHi'dii)

c let go holiday your own? (lo) d Wcni DIM ;ilw;iys (ell iliciii where going? e aiwiiys do your homework supper? (10)

make help about 'kousfi?

f

g wash car?

1

1.

mission. Yet othcri might be

1

might consolidate by aski ng learners to write down a few senienccs for homework: 'two things you had to do or were forced to do'; let you do'. This 'two things you were allowed to do'; 'two things they didn't

mmber

word.

could be the focus of a

recall

is

much

structure of each sentence, so there

and begin

this

also a consciousness-raising

and then other learners are asked to rcmeniber what they have been told and by whom.

whi^

itientify useful

often

Ti

known

as progressive deUtton.

m Marchand's rich listening text includes:

this trip, it grew up, in the eighties, quite strict with me actually, a school quite wpset was too much,,! far alor^, went sounded a bit of an adventure,

mark

and functions.

rccull exercise is

The teA<^etymtes a

David Cox's recording includes the following phrases:

sentence up on the board, for example:

say ., don't know, She Seems to be having a lot of trouble, I would right. Just you're think experience, 1 from speaking hard not to worry,

Well

He sometimes foi'ced to tlo

I

asked

me to wash his car or cut the grass,

but

was never

He

to

me

wash his

or cut the grass, but I was

do

He and again ilie

wa^hls

^_ to do

never

or

it

out from

die grass, but

,

learners ate asked to read the sentence from memory. This goes on whole sentence has been deleted. You can make the activity easier

putting dashes for each letter to learners to 4o iinu-s at

exercise.

it'

b

show the length of each word, or by asking groups, or by having the seatance read out two or three

each stage. This looks like a mechanical exercise, a very mechanical But it maltes learners think hard about the structure of phrases and

sentences.

The most important thing is that they see it as

almost always

recall exercises are

iu'Mis.

DiHerenr learners

Some

and

will

valuable because they cover a range of language

be learning or consolidating diflercni tilings. which they are asked to complete the i|iicNiiniiM.iire

questions, for example,

supportive as you can, that s about the best you can do, .

.

.

,

I

make

it

think those would work

opportunity to find useful phtases for three phrases hemselves. You might, for example, ask each group to pick out 1

is

also very useful to give learners the

these down in wl iich they think will he really useful in the future and write to decide group as a carefully work tliey mean that dieir notebooks. This will for the on which phrases to choose. They could then read out their phrases their give or, better still, put away their notebooks and rest of the class difi^rent phrases from memory Another possibility is to give each group a When end. at the pool ideas to diem and ask section of the text to work on

—

this 1:0

happens, learners are likely to

listen carefiilly to

what other groups have

offer.

Once they have identified and shared useful phrases, you could go back oyer some of them and see what other words typically occur in the main 'slot'. For example: in the eighties/seventies/sixties

a school trip/a work trip/a business trip

These

forms.

a real challenge

eftji^yit.

the exercise in

i

t

me

as

dear that

and learners are asked to recall the full sentence and read mcmoiy; Then two or three more words are deleted:

I

. .

I

being

asked

never

Ill

it's

it.

two or three word.s are rubbed out:

lien

until

I

on the main themes in a text, it is important w phrases which the learners ste liksly to cotoe actOSS again.

.iddition to focusing

Ill

element

kind of exercise once or twice they realise

pay careful attention to die small wofds

to

syntactic relations

Another

done

is

easier if they can recall the general

in the next lesson, iJl'Vs^ich learners

memory game

arc asked to give their statements,

On one Icivel this is a very mechanit^ exercise, to see if learners can recall the here. After they have

remember the position of adverbs

Finally the teacher (9)

(7)

Rut of course

to

of frequency.

(15^

In each case the in brackets gives the number of words in the sentence. This prompts learners to think carefully about what they are doing and ensures that they will tiy to recall the original sentence word for scnieiues.

t^lng

will

some

will

be thinking hard iibniK \\w

be working on the forms expreHsln(n

(|ui'Mi(in

nlill^iiiitii

*ind

Tt

sounded a bit of an

having a

lot

ailventiire/a

disappointment

of t:roublc/|nolilcnis

being iissupponlve/hclprnl/friciidly iisyoucan

So the idea

is

10 ideniily

cover other cxparicncca

(i

um riil

lul loini%, htiild

mnm t\m you

on them, and extend them to r

learners

may mecc.

.

6.5.5 Putting texts together Iti ilic

(lucstloiiiuiii-e

and listening for the 'Strict piurents'

we

are interested in adverbs

adverbs: both modMcars like 'quite'

and

'feirly

,

and

There

arc a

number of possible

,

taslc,

there was

good

coverage of expressions ofoh]ig;irion and permission. Bin wry ofini wcwanr to loolc at an aspect of language dun is nor covered neatly in a single rext. Let us say, for example, tliat

teaching strategies. \XV .m, Id draw Very very narrow liulc parapet and iillcntion to 'raduT h.imv .-xpeiirna'. ask hrst text, then after the velociraptors parents.

which modiiy

also Intensifiers

lilte

'al)soiutcIy petrilied' alter the

learners to pick out

two uses of

'veiy? aiid

word smiilar m them to hnd bur

find another

meaning. Then in the strict parent text we ask learners ^if they can rxpressions with quite' and one with pretty', and meaning, prompting them* M fle^aJf etall another word with the same could ask

1

'extremel/ and 'absolutely

with the frame: 'Ihada

Tim Marchand's recording for the 'Strict parents' task we noted a number of uses of the adverb 'quite' to tone down an adjective quite strict with nae, I

was quite

upset,,

quite liberal, quite open with me.

and one occurrence of 'pretty' used in the same way:

kI

There is meaning: I

an occurrence of

also

wouldn't say diat my

enough here

'I'lu-rr^ is

'not

Mum was easy-going exactly.

for the beginnings

—

1

My parentswere

i

MyMum was

vffty

very quic kly; /'wcW/'/^/y

it

femiliar to a lot

was always

of you; they could move vety hst; to turn

...

...strictwith

fill

in

the blanks:

me actually.

easy-going.

my Mum was easy-going The velociraptor could move .fast.

I

wouldn't say

I

....

. .

4 I,

had

It

6

8

...

had a

I

/

be

from someof the texts you have read and heard. Can

rather, very; very very absolutely; ^actly, incredibly, pretty, quite,

exacd/ with the same sort of

velociraptor^ in Chapter 3 (3.9) there are four occurrences of Very', one of 'really', and one of 'incredibly all used as modifying adverbs: this will

at these sentences

you remember which of these words are used to

©f a :&rm-focused exercise on adverbs, but we would need more examples. In rhe text on

niotlilying

For example:

H),

Look

My Mum was pretty easy-going.

ESSty experience'.

possibility would be to

A n. )vhcr I

...

texts wait until learners Wetre^d all three referred have we occurrences then design an exercise to Mghlight all the

In

powerful jaws.

...

nasty experience about,

I

was on

I

was

petrified.

...

.

. .

er,

height

narrow little parapet.

this

sharp; they could turn mz//j/quickly;,it had

ferj/

powerful jaws

recall the texts of course, unlikely that any one learner will be able to sentences, but it is very useful to ask clearly enough to complete all of the then to lead discussion comparing learners to work in groups to try to recall, It is,

i

Icrc

which someone

a text in

is

is

teUing the story of a frightening

cxpL'rience:

is important to answers before showing them the original Sentences. It 'wrong, in the sense that point out that some of the learners' guesses maybe thing is that they are stiU hey are not the original words, but the important after this, or in a later lesson, on forms of English. You can move

their

Yeah,

1

okay.

I

was OI'C until 1 had a nz^/j^rnasty experience about er, height. Iwas could go anywhere. But er, I was ef, on a lighthouse actually "We

were being taken round

room. I

it.

We

I

went up

all

the stairs and to the light,

And then the chap says 'Oh, come on.

Right we

11

go out

here'.

er,

And

went through the door and

I was on diis very very narrow little parapet perhapscighteenintdieshl^ anddien a^eerdrop of hundred feet or something. I was petrified. I've nev^

with a

rail

about

a

about

.

.

in each of these texts there are

i.>

look %% modifiers and

intensifiers

with your learners in their grammar

books.

6,

examples of adverbs which

iiueiisify

adjectives, (Very, 'very very', 'really', 'incredibly', 'absoliitely'J. or

moderate

them

eptable

.

liecn as scared like that before or since.

So

.,a

('quite', 'pretty', 'rather').

6

Organizing language-focused and

form-focused iti In looking

priming

m

Ler us imagine learners are to be exposed nil ol' frightening experience story, later the valin lrnpUKti nail

icictN. littull)'

first

die

i;he hitIcv

it vit h's

priniMii'.

we showed huw

taskN in iidvdiHT-

discussion.

simply

al

-

io flimwcr

We nml l"«'i|..iiM.n

.

11

learners could be asked to

work on

tiucstionnaire, or prepare a topic for

,ui i.r.k .,r.|Menc

h.i in « Hinjf,lc Ii'MIMI N)tV ti.tsv -aTii,

cs

overa

ex.unplc how

|)erlt.(l

ol

limc nm

die 'Sirin p.MeMi%

task mightbring in vocabulary about household chores. Ifyou recognize this in advantv you miglii m-i an L-arlifr task which dcjls wiili ihis topio—for example a class survey about who in the learners' houycliokls Jo various jobs about the house and garden. Then when learners come on to do the 'Strict

parents' task

Pivparation

you can have

is

likely to

a

quick review of the household chores

be particularly effective

incorporate the language of an old task within a ]

he same applies

when

parallel task. After

some

linie later

we

when learners new one.

task.

ate asked to

learners are asked to repeat a task or to engage in a

have done the

we might go on to look at what learners have to do at school. They could, for 'Strict parents', task

example, be asked which school rules they think were sensible and which were not. This would generate the same language of obligation and permis-

though in a different context. In priming for this task the tcadier could begin by asking learners to recall what diey had to do at home, and what they

sion,

were allowed to do. They could dien move on

W^uld

involve

much ofthe same language. So

to talk

about school

rules; this

preparing the 'School rules' task, learners arc likely to draw on their experience of discussing what dleir parents

with

made them do and

strict

allowed

them

famihes could be reviewed for

in

to do. Some of the texts associated homework before learners go on to

school rules. In doing iMs

buUding npportunities for languftg. rtlnforcement

on from one

another.

The pedagogic corpus

(>.6.1

'

'

We haVeshowii'M^febi'e^to one text can be put

shownhow the course writer and

for

example by lookuig at the strict parentmg

texts, |,nguage items associated with different talking about when obligation language of permission and rules. .uid also whem talking about school

We

can take

it

further xh«n this

by drawing

their attention to similar lan-

have studied. We might, for example, guage features in a range of texts they the use of a preposition like in h,ok at phrases and sentences exemplifying learners a large

new topic,

they can review their

with both

After working with a referring

them

lar^a^ of permission and obligation

tasks.

of

m

,

and to

the

number

from a whole series of texts. This will give In this way we can use a set ol .Kamples. from which to draw conclusions. speafic features of the ptmiik learners with examples of the use of extS them. language in contexts which are familiar to \)f'

phrases. So

in texts associated

mput

do not simply work with a smg e text m h,r language work. Clearly learners they will draw on all the Unguage order to develop their language. In fact up a picture of the knguage. We havfi ,hcy can recall to help them build teacher can help them by lookmgat.sm.iar

When grammarians use a set of texts to make discoveries

probably better to direct their attention first to the texts rather dian to specific language items. After they have completed the text on

=

together to provide

it is important to avoid learners coming to a task helievir^ that they will be assessed on their abihty to produce specific it is

ta^k to

about die language

barik use the word torpusto refer to the help to texts of when we use a set

those discoveries, we of texts they are using. In the same, way we can talk about a pedago^c corpus. By learners find out about the language have studied which provide them with his we simply mean the texts learners their insights into the language material which will help them tx> build up pedagogic corpus shall have more to say about the and the way it works. illustrate

,

new context, teachers can extciad learners' repertoire by grammar books and asking them to manipulate de-

to dieir

We

in

Chapter 9

(9.4).

contextualized selitences using gap-filling, rewriting

and multiple choice exercises. This leads naturally on to examination practice in which learners taclde questions in the format appropriate to any examination they might need to take.

TBT aims primarily at helping learners get ready to use the

We saw in Chapters 4 and 5 how choosing a topic is a useful starting point for designing and organizing tasks. It is also usefial to look at ways in which the concepts and language in one task may be incorporated in anoth^.- So the vocabulary of household chores becomes a part of a task on strict parents,

which

in turn later provides part

of the priming for a task on school rules. It important to begin wdi tins meaningful exposure which makes liuij'.uaj'e memorable. Finally learners can be asked to manipulate the same graniruatical forms using de-contextuaiized sentences and, where necessary, is

vitally

examination practice materials.

As you

build up a reperu)ire of tasks and get

with thenc

mks

6.7 Preparing/or examinations

in the classroom,

you

will

moiv

.nid niuiv

bc|la to

experience

m more and

mai:c

life

situations.

But

it is

also

importam

whedier thevbe^sdhool or public exams. lions incorporate

communicative

language in

to prepare leathers for

real-

«£ammations,

Nowadays many public examma-

activities.

{See Chapter 9 (9-3-2).

and

however, involve a A 10 12 in Chapter 10) Many tests and examinations, often have to candidates vocabulary locus on form. In a test oC grammar or is It complcon. gap-filling or sentence do multiple-choice questions, this practice in handling lest items ol obviously iiiipnria.u lor d.nn in have tb've or lour task-based sequences you can kind After ihey hav. .on>pl.-u-
Q

.

LeBrncrs ,nay be asked to answer traditicynd comprehension questions or mulnplc-choKc- mnipivh.nsion qL.cstions. After a ta.k ,s.M,K-Mce you can g.vc ihcm one ol die texts they have worked though and ask

compreheftte Cfiiestions which mifror the exam. ask learners to

answer

you can

own examination questions, using the student as did in Chapter 3 (3.5). After they have studied a of texts you can ask different groups to prepare tests

to the rest

I

.iinguage focos

I

earners thinkabout

we

texts. Tal^e in the tests

them

to

alternative,

set their

question master as

number

them

As an

Thinking about language

of the

and go over them

on

different

to polish tfeem

class,

up before you give ^

i.islv

In form-focused work liners work on

in the context

l.iiij',LKif;;c

ofa

They

l>ased activity.

lirlpandcfottectoiie I

Vovidcd you give them

plm^ of examination pracdce you will

probably hnd that task-based learners are actually better prepared for examinations tJian their form-focused counterparts. The real language work that they have cl<>nc,ntask-basedactivities makes language somuchtnoremem^otable^^^ a splid diet of torm-focused activities.

iinoihcr

'hcy are likely to

1

•

may be asked to do

homework. In focusing on language they may grammar book, or they may pool Meas with

it

refer to a^dictionary or a

for

But the important features of rfiis language focus are that prcp-iration for a meaningful activity, and decisions are

other

learners.

themselves.

It is

the learners, not the teachers,

and why.

who

it is

do

this:

for the

when

•

when when to

may

find specific words,

gathered.^ the teacher

m

useful in the future

deletion and gap-filling exercises to oblige them to focus on grammatical words and

they work together

plan a report for the pln"ascs

whole •

when

class;

they arc making a

• Extension: Teachers extend beyond the texts learners liave siudied

putting

it

by giving

grammatical explanation and gap-filling,

in writing or

multiple choice and other exercises with

making an audio-

topics or situations not covered in the texts.

recording. • Correctiont If used sparingly correction

is

useful to motivate learners, to avoid

tW

with examination classes, to set K-Ms at (he eiK ofa task sequence or ofa series of task sequences, based on tJie language that leai'ners have focused on in those sequences.

texts

tloin^ grammaticizarion, progressive

fossilation

Once language material: has' been can then elaborate on it in a number of ways-by

involve giammaticization, recalling the precise wording of a text from lexical dues. Finally it may be useful, particularly

or phrases they think will be

• Readlt Learners -Work wiiii familiar

endings.

grammatical explanation and demonstration or by setting gap-filline or sentence-compWon exercises. It is also uscfel to encourage learners to pay careful attention to the wording of a text by encouraging activities which

way of highlighting permission

highlighting time phrases.

— words

preparation

record ofa task either by

There are also forni-focused actbities. Learners think about language under teacher supervision, usually at the end of a task sequence. The teacher identihes useful items from a text or a collection of texts and fin^k-mys of maicing these language features noticeable and memorable. Learners may be asked to find words aiid phiases associated with particular meanings, or

(e.g. learners

particular prepositions as a way of

to prepare for a task; •

phrases with specific words

and obligation; or phrases with

meanings

they work together

phrases.)

'me' as a

when they mine-wrhxcn in

expressing specific meanings

ways of giving permission; time

might be asked to identify phrases with

lor a cuinlno insk;

in

taken by the learners decide what to focus on

a,sk

language

as

tliey

hey

—

nf specific items;

We

a

(e.g.

effectively.

• at the priming stage

communicative activity,

— ways of

help ihcin express their

more

work with

text to find:

(grammar book,

lucinings

number of ways:

• Consciousness raising: learners

(hctionary, their teacher) to

6.8 Review

they prepare to take part in a task. They tnay be given time to do this in dm, or

language in a

consult an

oi-

.inihority

I

have looked at two ways of getting learners to think about language figure 5.1 summarizes these two ways. In the first, which we have called language focus, they think about language

tecogni/ing or manipulating the forms of the

and to

give learners negative

information whi

•

Exam practice: focused

Learners prepare for form-

exam questions by setting and

answering questions in the appropriate format.

Further reading

THE lASK-BASED CLASSROOM AND THE REAL WORLD

Thombury, S. zoox. Uncovering Grammar. Oxford: Macmillan Heinemann ra.T I'uli ul ListiFul

ideas for

woiidng with texts and for other consciousness raising

activities

D. 2005. Muks, Pmerm, and Words: Grammar and Lexis in English Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Willis,

C:hapters 4 to 9 have aspects of form. Willis, J. assemifeling

B.

1998.

and

Tonilinson

many

examples of

activities diat

focus

on

different

'Concordances in the classroom without a computer: exploiting concordances of common words' in (ed.). Materials Development in Language Teaching.

7J Cimsroom hnpiagemd the outside world I'Very discourse arena has its own typical discourse structure. In their classic Ntudy of discourse in 1975, Sinclair and Coulthard showed how efesroom iscourse tends to be teacher dominated. The Mowing is a typical exchange:

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chapter 2 pp. 44-66. This chapter illustrates how a pedagogic corpus of textbook texts can be

1

exploited

1

learners daemselves.

i-i'

Ac;n

I'R

What's the past tense of 'bring'?

STUDENT TEACHER

'Brought'.

Good.

'Brought'.

exchange consists of a teacher question, a student response and Ik 's evaluation of that response. In most classrooias tiie teacher rv.iluates Liic content of the response— is it the right answer? In the language S(

it

I

typical

,

,1

I

ii-ir

i

hssroom

teachers

tend to evaluate the form of the responsc^is

it

mcLiptable language?

TEACHER STUDENT TEACHER STUDENT

1 get up at eight o'clock.' Can you make the question?

When you get up?

do you ...When do you...? When do you get up? TEAOHEit, Good. 'When do you get up?' I

The profblemwith this kind of teacher-dominated classroom

is

that

it

Unguage. Learners would be restricted Would have no opportunity to speak c<3iUrol the discourse. ir< liiiii]ues til

1.0

been looking

dialogues,

at in

;iiul

book

thi,s

rtinge

programme

of diHCOurnc

hi c.hy

will

ty|;)c«.

I

h. v

lltill

of the kind we have

the cliance to produce real

They engage

|.',«iui^i

tmm

learners to engage in role play,

hi particular, tasks

|;tve k-.iineis

'

ihiKihdud and iiuw miui

at

They ask

mmui.

extended discourses of thc-ir own. r>nsf(|iieiucs uf (hii|; .i.ldiui.Mi tilsk-bascd

ro

few opporlSlfi'lities to use the making hmited responses. They

length and no opportunities to So language teachers have developed a number of

to coriipensaif fur ihis.

compose

discourse in the language

gives learners relatively

es. h:in}',e

and argument about the ;Hiecdotes about thclr

in

ihni p.ircMis were. lotiriifr.s

A

well-balanccd

experience an jjipri.priatc

— We

provoke dlicufwlorui and let readings which

So one of the advantages of the task-based classroom is that It enables us to escape the restrictions of the classroom, and involve learners in different types of extended discourse. It provides an arena for inforinal spontaneous

dwcus.sionsand

interaction. It also provides reasons to read, in order to check

loi

predictions,

and

it

en^e

requires learners to

detailing their arguments or elaborating

on

these tasks learners will find themselves doing

ones

their stojfes.

Ih carrying out

asking for repetition

and

thiS!l|||

guessing at meanings and making inferences and so on. restricted as a discourse arena. In the outside

a

some

service encounters as hotel or restatimnt sta^i

restaurants only as customers.

It is

learners

may

while otheK

visit hotels

impossible to reproduce

and

these social

all

relationships in the language classroom, but this does not

may experience in the

real

which

reflects

range of language cncotimffiES they

we

ways

in

it fails

to

ilie

do

classroom

'1

1

'

so,

and we

levels. First there

discourse in

will

which

in Chapter i

classroom tasks mirror the

was the

be

level

is

wie looked at

the real world, Second was the level of

usefiil in

which

as

meanings and making inferences.

way language

,,

We .esEtahlished

of meaning 'm which learners produce

learners realize discourse acts

acttmiy> they engage in a

(1.5)

real world..

— the things wc have highlighted above, such

the

reflect the real

agreeing and disagree-

Finally, at the level

of

communieath^e activity which' reflects very directly

—they

used outside die classroom

involved in arguments, explain

how to do

we will look at tasks which relate to

some teaching

and English tha

way our

check and question that

condition

—

tell

stories,

get

and so on. In this section the real world on all these levels.

whole

article.

us imagine

this process in the

"We can reproduce

we have

M

.1

ny

selected

language classroom.

article relevant to the learners' area o(

an

ihm pfoVlde a set of instructions like .this:

>o

I

you know

this paper.

the ;in,swers to these questions?

promote a group discussion which can then lead to a general class discussion led by the teacher. In the group stage, learners will be using the language of their specialized subject as readers, as speakers, and as quesiion

purposes

learners will be going

on

IS.

(

(l'X)l*),

There

will

be opportunities to ask people to

thallcnge those opinions, to set

we can mirn)r

to uttc the language in

thi

(RAP)

very dosely

up

clarify their opinions, to

alternative views.

The group

disciission

will be a rehearsal for the teacher-led class disaission, Finally the learners will have a reason to go on to read the article in question to resolve some of the

(|uestions left

unanswered.

important feature of the tasks outlined above is that they involve real is an immediate problem to solve. In each case the language use reflects very directly the kind of language learners would need

All

language use. There

ill

iheir real-world situaiiiMi.

This

is

luijuly because in each case language

is

used primarily to excban|j,e inloini.uioii. In .some situations, however, chc social dimension of lnn^'ii.if.r nir Is itt Inist as important as the exchange of information. For w'-d

situations such as English lor iieademic purposes

(or occLipailinuil

ion tasks can play a large part in reading for academic purposes.

1

things,

7.2.1 English for specific purposes In

reiltvi

This will

world-

ing, guessing at

^e process,

Head the foUowiixgstimmary of a research article. .isi three imporranr questions which may be answered in

look at ways of I

Commentary on Reading activity 1.3

meanings which

reading and note-uikmg

discussion also reflects a study process.

The

Work in groups of three.

the world

7.2 Real-world tasks

three

hen ihe groups

the stages involved in the task sequence are a true reflection of

sp. eialization. "Wfe ffiight

,|

far

i

n

I

X

will

(! el

die

world. In this

remedying these failures.

the question of how

I

study process.

I

will look at

outside and also at ways in which

In the

The

eluni paste, with

texi.

M ieiuiiic research journals, for example, begin with an introduction which seis out the aims and stages of the research. Often scientists read this introduction rapidly to decide whether or not it is woirh theii while to read

be involved in

absolve us fix)ni the responsibility of preparing learners to deal with the wide

chapter

on making

differciu pares of the

exchange litQpw'lcdgeand, in

csi fiction, all

I

distinguished visitor in English, or talking to a

friend's three-year-old child. In real life

and working

ndy.

infinite variety

They may demands of entertaining roles.

work

si

the learners lake knowledge. Joanna has inipOSedoiae iinies on only one part of the process. She has done this for a good reason Ml (Mder to create a need for the discussion. In spite of the artificial

ti

an

on

in iheir liiiure

or

world

of social relationships and working find themselves having to adjust their language to the

learners experience

be involved

the

reflect precisely

jigsaw task designed by |o;inna Uicriicu

;i

artificial

I

is still

i

ai

(ogether to pool rheir knowledge.

x'iirners

I

subject or the emphasis, highlighting the important part of the message,

But the classroom

we looked

precisely the study process.

disagree-

changing

dar^fieation,

ie.idiii|'s wlllrli will

irainee liakcrs. Learners rend a text

lier

,nnc-

.

many of the things that wc do and

;h;ipier

(

dilfcrcnt groups taking notes

extended monologue,

in

in spontaneous language use outside the classroom: agreeing ing, interrupting,

In

beliefs or

(.Ml

>

1 .

m

in-;u eliriiis in du; lioiel in alino.si

An

a.s

iinporiunt

kin

dn ihi

llic iii-^'d

.1

ii.m

I

mdusiry, (or example, the need to

.\yy\M\ in

.111

appropriale

lo pinvlde dieiii widi au.uralc

iittnvctivc Holutjwi.y ULjljii!' i>Mil
I*

to set

up

manner

Is

iiilorni.iiioii.

a role-play activity.

Learners

itii'ghtj

group of leai-ners preparing to following

You

problem co solve. One play the part of a client might be given the

for cxainpk', Uc given a timetable

insi ructions:

Learners then woikin A/H pairs

As

solicit

When learners

wi.sh to ho(ik return flights to

London

for a conference

running from

You have been given a travel grant of $450,00 to cover the cost of the flight, sO 7OU do not want to pay more iJian this. You would jirt fcr to fly from X airport in order to save money, but you are willing to Hy torn Y if necessary because it is closer to your home.

April jrd to jth.

,,n 1

travel agents,

might be given these instructions:

which

lis.

worked on the information exchange thq^ can listen can be asked ageiu dealing with a customer. They

to

to

L-

1

1

liavc

task in

experienced travel exchange: n o res on the sotiM dimensions, of the ak

Urn does the agent address the client? expressed? Are there any apdloga:^ How are they 1

I

Another group, the

information from

on an information exchange

recolnmendations?

r^Qts the agsaxt

How is this done?

exchange learners can be asked to script )nce they have listened to a real life they can reasonably be a^ked to Sim ilar exchange. After they have done this problem-solving acti'Wty the learners simply role play the exchange. In the

(

A

client

wants to book return

from

flights

ro

London

for a conference

running from April 3rd to 5th. What alternatives can you offer? Would you advise your client to fly from or from

X

One member of each group

could then be asked to role play the situation,

the travel agent equipped '^th timetables

and prices

either in print or,

more

on a com|mter terminal.

realistically, accessible

,

no

most efficiently There choose the language that solves the problem prompted entirely by the n.rtcnce involved. The language they use is the activity there is an playing they are seeking to achieve. In role is

outcome

wM^

behave man rfcial way clement of pretence. Learners are obKged to given social encounter. They try to hey believe would be appropriate in a they or she were a valued customer, and ,,<.,,! a fellow student as though he I

'I'lic

;ulv:mragc of a role play

sec themselves dealing

solve their problems. nil

with

The

necessarily heavy load

is

that

it

clients,

mirrors

real life.

Trainee travel agents can

answering their questions and helping

disadvantage of a role play

on learners.

It

asks

is

that

it

to

imposes an

them nor only to solve a problem,

this. The role rccjuires them to act within and professional conventions. What forms of address should they use? 'With what degree of formality or deference should they address a

hui also to act out a role while doing

certain social

from that^hich exists it difficult enough knout a convincing role play, never mind a

quite difcmt n y Lo act out a relationship which is make demands These classmates. iictween them as

experienced language users to act problems with language processing. learner who, by definition, still has

A

Should rhcy engage in

the business?

ol

It

is

social chit-chat or concentrate

on the

essentials

extremely difficult for learners not only to solve a

problem, but also to play a role as they are doing so.

A solution

to this

problem

is

to separate

out the role-playing element from

the task, or problem-solving element. First simply sec a problem.

Group

A

to take learners

through

a

sequence in which

hey

first

shall

are asked to:

Ask B

is

role, and finely learn to solve solve a problem, then learn to play a out the difflcult.es, allownig problems whUe phfing a role. This separates the social context. As diem first to concentrate on the problem, and then on will need less and less preparation tor diey progress through their course they until eventually they can enter the social context, the folepla^^g element, the need for controlled prejp.^tlon. We i.uo a full-blown role play without below. have more to say about this in section 7.5

,

elieiir?

useful classroom strategy

for information

on

flights to

London from April 3rd,

returning on

April 5th. Find out:

7.2.2 Everyday Ei^Ush

M any

the cheapest flight

c

the ifeo^ Goavenieflt flints from

d the best flight from

we have looked

at are to

do with everyday language-

our way around the making conversation, reading newspapers, finding at written sources on paper or world by asking other people or looking clear hnks to the real w(.rld ai all electronically Many of these tasks have

from X airport b the cheapest flight from Y airport

a

of the tasks

X and Y in terms of timing X and Y in terms of convenience and price.

three levels. In everyday c.mversation

wc

discuss things like

how

strict

our

have on the school curricwould parents were or wlial Mibjn is we A lot of conversation and we arniir nhoui ihiiiK^ like dangerous drugs. like to

Group B

are asked to:

ulum,

Find

flight

reiin-niiii?,

information for

on April

abiuit these Ilighis?

flights

from

X and Y to

London on April

What questions do you think What answers would you give? 5th.

a client

3rd,

might ask

involves scoryu'lhnr, ,1^^,^,

,lu-

,|..,,.,,„„l h.Mid

newMMpus

M.

Ik ^' ."e

S.HIUMIiu

MM)

jr. in

Kvn mm

I

personal aneedoies;

vvhi.h w, repnri

V

:

snnieihmg wc

.oiyu-llu.^; lask

may

somenmes

luxvc teud in

bc bsured on

like those

described in Chapter

3 C3.3). Eiilit

ol ilir«c

i-

would

roHect real

life

A(ut doinj; slorytclling rask wliit liiik.s in ilir ic.il world In wc should make the Unks dear to learners. I'or example, it is worth pointing our to learners that a lot of everyday conversation consists of

storyii-llinj',.

;i

li

this way,

storytelling.

widcspir.id

iisr t.l'email iiiul

ch.iiuc

|-no(l

hal rooius ih.n has

i

need

ih.ii Ic.iincr, will

With native Uiiglish speakers

changed. There

I'ligli.sh

who

use I'jiglish as a

enter 4 virtual iSl^f^m where English

linpuage or that they wtU

is

now

a

lor email eorresptnidence either

with others

itr

all

is

common required.

to read ihe same time the intcriiei has vastly increased the opportunities internet in the sh There is such a demand from people who want to use

'\i

.

of LIS have a repertoire of stories and opinions in our first language. Wc produce these stories on appropriate occasions, and stand ready to offer our opinions when the occasion arises. Often what sounds like a spontaneous narrative or an opinion exposed for the first time is actually a repetition of All

we have used many times before. It is widely accepted now that a lot of language is made up of phrases which are more or less fixed. It is equally true that a lot of much longer stretches of language are relatively fixed. The )'oo(l sroryiullcr has told some of his stories many, many times before. We are a routine

all

to

ii.svtl

explaining a bit about the place where

al)t)ut traffic

we

about films and TV ptogrammes -We summarizing and evaluating.

talk

read,

We have

we

live, to

complaining

congestion, to comparing prices in the shops. In the

these routines in our

first

ha:ve

language and

same way scm and books we have

]

important to build up

language use outside, building up a repertoire

own, usually English* fct t^e

searijh engine,

incliidiig.:ai^translation looglc, actually provides a set of langus^e tools,

(

program.

communication can be an object of study in liiscussing with learners how email communication iMiiail

tuit

itself

You can

attach

You can begin by

differs

tespondence. 'What advantages does email have?

quicker.

from

OM^iusly

snail mail' it is

much

documents and pictures. It is' easily stored and form from other letters? Learners can talk

M iiieved. Are emails different in

with reference to their first language. You can then bring into the guess whether they are class samples of doftespondcnce and ask learners to can bring in a email or snail mail. How can they tell, if indeed they can? You .iIkuii this

of emails omitting one email from the chain and asking learners if th^ioriginal as iliey can reconstruct that message, trying to get as close tO this can be an possible. If the sequence and the omission are carefully chosen,

I

When learners listen to a recording of a discussion, you can identify ways in which speakers highlight stages in their arglKilent: 'the main thing is 'this means that or ways in which they contradict each other: 'yeah, but I'm not sure about

'J

l.uiguage other than their

.1

of conversational gambits.

You can highlight learners' attempts to achieve the same discourse functions, commenting on their success or helping them, to shape their language more effectively. It is also valuable to inalce comparisons with the first language. How do you interrupt someone politely? How do you change the subject? This shows learners that these are things we do in the real world, not simply in classroom activities. 'well,

i

1

se.liieiice it is

routines in a foreign language. So summarizing and discussing these things in class contributes directly to

1

I

some of njviging task. Use a sequence of emails as a text following through aware of diem make to thing is important I he he ideas set out in Chapter 3. he form of communication that is involved in email.

I

It is

^t moving, often

abbreviated and usually relatively informal. 1

should certainly be encouraged to use the internet in English. They

.earners

that'.

an

,

lie

given useful

You can t

set

web

them prepare topics for discussioti. be answered by using the internet; "What is

addresses to help

them questions

to

he most expensive hotel in London and

for

one

What

night?' is

'How long docs

it

how much does

take to fly

it

cost to stay there

from Singapore to

the cheapest package holiday you can

Hong

Kong?'

find for a fortnight in Cuba?'

worth while engaging

twenty questions allotting five to each leamer.Tkey can go home lesson. It is and find the answers then come back and compare answers next the interuse You can lines. these noi
What interests them? What subjects do they think they might have occasion to discuss in English? Once

supplement the reading in your coursebook. Readings often throw up yourself you can .[ui-stions. Instead of looking for answers to these questions

After

on

a

discussion

it is

worth asking learners if they have ever had a discussion

this topic in their first

language.

It is

also well

learners in the choice of topic wherever possible.

have a

of topics you can design tasks around them, designing questionnaires, for example, and looking for suitable texts to feed into the ytni

list

discussion.

7.2.3 Electronic communication: writing

Some years ago most learners would the

way

ol wriiing in a lureign

unlflM they wore likely to study or

in the

work in

nri 10

ask learners to find the answers for themselves on the internet. Inn it is Unfortunately not evci your h.is access to the internet and to email. the it into bring to need world diat you really so iniporiani in iimLiv''. allow need to will you las.srootn il'mosi oi yoiii liMineis ilo have access. So for those IcariKTH wlio ctitmin

d(t relatively little in

world ouisiJe ihe classroom

du' mcsJUjjijjjj' Entjl ish.

set

L

and reading

probably expect to

language

You can

With

the

imernet work WClI

in '"K'

adicratschooloriliil

lll>t.iiy

mi

"

these internet

In ili. v

h.iv'c ilu' it

1

'

-ih''

i

ham

t-

taslcs.

You can

lo at cess a

Youuin provide

set

conipnu'r

priiu-uuis lor

some learners and, if necessary you can wno do not have access to a computer.

set alternariVt

Jwamework

For chose-

i

shared classroom. Thin discourse is usually characterized by a lead to all can This knowledge. riivlronment. shared piiiposcs, .uul shared l,iii)'Uflge

ol Omissions

I nul';

73

In Chapix-r 2 (2.3.2)

Ml 1

in

I

we looked

at a task

which was quite

cleatly artificial, in

did not mirror anything learners are likely to want to do in English he rea world—anything that is likely to figure In their needs for English K' real world. But this task still related to the

lliai

real tvOtld

and discourse. This was

on the first two

game n which lea rners on a tray. Games like this do not a

i

remember the positioning of objects rcdect target activities, but do involve real-Wdfld meanings. In the red world tried to

wc do not normally try

to recall

and

about the positions of objects on a tray. But we very often refer to objects by describing where they are in relation to othem It's in the drawer next to the knives and forks'. The tray game obliges learners to handle these real-world meanings.

As well

as

airelully

have

3'

and

to ask a partner to clarify

'precise

imppens

what has been

said to

make

sure

we

understanding of what has been said. This is exactly what world when, for example, we give or receive

in the real

instructions

or directions. Other games practice

Twenty questions',

for example,

more complex discourse

skills.

In

important to phrase questions precisely Ml order to get the mformation we want. When we ask a series of questions in the ''^'il world wc do so in order to home in on specific information which we umiioi uncover with a single question. Prcidse questioning like this

many

l)iiMness

is

a part

aaiViti^finding what sort of goods or services a shop can offer, or what sort of goods or service a customer required,

artificial tasks

is

an

artificial

way of

creating the

need

for careful

)iie

may not offer a precise reflection of the real world,

I

1

many of the features of spontaneous discourse.

but they

task to show how it

and

to

fail

many of tiiefeatures which are typical of spoken discourse.

way of bringing spontaneous spoken language

liink :U

into

theda^rootttisby

an example.

trymg to native speakers are looking at photographs of places and die same have guess what country each picture was taken in. The learners

wo

I

themselves. photogKtphs and have already had a chance to try the task note of take it through read As you recording. the lerc is an excerpt from 1

1

K' 1

11 we arc to link the classroom and the real world, it is obviously important to bring into the classroom samples of language which reflect the

world not too difficult with writ^n language and.also some spoken liinf',iiagc— broadcasts, lectures and so on. But it is very difficult to introduce ivcnriled samples ol spontaneous hueractivc spoken discourse into

the participants express their opinions:

way

hand corner here Mary? MS "Well I*m absolutely positive that that's New York. That's in er. North America. "What do you— Okay? of Liberty and all diose I'K I think— 1 agree, yes, with the Statue I'K.

What do you think of the one in

MS

Yes.

skyscrapers.

the top

left

Mhm. Yeah.

What about the one in the middle here at the top? MS "Well when I see a ... er ... a windmill 1 always think of Holland, I'K

Erm

.

.

.

so

I

would say Holland, for that. PK MS

Mhm. Yes I think I agree with you. It's fiat as well isn't it? Yes.

K Yes. So

it

must be Holland.

MS

Right.

i>K

And the third one along the top?

M s Not too sure about that. Er. I'K Somewhere oriental perhaps? MS Oriental definitely It couldbe,er,Thailand?With that typeof... .

iM<

7A Spontaneous Spoken discourse outside. This

result they are usually over-expUcit

As a

carrying out tasks ninking recordings of experienced speakers of the language to carry out. Let us asked will be nf the same kind as the learners themselves

i>

do oblige learners to engage in real-^rld meanings and real-world discourse S. ei us go on to look at the language generated by a rellects

\

it is

questions in the classroom.

.1'

incorporate

real life

Iwcniy questions

So

U) be scripted.

leiiil

talk

icai-worM meanings these tasks involve real-world discourse acts. In games like this it is important, for example, to monitor information

oe

much a part of spoken fesdawc it is hardly discourse can be very difficult for an spoken surprising that sponttmeous i.niMder to Follow. Consequently the dialogues used in teaching materials

I.

Icvds, the levels of meaning

to this the false starts

very

illogicalities that arc

.iiid

Artificial tasks

When one adds

and abbreviations.

...

that sort

.

of roof?

MS ... root? PK Mm. Yeah. MS Erm I'K

I

think

Thililkiiul,

1

don'l

know enough about

it

to sort ol say

il's

IS

the

China.

MS TK

It

could

I

thinlcTHal

bci.'llllUI ...

I

in Tliiiiliuid tliliil*

riirtlltiiul.

Sh.ill w< I

pluiii|) lor

wtmld plump

,

..?

lor Thiuiand there.

MS Okay and erm, how about this one with the big viwcf K Ycaii. Next row. Big vase. Makes me think oFCJrccce. MS And me. Mm. And er Looks like a Grecian urn. And

h

think Thailand.

I

I'

.

PK

It's

hoc,

and

.

.

tourists always

look

like that in

It

I

it's

hot.

Greece don't they?

1

|.

(

Okay, Greece.

Willis

J.

forTli. III. iM'l thtr«,

a Grecian urn.

like

Cjkay, Greece.

I

Yes.

ooks

I

Dressed for the summer.

MS

China—or Thailand,

could be

would plump

I

and D. Willisi9H8)

and possibly

o)

.\),

modal 'must'

to so they are sure. They show they are not sure:

modal

• by using the liy

•

l)y '..lying

«

I

think'ib), d)

'1

and

I);

activity like this

draws

i

h);

ubing rising intonattbn to signal a questionlf)

jy

An

and j);:

'could*:

usingthe modal 'would':a) and

•

Tm positive' and use the

expresseertainty, so speakers say

I)

and

g).

learners' attention to the

means used

to reach

Agreement.

READER ACTIVITY 7B Looking tt spontaneous speech

What features of spontaneous speech are Illustrated In the dialogue above?

Commentary ii

Figure J.I

'It

>i

I

can find the following features

in

the dialogue:

could he Thailand' l.ilsG

I

READER ACTIVITY /A

starts

hink—

and omission;

agree, yes, with the Statue of Liberty and

I

i

I

think Thai

I

..

.

1

all

thinkThalland.

Identifying language items 1

How many statements of opinion can you find in this dialogue?

2

What do speakers say when they are sure? What about when they are not

;

11

range of interactive phrases and discourse markers:

Y(iah, OI
sure?

varbless 'sentences':

How many questions can you find?

3

Wliat about the one

CommentaT7

And

There are the following expressions of opinion: ,|

a Well I'm absolutely positive that that's

b

I

c:

I

New York.

d Yes

e So

I

It

think

I

think Thailand.

Makes me

thlnl<

the use of

fillers

agree with you.

f

Soriicwhore oriental perhaps?

g

It

could be,

one along the top?

.ihljicviated sentences:

i

that.

must be Holland

ar,

Thailand?

the middle here at the top?

Oriental definitely.

think--nj%me, yes. Wiethe Statue of Ubenyrtallthoiieskyscrapers.

would say Holland, for

the third

in

c^

and arm

of Grooco.

those skyscrapers.

va^ue language

fi

real

"

don't know^en^a^Stsgytiitto sort of say it's Chfe. This is rho only one dearcut example here, but vague language is generally ve^ Irequenc in spontaneous Speech. Words and phrases such as the following are I

usedeohstamly about, sort

kind of,

of,

more or less, or something

world and

w«'i|M

'weir, 'right', 'oka/,

and

to picp.irc learners for

W

it.

DiscotiiSft

-imkm. like

carry a huge communicative weight and need to

be studied in context. can begin to look at them for learners. It is very systematically and to devise activities to highlight them of spontaneous spoken useful for learners: to listen critically to recordings order to raise their awareness of features

Once we have

icleiuihed these features

we

own langu^ h

discourse in their

from an vague language and repetition. They can also be asked to work which from English in discourse edited version of recording of natural removed. have been elements like vague language and discourse markers that have can then listen to the recording and identify the elements like

on« of the advantages of using spontaneous recordings of lasb. The i-ecordin,^^s c-arry many of the featares of spontaneous speech. Iktc LUC, of course, other features which are not exemplified here, such as: I

his illustrates

I

the use of sentences that tend to he joined with simple conjunctions, particularly and', 'but', ^then' and 'so'. This is particularly true of spoken

7

^

narrative. 8

guy

(for

man), kids

been omitted. D. Willis (2003)

(for children)

imiJortant thiilg is to provide plenty

10 the use oFTronting

section

funny fellow.

(my

hy simply adding one element to

aunt, her friend, his neighbour, she said neighbour of a friend of auntfs .,.'). There .

my

example one If

in

in

the recording

sM

.''

Instead of 'The

.

is

an interesting

of three place adverbials linked in a chain:

'the

the middle here at the top'.

some

all

these

stage.

Once we have material of this kind we can begin

to

work with

it

to highlight

important features fer leai^ers to study. By picking out all expressions of npni ion we h rel="nofollow">gh light niuch of the klgimga involved in rea^^ lly picking out all the questions we promote insights into the

discourse

is

of exposure to spontaneous speech by

way

the

structured.

important for learners to be exposed to the features of spontaneous Most of us c^ te^ out first exposure to a foreign language outside he clasMoom, and the feeling of bewilderment which often accompanies dm experience. We are suddenly confronted with people who s(..mIs .ipidly who use vague language which was never covered in ,iin J.i.ssruoin is

i

7.2..1

Once

learners get to

know one

another relations are relaxed;

learners

cany

this over into their use ot English.

studied of course, they cannot distinguish between informality and *Hi Jen, between difference tiie learn politeness in English. They have to first,

how

you today?' or 'Excuse between 'Can T use the dictionary when you've finished with it?' and mc, I wonder if! could use the dictionary after you please'.

hoVs

it

going?'

And 'Good morning Mrs

Carter,

are

make Whatever approach is taken in die classroom, we will always need to There are^'number of learners aware of the social dimension of language use. Some of these involve classroom. useful ways of doing this in the task-based a

It

general

knowleduc

speech.

•

of cultural conventions, some of diem involve .ipp lopi nc Liiij'.ua^e forms. Consider the following:

awareness ol

I.

role-play in the Rccogjii/e (he ililteirn.e beiweeii problem-solving and

I

i

''^Pg"'="ce,

who make

false starts

which

But the most

informal atmosphere indeed teachers often work hard to establish a relaxed their first language, in the classroom. So, when speaking to one amather in probably try to will tend to use Informal language, and they will

At

spontaneous recordings are used regularly in the classroom,

features will be exemplified at

is

classroom.

the use of phrases that are constructed

anodicr

activities

discourse.

we use used n a rich variety of social situations, and the language however, classroom, and relationships. In the is shaped by social contexts are strictly limited. As we pointed out in reladonships and contexts social the ab(we, die agent/client relationship does not exist in

He's a funny fellow, that George.

11

number of other

on mmial Spoken

enable learners to focus

Language

he's a

a

7,5 The social dimension

9 the use of 'tails'

That George,

lists

bringing recordings into the classroom,

the use of colloquial words and fbrms: bloke, fellow,

They

and ask abbreviated

t[UCH(j<ji^i>,

This

is

the

way suggested

in

task, ForexHini'lr,

nroblfiim

i«

HolVi:''!

w\.\\m 7.M. Learners begin with

problem-soK

''"^'"''hi}; hi

mul I"

a

'

'I

^'-'-'M

,,„iBwcyLvttd mflwimti).Mii>.^fiMniv

iMlil^'

'iilii.ition.

I'lie

wlfu

exiuuplf

MUlkl<;i".^">t^tialojsuo

li

we

bcw^

inr,

a pai.ilkl

loi)ke
a travel

agent and a j;()iiij;oii

•

o[

pLirt

client.

Learners then lookedatthc languiigc forms used befoiv

ID I'dlc phiy the ;igL-nr/dient dialogue.

lIic

task

i)(

lassroom,:

(

role play

con.sciousness-raising. in

Once

sequence involves language analysis and learners have handled the language involvcti

negotiating the problem, they can go ihe interaction. This stage

on to look at the soda! dimension would concentrate on forms of address, on

he use ol modal verbs, on markers of deference such as apologies. I'ncourage learncsrs to think about the social dimension in their language. Forms of address are important. Hcfvr, example,

I

own

would they address a close friend as opposed to a complete stranger? How would they address someone much older than themselves as opposed to someone

-cader

I

and organizer

discussion

ol

yoLUiger?

How

is

politeness

encoded

m their own language? How

and when do they make apologies? •

Make

generalizations about social variation. For example, in English longer is generally politer. So there is a clifie from *Please ' to 'Could .

Ikkjsc to move into group/pair work. But in most nnduct thewhol&task sequence in teadier-led form. Remefftber the basic

I

haiacicristic

I

of a task-based,approach

l.clore a focus

on form.

It is

•

...please ...'to

'Would you mind

that meaning is primaary ml^comes

is

Make sociolinguistic variation

V.

I

approach can be applied to storytelling activities or to games. In a game Twenty questions', for example, the class can work as individuals. They

',anic

as

it

is

revealed in texts.

look at a sequence of emails to show how strangers tend to move very rapidly from fotmal politeness to nTfonnaliry, iVom 'Dear Dr Willis' to 'Hi Dave'. It is worth looking at letters handling

between

and between strangers. What differences are there? Look at the differences between the popular press and more prestigious ncwspapecs. How do they report the same events? • Ask learners to rewrite letters and dialogues varying the social parameters,

We nced,^therefore,

down

an begin by writing

I

nm

then

be^n

to play the

It is

interesting, for example, to

similar subject matter

'

please'.

of class discussion. This can be

the subject

done by analysing language behaviour

...

close friends

supplement a task-based approach to take account of social variation. This is partly a matter of consciousness-raising, sensitizing learners to the way the social dimension is encoded, and partly a matterof to

move

working individually on a

The teacher then leads a discussion of the questionnaire. This lollowed by a stage in which learners jot down a few notes summarizing dieir opinions. The teacher then offers learners the opportunity to share heir views with the class. So the teacher controls the class at each stage. The

1)1

...-ing

possible to

possible in a discussion-based lesson to

a teacher-led introduction to learners

liuMi

it is

t|iicstiorjn;aire.

. .

you

then

i

cases

.for

much

may

lask sequences begin with a teacher-led discussion. You

MoM

I

•

by die teacher in the task-based

us look briefly at die rolos ftillillcd

,ct

I

nominated by the

licre

is

out.

They

with the teacher summarizing where they have

a an excellent precedent for this

iue of the pioneers

I

game

and reading these

calling out questions as individuals wlu n

to at certain stages.

I'lK

I

teacher,

possible questions

kind of procedure. N.,S. Prabhu, this kind of teacher-

of task-based approaches, advocated

South India. He used no group or p.iir work (Sec Prabhu J987.) The great advantage of group work, oFcourse, IS diat it gives learners plenty of opportunities to talk. Bur you may leel that here are times when the greater conttol ofa teacher-led approach more than um weighs providing opportunities for learner talk. You may want to adopt a led discussion in his classes In Bangalore in

i

approach

ir.u lier led

in the early stages

of task-based teaching, gradually

n

more and more group work as learners become famiUar with the idea may usea teacher-led approach tfee first time learners do particular task or a particular type oftask. You may want to rely heavily on

,1

teacher-led approach if learners are^ for whatever reason, reluctant to use

ii',nig

introducing appropriate language forms.

or doing tasks. You 7.

6

In

the task-based classroom teachers

Teacher roles fulfil

their ti-aditional role

of

providing language knowledge and input, but they have also to promote real language use and provide a clear \k)k between the classroom and the real world. The teacher's traditional roleisthatofknower, someone who imparts and shapes knowledge. This is the role that shapes the kind of classroom discourse

we looked

at right at die beginning of this chapter.

important role for the teacher in the task-based classroom purveyor of knowledge time

will

is

But the most

not so

work on

light

of the

ll,

to think things likely to

.ire

.1.

to enable learners to

nglish in

You should be aware, however, that a teacher-led class is not an easy option, requires careful prep.u'ation, especially with elementary classes. Yon need

much the

manager of discourse. Most of the teacher's leading and organizing discussions, and in class

as the

be taken up in

management

group work. You have to decide iMs for yoturself in the dynamics of your partictdar class at a particular ti^e* I

still

through with great

care, aiiticipating the difhculties learners

have and working out strategics for handling those

difficulties.

Man.iger of group/p.lil wol'k

Wc

have poiiucd out thni

h) use

I

he

laticU'll',"'-

pi"

I

ii

nnHlp/|iiiii \v"[|. [.ives learners ninre <tpportunity iiLii

l\

tasks.

he able lo or^.nii/c ihin

ItMiil

ol

l

lir 'ipi

wuik

iL

in

ii

[!;el

l,Mi|'u,(|'e,

llie

I

lie le.u

Ikm oul

her needs Mi

ul suukiii.s.

cleur ttbout

ll

is

what

is

expected of them before chcy move imo groups. It it monitor groups carefully to make sure ilial lliey are on

seem to be going wrong you should not be sort out

Iniporcatic to

nlito ii

a.

afraid to suspend

1,

M iliiugs do

^ruup work and

problems befbre eOixtiftuii^g>

groups and ask them to continue the discussion with a new set of partnci-.s. This provides useful opportunities for learners to rephrase ideas they have

wori^d through. The same applies to storj^elling. Learners can change groups and tell rheir story again to a new audience, or ths^catt tell a story chcy have just heard from someone else in a previous group. already

3

Facilitator

resist ilu:

when

dieni.selves.

ol

l

When operating in this

ienii)uuiontocorreci learners

learners are struggling to find the best li is

useful to try to think

you

role

when they don't really need it

by answering questions

Inn you sht)uld be ready U) help

phase

sometiMsS'Usefol to change the composition of the groups and repeat a task. You might, for example, ask learners to discuss a, topic, tken iangc

It is

them and sometimai rephrasing.

repciiring

Khmihl

in a

language study

way of

expressing

of yourself as conversing with a group

ricnds rather than being the teacher.

Language teacher

ft

1

lere are,

1

however, stages at which you do adopt the traditional teacher

role,

and eliciting appropriate language forms. In a lask-based approach this focus on form normally comes at the end o( a task 'lnence. It is an important role, and also a difficult one which demands splaiuing, demonstrating,

.I

thought and preparation.

.uelul

K

You need

to find a balance between setting a task which provides the righi kind of challenge, and making sure that learners caii manage the task. If you are introducing a

new task and you

then the best thing

are not sure

about the

level

7.7 Review

of difficulty,

probably to err on the side of making things too easy rather than risk things being too difficult. 'We mil look at ways of adjusti ng is

tasks in the next chapter,

li

important to design task sequences which meet the needs of particular

i;,

nu ps of Students. In doing this

,1 1

nv iioiunent in

•

which language

\nual dimension.

4 Motivator It is very important

Luiguage to give learners

all

the encouragement you can. There arc

two basic ways of doing this. First you should be as positive as you reasonably can be in lkt feedback you give learners. Go out of your way to highlight rheir achicvcnicnts.

When

on grOUp work, pick out some of the and comment positively on them. When a a whole always try to find something positive to

you should put a |?ositive gloss On thirigs whoever you

worth reviewing progress

particularly spontaneous

spoken discourse. Often

language. This will help

them

recognize that language varies

to

What new

work and to provide a suitably need to take on a range of teacher roles.

tasks

nvironment you will n

I

111-

rich leai*ning It is

important

aware of the richness and variety of teacher roles in the classroom and

In lake

account of this in your planning.

Follow-up activities

7.
is

make

can.

to highlight proE^ress.

It

hink of

What new stories have

Language 'knowef and adviser

This involves helping learners with meanings. You should join in learner discourse as an equal parritapanr, hut one who has greater language knowletlgc and experience. You can higlilight learner contributions by

I

a lesson

of your lessons.

What useful new words and topics are now available for

they added to their repertoire? Have they become noticeably more fluenti' Encourage learners to identify dieir achievements and to take a pride in them. 5

important to

way of achieving this is by making them aware of how they use their

order to

In

at regular intei-vals.

phrases have been acquired? tliscussion?

social

make learners aware of this make learners aware of the way

ording to the social environment and the purposes and circumstances of

I

'

Hie second important way to enhance motivation is

important to take a^ccOiifit of the

used and to

language use,

may comment on the breadii of vocabulary

and pick out one or two useful words or phrases. YbU may comment on growing mastery of a new grammatical form. Being positive does not mean that you have to be completely uncritical or that you have to ignore the problems that learners havi? and the mistakes that they mal^ but it does that

—

constructed

is

is

reporting

say about the peirfofmalice. You

mean

own .!(

useful phrases learners have used

learner speaks to the class as

useliil

ii

also

It is

it is

you taught you taught recently or,

time did you spend in the role of language teacherss 1.

if

possible, record

one

How many different roles did you carry out? How much it is

defined above?

Uefore teaching a particular unit, identify the land of target discourse,

spoken or wrillcn, ataileniic leciine,

discourse real

in

is

world.

your

llial .i

written,

How fm

Icsstni?

Arr

arc .nniing

\'ini

ar. Is it

uewsp.iper editorial,

ny

to find

dnc>.

ii

brochure?

it

the target

one or two samples of that discourse

man

then.' .inv

informal conversaiion, an

a travel

li

in

the

ihe lesis y(nu' learners had to deal willi

itnpm lant ItMiures missing?

I'or

example, do

written (cxis in yiKir u)Uiki
SOi

do chey still prepare

Icumciii to handle this

theclassroom?: 3

'

If the target discourse l!ic

sanif questions.

iumi

is

l>1

i.li,scuLii.se

<
outsidf

8AI)AniNCAND

RI:MNING TASKS: SEVEN PARAMETERS

> .

spoken, try to recofd one or tw6 samples and ask

Look

''^

carefully to see if the features of sponcaneoiis

d iscourse listed in this chapter are to be found in the recordings of spoken d iscourse you use in your classroom.

Further reading Carter, R, and

can 'J

wc

'his

is

teach

M. McCarthy.

it?'

ELT Journal

T996. 'Spoken

of ^oken English, fhomng hmf it written forms and olTerhig suggestions for teaching.

a description

'standard'

grammar: what

is it

and how

50/4: 369-71. differs

from

8,1 Introduction )nce wehave an

(

D. 2003. Rules Pattern and Words: Gramfnar And Lexis in English 'reaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Willis,

CJliaptcr 9 gives a description activities to

of spontaneous spoken discourse and describes

help learners focus on

it.

A<

,

,'1k.

in a

idea forat^k. or once

initial

coursebook,

we will

often need

we have

identified a possible

to adapt or refine

it

so that

it

meets

This chapter offers seven pararneters needs of (Hir learners more precisely

wkna^^pong or refinmg the design hat give us specific aspects to consider

I

of a particular task.

You will be fkmiliai

Wi^ ^ur own

learners'

needs in general terms: for

writing, and it need more practice in speaking or spontaneous need more opportunities for whether ..n.-akint;, Do they need to extend their vocabulary ,;,u.,action or for more formal talk a wide range ot benefit from tasks that incorporate

^

^a.npl^, whether, xhs^f

.

r.pidly' If so, they will

concernedabout passing an e^^^^ n'ulini^and/orlistening. Are they are accuracy? If so, they will need, task locus on grammar and written more formal writing nrnvide natural opportunities fbr ,

^

^ ^'Hke

.

„ulitions. All this information

is

useful

when we

are selectmg

and rehning

more I'he present chapter deals with ,sks with specific classes in mind. to need do we individual t^ks-but laailed planmng-the fine-tuning of the over offer a suitable range of tasb keep overaU objectives ki mind so as to ,

,

.

longer terra.

considered before a lesson when setting seven broad parameters can be look at for tasks. For each orie we shal up, grading, and writing instructions a task make to order beseleaedand Weaked' 'hcsc

i

m

different variables that can

more

effective.

And

occasionally even

we have planned the task well lesson when you need to tweak a

if

bHorehand, there may be limes during a more eUct (ive. lask 10 make i[

We

waiu

.„,nie i.isk

I

K-ic

i.s

.0 ilhisnau- ihis pu.u-.ss initially

on (he

du:

hi-si

inpi.

ofwork

wild airccr

ol dir

lot

veiMuu

i.i»tli

y"U

by comparing two versions of the moves. to reflect on.

READER ACTIVITY 8A

i

.

/

Improving a task

Caroer moye^c

What are your opinions about working in freelance from

afamlly business,, or working

home? Tell your partner.

Imagine that a colleague asks you to advise her on this task— she tried it with a reasonably good intermediate class but most pairs did it in (ess than a minute, saying very little.

Why do you think

It

did not work very well? Suggest

two or three improvements.

Commentary Thcro are several reasons why the task as set up here mfgh£:nfi>t wofk. Brstly, learners may have no experience of family businesses or working freelance

some

home, and have no opinions at all. If you think this might be the case, ask them to think of someone they know fes whom this might apply. It would also be morr precise (and doable) if we changed the word froHFt

'opinion' to 'advantages

disadvantages', and included activities

some

to motivate learners to weigh up the

instructions are

and

informative input and engaging pre-task

two situations.

r.KhcriiK'

I,

Finally,

the

ambiguous because of the 'or'—are Iearn6rs.supposedtotalk one.? So. another improvement would be to make this

I

will

isK'ii

.111(1

again wiih

about both topics or just

clearor learners might think that one opinion for each situation

hci'LimX' .iml din's m\>\i •\

works

'[hi Ilk aliiiiii ilio ,n(iv,iiii.-igi"^

below

a iiailiiLi wli.ii yoLi imilerslood. Listen iiiptsLcipi iT yOLi neeii ui.

talking about advant

^nothar advantage Thfl

is

working

in

his

father's

6

^d follo^^^ a three-step listening task about a business,

disadvantages are listed. After this comes

where possible advantages and a section entitled 'Listening chal-

suit

Cominiring

Tills

this version

(6)

of the task with the one above, we see that the main has two pre^task steps (4 and 5) both encouraging learnei-s

to engage widi a specific situation.

The photo

supplies visual clues

more appealing and human. There is more information from what Catherine says in the recording, backed up l)\' ilumalccs 4)

which

available

tape-script.

C:ompttrcd with the

first cask

above, siep 6 instruct i(in\ .nc

more

precise, aild

,-

fs

„.

plii.iM-; 1"

working \m

ndv;inlngc=.

\M. about

rftid

a w'ly ()ii]/vniy '.muil i.-oiTi[jany.

What's your opinion atioui wotking af Freelante b} in a It? liD a pannec. business? Do you oi yjio^ ytw

fanil ly

Figure 8.1 Catherine working at home

lenge', which has a colour photograph of a smiling mother sitting by her computer at heme, holding a young child on her lap while answering the phone. There are toys scatter<£d around.

speaking task

fa milybuiinef! is

...

disadvantage of my situation

clisatlvaiitages of

from the middle of a unit on 'Career moves from Natural English Intermediate (Gairns and Redman 2002). It is in a listening skills

s()n

Inniif.

ilie

The main advantage of working in the

is

section tided 'for and against'

.il

sUuoliiin.

ii'll

Wiih a par.ner, use the

task

wi>ik

be enough.

There are. other improvements that could bemade, but for now let us look at a second version of the same task, taken from a coursebook, and compare the two versions.

The

liui

.iriil ilis,iti\.i[iiiii;i'^ iil' liL'r

personalized in that the learners are asked to say whether either option would

them.

gives

is,

then,

more

;i

I'.rc.ii

interaction. But thffw

rweaketl lo si;ni

with

applied.

inipnivcmciir on the

It

first

version: the recording also

and it is likely to generate more l.ini;,ii.i)^c itw Miill many ways in which it could be adapted or in use

exposuii; to

liinic .i|i|'mi|

avervlew

Int .|.c.

|',n)ii|».s

ul llu' ticvrii ptMainelcrs to sec

of learnei's.

how

So

Ici

us

dicse could be

READER ACTIVITY 8b Analysing and ndnpting task instructions

Look at tlie mind-map

1

(Figure 8.2).

Consider each paramoccr

aspects of each parameter to the second version of the

these parameters are accounted for

Which

fn

tuin, .ippiying

above. Wtiich of

the task instructions,, |n;papt or

in

whoie?

are not mentioned?

Appiying aspects of these parameters, think

7.

tasl<

in

task instructions so that the task

iikely

is

how to adapt/add to the textbook

to generate

more

language use and a

richer learning experience for your owfi iearners. 1

Make notes based on each

A visuiti? A rase

a text?

parameter, leaving space to add to them or revise them

while reading the next section, for example, 'make the interim goals

Starting points for task-

snicly?

more precise'.

A

sroiy?

ir;\t:her

Learner experience?

Web research?

'6 Pressure

Input and

dnxing of priming stage

- prestige

We shall now take eadi of these f^stfametefs and explore themin relationship to the tasks above.

Making some of

instructions and/or adapting

and

them

is

satisfying learning opportunity.

task that engages learners

these parameters clearer

likely to

Our

and generates

as

make

this task a

ultimate goal

is

to

ill.

langiKige (piannetl,

rehearsed, public) versus iniormal

parameters

the task

langimge (spontaneous, exploratory,

more effective end up with a

3

Pre-taskpreparatipn-

with

oi-vs^thoitt

private).

planning

tiiiiini;, !

',11

i

I

let

I

input;

I'lX'c

plan 11 ng? i

k\\ or learner-led? [1

2 Outcome and interim goals: the need

'1

Recording and transcriliin^

learner interactions; scaffolding

lime? primingstnt^t::

much meaningful use of language

as possible.

8.

on language production:

pushing' oiupLir to achieve accuracy

teacher feedback-

11

egmive

or

and positive

bachcr-

experimentation and complexity

to

encourage

written

reparation: in note form

or in

full?

for precision

5

Interaction patterns

and

participant roIeS-

A rAWtask is one where there is a dillerence task'

where there

'correct' answer, for

example in

are five differences to be found.

An

a 'Spot the

open task

individuals, pairs, groups,

teacher with whole

is

class;

of chair-person/

where the outcome Is unpredictaMe---where learners are free to decide what

roles

they want, as in the task we have just looked at.

writer/ spokesman/langii age

The first version of the

or two

open

ro a

consultant/editor; one-way

task above leaves the final

minimal interpretation

—

outcome rathervague and an opinion about working free-

to give

The second version is less vague in that learners must considea: beth tJptions and also apply it to then- own circumstances, but we do not know how much they will have to say on this topic they may

flow

/

way information long or short lurns

lance or in a family business.

—

have no direct experience of cither situarion.

A

less

motivated learner could

achieve even the second task minimally in two utterances to a partner: 'freelance too risky for me; our family ^no businesses' and sit M.ck.

—

—

more motivated ing task with

learner

might

refer

back

in the

A

book

to the

preceding listen-

of advantages and disadvantages of family businesses and use some of them. There is also some background information in Catherine s riHordinj; iliar a motivated learner could draw on. However, there is nothing [(I

its list

help liMnuTs

know how well

they have understood the

rtvonliiig, oilier iliaa coniitariug dieirs

with dieir

main points of the

[liiriner's

understanding.

h'igttreS.i

Task parameters

mind map

—

kind of situation where the^m^k i^^VS^e^and students don't really i<now how much dicy should understan^px^y, or whether they have done enough to complete the tiink which often leads to difficulties with class It is

this

—

management iilTBT. I

liete arc alternative

precise

nnd help

wayi of'tlcvdii|)iii|;

Icarrnrt'ii

m

M

t

iiticc

ihi.s

task

which would make it more

conlidcnt doing

it:

Sr/ sptrijk interim goals so learners

the way. For exanipigiU •

along

interlnst

Precise inscructlonii

a dear compk-iiou

goals,

poim with an

in their Idiid arc likely to increase learners' confidence

situation.

outcome of some student ability to do the task, stimulate richer use of English, maximize participation and less likely to allow a minunal response. Adjusting these parameters can also help us with the grading of a task, making it more or less

in step

challenging.

inMc'p.i:

Think •

know eaiaerff^Miftey have to do ^'^hM

ol ut least

two advantages and two disadvantages of Catherines

5:

Listen to the recording. Catherine

disadvantages

mentions three advantages and three

— can you catch what they

are?

check by listenkg a^n with the tape-script. check with a partner and see whether you had any of the same

8.3 Starting pointsfor tasks: input and timing at

Listen again then l-'iiially

points

;is

Catherine.

Here we

Knowing they must Usten for six things in total helps them listen more attentively and to know when they have understood in sufficient detail. I.isiininn twice before rea^gthesciipt gives them two chances to succeed as well as

priming stage arc looking at the very

preparing to introduce learners to

we might do when on a particular topic. a task or a set of tasks first

thing or things

Here are some ideas you might use for this initial priming; yoimray well have others.

gainmore ^posure. teacher-led brainstorm

learner experience

Give clues or keyphrases from the recording to

make the listening task easier:

—which do you

learner research

teacher story

family and children, time travelling, extra time, away from work/escape, a lot of room (space)

pictures, visuals

questionnaire, quiz

what Catherine says about the following things think refer to advantages and which to disadvantages? Listen to

work when

I

want

social contact, get

to,

Add some writing. Learners could make a list of two or three advantages and two or three disadvantages. Looking at what they have written will help you do a rapid check on teneis' progress on the task when you go round and listen in.

It's

easier to ensure all learners are

about something

else!

required for the completion of the task. For example:

your

riu'u
common? whether working Ire^oe fem home

laniily business

would

in

ever suit

or working in a you or your partner. Say why or why not.

when

reasons

means

thai learricrs will

they have done enough to be sure they have

lileniirviiij', wliji

poiius rliey both

yivcs ihc task a int)rc social

made and

—

outcome

It's

recordings

The 'Career moves' task above begins with a picture of Catherine working at home and asks learners to think about her ^tuatlon. So the starting points are a visual presentation

recorded text

which

spoken

An

task.

cnmplerd

icisnii', ih, v

the kiiul ol

coupled wi th learn^resdp^rimce closely followed by a

learners then listen to, to prepare themselves for the

alternative starting point

family business or that

way

—

so this

Chapter

might be

freelance,

is

would

and

to ask

3,

liiivt'

\Um^ m\

In

the

know

who

A

jumped

good

either in a to

work

in

off the

starting point for the task in

Empire

State Building',

might

geiK-i.il

lopH

newspaper headline then takes them into Niugr, where Iciirncr.s start thinking for themselves. For a 'Villi anor'i', Iimiuci'. uiij-lu M;nt by doln^; some j^nided

thc-y

Mil

know

ol. I'he

I'

iiusk.

jcwwM'A

Mil

I.M.liii)-

il

Mil'!, sii);j;e,sied

.11

uitiiiioii

ohtrti ilu In

works

them how they decided

start with learner research (possibly in Li, but to be

'Hello, I've just

die prcpni'iilion

ii'ch t

to ask learners, well in

weUbeaj&ic/y/rfiiriliebiiiKlingwith a short teacher-lcd class hrai ml arm -.xUniK

high buildings

number of points and

texts,

Smartingpoints fir tasks

}'igure-^\3

reported to the class in English).

How similar are your reasons? Specifying the

written

advance of the lesson, to find out about someone

6 Tell yourpartneryour general opinions aboutworkinga) freelanccb) in a family business? (Give two main points for each.) Did you and

make any points

work

doing the task and not talking

Cive more precise instructions for the final task in step 6, distinguishing between a general opinion and a personal appraisal of their own possible career paths (or those of someone in their family), thus clarifjfing what is

partner

previous-students'

fveiyila)' io()iiii

ftii*

h

*

ir.

«m

'm

i

n

i

by the teacher; more

p.ncins' could well be introduced by

^^^"S

into cl.. di.cu.io„

'npm at priming stmezo\AA written, for

classroom.

could be and explanation of the

t-k

(for

pictures).

take ^pw,-,! fe.

aTSt^or^ard task-

"

task previously

sa^l

^

W.' »,„ " ""^

T""

".'^

V'""^"^""*""

»

the topic

and

I'.iiiL'iii.s

^I'ainnuir tluil arc not yec a part ot their natunil repertoire

One couM nrgtie, then, that learners might benefit from a autonomy at this |nv|niratioR stage, bur if you have learners who .iir clearly not making niiicli effort, then guided planning might eneoiuaj^e iliem to try harder and push' their output, even if they do make more I

ill

'ijapoum 2005), r.u'f of

mistakes in the short term. (See 8.6 below.}

dife^^^^

^''^htly different pair of ""^'l- '-^'^ or it '"'"^t end P""*""' prod^^^^ ^'"^ ^^-i^"" who had done

orlisLWtorrlcord

could be seeing

te^

of fP,T/l

Whe

example, a

o,„

(

exlpfc, a web ke o'lef

It

dr^i„,

nr

the satne

A i//(H( fit ofwritten preparation, in notefirm or infull If you give learners time lo write out what they want to Sia^in full, (o^tG prepare this as homework) liey may well benefit from the time spent on working out what they wani to say and how to say it thinicing of che right words to use, and checking |!,rammar and collocations. Trachers* in Japan have found that this gives shyer Ic-arners the confidence to speak out in class. {See also Kelly and Gargagliano -M)oi and 2004 for approaches to task-based writing.) However, there is I

—

whS den aS t

previous lesson. before the task lesson.

-quence

8A

took. (See

u«fU% happen in a

l^""'"/

^"^. S^^'^ t ^'-^f

Chapte7r(5 5l)

^P-ation

home ''^"^'^'=^^'g™'"'°'ytdling at

always the risk learnare will

In help resolve these

Pre-task preparation

etid' iip

\vriiten English' or even learn

phrases written)

^I>o *re

A

hire 'Sit f'^'r"^ produce task interactions tlaarenotoStSlv with a higher degree of fluenL TnT

rM;diiig

out loud, or trying to speak

by heart and. simply

recite

it

problems, ask learners to reduce their

from memory. account to

full

notes that they can refer to during the task (possibly limiting the

andplanning

given five to ten minutes7us

it

'°

""^

number of

.

8,5 Control of ^agmidu'md task strucmre

^°

Agenda

richer.

the way the task itselfis structured. Fbr example, are there

relates to

1

problem solving or crl

t^Ve

tasSlrl^^:;^!^

'°

"'™P'^^^ '-ks>

'il
word

task^etn greateraccurac,.i,utresultsseemt::;rd;fa;;^^^^^^^^^^

With low l

^Z^:tL^r"

real-time

pi™

"

o,

dTe

interactL-a vX

sk

1I

' thev

oudined the

^""^

T"', r^"""

""^

level or less

motivated learners,

where we suggested introducing

he target

task.

-Hi write no4MdlookuTw„

rr

Pl- n ing. Guided plannW rv^en

language that might'come -fu

help

if

the task agenda

level learners,

up

specific interim goals leading

you may choose

to leave

some

to allow space for learners to negotiatedieir

was no

is

10

explicit

agenda control

The only agenda' and relay some opinions to a

think about two topics

lioii .uul

is

fairly

open

procedures. In our original

lime limits, and no itemized steps.

generating rich intcrai

of the agenda

parts

own

cluded thatsuchabri>;i(| hu k ofspecificatlon i'

may

On the other hand, with a more complex task or with higher

lask instructions (8.2 above) there

;:'-^-inaiaterless^=-=^-;^~

it

arefuUy structured and controlled, for diem, as in the 'Career moves' task

.ibove, 1

=°P'"g

limits set? Is additional support (reference material, note-taldng)

specified and/or allowed?

for ttghdy structured

without time tf

foUow? Are time -limits, deadlines, or

explicit steps or formats for learners to

at all,

no

specifications were to

partner.

And we

con-

not generally so conducive to

opportunities for language learning.

-^^

^''^-^'"'^-M) ri""/''' '""''""^^ ewTndtrl

/vj/vw/-//.^

Supplying

lahle lo

conipldo

fill

in

is

a

Npei

lur

iin

enguginpflnd i-m

could be used Mpiicc) 10

help

al

vU'p

1

Ifiit iiciii

ilie

lonnal, for example, columns, or a diagram or

inierhn

^.toul

iMM.tff.i"-

(Iimi

iimi|',)

is

olu-n moiivaliug.

I

iiu)re equiil participation. mi.|/i'I

ph'p.iM loi ihi

hil.tl

laving spaces to

The

fable

below

id.ipicd (dlft'crcnt hcadin)';., nioie

Mep

f),

where they think and

talk

—

.

a^kble. uMuinuiiicaLion ouisiLle the classroom such support might not be too proceeding, up imds hold die 10 use .blowing individual dictionary

Atlvaniages

Working

freelance at

home

l.ciK-r to

_ Working

in a

encoLM-agc ihis Ix-lnre and

the task.

;iftcr

But during

a reading task,

limit it. you may want to allow dictionary use. You could, however, decide to more than five For example, 'While doing the t^k you may look up no meanings about possible harder think to vvMids'. Thi,s encourages learners

family business .Mid to explore

same

lir

I

context clues, and later to pool their knowledge.

limits could also be applied to notes or drafts that students

make

notes ot belore the task; to discourage students from reading out loud from could ask task, you (1 raiiier thatl talking spontaneously while doing the rafts

Tme limits,

deadlines,

word limits Stximg

dicin to reduce these to a certain

a time limit for a task (or a step

in

can help to mocivate learnera to get on vnth. the task quickly with a Oc-iis on the task goal. Teachers tend to find that a shorter time limit works bcucr as learners concentrate more fully. You don't always need to adhere strictly to It; if the task is goi ng really well and everyone is still engaged, let t continue until one or two pairs or groups have finished. ii

task)

i

Deadlines can be also be set by giving a specificnumber of things to achieve, or cxaniple: When you liave thought oF/written down three good reasons/ l-ound seven differences, put your hands up'. As teacher, you can decide at this stage how much longer to allow the activity to run

on

la.sk

%n

than simply a report/talk' he plannmg time will almost certainly take a lot longer than the task or report and this is useful learning time. So you may end up with a two-minute task, a 30-second report (litis would fee afomid 80 words), with ten minutes or so to plan or rehearse jn between the task and report.

or phrases

and write them

small piece of paper they can hold in their hand.

,;ii-ners

/

own agenda Some teachers reported that they discuss the lesson) and class right at the start (or even in a previous

setting their

with their

decide together how they will set about doing the

f ncourage riieir learners to

This could generate valuable learner-learner discussion on how to set This some.ihout achieving the goal— a very useful language skill, in fact. other Words, In (Ellis 2003). linies forms a part of strategic planning' i.rsk.

students decide jointly

on

1)

the use of Li, or at

own strategic and procedures, and set their teacher. Some even make their own rules relating

their

iwn agenda, guided by the

1

1

Setting a time limit for a report back session also helps. 'Plan a 30-second rcport/a one-minute talk' is much less scary

a

number ofwords

what points

dictionaries are allowed.

H.6 Interaction pauerns andparticipant roles

1

Selling a right

word

In

work first as on the pros and cons of working from home,

the 'Career moves' task above (8.1}, learners

reHecting

Catherine,

and then

with

finally,

limit for a

summary

or a written report means that and tussle with grammar to

condense the information. (Tip: write a summary yourself first, then count set a realistic word limit.)

)(

I

listen

partners afterwards.

Mid-msk intervmtions SkthsXi

(1998) suggests increasing the challenge of the by introducing more information half-way through. For example, in a cask where learners were asked to decide what thev would cook last minute For an unexpected guest, they could be told mid-task that the guest was a v'r,L i;n-.an. Or a problem-solvmg mk, you couM introduce last-minute Inidgnary constraints or time constraints that

READER ACTIVITY SC Group interactions and learning opportunities

Mudents had made. The decision

•

m

would

once you see

how the task is going.

to

do

this

effect rhe decisions

can be taken during the lesson '

Degree of reference sup/wrt During a speaking

Think

how the

Interaction and learning opportunities

instead of asking students to • fjroLips of )-i|

thi-('(^

oupsol lour

ai 'itcp

.11

r,

work in

pairs,

in this

task might change

(discussing the listening), and

Mri.i'iilhf'fln.-iUpnakinRtask).

What possibillLlcis wuuM task,

you may decide not all,

to

in real-life

you solve them?

if,

you had

'

allow IcEirners to use dictionaries or to refer co noccs-- after

they

a

your words to make sure you

task

check what

chance to diink befi^rehand and understand. Because learners something to )ssibly to list their ideas individually, they will definitely have out for when hearing the recording, and something to say to thek have had

learners have to choose expressions carefully

they

partner,

a

individuals, listening to

thh.

"'t

«

-i

1

upf

Wl

i.n.

ilifliculties

might

it

cause?

How might

Commtntary At step 5

(listening)

romblned this final

the

level

of corr$-mHsm#Pi might well Increiiae with the

efforts of three rather than

two people. At step 6, four people doing speaking task together and drawing on their different life experiences

would incre^e th6 ta'al thallenge and enrich their language experience

would open up to speak, they

as

it

a wider range of possibilities. Although each, leamergets less time

will

get

more

overlapping speech. There

practice

is

also

in

more

turn-taking, interrupting, and dealing with

likelihood of disagreement

which would

The teacher also has fewer groups to monitor and get round are four rather than three or two in a group. However, some teachers

enftch thedlscourse.

to

if

there

find that

doing tasks individually or in pairs

result in

some

is

easier to handle and less likely to

learners sitting bactcand relying on the others to

do the work.

Participant roles If each member in a group of three or four is given a role with a particular responsibility, this should result in more equal participation

and the

task stage

is less likely to get out of control. For example, one person the writerhecretarylreporteribt^. pair or group, recording in writing \vh;u w;is discussed, or agreed. In a group of three or four, one group member

cafi act as

armed with a dictionary could be the language consultant ^Vmo. job it is to look up and take note of any unknown words or phrases. In a group of four, one person could be a everyone has a chance to

who

generally talks

leader/chair person^ r^|>onsibIe for fnakinj^ sLire talk.

(A smart move

is

to gj^^this role to the person

more than

the others!) Another person could, after ihe task, act as the spokespersan'Vtho reports orally to die class or another group.

Often

the teacher who decides which learner has which role, but if you want to generate more interaction in a group, you migh( sometimes allow it is

them to negotiate which role they each take on. And sometimes you can ask one Icarnert© beian ebsemer, terestigating one aspect of the interaction, for example, noting

down who

speaks and

how much,

or what was said in Li

rather than English.

One-way or two-way informMion flow? long or short tiirns?L&2imQTs report! ng their ideas to a partner might result, initially, in long turns, i.e. two one-way information flows, as they explain their ideas to the other person. "When they work on comparing or combining their ideas, this interaction will almost certainly become a two-way (or in a group, a three- or four-way) flow with shorter mim.

Figure 8.4 Possible roles for group participants

tirawn and had to explain to the person drawing in one long turn. But in lo practice, as drawers progress with their drawings, the interaction tends

liecome two-way,

(ill

Two-wa/

referred to split information tasks

formal ion gap or even opinion gap tasks), where both learners had someicll the other. 'One-way was used to describe lasks like 'Describe

drawer asks for

what has been drawn. So

clarification

this distinction

becomes

and the speaker checks less useful (Ellis

2003:

88-^9)^ It is

far

more important to consider

hoto mBi:^ language Use each learner

is

gaining at different stages in the task cycle, and how varied t\\\s is ((or exanaple, not simply confined to giving instructions or answering questions, or short turns).

If,

for example,

we

notice the interaction

is

dominated by

one person, we can compensate foc this at a later stage or in a new task cycle by allotting different roles, such asmaking the most talkative learner become a secretary whose role is to take notes (with no speaking apart from asking lor clarification) This will subtly change the h^tdracfions within the gfoup and .

add variety to the

The distinction between one-way and two-way information flows has in the past been oversimplified.

as the

g.

7

lesson.

Pressure on language production: 'pmhing'

output to achieve amimcy

ihing U)

and draw', where one person held

all

the information about wh.il wjus to be

TBT

i(i

snnic!llillr't

1

expense: of uccuimy

iin

1

I

1

*

il

.m

1I1.

li(*wlinli iMr>i

|',i..iiiid'.

ih.M

il

promoic's fluency

;U ihi'

nc»'d.u.iivfulconsidciution.Mometimes

.

'-s^y i, . good m.,.

buc

u

when less

i

liey are all

of cuiutl

>si.iiiih. '.I'his is.;

of eourscj ideal for encouraging shy, *tr

fluent learnerS: CO «peftlt

'ft*^'

However, learners who are reasonably confident, fluent but inaccurate when Npealdng or writing, may need to be encouraged to think harder about the forms they are using, or their errors may simply fossilize. Unless challenged, aetion were listed in Chanter

-7

ot intormal spoken inter-

h

by on what they Imow, and avoid language they [HTceive as 'difficult'. How can we supplement the textbook where needed .iiul challenge them to take more care with their language? Or push them to extend their repertoire of forms and try out more complex language? These ihey will continue to get

.lie all

questions ra^ed by Skehan

There are

several natural

ways

(199^8).

to increase the pressure

on language produc-

lion, including putting learners in a situation where accuracy

whei-e they are

more

likely to notice their mistakes,

matter or

will

by asking them,

for

rs.amplc, to •

give a formal presentation after a task, standiiig in front of the

—

write or record something for public display

below discourse,

unfinislu-d

!t

'

°n

f

"«^"<=°"» r=^-time

•

whole

class

see post-task activities

(8.7)

record themselves doing the task to play backfor the class to hear.

/Wording learner their task

interaction

(Report stage,

Get Huent

8.8.2).

learners to record themselves doing

They then take the recording home and listen

down words and phrases they needed but couldn't recall or know, correcring any errors and making a note of 'good' words and phrases they used. Thev .should write these down. For example, if they have done a narrative task, ask tlicm to listen for correct past tense verb forms, and sug^st other adjectives or verbs they could have used. Ask diem to show yo u to

it,

noting

tlidn't

their language notes at the start

e;:

,s;;jr,/«;r

f

^^^^^

of the next lesson, and they could share their

'good' words and phrases with each

other.

and reformulating Get learners to record their task home, they choose a one-minute section of it to transcribe, correct and improve. Get them to write this section out again (you can take this in to look at next lesson) and possibly re-record it. 11iis should help them focus on accuracy and be more aware next time round ol Learners transcribing

interaction then, at

the kind of errors they this

you could

get

make yfktn

them

talldng spontaneously.

to repeat the

same

task or

do

Some time

a similar

another partner. Transcribing takes time, though, so this learners could

do

'/cadier Jci'dh/fii'.

pufili

to a piihlii

ii'piH

something

occasionally, or take turns to do. ht'cdlitu k

Imni

ilu-

leacher or other learners which

Identifies errors (HOrtiPiiiiif»i rrlt'iTcd roiis 'ncgiuivc' feed-back)

CO help ihc

is

after

one with

fill

III

liiiij,

I

Mii« V 'H Ml

111

-I

I'l

iiniii|; '.M|',e,

lull'

h

hM),',

or

ai a

maybeufseful

plaiuiing

ilu'inselvcs.

Il is

Mage

al

prior

limes like

'

they should

rtetbe

l^^^tl

""'r^^'^'

u l:'"""

H.S.2 Repoi

«d phrase,

i

siagc

Known

IVivatc or public? Siiuill or lai'gc uudicnce?

or

unknown?

In the 'Career

moVtfl''^tfi above, the textbook "ittstfuetibfts suggested that learners report ideas to a partnei-

(lifir

cdufident learners

in a 'private' setting; this

i.e.

who have problems with

suitable for less

is

spealdngout. You could, however,

or extend these instructions in order to increase the pressure to speak ectu ately as well as flufintl)'; Etch paif could report to ^<5ther pair and decide li;uige

L

;i

on the two main advantages and disadvantages. Then one spokesperson from e;ich group could come to the front and tell the whole class about their group note

™

down any useforworro.

<

listen

out for and

i[)imonS,

then it WQuId be more

the grotlp

this,

1:0

would

'public*.

Ifyou add In a planning stage prior

under pressure to help

feel

their

spokesperson to

organize their presentation well, to use a richer vocabulary and to produce

language in their report to the

.iccurate

out by Ctaig Johnston (20051 191-200)

(See 8.7 above.)

class.

'I'his

was

tested

who found that after a planning and

rejiori stage, his learners' syntactical accuracy improved, their lexical selection was more native-like and also more varied than at the task stage. This is something you could explore in your own classes.

This 'public report stage was also exemplihed in Chapter fii-ediction task C3.3), I

story containing their

lie

compare are

over-col-a d

maX

thev"

"

fT""

l^ataer^who

language,

stories.

^-

,

.T*"^ f^^

.

reward comple^ty (Skehan 1998^ Eilkaoo3:

^ore complex

S)

If,

own

pi

3,

where, alter a

fourth stage, where pairs,or groups

edictions to the

whole

class,

who

tell

then

As well as increasing motivation to use more 'prestige' makes learners want to read the text to find out which of

was nearest to the newspaper report.

lenerally, the bigger the

well.

'° .

(

also

it

their stories

utterances in the fliture rarhf.rrlv.n

we suggested a

audience, the

though, you have shy srudents

more

who

pressure there

is

to

perform

lack the confidence to speak oui

to a larger audience, you might, as an interim measure, move one student to the next group to report to them, or divide the class in halves or quarters and let learners report to one or two smaller groups. Preparing the report with a

^.^ Post-task activities

partner also helps: rwo learners planning together will correct each other's contributions, discuss grammar points and collocation, thus scaffolding

8.8.1 FoUow-uptasksforiecycIing texts

each other's learning and giving that extra

f^lkf

oif

confidence (Storch

Z002).

There

is

also

more

are reporting to

is

pressure to use more 'prestige' language if the person you of higher .status than you, or unfamiliar to you. Some

up

teachers occasionally set to acl

hear the ;is

speciahsl

and

on

iht'lr idcul

Woml iiivih what m liiin ihr

Kcmuriuit in tht

ni

i

\.ini|ilL'.

luMnlitin

l.orif

check

1

);

d

,1

where outsiders come

into class

views on a certain Issue relevant to them; or to

iiiloi ni.iiu',, h.ivinr, lie.uihi

.ue ciuTcnLly Muilynii;,

report

tasks or projects

class report their

ni

luiol to

itiiiitcd

p

svi

ic

ri'portfrom the class on what ihey

Aurelia Gatcia's learners preseiued a

the headmistress of their school,

fiiM uul specialist 10 visit

her class to

iviunimciulitig lot diUcrcnc emergency

,

Glen Pouporc's iidvicc is relevant here: when asking siudcn In m piL-smi resultSi you should ci^^^'t Mgki expectation in terms of die qual iiy u([irt-.sfiiianon

(be

it

oral or written) as this will

little

still

collect a written report

list

interesting ideas, or iov

some other

iiLlcnipl.,

nthcr.

The report could, of course, be written instead of spoken, or written up for homework after an oi^ report in class. The fepofts could then be read h-^other groups (inside the class or outside) who read them to compare content, or

Imm

ihe

ill

.

their

make themfocyjS Oliaccuracy

more. If it's an oral presentation, you can sheet oftheir ideas. a

one of Ussig's learners saidi I rushed mto a dashed into die wrong tram itustake train'; in the wcond, this became: 1 ten-year-old children I'mUT lound ilui, in iMMiiioii 10 die above benchts, they paused less doubled their speech rate over three repetitions of a task— picMttgupmeiSF structures from each ;>nd spoke wltfefee confidence, often

rx.inipic,

iheir

|:i.son V.I

specific purpose.

I

that students are exposed to a wider tasks with different people and he reports

Moser in Japan makes dae point

ieiy

of language when repeating

more language play widi young adult learners, 'from repetition emerges

dial,

helped

really mk\ risk-taking as students get comft*rtafele. The se^etition olten leel Pinter (see 2005), children even Learners, •.indents open up generally and performance Jivhdy dissatisfied with their initial task recent our from welcome a chance to do it again later and better. We know we've what back over cxperteneeof leamiligiSlSanish that we very often think phrases that we could have used. said in Spanish and recall better words and

We looked briefly in Chapter 7 at teacher roles. When chairing a report-back it is important to react initially to the content of what is said, to summarize the main poin^, or pick out some of the most interesting details and comment on them. Jason Moser, who found thai stiidcnrs' reports were

stage,

often rather general, began to ask for

more

details

during the report stage,

He writes; why and how does

thus pushing their output even more by exploring more deeply.

'One

girl said

she Icnow?

I

her dog docsn

t

like

what he

also asked

going for walks.

likes to

also a very uselul teacher tactic at the

report, as it gives learners

If the messs^

do

instead?'

planning

I

asked

Pushing for more

detail

is

more time to think and plan.

the

same

this follows the principle

of meaning

first,

report-backstage;

form-focused work

later.

learners to recycle, reSne andeictend the language they have already Used in

when doing

occasions where

you

example, doing a

the task together. However, there

feel a report stage is

scries

of short

not appropriate,

if

may well you

be

are, for

tasks, or task repetitions (see below),

you

might simply do one report at the end of the series of tasks, not after each one. Or you might want learners to write or record their own report for homework, to be read or played back in a future class. This allows more time for language reflection

—another

heneflt.

some reason, it might be best to do move on quickly to something different. for

by Jason Moser

Or if the task did not go a quick Kacher-led

(see 'Talking

about animals

and Maggie

lesson, after

some in-class

analysis of the structure of two familiar stories

repetition can also be

and

done

in chance to reformulate their own. Task Inn-n.-rs tell might preparation for an end-of-term test or an exam. Here, you m ;Klvance that they will have a chance to repeat some of the tasks they have expand their done that term. And beforehand encourage them

a rlic

private or public, written or spoken, this report stage allows

groups

lesson, as reported

a day or two, or a week or so. pets' in Chapter 5 (5.6)), to repetitionsafter in the following Baigent's students enjoyed repeating their stories

Is

allow time for some sustained form-focused work after

pairs or

i..n,

m I

not totally clear, some clarification and occasional recasting of student utterances may be necessary, but it might be more profualile to

Whether

I

between the task and

stage,

immediate repetilag between task repetitions can vary from an speaking paruiers or even two, three, or four repetitions with different

The time

m

vocabulaty, try out

new langti^, and make

their contributions as detailed

as possible.

reported setting strict time limits for In our research for this book, teachers eight minutes lor repetition. Limits range from between two minutes to each

task lit a repeat storytelling task, repetition ftom 6 minutes to 4 to a story each shortening the time limit for and great fun. (an idea from Nation 2001), proved challenging

an intermediate

level conversational

very well

sturmmry and

required learners \o write n After the final task repetition, most teachers found out. This gives report including the most interesting things they had write useful words, recycle language and askabout it, and

hem time to recall down points they want 1

8.|3

Ttds: repetition

The advantages of repeating tasks are many and varied. There is a fair amount of research (Bygate 2001; Ellis 2003; Lynch and Maclean 2001; Essig 2005; Pinter 2005) to the

same

show

that getting learners to repeat the

same

task (or

report) but with different partners results in a richer use

of

vocabulary and a higher degree of accuracy and grammatical complexity. For

R.H.4 III

focus.

The

remember.

l-i^l^ l.in|',ii.ip,r

I'ltM

t;iuipier

to

fi,

we

first

the meanlniv

iti

ma.l.

when

d.< v ^vnHI

,..ii.»i«lMjim.iiMn-wt!LMi

wmk

ilu' tliiiliu tinii

kmm m m efcl«"

l-i>

I

h''-

between language focus and form_ on language in the context of niir,hi

omir M

LikaJiiikiaa.iMUMUjti(itii)rwji^y^

a pre task

planning

("luipum what

)

h

1,1,

(h1k;i s

a>iuiil)iiiions.

niniiii',

vr.iir,

—

ht dhortcr exploratory utterances building on To express agreement, native-speakers n.sc.l

imed

whlli* n.nivc-spcakcrs

Icxit.il

;iik1

rather than

irin-iliion,

whole phrases

like

"I

From com-

MKingly agree, which learners used a lot (Leedham 2005: 98). ing recbrdirigSi'iiEtife 'iaa notice. manj^ effe^ USefiil linguistic features

[iiu

.Mid

widen dieir repertoire of conversational strategies.

lu'

I

.(vci

value of asking learners to record reachcry. Heidi Vande Voort

ul

phase,

many

trainees

wanted

than vi^t iiey had actually

more

and

transcribe

Nam reports:

was mentioned by

'during the transcription

what they wish they had said rather ^d'. So she allowed diem to write a second, to write

idealized, version.

8.8.5 Evaluation

jmdr^eti©n

At the end oFa task cycle, or even in the next lesson, many teachers get their and write down how they ,i idcncs to think back over the previous task cycle best to be Irli about it on a slip of paper and hand it in anonymously. It's I

stances later. (The transcript for this listening text is in

Appendix

3 3

speciEc, for example: 'Write

two things you enjoyed about the lesson(s) and

one thing you didn't

make

like or

a suggestion for

irachcrs hold an informal class feedback

co/ka,:„g cxarnpla As suggested in 8.5

i.ihcrs occasionally

aWe,

duria. dx- task or

[;i

widi tcn^year-old

I

domg a m.llmg' task, circulating amongst other learners .ettin. nswrns ,0 questions o„ rhcir question cards'. She exDlains
learners are

:()rony

note

hmgarian

leed-back to analyse (

interview students

(nips outside the classrand

an improvement'.

session after iii

their

mothcr-tonguc in small

dcwn how th^fbd

chiliiren

Some

each main task cycle; Pinter (2005) did this

with success; some do

this

and record

later.

Edwards (Edwards and J.

Willis 2005: 264)

wanted to find out about

one aspect of her teaching: she asked a very quiet, rather unresponsive class invitation to the whole class to iio write how liiey felt when she made an open She reports 'the twenty-one something. on comment ask questions or to slips (3 cm x 5 cm), were tiny ;in(inymous responses I received, written on

enough

for

me

about the way

to write a three-page report for the students, told I

interactive classes

me

a lot

was managing the group and resulted Ift,, much more from then on'. Not only did she profit as a teacher, but the

students benefited too; they really enjoyed reading the report; they realized others had similar feelings and began to 0veg;a>me their fear of talking in

performingotrepottingULthetXanZ^^^^^^^^^^

*

class.

So getting feed-bill k dm s not need to b«^^ Cumbersome procesfr—use small and you'll get ,sli[is of paper and ,ill"\v ilm-i- or four minutes thinking time, techniques taslcs and tailor your help you wliuli will sonieenlighlciiiMgd.ii.i to suit

would write, and

s.p,

^r^^ ^^^^:;s^;:tr!:^

your learners even

beticr.

READER ACTIVITY 8d

Villi

A|.|)lying the param:6fl««:

Choose one of the

same task%ut different instructions

tasks you designed while reading Chapt^r^j, extbook task, or one you have used recently. Bearing in

wnteeut tW6 ..ts of task instructions,

above,

Id

t

e

or. or a

iiuHV

.,iin|ilf,

>

4,

narrow down and siia

-i.iinnu-

(

'J2f

confldsnce

in

f

•

'""T"

decide for one of them

fi.

learn SjOfiieiidng

diapter

t!!h(>ose

and

•

•

we have

distinguished seven broad parameters of task variables th

desim

can b selected

"

cou«ef "

"^'^f^""'

P°i"«

it in terms of some of the parameters above. you change in order to improve the way the task works? Or which might you like to experiment with? Choose one. Plan to change this one parameter next time you try the task out. Think linw you will observe the results and get feedback during and/or after the

A p[)raise it

blinking about

Which

parameter(s) might

k-sson.

(Record some of the pair work, or a specihc section of the

Try the task out again,

activities that

appear

.

.

B

..

Ie,s,s„n, I

i„ courscbc.olcs

more in-depth treatment of

.

.

-h^t Pammetet* you ca« change and f'^^-'-f-''°g how to change them to enhance different kinds

Skehan 1998 Chapter

of

on

'Psycliolinguistic

.

more ideas on what to explore, and how to observe the results, see and J. Willis (eds.) 2005: 269-76, wIk rc Edwards summarizes 18 iiilormal investigations into aspects of TBT carried out by teachers in or

tlilicrent

on the le.son afterwards and think what you ™tgi,t change if you did rile same task with another classreflect on the lesson and plan what parameters you might change ^ when you set up the neM task for the same class, to give variety; and -plaui '" Others what aspects of TBT lessor you can adjust, and give ivflect

countries.

10 Further exploration: investigating

your teaching These parameters can also Kelp you to plan small.sc.l<. ..uion projects, mid become more experimental in yo urjsMdtiim l-c^ l

rrs. ,nl,

hch!

Full accounts

of these investigations are given in

Edwards and J. '^Mis (feds.) aooj. If you

want some ideas

Kelly, C. I

for task-based writing activities, try:

with A. Gargagliano. 2000. Writing from Within. Cambridge:

Cambridge University IVess.

Gargagliano. 2004. Writing from Within (Introductory). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kelly, C. with A.

andTBT

,

3

some of the

I'.ilwards

More formal S.

the principles behind

and be aware of

learning opponunine.s; .

or write a short report of your

processes in language use and language learning I

ur

it

their

p.itameters in this chapter, read

and

about

experiment for others to read.

Tor a

. evaluate tasks

lesson:'

Ask learners for their feed-back?) with ihc new parameter, note down what happens

to observe?

anil get feed-back. Tell others

"^^-^^ i«« will

SVu/r

a task that you have planned or tried out in class recently.

Ask a colleague •

*

indeed.

8*11 Follow-up activity

howyouwouidgetfeed-backaftertheleston.

w«Wn each of those, considered different

and

recording the

who need

9 Review

In llns

task,

can, for

their spoken English;

English;

3

one variaMc and repeat the

You

well but lack

a class of fairly cShfldent reasonably fluent but laid back learners pushing towards accuracy in their spoken and written

2

jiisi

your teaching you want to

one change makes. You will always new from exploring your teaciiing and it can be very

a rate ters

adapting the task to suit

^""^ ^

chaiij;t.'

oi

wriif aboiil for a ^U'ESiC assessment.

inifiactions to sec wliat dillerences this

Kfliisfying '

Llo.sfly. <>r

what aspect

ily

research findings

in general,

and

their implications lot the.d^ign C)f tasks

cim be found in

Ellis

2003, especially Chapters i-^.

9

TASK-BASED SYLLABUS

The language- based syllabus

9. 1

We

DESIGNING A

have seen throughout that a task-based approach to learning and

teaching takes meaning as

its

starting point. In

doing

this it contrasts

approaches which take language form as their starting {KMlit.

which

starts

from language form specifies

its

An

with

approach

syllabus in terms of form.

It lists

first conditional', and 'the and builds teaching units and sequences around such items. Normally the syllabus has more than one strand. So the basic syllabus specification mav list linguistic items like those shown above,

items like 'the present continuous tense', 'the

dc&iite

but

it

article'

^ learning goals

will also take

lexical strsuid to

designer will

list

account ol other considerations. There will certainly be a

the syllabus. This will probably be topic based. the topics to be covered in rhe course

and

will

The syllabus then

list

the

most important words associated with these topics. There will probably be a fiinctional strand to the syllabus. Case will be taken to ensure that liKimers are able to make suggestions, to offer invitations, to express agreement and disagreement and so on. But the organizing principle of the course will be a list

of language forms which will be treated systematically and built up

gradually througjiout the course.

The problem with this approach to syllabus design is that itrestson doubtfid assumptions about the w^ a language is teari^. It is h^cA on the assumption that language learning is additive, thatwe acqmre one form, then move on

to the next

which

is

mastered in turn, aJStAm fXy. But knguage learning

is

much more eomplieated tl^ this. It is a CMnplex prooras of formulating and checking hypotheses about the language. When, for example, learners are nrst introduced the form 'going to' to talk about the future they may well assume that 'going to' is used for all fiiture actions. Later when they come modal 'will' they realize that there are other ways of expressing the future. They have to abandon their former hypothesis and work out, probably with guidance from their teacher, when to use 'will' and when to use going to'. They have to adjtist ilieir piccute<sf ^goifl^ to' to accommodate

across the

the use of 'will'.

-

At a

later stage

they are introduced to clauses with 'If suid with time

conjunctions:

yon miss your

1 1

i

,

11 lull

her

train, you'll

be

v

ii

'

late.

'

when I see her.

^ '

ft

lensc, language reaching

Omc

""i

individual

items— words,

phrases, patterns, fiieSi

the^ items 'ainil^^l^^ti^e them

*rf you will miss

your train

che

modal

will' in these clauses:

sees

[-low I

'

make some allowance

heal element into the syllabus. But. surely, this built on insecure foundations. It sets out

IS

:itul It

evaluates learners

on

as

isolate

m-ate

an additive process, one which

until they have a

complete picture

way in which

involves reviewing previous i^nowledge. structural approach can

So

dynamic of the language. There is. then, aeoafii^tbetsveen the obliged to teach. a£e teackets which in learners learn and die additive way

you'll be late.

They have to learn that there are restrictions on the use of 'will' Again they have to adjust tktk picture of the language in the light of new ^formation So learning is not simply a matter of adding new imowledge. It ofiren

A

aKd*s®!»«e

accessible to learners.

which seem to tteat learning learners as adding one item at a time

,.rocedtu-es

At first learners have a tendency to use

must always be

we whole language at once. .ulditive. Wc cannot attempt to leach the iiuo down Ivvome involved in teaching wc are obliged to brealc language

.

e©me home as soon as'i finish work.

I'll'

contradiction here. be«uil«, In

'

this basis.

is

by building a eyesimply an admission char it for this

1k'

is

that conflict to be resolved?

answer to

this

question

is

out, part of

As we have already fdinted

to treat the syllabus as cyclic^.

So

tiiat

a given

reviewed several times. It is, Item is not simply taught once; it is revisited and In this chapter we shall however, possible to propose amore radical soludon. design and finally at the look at different task-based approaches to syllabus solution to the problem of notion of the pedagogic corpus which offers a that teaching is reconciling the dynamic nature of learning with the

to

to achieve item-by-item mastery But it then acknowledges that, this is

necessarily additive.

by recycling items in the hope tJiat they will be mastered at the second or third attempt. It seems that a more realistic approach is to accept h'om the start that learners do not achieve control of language items in this way and find an alternative approach. Liiireahscic

9,2 |

riuTc

is,

dynamic

as

we have

seen

another reason why language learning is a not simply acquiring language forms; they are

earlier,

process. Learners are

learning to

put them to use. They are trying to fashion a usable meaning sysiem Irom the bewildering range of language forms to whidi they are exposed. i\y a 'usable meaning system' we mean one which they can operate wul, real time. In Chapter i (1.5) we looked at the problems learners have in using d^^-questions with any mmmency. They go through a stage when ihey can form 'do' -questions when diey have time to iMe, rn a gramniar test, for example. But when they are using language spontaneously the com-

m

plex

do

-cjuestions

do not spring

to their lips.

They

rely instead

on intona-

and pi'oduce forms like 'Where you Hve? 'and 'What mean X?' So very olicn they do not simply learn something and then put it immediately to use. i hey have to go through a waiting period in which che new form gradually becomes more kmllhr, until finally it becomes automatic. So at Miv Stage the learner's knowledge of che language is very complex. Some aems, like 'will' and 'going to' have been learned, hue are in che process of bcmg refined. Other items have been learned but are not yet applied iion

automatically.

A meaning-based approach

9.2.1

"What do limners want to mean?

as a a task-based approach Focuses sharply on language syllabus we should ask meaning system. So as a starting point lor a task-based or 'What will learners want the question 'What will learners want to mean?'

As

we

ha-ve seen,

will first oblige us co

do with the language?' If we take this starting pftint, it learning. In specify acbiowledge che importance of vocabulary in language will be very much concerned with speciinj^ what learners want to mean we Secondly we need to ask lying the topics they want to handle in English. the langtiage and in what with do learners will want to to

c|uestionsaboutwhat

with che written or ^the circumstances. Will they be concerned mainly or will they be mainly spoken form? WiU they want language for instruction of knguagefHow toleram will people be of will be expected of them; any failings, in other words what degree of accuracy successful interaction? hard will people be prepared to work to ensure a

concerned with the

social uses

how

of tolerance in a learner is For example, there will probably be a high level low level of tolerance if the acting in the role of a hotel guest, but a relatively learner

is

in the role

of hotel receptionist.

^

y.2.2 UvSl* So even though a language syllabus needs to be itemized, we need to i<-'-r,nr/r fhai learning is nor a simple additive process in which learners gradually adil one item afi;cr another to their repeitoire. Bui ilicre is a

cnui'NCJt

Clearly IcarncrN*

wmU

want Englwh FiW and Chapter 7 f7.M)

will vnry

Inim one group r'ni""-"-

svt

M.

hctki,

l''>''

to anoiher. l,earners

^-^-"nph-. in

(

li.ipier

il.snined I7 Jiianna

C

;hei

i

may {\..\)

nen

lor

'

trainee bakers.

The

priority in her course

was

to tiiiahlc Icarncis tu

training in English in a closely defined area of study

undergo

l.'hi.s

the kind of vocabulary that she taught, but also die kind of activity

brought into the classroom. In the example we looked focusing on the vocabulary to do witii

were working on

tihe

at learners

maldiig of choti

piaste,

.she

were

and they

which involved note-taking and classroom discussion. These were topics and activities which focused direcdy on the vocabulaiy her learners would need for their training and the kind of language activitiies they v^'oald need to engage hi. So a wdl*4fis%Eie specialist course will focus on a limited range of lexical topics Sii^ Isit^^"^ activities. These topics and activities will be determined by a needs analysis., whidh involves a close study of the tai^et-language-using situations. This is not a simple process. It involves careful observation, recording and analysis of language in use. But it pays off in the classroom by ensuring that learners' time is well spent because they focus on topics and activities that are activities

Jabbour C1997) describes the design of a course for medical students v^^ho needed to read medical research articles. In the course of her research she consulted medical experts and medical students to learn more about

about reading research

process. In

most

articles

and what they expected

eases the reading involved

introduction to the article to determine the article

the paper

if it

to gain

skimming quickly

was

how they from the

liirough the

relevant. Tf the render decided

was probably worth reading, the next stage was to skip

findings section at the

would

.u
m

widi

.ind tbe topics ihcy will

end of the

article.

Only

if this

to the

confirmed the value of

the reader set about a detailed reading.

As

a,

result

of this

finding Jabbour designed activities which encouraged learners to scan the

introductoiy sections and predict the kind of information that might be

fbimd in tiie section oft ihe finding ofthe research. Without this careful needs analysis she might simple have assumed that student would read through the article from beginning to end, making notes as they did so. In fact this happens comparatively

rarely.

So a careful analysis of what language learners

isvillni^ to process and for what purpose, and

how they will use the language,

can ensure that A^uable classroom time is put to the best possible use.

.-ducation stipulate topics

dirinvnt S

I

levels.

Many European

U'l'l-)

who

and

to cover. In

situations

some

and

countries, mmistrics or

countries

o.iegood example

draw on the Common

document was produced under

o,

U.r

European Fram^ork

(Council of Europe zooiVdoeument^^teis

design. This

benelnn.nks

criteria or

The Qw.di^n Langunge Benchmarks

for

language

syllatnis

the auspices of the l-,uropcai.

of syllabuses tor the teuclung of n.mcil of Ministers to specify the content thorough attempt to languages. It is a brave and seemingly ,11 European

(

But the CTFis far from perfect: .t . and we take issue with it on some basic often very difficult to interpret; however. in a number of ways. It does, nu.si ions, and End it over-eiaborate

lsr&d.lf

'general learners.

,

the prjnaples of syllabus uuvide a useful starting point to itatrate development below, we will lookin detail at die

of a syllabus based on die CMF-.

purposes 9,2.4 English for examifliatioa working towards an examination. In many cases learners are

for

more advanced liners of

are interested in particular topic areas, b'or example, Lorie

Wood designed a task-based cotirse entitled 'English

and Global

Issues' for

her tertiary level students. Her draft Course Plan appears in Appendix

^,

ability to

is

well designed

Learners often want English for everyday purposes, in order to interact wi di other users of English in a range of settings

—

as friends, as tourists, as

providers and recipients of goods and services, and so on.

And many

adult

ilu-

do these things

Their read.ngsk.ll mformation from ability to retrieve relevant will be tested by testing their be asked to provide dn-cctions to a laiglish text. So they might, for example, email have to match information h-om an hotel In order to do this.&ey may map tn order to provide appro_priate message with information from a kind 0 there is a good match between the instructions. In both these cases asked arc they task-based cla^toom and the thmgs

samplesofthelanguagewillbe considered

to

do

do

in that context.

in the

in the examination.

It

will

get be necessary to ensure that learners

and gc is expected oi them .xamination practice so thai they know what be well wUl they general examination, but in used to the conditions of the prepared.

At the other

9.2.3 English for general purposes

If

the lau^ a test of learners ability to use

it will be it will match 10.) If this is the case, then Chapter ,Mage (See FAQ 10.13 in Learners will In- asked to do under well with a task-based methodology. they have become accustomed to examination conditions the sort of thing 7^'^' examination dning in the classroom. An oral ^^^f^^^^P^^' on their marked be will They instructions. give eandKlates to tell a story and produce aec urale effectively and their ability to

examination

diings learners

Content-based courses are sometimes used English

want

specification. In section 9.3,

impoftant for them.

set

J..ssc.samtainscudBntiwlthiiwrieeyofdifFm.nueedsJlwe.>re,.>delutc we need u> lis. wh.u i. is ku le.uncrs want Kvllabus for such gencrM le.r.u-rs which they will want u, opcKUt their I'nglish, du- situations 1

dictatSi 'K©*!^nly

'

examinations extreinr. however, there are

sharply on Inrm ..nhe. d

urni, Learners

m

Mv

which

foe

;isked to

us very

complete

muhiple-choicc form«r. .ed M-n.e,ucs. u dui use. But the wo.l, liir rmiuiv^d Fmm language Activities like ihU lot the them prepared will have do In ihi' uMuimi .U*timaiii HLave. >pusuuns

m

learners

a

If textbook vv

III

1

1.

1

IcssoM dldnV

lever vvc tWfiikacl

ihe need ior

designated u

out

how

several

m

v:\v\v\y nl

.\

htivc rnslcs or sii|

they were too hard/simple, boring

i|)lemeMletl

i.isk

plcasnrc,

lype.s,

fefl^S'l&fe'tagljs'ftH^

We

dilTiculty level.

;intl

an-

idenrilyiiij','

meaning-focused use of language, handouts, keeping journals,

we

solved Mtial problems like

a lesson efife^^yi hm^ to adapt and improve tasks, to push output, we have now got over 700 snuleni.s

to sequence,

where and

from die coursebook

lie Ixi.sis of

So lesson planning meant liguring then to build a sequence around it. After

constant teacher sttppeot during which

9.2.5 Starting

I

iiuiin uusk Iol- cacli lesson.

months of preparation, seminars, observaritms

tlientic' i.e.

how

with tasks chosi-n on

how

learning through a 'i'BL approach, and another (larger) college

campus

wanting to do the same.

Sr:i^:n:ir Z:it"^ are forced to

adopt a

coleboo

^ ^'^^^^^

weU-mus^ated c„u.ebool<.

"

Oheof the keys that has sold the program

comrsAook. So teacher.

nd

come

students

1

a whole task-based

1

°f

™"r«books and build

;-."..e program

luy were

O

at

Unn'. cliioonr and

working With 28 teadhers based on three books

i

,

rr^-'^oW^^^i^:^^^^^^^^^^

Z^^"'1 2Z

learning.

»"cialty r„ the

nfTRT

r.n

The

°fll

L

first

w^.

™d"''

!h^,

^^^^

T

^"fng ^rom

(KellyandGarsaehanoion.l h course which Zrk o„ tte nl:^\^'"'V^

'^"S^^-^'

"

"."'"'.r?'^"^''-''^ about life. Jason was

/"S"™'^'^ was Within: Introductory ^-•^"^-'^d writing

which is basically g^ZS7f;?;''''^^1"»-ff-l^"* ™°^'=»«a«'raising activities and comprehensive , ' in Japanese. Between them thrbool ^'T™''' '^^P'^^"""^ P"'"^ ' """""^^ ^^^^^ °f langtN,;;.. ^^e h.t teachrf. ded '^"^^^^^ smden', „....ded i; for b s cToctT "'."f "'"'"'"S and talldng about life. ).,,s 1994;.

,

:X

eportv

W^„^ f

to teachers

cycle.

is

how much

seeing

Another key to success

w;is

Tasks needed to be fun for both tcachci" and stndcnt.

too.

advice to other program co-ordinators wanting to implement a

lis

TBL

program is: Basically

Jason ro-orcHnated the introdurrinn

during the task

life

providing the teachers with excellent and stimulating material that rhey

would enjoy

""''^

to

get

...

all

same tasks working out oFthe

teachers (even dissenting ones) using the

and material and to work from there. This is what I call same box'. This gets people speaking the same language and it challenges them to think. It's important, too, to get teachers thinking in terms ol a hoHstic teaching sequence. Other than that, just courage and commitment to push ahead.

At the end of the year we ask for feedback on the tasks but during the year we go with the ta^ks we have planned, sharpening them up at the start of every week. If everyone does what they like and chooses their own casks and suppletnehtary materials, yourprograift won't feeeomeTBL. Putting us 'in a box' has pnshed teachers to really deal with the issnes

one way our

TBL

program has been

parameters you force

9.3

Prom

9.3.1

The conccpl

The

CEF

lists

lis

menis

;i

a

o(

lUU'toi'

munication involvcd.4

which

leArncrti

firti

In

and texts

Van do'

number of

iii{.>,,iiii/.i'i|

,.

our teachers! By setting

^can do' statements to tasks

'can do' statements at each level. list

resuli o("HTMt|ll(Itl|1.f|( « t-'OUI'SC ai

are

for

1

creativity.

described as 'learning ouicomos' and

do

TBL

ofTB

;i

[',iven

leviL

These

bl'oml uuegories relating io

In iini^mtuchdrihai:

ojiiuiitlii^,

1

.11

These are

the things learners should he able to

llie

V;in do'

s(;iU'-

lypc of cuni-

communication and the

level at

m luok at u Kiimple of 'can do' stntements at

f

d,c

dnnnuary

level

under dae heading 'Su^tdnd «o„8bgua_de,cribi„(-

din e ,ly task sequence, need to rclute involved h whic ,asl< a welooked at

all

Tz)

(z

or dc^cnbe something in a s™pldis,or|,.,i,,,.. . . Can describe everyday aspects of his/her environment, for example example, people, places, a jol,, <„ study experience .

.

'^11

Can give short

[,asic

descriptions of events

and '^'-^

•

activities.

acdvid...

m

lea,„e,- ,H,icnu,es. In (

Can explain Whathe/she lilces or dislilces

Cff

r

a?a!n"thc. af,a,n tl c Ci?7^ offers

^'^""''^

r'"' gmdehnes

^= "'''"'^

listing fourteen topics

-^

CSPimm^.^

leahworld task or, in po nterout that this was not a the grounds diat all this task sequence on earner outcome. But we justified They are concerned with real-world meanings. h wayt, >ugh learners It is possible to relative to one another xp^s^.ng ih^locatio,! of objects on the ground l^el particularly at an elementary u t fy task sequence, outcome. Tasks such as teal worid task ot leatner

L

U wiU c<»B«ifotte to a pedagogic thesearewhatLongandCrookes(i99i)refertoas

» 6- a more

™i

wTich might be wn.ch " br:::™d earned out

.

.

.

past activities

and personal

experiences'

The sequence could

such

The

busiest day I've

had recendy was

last

bu.syda^ei;iw;

,2.30.

,

do

A

Monday

I

taught

i„

three

vokai

I

to

a lot

lo!^

expla.ns

how an

day task cS" n occurs. Thf'Busycomputation '--"y^f^i^t ^ once the events of the day have is

1

"''^'^'^

which

a text which nSin terms of cognitive processing than not

of

bod sh.,,p,ng. Ihen i had h,nch^l just had t,' ,e to have h,nch-thc r went out again I went to another school on the other side of Londt n" where I taugk fiom fo« to she. Then I had half an hour to get ftm th

(J. Willis

--h

™rk of computation. How much intel preparing their message, or how language users have to do in text about a understanding a message! ffort i.s requited in e tu d be much would ^perience simply recounts ^n anecdotal

'S.ti.. processingT^c amount

.

I

St thirxcrT'""'

familiarity; since earners rate highly in ter,ns of to clearly something well known their own experience it is

would

talking about

'

t

is

as:

task above

""'^'^ 7'"'"^ -'^^^ - °- -l^o: ^m tt'ZttThen1 wen,f home and on the way home had do 9..30

to tackle

ai.

focus on

1

London, talkingabouta

we need

»pi-'

ei

(z.z).

problems

its prediaability. Cosr.H.efamU>ar,9 of topic and f.^-^^ hey talk ab tit to learners, something the femlly, will be weU known (see Othet topics, such as Volcanoes frequently in theit first language. do to need even to them. They may Chapter 4 (4.3.2)) might be new day Busy like this. The »me re earch be ore being able to handle a topic

We

'''' ^'""g task Tl,e sequence could begin with a record!, IT. someone tdking about a busy day. We have t.sed a tcLt.ling DavM l| y an English teacherworkingin

Xd't'-^t at ,n Chapter 2

looked

1"

he

1

^ ''=^pg--«--fe"e;enT °f'^"'^'

,n the classroom.

tasks. the question of grading tasks. of difficuky of variables for assessing the (W8: 99) offers a list features it mdudes include in its entirety here, but is too ^tensive to

One of Ac

.

and Can de crtbe

tasl«.

9.3.2 Gradingtasks

Here

such a 'House and

-°

ire^sLi^adon actmtie

about something. {C£Fp. 59)

..p'cr 2

remembeimg objects ona tiay. We

'that

.

.1

there

.

is little

in the

way of

S^:::^.«*«.Time imnts and time P--^ A-'^^^^^^'jX if

about learners have time to think

it

beiore they begin to

be conltalled. amount of communicative stress can topic for homework, liners are asked to prepare the

and D.Willisi98g)

If,

^^^^^-J^^ fo, cxa np e

there

w,U be no

produce a narrative they are suddenly asked to

'"'^

I>mih^ l. ^'V vid didrT^u"^ on his busy day Tliey

»

"='ke a

list

tell

the class about David's dav

who had had die btisiest day,

Tl,is ,asl< seqi,ence relates precisely to specific learner I'Mcu.ug to and ander.scanding an anecdote relaring 10

outcomes. everyday

tl^e press„,e, hut if sDontaneously ibis will be

of what

were then asked to make notes of not more

than fifteen words and use these notes to thai groups

g""P^

It

involves

life.

But no"

.

Tode complJi>y

much more difficult.

exte,it cod U.^Mc complexity and variety. To someThey may be

themselves. be .leiennined by ihe lear,ie,s they imy choose something In - .ho.se„ suny, or ml!l'io,,. more demand., o„ l,„rn s c Jdeminulnm, We .,u,. however, impose d.cM .,b, ,1 lea.ucs were asked u. ,alk complexity. lUl.r fK.'n,|.le, .uoie would probably be lex.eally mb«rr»«I..H r,,,. l«m.. tlti.

comolexity

"7 mo«

will

ficmanduig.

It

woiiKI

.il.so

ivunirv

moir

in iU<- u,,u

"^M^even., w,,.,, agL, jz fcttu

liiiir^iZx'

one of the first to experitnent with bekeved that the most liable guide to task

m

t'

(19S7).

would

tha offered by Skehan

mtmt.ons, but

it is

is

usually be able to a useful

t.U««piy

ill

he jiinvidctl

was the

A

ea a

1

hill

is

iiUi'i!

Mill a scriuLis uniifiiiion in

;»«ed Solutions. The be

t

way

.t

Which forms should be included and lurn the problem

teaching syllabus can be

focus-on-forms approach

tasks. You can then dclTo bearmggeneral criteti^in mind. The next stage is to look at th

c<

)

riiis

the complexity of a task

with a

«

given by the associated texts created as part of the task sequence oaTna

(see

Chapter

is

3 (3.4)

text.

pges

and Chapter 7

(7 2

Teachers are used to assessing the relative SffirJu like It is reasonable to assuL :hat 1

m.

))

be"

e

ie:s'*'^diSr"T"

™b

71 T

to assess the difhculty of tasks by looking at a.ssociated texts. this,

we can

p'lie:

take an inventory of ihe

CFF V-in ,W c . Jarner„togetherwithalistt^topic:a^.^;;^rr:;iw,^ design. A learner outcome in this sense is a exp.t learners to be able to do as a result Le rn r outcomes can be used

'

target

performance

wh

o,i:nZZT~;^Z'

to generate a series of tasks. We can den II fy o create one or more teMs to accompany each task. Depending on

haye given. Given a learner outcome relating to readingsuch

(p.

task based

pro^ltlfS^t' CSFtt proviaea by the earners

anguage

w«h

on

70)

a written text.

''^t'"'

Tf^'">'--'^

- inventory hke that

is possible to design a series the communicative e^rience they

effectively outside the classroom.

of tasks

„ee7

.

what order? These

c|iilvsu()ms raise

match the fiotmfe if

to

-will

is

ilic

learner's inbuilt syllabtis.

«ke- ^:tos3

A

taught do not

capable of acquiring.

to the

problem

identified in

a language feature in the sense of drawing

it

Chapter

i (1.5).

Wc

can

to the learner's attention

iind ofcing some explanation or illustration, but we cannot guarantee thai will make it a part of their it will be acquired in the sense tliiU learners

spontaneous repertoire.

We gave the example of 'do' -questions.

Learners go

which they know diese forms in that they are able to formed and to produce them when ihcir the same time they do not know them In form. But at on .mention is entirely ihat they consistently fail to produce them on appropriate occasions. The ipiestion Ellis: asks is how can we ensure that we provide a focus on forma at a stage at

undecsmnd'how

'do' -questions are

the appropriate stage in a learners development.

A

possible answer 10 (his

our idea of what constitutes learning. It is not useful conundrum is to think of learning as the incremental acquisition of a series of language items, because that is not how learning happens. Let.us therefore try to think to shift

of learning in a more developmental way.

9,4 Language coverage and the pedagogic corpus

as:

'^'^'^'"^^W^ information in simple everyday material such asadvertisement., prospectuses, menus and timetables

we would design a

draws attention

'icaclV

poses die

2003: 231)

duough

e^^^^^^^

earners then theassodated task will be within their ability. Thesai

Given

J

made

rrespond to those the learner

(Ullis

in

Ellis

facing linguistic syllabuses in general, nanu-ly liow

select a task

which you have selected Chernens chou paste task

our syllabus spcciBaiiion. U does not

question:

focusing teacher

^penence of the way they have handled other

A strong guide to

IfxLs.

specify what language will be covered and in what order.

in

*

.ISMU

l>y llic

,eachin«

^^IdnVat a

way of sharpening and

cannot provide tar

n

c.sk

difficulty

u,t,„n. Teachers

provided by Skehan imH). Vvixnwd iliHlculty can be adjusicci hy iijiplyinK iIm p.ii.micifis llsicd In < :!i;ii)ifr K. I'uially, an indication of task difficulty

to provide

%4.1 The pedagogic corpus Nowadays, when grammarians or

lexicographers go about describing the begin by collecting a very large sample ol often lanj^uagc, Hiey of a [;rammar of words, which they eall millions the language usually ruuuing to many .1

on the

That corpus Is then assembled on a computer of which ihcy can formulate a description of the language. Onte die data is available ihc ncIioIhi- can use the computer to summon up in an instant a \i\r^c niinihfr nfrxanipleil of the language feature which he wishes to provide data,

corpus.

basis to use

h

There wHl be carefid sdect on of

learner outcomes, texts and tasks to ensure that there is app^plte coverage. In designing or selecting tasks and ordering them ere tf a syllabus we wi take account 1 of the perceived difficulty of the task This perception will be shatpened with reference to a cl,cd<list such as

Tpk

»

Ih

fil'KWU: concordances. The aennivm KWK' 'hr 'key word' is the word untlcr study, <'iit. m' sl.lllll.^ ior 'Kcv VN'md hi iiMih wmd. II we think of the word Would', for ilu iti rcfeiud m somciinit'N to study, usuiilly In \\w Iniiii '

I

cxa.npk look

.s

a

key word, then a sample from a

KWiC

Ilia- iliis:

corpus gramThere are, of course, imporuuit dilTcrem ts In-iween the way a marian works aiul ilu- way 1'Mriu-rs works. The grammarian already Icnows of the language. he language n thai he is a couipeicn l and sophisticated user of the description expHcit an tois^ids l-[e uses a research corpus to Wi^h

concordance might °

.1

What

woui^l

1 I%^:t>^f«ofifc^f letterl

wmU

1

you do if you were Mr, Uotibol

3 What would yOtt.a^jfc for an uncxpct^ U'tl i^ittsr? J 4 While weWeresingin^^ people ivould come up to us and riy to speiik to us. 5 Whai advice would you give to a young person leaving school? 6 We cnjDycd it because people gather round us and they would join in. hey announced iluu the Prime Minister would speak on television

8

15

I

How much

would 11 Some of us would Then we said that we would 14 Yes, I would XI

13

suppose the cheapest way

zi/£)a&^

lame corpus there would be

In a

i

I

band playiftg

own songs and set them

play hide

and seek

think

music

so.

outcomes

many thousand occurrences of the word

to exp,-css a hypothesis, as in

examples

i, 3, 5.

used With this hypothetical meaning conditional sentence as in examples 1 and 8.

8>

IS

it

n, and

15 above,

sometimes occurs in a

''^""'"^

and x7^'' in a

4

As

and then

learners

work

°' '^""'^

8 >

it is

move from

possible to

to create or

learner

which form a they wiU inevitably

select texts

witht these texts

for example', diey formulate hypotheses about how the language works. As. about its hypoiheses formulate come across the modal would' they begin to exposed they are meanings and uses. The same applies to theother language texts for provides input for learning. So as tlu^^ are processing into the meaning learners are also using it as input to provide insights

to. It all

something that will be encouraged for by a methodology which prompts learners to look at language is

>

examples 7

themselves.

The role of the course designer and teacher described above, then we can see If we see the leatner ^worMng btheway

9.4.2

number of fixed phrases such

as 'would like* In ecample a. moderate an expression of opinion as in 'I would agree' in example 9 and would think' in example 14.

to

5

to generate tasks

workings of die target language. This

2 torefertoapasthabit,meamngthesameasWdto'asinexamples4,6 r t> ro, and 12. ^

it

we showed how

above

pedagogic corpus.

men

in a

process

In section 9.3.2

be to go by bus.

yo^ld probably he content with a sample of ^.'^uIa A close ^'^"^f^^"^ around .500. A look at this sample reveals that would^ has the following w^iuwing meamngs and uses: 1

perhaps be incorporated

which involves using language data to form hypotheses about those hypotheses. die way the language works, and dien to refine and test in a

to

will

1

that cost in a restaurant?

write our

grammar or dictionary. and sophisticated users. .earners, on the other hand, are not competent use the hey are trying to internalize a worBtig model of tJie language. They up a build rhem help corpus to pedagogic language tJxeyare:e3^^edto as a works language the way of the uKire and more complex and precise picture lie behind their even though they may not be able to explain the rules which learner are involved language beha^^0llr. Btit bdth the grammarian and

language which I

What precautions wotdd you take ifyou were camping in a game park? 9 Yes I would agree. 10 Often there would be a village

i

I

like t{) receive.

the job of the course designer and teacher as fourfold:

I

\

-Ik:

corpus linguist will use

would There .

is,

to provide a pedagogic corpus

1

mformation as the basis of the description of of course, a good deal more to be learned about would' this

I-rom concordances. For example,

many

years ago, before

need

language users. So covers the

,

description. as well us

Whatotherwords

agree and 'think'?

suggest as likely items.

usedwith 'would' to moderate an opinion corpus search would identify 'argue' and ^

domains

t^ need to contain appropriate vocabulary which in

which learners

to illustrate die grammarical

are likely to operate.

knowledge learners will

They need

also

need to acquire;

help them malce 2 to provide learners with guidance, or instrucdon, to appropriate gencralizntions about the language they are exposed to; lies wliii li eiicouragclearnersto analyse the language they 3 to provide iiiiivi wny whii.h will enhance learning and make it more arc exposed 10 in .1

efficient;

are

A

sufficient

insights they and appropriate raw marerial for learners to generate the about the target language to enable them to operate effectively as

wesaw concord-

ance evidence we thought that the second use listed above, would' as 'used to was relatively rare and confined to formal slightly old-fashioned usage 13uc when we looked at statistical information based on corpora we found tlini II accounts for around 20 per cent of the occurrences of would' In fact would meaning 'used to' is more frequent than 'used to' meaning 'used In this way a corpus grammarian builds up more and more information about the language and so builds up a more and more satis&ctory

made up of texts which contain

4

ii

nd

to cnaniriige Ifuriicii lo piiictk- the

T'hc

last

t\\m

wc looked

language they have been exposed

m\\\\ivuwt\\H were the .subject of Chapter 6, in

HI liUintuiuP' lot

\m\ m\ (iirm-Cocuncd activuiw.

to.

which

.

—

.

Here

some answern, Can you ask tlu- (|iitMionsf bedroom, a shoo shop, a swimming pool, a cinema,

are

the

Tlic iiim oftliesc activities

items

n, r.u ry ofiiie

the tex. provides

Tove central to constructingan anecdote about everydJufT

™

in this context they are

sMaf features when

they^G^^ne across

more mcely to them in future

them ^ain wc Inave highlighted them we can draw attention to when, for So text. another in when wc meet a similar Imtute oflanguagc in a necessity exprcs.s to used example, we come to lookill.d^at'iiave later

unit

we can

example we have highUghted here, ilns

resurrect the

syllabus. a poweri-ul recycling element into die to lake one of these msights ready 'here is just a chance that learners are repertoire. iFwc present on board and make it a part of ihcir spontaneous unlikely to Int on with a single grammatical item we are highly

l>Lii!ds

•

featurescanyoufind

above, whic. would

them

\\\nv

.

noiToS''"""'''^''''"*^'-^^"'^— READER ACTIVITY 9A Identi^ing a form focus What other language

and

notice these

^e^r™ ^^"^

-InTbT:

to enal^lc

lilcetfeles^:'

icarncis iiave noticed

Oaue

•

items

U;h luis to achieve sponmncous 'rhere^^e^howevcr, a aumbcr oi reasons wliy n

not

is

clioscii.

iiM-lul ID liiglillE?;ht

\:

etc.

In

the 'R„«vH.

'

I

learners

beusef.foHerr«reE:Vr^^^^^^^

something they

Commentary

item

are ready to acquire.

We afe muefe mfm likely to find an

of possibiUties.

like'this ifM*e offer a range

and grammar into the syllabus in important The following diagram draws heavily on Ellis (2003: 23?) st^es of learning the process is respects. It makes tiie^point ^at in the early emphasis on acquiring, relevant topic very much lexically driven, with strong 9.4.3 Integrating lexis, tasks,

• uses of

'had'.-

lexis.

for necessity:

with I

'I

had to do a

ame expnessfons:

just had time to

with meals:

'I

'I

lot

had

have lunch;

had lunch',

.

of food shoppina

half an

,.

Communicative module l-'otus on meaning

.time to have lunch'

. relative clause With 'where'.- 'another school,' '...where

^

(task sequences)

Topic lexis I

Advanced

Intermediate

LEVEL Bepnner

hour to get from rom mat that school

taught from four to

Form focused activities Analysis of text

. use of 'qyte-as a modifier: 'So that was quite a busy

day.'

P'igure p.i

and have more become more experienced in using the language more able to beneiii Ironi rxnosnre to langii;!}',^- i" 'I'-w on so they become realistic and more and more becomes more and ihat language experiem e,

As

Pickoutallthepluases^rithW.TUnkofthreeway. to classify then,

or by using a repetition driU,

exan:pfc to highlight the 'where'

relative-

Changes in the learning process

learners

li

more

cfFcctivc to

draw on ihdr

rhiHweheginioMvl.,

^---^^^

whet, you

learning l^rocm

knowleJue.

We

the ability to

.i«

bmnlli 10

\^mm

u,- n.

,1

.Ji,-lHlv .liriernu

"ur ilm, It

When wel>n.,m in< hj-jH, We no longer see ihc

(amiliariiy wiih u-xis.

iin

unil

h

m

aliei

anoiher

u. a slore of linguistic

in K''«>winn awareness and sophistication

Icurn

from

it.

Wc

sec

it

as a

growing

femiliarity witli a bc».ly of icxts ilu'

coiiu-N(

Iciiraing.

(i(

i;i,sk-ha,scd

which have been proCflMed This

pros^niinniu.

fop

meaning

in

S

lanRuaKc?Apossiblean«wcM.odnsnm,,Ma.,.n,l..yi.Mlu-wo.knlp

dcvclopnu'ni.il view of

N

Wc arc treating die learners as corpus linguists, accepting that they

K

;i

i,s

;i

of discovery. The big difiPerence, of course, is that corpus linguists are engaged in drawing up an explicit description of the language which will go into grammars and dictionaries. Learners are engaged in constructing a usable language system. But there are similarities in that both the corpus linguist and the learner work wida text to develop are involved in a prodess

awareness and to discover language.

We' :.nd

.In-

Crnn,,! S,r,.r

almost impossible to notions expressed iri English ic

words in English-in it is

prodded

feet

U

nowadays, usmg computers,

)ne insight which

West

m

w;Smonthoryear.Ifwe take this

The most common words you

unlikely that

are

phrases in ways which arc not always clearly related to the basic lexical meanitig of the word. The word ^take', for example, is used in a range of phrases.

Wf r.m

we can take an exam.

It

takes time to

do somcthmg. You can take a quick decision or talte account oFsomedilns^. On a journey we take a train or a bus or a taxi. In the busy day text above wc noted some, important uses of the word *have'. It is very important to be aware of the power of the most frequent words in the language and to build these into our teaching strategies. It is important to teach with an awareness

oflads, both to get die best out ofthe elassrooJn Enaterials ym have, and also to enable you \o supplement those materials. In Reader activity 9a, (secte. 9.4.2 above) we identified a number of grammatical items from a spoken text which might reasonably be highlighted in form focused activities. But in addition to covering die kind of grammatical items that are femiHar from working widi a structural syllabus we need to make sure we provide good coverage of die most firequent words and phrases in English.

ELT syllabus designers were veiy attracted by the idea of a notional sylhihus. The syllabus was described as notional' because it tried to list the riotions or meanings that were seen as important In the 1970s and the early 1980s

lor leurncis. Syllabus designers

people most frequently seek write and talk about, this

argued that

to

would

encode

in

give us a

if

we could find what meanings what they most often

English,

good guide

as to

what should be

included in language syllabuses. But notions or nieanings arc very abstract. How do wc begin to quantify— to coutit-— the meanings in a given stretch of

of account for another 10 per cent

and the next 800

a tota

te^^^

of the

Add

cem ol all text. n^?frTquent words, we account for 80 per accoUhtM^1>et cent of all words, to make .500, and we can

^° 00

i

anodier

To

text.

summarize:

The most

frequent 700 words in the language

all text.

make up 70 per r

per cent of a

'he

I

1

1

take a bath or a shower;

list

further,t^^^

ftequem 700 r^g together die m4t

a

working with an expiicidy lexical syllabus in your classrooms. Most syllabuses cover topic ieyis. So in a unit on sport, for example, principled decisions will he. taken about what sports to cover and what words connected with those S|3orts should be mcluded. But many of the most important and frequent words in the language are used in specific It is

not only

frequent words in the offered was that die most S. occur again and again and aga.n. Lmguage do an awful lot of work. They -iu account for roughly 70 per cet.v ol .1 much fo that a mere 700 words o. day given a write speak and texts wc hear and read and

(

wokIs in the frequency 9.5.1

is

it

quite easy

Igl^the

9'5 Covering important lexis

n>

frequent metnmgs^o list of the most make the m^ possible to make a hst of

i«

po.ssible,

»he

u'

cent of

w text.

most frequent 1500 words make up 80 per cent ot all text. most freciucnt 2500 words make up 86

the very surprising, but a look at A. hrst sight die figures are to explainmg the figures: he hequcacy list goes some way

twenty in

first

I

d.e, of,

and,

to, a, in. diat, 1,

was.

it,

is,

bo. he, for, on, you. with, as.

had, this

and

per ccni of

6 own accounts for between 5 per cent all text. So of cent per almost 3 rX^e word of makes up 8 per cent of text. around up make them words hei-wccn

The vroid'the on

TZ

its

,wo

these

of. however, is that by theniselve, The problem with words like 'the and because they don often called. tructure words they have no value. They are

m

with other words. 1 L anything until they begin tothecombine most frequent words but

,s

m

o, tlu_

lookmg s.mply for of they occur. Consider the and frequent combmadons m which ol in phrases hke the beg.nmn,. example. They are frequently found

m.

that we are not

,

0 ,1

So we need to h.gh ,g of, 'the front of 'the back of \ whtch they occur. Because the the phrases not imply the words, but kind, of tejcts it ,s hkely that wc w wm-d a e so frequent and occur in all behave by nsn,,. .h picture of the way d,ey btdld up a pretty reliable recogn,v,e ,1k- nnporUHKe ol ,X.^^c corpn So u-achers will readily word. H,u d^ere are other high frequency truau w .rd like M,. .nul ol

ZZ\

'the rliddle

,

m

.

.

:

which

are important for learners.

9-5.2

for example, the most frequeni wof ds. Thombury lists*

How do wo identify and ddiil witli chesc?

How to teacli lexically

wcare

the uses of 'talw'

referred to in section 9.4 «^'>"vc. lists ol words. Collins I'ind a grammar book which gives useful

s

Inurmediaie

proper place in the syllabus we need to help studcnus to identify and organize the most important words, phrases and patterns in 11

all

to give lexis its

F.n^lish

vM^ ^ hmi ^

Grammar;

CobuUd

corpus evidence,

cook like 'book', 'buy, 'make provides good lists cl,.fcexaniple, verbs indirect object with tor as .nd pour' which are commonly followed by an booked a taxi for the 'She 'He cooked dinner for the family or ,

the language.

in

Here 1

2

are son^e steps ytiu

can take to help you achieve

this goal:

children'.

Get hold of frequency^ lists and fkmiliari^ yourselfwith the most frequeni; words of the language. Wc have provided in Appendix 6 a list of the tc^^t frequent 200 words in spoken English, together with lists (in alphabetical order) of nouns, verbs, and adjectives found in the most frequent 700 woi ds of English. These arc all words that are worth highlighting when liiL'v occur in a text which learners process. When you arc preparing a tcxi iuv Leaching check out your frequency Usts to help you decide what words

.

Don't^te time teaching really rare words. Just give an Li save ti me to work on more Important words.

6

Some

/

lot

of dsas'time on, for example,

work H

be learned

topic words can

Mdce

^

or fe)Jtl pii^res.

thfi

.

,

equivalent and

Ekm t ^mt up a

vocabulary for clothes. Let learners

on these for themselves. collocation learners aware of die importance of

and

"set

thfcm

to focus on.

die importance of collocation, exercises which make them think about ]XsX& die following collocaor example, the ColUns Cobuild Dictionary

Think

tions

l

carefully

about frequent words and ask yourself why they are so

fre(]ucni Wliy, for .

example, are

'time', 'hand'

and

'point'

among the most

widi 'strong

a strong personality, strong

enough

to,

strong wind/current, strong

frequent nouns in English?

Nowadays good dictionaries are based on careful corpus research and list the most frequent uses of important nouns

case against", a strorig words, strong action, strong language, a strong strong currency, strong drmk, possibility, strong points, a strongteam, a

like these.

a strong colour, a strong taste

Once learners have naet the This provides input for an interesting exercise. learners a list ot these give word 'strong' in text it would be useful to in the place of Stirong collocations and ask them what words are used

The Oxfird Advanced Learner's Dictionary lists the following phrases with 'time':

m

Du lime, by the time, by the time, waste time,

ol time, a

this

time tomorrow, spare time,

long time ago, at one time, next time,

;i

their language.

this time, every

to search texts for 9 Encourage learners

on time

a large number of useful phrases: there are, for example, time, place and quantity. with phrases expressing basic meanings to do and things like thtt (often Phrases like 'sort of, 'kind of, and so in spoken language. It is called vague iangmge), arc all very comaojX as made up ot important for learners to begin to see. the language essential

•

ThiM'acmillan English Dictionary lists the following phrases with 'hand':

hand hand

in hand, shake hands, give

someone

0%

hand, lend a hand, a good

a

(of cards), (close/near) at hand, by hand, second hand, hands

off',

hands up, on hand, on the one hand ... on the, other hand 7

he Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary

with

lists

phrases rather than single words; prepositions play an important part in • patterns with prepositions:

the following phrases

'point':

organizing language.

The

good point, that's not the I can see your point, beside the point, make a point of, freezing melting point, up to a point, what's the point?

point

point, point,

is,

to miss the point, (thats) a

,r,

|^r<.s>ni/r ih<- in. po,i;uuc,,rrcc;i!l in learnilig eonsi-sts

3

If

you do not have your frequency on woi'd frequencies. Good

intuiiions to

4

list

to

hand you can check your mark words according

dictionaries

licquency bands.

Mnd grammar book which !i

way frequent words work. excellent [licturc of some ol'

tcllHynu about the

m

iiiul

and -ing iorms).

language learning.

.niiply learning useful

useful in rhcnisrivcs.

ilu7 al«" P'-"vide

A lot of language

words and phrases. These are learners with the raw material

Ibrdevelopiiii', ilin'.i-ii'tiH.ii.

M Try lobniM

Thornbury'a NatumI Gnu mmttr \mwk\cH an

,

(infinitive • patternswithnon-finiteverb forms

>ip

prcposiiions.

imiu

I.m

iiis -v'."

ph

,

I

n Ium.

Begin with die baMc nieaiiings ol iileniify asHociatcd words, and finally

..illy

•JWEomatia* those words

Vin-.iu

l-'---'K7havc.!2rcd

W

Whci. icudixng pn,nn,u

w<.rd.andpW..ad.a

'

i

i

''^

'^«ntify in text,

i;Mion cre-uc cx-,nn.l

the-

'ncorpom.ng common

dunu^^^^^^^^

difficulty

of the associated

taxti In the linht

with learners at the appropriate

level.

of oiu- cxpcrieticc

(^fwoi-Icinf;

This assessment oCuksLs and

icxt.s will

mbk us to organize task sequences into a viable teaching sequence. I'invidt' UK

with atnsit

.syllabus.

.

,-

.

-^^

It will

-

From a task .syllabus lo a laiii;iiagc syllabus we need to analyse the wc have collected, the pedagogic corpus, looldng for grammatical (faiiires and frequaitw^rds and phrases which are wordi highlighting. l<

inovL-

-

u xis

of language larger than a single

woi d.

L Je£ ^^2?

pedagogic corpu. language try to refer

" -^^P'"-

the

them

to ext,m,,le7wh i'h

answer for fcmselves. Instead of another smdent can provid an anl^

U

y""^^-'

""^

'-^^

^"^""^

^Z" ^™ f^"'™ »

I'his

give us our language syllabus. This syllabus needs to be checked out .i|;.iinst h-equency lists identifying the most important words and phrases. This checking process may idcutify gaps which need to be filled. ^^ill

>ncc we have assembled our syllabus and teaching materials we can go ahead and use diem in the classroom. But tMs is not the end of die process. (

if Identify learners

-9.6-

Theprocess ofsyllabus

needs.

design

«pc-cialtted

and

t

~"

thXr

fd

relatively easv tl d

'

f

AlternatiyeiytheneedsS;,: English for general social purpos will need to deal

1

Select apprupi-iace

they

"

a.

Wliat do

learners

language?

''"'^n

"'^se needs

topics.

AND

want to, do witii tfee

"Xd ttS^rrS^S^'^^-

n«ed. Whatdo they want

What do

want

to

read/write/ talk about?

.e

°f Earners'

may be very Design task sequences. Sielect

'"J""

'*°^"-they need''

M create appropriate texts

(spoken and written)

"''^

witniaTthl

1^-- «.aents, ntttt..oreifei^^:S-^^^^ Task syllabus

Check

fV

'I'-'^'ion helps us to build up^^trn U.sk setiuence w,ll dearly evolve n

Will

need

^^^

work with written textT tn H-out general learners needTo n d -nplc. of the.e diteclrff

anecdotes,

to

we

approprtate recordings as

'^^^

^T"". 1""''^'''' 7"'"'

W w^l^

will find

tasks

of difficulty.

•"whattheywanttodoitin^^^^^^^^^ '^^'^

^""^^

to

^^e

^P'^' '^"'^

recodi^tT/^,!!"' we did wthD:Mp:;^t;i« we

according to par;imetcrs of task design (Chapter 8) and order task saliences to produce a task syllabus.

also

^'^cni^ .uch

as that

p™..w

cZ^Z

will ntake

Skl^i^

''^

T Z'

Monitor effectiveness of activities

will

^'^'^^^

^^rtTirri^ ^rd:ir""^^r^^ 1^ n

1

our knowledge of

(S^—-^^^^^^

in the

classroom and rerine

I

.;ni(^iiagc

()',t.iiiirii,M ;

|ili(iiinli)(j.)'i

and reorder materials where necessary

syllabus

Aiuilysf icxis (|x-Llagogic corptis) for relevant

difficuV, relying on ot,; knowlere oTour what they can do. We may

texts for level

°' "e^te

-

T"™ t"^"'

and

Make adjustments

lHn|i;lu^(^c

coverage

VIM .iliul.u v; pluii.ses;

liiiui

DcNiHH luilvlilm tu

il

U'iili/.iiii()ii.s).

liiciifion (brni

—

i

Wc- .u-al ,„ nu.ni.or .nd refine maceriaJs.

redesigning tasks

m line with the panimcicns

SoHMltel, sc-i

nui in

them

(

H

V

u, nvikc

easier or more challenging, or to malic the Lu.k instructions clearer. .Sometmies experience of teaching a course will lead us to reorder tasks .Somet h ,ig which caused more difficulty than we anticipated

^^•^aKRSEBOOKS

moved m the course. We will assess not only the task sequences, but

also the activities

process of course

and syllabus design

ASKED QUESTIONS

extremely complex and timeneeds to happen as part of a cooperative venture, with teaching colleagues involved at all levels of its design and piloting.mma:rfindasatis&ctory instrument at our first attempt, but, as Lone Wood pomts out at the end of her draft Course Plan iii ABp^dix s, we will almost certainly be able to refine and imptove itwithexpoience.

consuming.

In fact

Ideally, for

it

to be successflil,

most of us already have

is

it

10,1 Introduction have been collecting questions about task-baSed teaching over the last from teachers all over the world whom wc have met or gnt len or so years know th rough workshops, seminars, and courses. Their questions have, in

We

a syllabus in

the form of a coursebook It is quite rare thai teachers have to design a whole syllabus from scratch N-.i.K.,

unes

(

to

meets

do

very big way helped us to shape this book.

We have also asked teachers who use tasks regularly and who are committed dont use tasks in to TBT why their colleagues and other teachers they know

groups which need to be designed specifically with the needs of the tellers in mind. Most often

use, so that it

—

( )

.1

we need to plan short courses for particular

what we need

AND

OTHER FREQUENTLY

wHch

focus 0n language form to make sure that they are ettective in p^ovidiiig learners with appropriate insights.

The

10 INTEGRATli

TBT INTO

I

maybe

,

to a later stage

HOW

this will involve

1,.min

add a syllabus strand to a coursebook that is already in needs of our students better. For example, a strand housing on spontaneous spoken English or a task-based strand. The next and last chapter recognizes this and begins with a section on ways of combining and integratingTBl' with existing coursebooks is

iheir lessons.

tfee

What

reasons

do ibcy

give?

with task-based learning and teaching?

Wliat problems do they perceive

The mind map

overview of their responses.

Many of these

reasons have been given as reasons for not

giving up after a fewattemptiS at using tasks.

Other chapters in this book, you should by on many of these problems.

9,f Fellow up activities hook through a coursebook you are familiar with and see how many examples you can find of the modal Wuld'. Do these give a good picture el the word and its meanings and uses? Do the same thing with oneottwo other common words such as a preposition or a modal verb 2 Look at the examples you have gathered in Reader activity c,a in section 9-4 above. How might you use these to make a form-fbcus activity for your learners, for example, by setting a gap-filling exercise?

(Figure lo.i) gives an

tryingTBT

or for

If you have read Chapter

now be able to

give

some

1

and

advice

1

III

READER ACTIVITY 10A Whatadvice would you Look

at Figure 10.1.

Which

give?

of these 'problems'

do you

feei

you could now help

other teachers resolve?

Choose two or three that are common

in

your teaching context and

list

what

advice you would give.

Further reading

Nunaw, D, Z004. Task'hased Language University Press.

Teaching.

Cambridge: Cambridge ^

Chaptej- 2 loob at the grading of tasks and at syllabus design within the context of task-based learning and teaching.

We

contributed tasks for this book for ilu ir ;ulvicc \vi-:liin|', lo iiiiplementTBT. We then niLUched these to

asked the teachers

;i[nl tijis

for ic;n lin-,

who

the problems peneivnl, .mkI 10 oiher tjuestions about'llVf earlier, all of which form the basis oFthis chapter.

So thiseliapifrpiiIlN ii

in a pr.n

lii al

by our bimd »!

miJ^r'thrr rniirh

.mil, wi \u\y\ »'X|itM'iii'iiii'd

illi

iiiili

we had

collected

oFrhe content of this book and develops 'iin|', w.iy, drawing on ihe iRlviie [-ivcii

Imm'iI it-Hchcrs

whose bio-dnia appears

at

.

back of

,1,.

this

book.

:,l„m. of the prolyl™-.

Some

b^ily and wUl rcle. you back question more My.

;

L

„r„b

.o

»

'^'^

m

shall ^^^"it .a and doing ta was lack of time for preparing response, questions, giving a detailed with one of the most common

em

,

overall

and then go on, more briefly,

/

^^^"J^;^^;^;^ will be ..nswe.ed Some Huesuons A.tok th^ .spo^ » sections,

el,;,|'ler.s.

,.U,„,,.cly covered in eiulie,

How can I integrate tasks into my textbook

0.2

•iave

to other quesuons.

and

on planning time?

offers preparatio„ *'--TWs seca^n Kaiance on a textbook minimizes textbooks their who ate obhged to stick to range of solutions for teachers their own tasks from scratch. don't have time to create

In the

a

words of one of our teachers;

Few

often it only in a TBL, cycle, but texibooks present material the order of adding a goal, or changing lirrle tweaking (e.g. scratch, TBL lesson. You don't have to c^eatefiom

activities) to

produce

a

ready-made TBL nor do yau haw to Iwkfor

packages,

(James Hobbs.Japaa) just So let us look at ways of doing

10 2

1

Ideiitifymg tasks

and activities that just need

dmpter

'tweaking'

^-^-^-^^^1^1u numb

wide range of popular a an and noted that many eonramed

We looked through this

this.

a

,

of

and some even contamed a number not referred to as tasks tew exceptions, these were

i

B

1

ra.1 s aiid 1^ lessons, but, wittl

like activities

a

appeared in lead-in, warm-up.

starter, or

preview sections, some

Some

tasks

m^

i^t^vocab.krysection..otnei««ita^

some

in writing sections,

and some

in

speabng

.sections.

Tasks,

ii

sc ins

there are son^etmics the other hand, of course, CO,™ in disguise. d are in fact form-foct boob that caU themselves tasks, but alit e u, dialogue acting out a shopping p^ ^ pra« i or display exercises, like primarily concerned potential, but they are not meaning Have They

Xn

On

m

with exchadt^inj;

„„ Figure lo. i Problems perceived with task-based teaching

iiu'.nunt;.

.

,

,

.„,

„„i,

inking tasks as a way f start of a task sequence

listing tasks,

marching

tasks,

the cMucu mg i...k» dim lire useful at nSnRJ;e(Vou,bulmv,l)uesn,,nnairesandi|ui»esarepop.,l;H-,as. introducing "H ||, ^^^^^^ :...ne,L,ai,houghthc,e«ofte„ruth,r I,:;

'

.

.

>

These potential tasks go'under a whole range orhotdkgs,

as

>.!;

nerci

can be seen

lere

I

you could ask IcunuTH

du-ir agenda. Y.»unH.I.

nlaec For cadi category,

.

.

then compare idem

,0

llPi^I^

mal

on d,e

"B^ck a decision Questions

wlm

& answers

I

you go, When did you last stay out Late? Where did pubh|M who with, and how did you get home? Whafs transport like late. at night where you Live?

Figure 10.2 Tasks under other headings

no headings

at aU, just

an instruction

like: 'In pairs',

In

jUj^

page 103 Bpt-re 10.4 Natural English Intermediate:

. .

"Write a

.

.

.

add a pre-task

So the £rst thing to do is identify what activities in your next courscboolc unit have at least some of the characteristics of tasks. (See Chapter i (1.4) and Chapter 2 {2.1).) Appraise any potential tasks in the light of your students' needs decide whether to adapt them in order to inci-ease opporttiiiirics for spontaneous speaking, planned speaking, or writing of some

—

10 say

• •

in

ChapterS,

For

example by clarifying or adding a

goal, or

adding

a post-task report stage.

beforehand, and they

more confident speakmg, are likely to have more to say, in their gCOm|>. are spealang, so won't be thinking what to say while others intently they will listen to the others' ideas more will Feel

•

Then

Idnd.

stage'.

experience, Because rflis involves recounting a personal tune to rccaU and plan whai Cive learners a few minutes individual thinking

develop them into more effective tasks by applying the relevant parameters outlined

t<

Ix-si

Listening chaiienae! are

mWu^

clearer.

With a partner

Sometimes there

ihus

gives the report a purpose. each category becomes the Hnal goal and

@yTS

groups', 'Discuss

s,

agree on one best ..1m, liKr u. sprrir)Mlua thcy must and moke h is likely 10 pioiupt more discussion

aiujihei pair or As a post-task activity, get them to report 10 duu-lass VOK lei Ininlly and ofplaec, die wh<>le class, iusiifyiiH^ dicir choice place Ul popt.lai most place lor each category. So, finding the

du-

'Think

I

m nlve rruN.Mis lot ilieir choia

,

•

out wh(, stayed out the latest, uu could also specify a goal— ask them to find journey home. Aiterwards, ask these mkI who had theeasiest/mostdifhcult which WM experience^and people to tell the class abouttheirtransport hold a short class discussion on lair Che easiest and/or worst. You could then comes up possible improvements, a theme that

\

Here

some

are

ideas for

what

to look out for in different course-book

sections.

Topic 'lead-in' sections

The

first

discussed

page of a unit often in pairs

them

turn

or groups. In

night public transport

starts

many

with a topic and some points to be cases, these only need a slight tweak to

into tasks that will generate

more purposeful and more

interaction. Two examples follow. to ta

I

me

stistained

Both give several speciHc ideas for learners k about, which is good, but they could both be enriched. Can you think

again

and

later in the unit.

them to think of a you could adapt the theme slightly and ask could compare They getting kofti^night out when they had atem%Ie time and see who had the worst journey home.

Alternatively

experiences

how? So here we have tweaked the specific goal, pre-task

day out Work in pairs. Think

about places near where you Uve. Where can people go for:

an

exciting,

an

interesting, a relaxing

tasks

planning Ume. and a post-task report.

Voafbulary-buiUing seel ions

Vocahiikny and

hnildinj. sections

listeninf^ a. liviiic:.,

.

which often, but not always, precede reading

somerimcs contain useful sorting or matchmg

as preparation. Othci'f* COIU-hi.

M.niiul ,0 pi Kiisc o, di-.pliv I-igure

w.j Hicczh'ace Elementary: page 66

by applying three parameters: adding a

soiueiimesbe np];..adul. ication.

...

..I

.K-,.

tasks

^e(niHi,k-anu-i-s liviiies that focus .)n (onn, these could (houglu, liiile lorni. Widi a

|VviiiK»ppor.iinitics lor genuine

commun-

^

Example

n

Unit

the cnlou^^ .( .h,.iM Forlnstroctlons. ratherthan lust say^g

3

ol

New

ilciifJway Beginners begins

Sadie, each wearing a shirt, a jacket colours.

The names of

a|^©!pfiatiEia>loiir

and

with a picture of Cicoige and

trousers,

and

diFFcrent

sIuk'.s o("

the eight colours themselves arc pinucd

andhsted down one side. The three

m

the

activities are:

STARTER

1

Ik

Look

1

at the pictures of

a,k.nrsili<7,Hfw-,inns:^nd don't need . play a true/false game: 'Say

i|

George and Sadie. Find the colours.

2 Complete the sentences with the 1

George's jacket

2

His trousers are

3

Her shirt

is

black

__,

.

of your clothes'.

4 Her shoes are

.

QEO

and check,

.His shoes are

READER ACTIVITY IOB Instructions in Example 3

all

give learners a

'In

groups of four,

list all

the colours you are wearing.

ours. For

Which one

wearing something

replies

in

more meaning-focused

instructions 2 and 3

of In

(

Yes-

above

Vocabulary

interactions using colour

0

words.

Phrasai veiDs

Workin groups. Ti:!!

ilic

b)

other students

What about your ncij>lil.
Work in pairs. What advice can you

give Yvonne?

ai'etIieylike?l)oyou hiivc;uiy problems

instructions.

^

Commentary

I'tJlGHTMARE

with them? a)

Read

this letter

and answer those

We assume the teacher will have previously begun the lesson with some kind of introduction, for example, talking about the colours of the clothes she

is

1

liavL-?

very quiet and peace:ful.

couple have

li


1

For Instruction 2,")flOtJ COuld

doosYvoniit.'

Howhas sIil' icd to solve the problem? 3 Hcwii^ this problem changed her

wearing.

ilu rel="nofollow">

i.isl

monthsandmUili-L-cfntlylik'lKi.sluvii

Whatpmbleiii

2'

NEIGHBOURS

a rented Hat for

I've lived in

questions

,

do

false;

chanceto matchthe colour

ways you could supplement

so that learners can engage

•

is

of thegrsiif^'

Tweaking instructions

Write your new

which

red jacket'. Recasting their responses might be: 'My skirt red or exposure to stylish!') increases learner ihnt's a lovely red jacket-very many people are wearing this colour; comprehensible input. Then count how someone by the colours they are weanng. . play an ldentiflc*n garnet describe is ,t? wearing white, black, pink and grey Who For example, T^lTs p&mn Is deciding and class pairs looking round the This could be done by learners in who take turm to describe one who to describe, or in larger groups of learners,

ft^^ the sentences.

Figurems NewHeadway Beginners: ^^^^^ptf

to clothes. Suggest

class identify

one not true about the colours

Who

is

3 What cdours are your clothes today?

words

true things and

them'; the class has:the tTi©st-colours.between out the most popular colour. find to task . do a teacher-led colour survey red on. Possible bave-So,mething red? Hands up if you is

Listen

you could

person to the others to.«'Out Which you has the most? Tell the class. Listen in group or'FindoutwhIch todaythe d^^shasthemo4diffemntcolo.yr^on

Her trousers are

.His shirt

is

is

The

two

telling),

co the group is wearing the most get learners to find out who in example-

colours,

Sadie's jacket

everybody can already .oe what

Kasi.si.nu|.„.,iM.|,ly;ilanguagedlsplayactlviLy

.

The three

.

liul

now

moved in iiexi door

ii

new

iiiul

they are making

my life ImpossiLilc.'l

i^^in problem

that they have purlios

is

lie .

.

4 Hffw does she feel now?

a preliminary teacher-led task getting learners to identify 'something white',

'something red' as fast as they can. This can be done either with the textbook pictures or pointing to things (especially

if

you

talk

in the;

classftram;

ft

provides rich exposure

[The

letter

continues tor another

1

examples of 5 or so lines and cpntalns ten

phrasal verbs which are focused on

later]

.

.

,,,

about the objects as learners point to them^iaRduequires

minimal learner production. • get learners to set a true/false quiz to give another

pair.

For example, 'Sadie's

i-igurew.6 VmxiWx^^'

Vw

liuniiK-di;iic:

yw^^/i

shirtifewhfEe'.

To

b& done' with books closed (or eyes shut) as a memory-challenge task. Or you could send two people out of the room and have the class (in pairs or as a whole) remember what they were Increase the challenge, both these toks could

Unlt9lnFricr;l
Communpi-l'N^'Hv'.M voMbul«ry

%um m

Ml

if rtN-tl

(i,,,.-...

.

.,ll..l

'Ulu ibn'L pc,

k:c,l'

and ihe theme

begins with a 'In ih* nolghbourhood'. to lait about 4S y«r|:i*, T hflr. are tlx actlvlilM.

Is

— mlnutes^MS6iii[3^Mt^l^®!si#ip^

)

devotid to the practice of

Skills lessons

,

_

phrasal verbs iherhselves.

|.(,ok carefully at the lap.

—

'

'iiJ.'-

,,.sk. y,ui

Jii

hsK M U) ihc

AdapCiFtg activities

Uisks.

How might you adapt these two activities to maximise speal
juM

you would

more focused

lead-in to the text?

Write the

Instructions

There may already

1

leati-^ activities in

couv^cUnA

ilu-

ihai

on ^Nighiniaiv ncighgood example of a task sequence

is

Parties what sort of parBes are fliese?

1 1,

Wall< round and talk to as

many people

as possible

your present ones or ones you have had

go back to your seat and note down the interesting things

details

•

housewanning

•

leaving

•

fancy dies*

•

EUUovi'een

about your neighbours

eariier).

Try to

find at least tw(

people With helpful neighbours (f^emberln whatways they are helpful) and two with problem neighbours (what problems?). You have eight minutes. Then

most

r ki.icl ul 1

four skills.

integrates all

you could change the interaction patterns, give a more lpefiific goal, and set a more detailed agenda. For example:

(either

some

1k'

bouiV above, and the one below, which

Commentary For activity

,

andscc wIk.l

task a little tweaking, like the prediction

i.eLxl

which

give.

.ipis ..nci texts in ilu- unit,

learners a rca purpo.sc to could do l)c!o.c ihc.n ihat would give gave many ideas hv sm U rccoi-ding or read the tex^Apter 3

READER. AGTrVlTY IOC

opportunities and give a

v

and prepare to

2

What otihartypee of parly can

3

WbdfiH^» pi^tW What do you think makes a good party? •

the class the

tell

you found out.

Write a

lint

and a«l««

m

^^'Ingredients'.

about the Lfataato Aiysoa Geoff and Badiel Wking; Compare fifflti ideas with yount.

4 13 30

ingradit-ntii ul « k'»">

)W*V

'

i

If

you

feel this

would be too chaotic with your class, you could tell them to change two (or more) minutes. Or simply have learners In fours, talking lu

partners every

each of the other three into a survey to find

one or two minutes. You could also turn out whether problem neighbours outnumber helpful in

turn for

5

his in fact

1

For activity 2, you could add a prediction task before the reading. For escample: conslderthe

title

'Nightmare Neighbours'

do and what

their ideas to in

Hsttwo or three things

may have. someone from another pair

effects these things

Suggest possible solutions for each scenario.

what you thought and add to find what ideas you had

arid

Tell

your written

list.

Pass your

lists

listening activity

ieameps listen

where

five

On the next course-book page there

a

people are interviewed about their neighbours, and

and. match

pi^mstoijie people. So the above pPediction ,seryesas|0!Q£i pfff^tionfor the listening. You could

is

task also

make the task agenda more specific; Think of three possible pieces of advice for Yvonne and give reasons why each piece of advice might or might also

arc sensible

mteracLive reading

outcome. Step 5^ the questionnaire, is a highly your learners nofld None of these need much tweaking. If, however, add a plannmg and roport to focus on accuracy, you could

back stage

the text?

and 2

i

clear

more

in

Steps

i

range of language

appear

TBL lessoti.

'

.,

some of the vocabulary from the first activity, expand their experience and make the reading process more engaging

an exaniple of a whole

m;I

round

common.

is

and the teacher is left free to dccKi. Ik.w a .speciiic in pairs or groups. Step 3 gives ll-^ni up— they could be done party important three (a list of agenda for the main task and the outcome purpoHC the learners listen with nm-edients') is clearly defined. St^p 4. where by the speakers, .[vun Ik.h offered ideas the of comparing tfaeif0Wni^wilil risk

ideas will

won with a

pre-task preparation activities,

This would recycle

whose

page 142 and compare your

Out Intermediate: ^J^^ftf^

Figureio.7 Inside

summaries of group findings (displayed or passed round for others to read).

'nightmare' neighbours miglir

the questioimatobdtm'.-ltieri turn to

this

neighbours orvice versa by adding either an oral report-back phase, or written

In pairs,'

A^wet partner,

A^,GHflanKW

pressure

after step

iUv recording alier

could be asked

^ an evaluation of how step 4. To get them to

lo i'uess

and then find out

tar their ideas

niaichcd those in

re-read the qucstionnau-e, rhcy

how their

partner had respoiu cd

they couKI tl>en write (uidividiially. oi dicir partners aiiiiude to mKmuIv, fioni mrinnrv) a simr. (lescripiion wcl chdy prntnei altriw.iids to check to sec how to

each item.

A.s iin

atra writing

parties to give tn

llu-ii

remcmhcrfd.

m«W

'lb

task,

rim.

ll

ibc-

teacher could collect

dcseii|.iinnMn,,i.>lplfflk»
not work'. This, too. could be written or spoken. to Kcc

ii

the

cluNtt

udi kiimliV

rln" |"

1

'

without giving

•»''"i"-

tltc

all

the

name—

M;iiiy L,.ui-.srl.<.nks pn.vidr suigca;

lIic

i.isks lo

qucstiiHiiiuiic li.niKii

he

is

common

tasks include sequencing

niitk lnnj;

(hem

picture with

to

clone- (lut

(lir u-.ulid^- oi

liMciiinj.

iliis.

ilie faci.s

in a

summary or

hst .

in a

with more

than

lists

people—including

extras

one

has a set of three tasks: runlang four headlines according to interest value, sequencing the same headlines wMlelistening to a news broadcast, then, from memory,

matching

eight pieces of more detailed information to the headlines. The second task sequence (about a pet kangaroo) starts with matching words to pictures

and

predicting the sequence of the pictures in telling the story, then reading the article to check the story. second reading is encouraged with a subsequent true-lulse task. After some form-focused work, the

A

final

noticed duting that week. Interestingly, of these activities Is referred to as a task,

speaking task asks

news items they have as in all the examples above— none even though they are all focused on interesting

in

your textbook, there are no obvious tasks based around skills lessons, take much time to plan a set of tasks, using ideas from Chaptcj-

it

would not

3

for example,

pfedicting&om the headline and first line of a text, guessing the sequence of jumbled key points, groups setting their own true/&lse quiz, or

a set

fast reading.

of questions.

'Work in pairs. Ask and answer the ques-

tions.'asin

iio_i,

A simple way to generate more

—

memory challenge competition cover the text al ter Done singly, then in pai^,^e:& fours* this can generate Chapter 3

(3.7).)

iextbook lessons that start with a focus on form iiietti iiat even when k-arners come on to a speaking activity they are still in the mind-set that is orKctned with producing specified forms. "We need to think how we can

. \

.1.

liieve

Do

an

initial

focus on meaning.

the grammar-based lesson last

n most cases the most important change ordering textbook activities. For example, language I

he

in

a classic PPP

cycle,

introduced and presented and practised in a context,

is

—

final stage

need a more

the production stage

specific gosd adding, or

—and turn

re-

where new start

diis into a task;

some other tweaking. Keep

it

with

might

textbook.s

closed, so that learners don't have a chance to get into the mental set of locusingon one specific grammatical form or Function.

report the results to the class (task cycle). After

Somebooks suggest: 'Compare/

commenting or

giving feed-

go back to the textbook, savin]', back on the content of 'Lets look more closely at some of the forms you might have used when doing your task*', and do the form-focused exercises quickly. If you can their task reports,

made

to express their

own meanings

(or

a note of this in your notebook), highlight those patterns

and expressions too

—

this gives value to their

own efforts, and shows there is

not just one e&isecr way of ej^fe^iilg those meanings. Next lesson, or some time iat^.pu might get them to repeat the task or do a similar one with a different partner.

their

answer by saying what clues t{)

and thought is to get learners to justify they found for each one. They can report

the class the questions they disagreed about. by giving each learner in ^ pair onl/ half

Or turn it into a 'jigsaw'

Some {J.

trainee teachers

Willis

the qu^tioiis and getting them to find out from each other the answers to the others (with evidence). I'Ik iv are other

Look

eompJ^ension questio^^ more

fiin

and

once referred to

this process as

but, since

and D. Willis 1996)

opportunities,

Jjiafee

we can make «imply involves

I

talk

back

engaging:

c

iheni explain Lhoit answers;

0.2.2 Re-ordering activities

ii'you have like:

check your answers with a partner'.

ways to

in quite imaginative answers and mnu- hallenging, push for fiill answers

ii

remember what other language thejT used

Comprehension questions These often have instructions

)',iie\s

brainstorm words and phrases and ideas related to the topic with the class (pre-task preparation). Get learners to do the task, plan what to say and

meaning. If,

make

Inuncr,

answers bclorc alluwiinj

makes a 1

and share

deiail, or

ii^jJEidiscussion. (See

Unit ttC in PdceiFace Pre-intermcdiaw contains two task sequences of three or four tasks each, one sequence based on a news recording, and one based on a written texc. The first, on the topic of news items,

list,

.nul in:ikr

set the questions as a

»

matching task moEg sMenging.)

learners in groups to recall,

uM ihr board,

eai h oiIut, 01 wi ik') ptissible

funny class discussion. lb m.ike

^

{Note they give more

lell

thfiqur'.linir.

iheni 10 read or listen. This laii

in the text or tape^script. Inside

.

put

U'Ki, 01

or Imagine {.uul

oi

Out Intermediate has good examples of all these— see, for example, Unit lo, where the topic is Thmgs to do the visual contains difeent kinds c^Hsts and the instruciion is: 'Read the article on page Syandmatch the four people to their .

cover the

»

Oilui'

jumbled key poims or piciuies

pamgrapi^,0ir,comparing

tlae tkcts

iiip,

an cxccllcni cxiinipk' nl

it

'PPP upside-tlown' more learning

offers far

maybr wc sliould think of it as being the right way up.

Do the skills lessom jmt lor

I'l'iidinp,

tind

li

t,

t

control oi lanuuU||k||^j|it>iM

locused

worktSRHIU'ii

>

il>»ii'.

m

iniiies in ih>

Ity

which

'.kilK lesson

iliere

lollows

Is

on

generally Httic iroin ilic

form

•wiuhiiig things round and using skills

.

which prepare the way for te%t
'.omc

i)[

those in

on

ilu-y

,11

I

the textbook teicrs.

diose UK), and wiiir

,

Adding and Integrating focused tasks

0.2.3

'I'ocused casks' specific

occur

is

a term coined

by

Ellis

.

numbers

(airly large

difference',

in the text.

I

With

on

you will (See

at least get

coursebook lesson begins with

a presentation like to

some

Cox 2005 for more

at the start that

on common meanings.

hnat;ine die textbook lesson begins by looking at the use ofverbs ofUking disliking, followed

by the

'-ing'

form of the verb and goes on to say to

k'ai'iiers:

Make a list of three

things

you

like

and

three things

you

don't like.

tJse these phrases: I

like/love/enjoy

I

don't like/hate ...ing.

,,.ing,.

you could begin the lesson by telling them two or three things you and other people in your family like/don't like doing. As you talk, ask if anyone in their femily has any of the same likes and dislikes. This then becomes a teacher-led comparing task, giving rich exposure to relevant language and concepts and. requiring full learner engagement with meaning but minimum learner production. Then set a task where they have to list their partnef!s likes and dislikes and go on to do a class survey. Beforehand, give learners some pre-task preparation time and help with any vocabulary Instead oFthis

that

they need.

It

you follow the

task with a report phase culminating in the

you might, in tJie planning stage, reformulate any key phrases they want to use in their reports: 'He no like drive at night'. 'Oh, driving at night? survey,

Ili[^ht, 'I

'hey

so

lie

doesn't hke driving at night.

may not

get

if

I

don't like driving at night either.'

right at the report stage; they

may simply not be ready to

But the important thing is that they arc focusing on telling you and geliiiij', llu'ii nic.iniii|Vi .n mss, hen aliei" (he lask sequence, go hack 10 llu: com-se hook inui, luiishnig with (he eitercises thai learn this yet.

about

personality

llu'ii'

p;niiicr.s

I

found that getting leai-ners

questionnaire

'How

to prepare questions

based on

brave are you?

my suitcase

^

normally

reticent.

Her other focused

tasks

mcluded

from each other the three biggest lic-s getting her learners to find out simple revision); for past simple and they had told last year (past scenario with detectives continuous question practice she set up a crime

of new grammar, followed

add a task

(2005)

pack

Example 6 and

the

Much laughter boys who were

simply by practice exercises, you might focuses

Loumpourdi

tasks:

Td/I would each question they would Write togs like questions and options from other pairs as fast as I could'. They assembled and worked out their scores. and then swapped questionnaires, did them, a group o| ensued and much English was used, even

this.)

If a

some more examples offoeused

m

predict precisely what language learners will use for the task. If you Iiave time

may occur naturally.

llu-

down.

sec.md questions in hypothetical situations naturally generates an alien space ship landed conditional such as: 'What would you do if four alternative options tor your back garden?'. When thinking up the

,

language forms are easier to predict but even then, you can never

idea of what language features

ilirni

the

closed rasks like 'Spot the

to record fluCiit or native speakers doing the task,

,ana

for

(2003) to describe tasks where

language features are likely to occur naturally in the IViteraction or do

in

lere are

more examples based on ihe nu Mninj-s practise task and report stages. Let iliem

In luliiillon. plvc

were exprrssinr, during

i

1

1

on form, and

focus

lessons for tasks

. I

and witnesses. Yevgeny Slivkia designed a

.

,

marriage investigation scenario to in Rtissian. It iS based on the fact give practice with present tense forms a green card to stay m the I IN A that sometimes people who wish to obtain although they have no intention 'marry' someone who has US citizenship Learners acting as immigration of ever staying together as a couple. qnesnons couples individually, asking officials interview ^husband^^fe' whether they really cU). about aspects of their daily lives, to investigate involves the couple in know each other well enough to be married. This Tf theif interview answers preparing a very solid case before the interview; case, they will be deemed do not match, and if tiiey cannot plead their being deported. (See Appendix 2.5 lor be 'fake couples who will end up fun than simply practismg present tenses tor full details.) It is much more die past simple, by for focusing daily routines. It could also be mtd and the events leading up to iheir asking questions about how they met of the 'Alibi' game--see Leaver and 'marriage'. This scenario is a variation set in a miluary peace4<eeping R. Willis 2004: 27 for another example, 'Fictitious

,

.

m

J.

context.

Focused l-un-n-n-'e-

tasks are usclnl

imneiMt

iv.-..

Argcniina p.i (.innps iii'cl.iv..

lexibook revision, too. To revise textbook countable/uncountable -mmI drink vocabulary,

I
I

n.un:

nouns, sequent

be m.ide

11

'

Revision tasks

-il

l*

.lll.l

'

I'yt..

'first',

'then, etc.

Eva Kloster

sludcnts to create recipes lhat

i

wmI

likfi'UlyinpJt;iulu'

.nch as

m

auild

They wn.ie lull recipes lor ihuigs l-nndwuir and g.m hvedenionMi.iuonNUi '

'-'l^ii'r,.

(„ll„w...| l,y

I

w

W

II,

1,

K.„ |„v,„n„f,

..KocTagcc u, 1

7^3

, |,„

textbook

„ni„,

I,

„|,„

|^.^|

r5i|iei iriii

1.,,,,.™

,1,. |M™.n,.,,i,,,,,

t.nit Co ,n;,l<,. ,s,„v ,lu.y

got

thi,

/

(

^

recipes.

tasks

projects.

We

as

TBT

lessons takes no

foi"

Eva in Argetttina whose work we saw above,

each, ( i

aj

and

chaired a Serbo-Croatian department in the

'-ollecting

smdent'T" M who would was gtven duriiig

Smugglmg people

T'^T

4-'^°"' \

a

be acrtng as peace-keeping forces in Bosnia 2-day immersion experience.

It

topic was ^

We smrted with a feature article in

National Geographu: They reported who was involved in this type of business had we knew that this was a real problem

hat one Bosn.an trader

been arrested. So.

that

ou

teachers collected a number of articles to get the background knowledge, and based on that we created the scenario and all the other materials: background texts,

letters, interviews,

phone

calls,

overheard conversations, etc. Once put the students through the different

handwritten

we had

the basic

tasks, as if they

,n

...sitwe.

a situation like that.

they found

I.ey really

language.

it

It felt

very

very challenging to read the handwritten

real

were

The feedback was overwhelmingly

enjoyed the telephone calk.

and authentic

They to

Cyrillic^-

liked hearing collociuial

them. They fi„md the

w

problrin.

mainly from the web; they each supplied

review of

(ine text,

persuade other students their

to

it,

text

texts) aiul

was

—on

a

mark out of five, and thus we chose The ten texts were then

for the term.

texts.

recordings

your students to record.

If you

work somewhere where

spoken, or near where speakers of English gather, students

topics they have prepared beforehand.

(in

They obviously have

to explain

purpose and ask permission to record their interviews, but once recorded, they can replay, listen and choose sections to transcribe and later their

present their interview in class, supported by transcriptions. These can

Many

teachers pointed out that once it

again and again.

1

1

i

f

It

much of

the learners give so

you have a good

The

ole

TBT lessons,

themselves that every time the results arc

and you learn something new. So, as Claudia Bey and her colleagues worth some investment of time up front you save time later.

lerent

10.4

task or suitable text,

never gets boring, because in

—

liiund, its

How can Intake time to do tasks in class?

pressure of completing the coursebook or covering the language

syllabus

The two Serbian-Croatian

we

class,

.

students might face in Bosnia.

;i

then be used for form-focused study.

USA,

scenario for

The

lor

si.\-\v.mo

each with a recording device) can go out and interview people on

pairs,

ymi can use students

'YW'V

language work planned for the term based on the

'lb save time, get

must!

.cally

finally

I'aiglish is

'

ihLs

sequenced, c^uick reading tasks and a range of writing tasks dcsiguetl (or

convinced that one of the main ingredients for our success has been working tn a team which has always been supportive PP "ve and encouragmg. Working in teams is a

scenario,

writing

a

most popular ten topics

the

gather mater.als and work ont good scenarios and teacher said the key is to create coliaboltive culture"

who

n.siiig

siill

separate piece of paper— gave each a

are

Claudia Bey,

.nc

worth voting for. Students then read the reviews (not the

TBT

One

Wr

lollcciiiig lexis

ifxls

^ such

in}'.

Whenever you read a suiuible tcxi, make a note ol its source, e(ipy it, and Hie it. You could also ask studenus to lirlp. A group of upper intermediate students found interesting reading

andplan

C'ollaboratton

plan thett

iiicteM

.nid wi'ote a short

lesson takes rime to prepare. Planning

A lot of teachers

1

I'Muling suiiable texts can take linie.

.mgcr than plannmg any other kind of lesson once you have gained L experience, especially if you use and adapt a coursebook-as we saw above. But here are some things you could try: I

I-

ISM'S in ilie |irn]i,raMi, so ilie ili-velii|inien[ liiue wiis iioi

l I.

1

sMn^Z ^

from hcadng the o,l,n.

wefind time to design

BT lessons?

Any good

w,,

wrhini; a,ul

,d< ,o ,hc

ukI from reading rhcir

1

K.

l.,n,.ts bcnchtccl

I..

K

I,

,

by the end of term can be quite daunting. But we need

to thirdi in

terms of letting learners learn rather than trying to teach everything thoroughly.

And

pronunciation lu

hieve), niayln-

wr

ihtough using (or live in

an

chance to or

pail's,

.should spi-nd

inler.ul in

ynii

mastery (which

ili.illin|i

itin

individual iieetU.

more of that time allowing them

I'.n^Iisli,

ih

111

iln

m

-.omh'

^i.Hwd

um

\\

.t

it's

only

in class that

.md have the support of

wli.H

f^lvi

11

environ meni,

SUV

wriie.

(II

i

While

itidiviiliul iI

i

ut learn

language themselves. Unless they

.uirMipniii', to use) the

l',ng!i.sli-spi'.ikin|;,

plaiuiing and

grammar and we know they will never

rather than spending a lot of time teaching

aimiiij; at nal ive-like

Liss inni-.

they will get

their teacher

ih<'y are

woi

.iiii'hiioii

kiii}',

.nid

a

when

in {',i'oups

[(-spoiid

m

.

WaiclioiichssroommtcTaction has .shown in a teacher-Isd

Assroom

of 30 students

w

ih

ii

wiih

"1 eract.on,

^T

h

or

piiirs

,mL

arc

gnHi|).s)

dtmc

reading/listening task cycle at

home or in their own

lucre's

in

il.i^s,

ilu-ii

dicy can do the rest of the

and any form-focused exercises based on the text

time.

an example of howthls could work with a beginners

Example 7 Look back at the Nnv Headway Beginners task on Example 3 in 10. 2.1. above. li)

READER ACTIVITY 10D

•

Calculating speaking time

Go through your next textbook unit

make time

clothes

and colours

in

for the extra colour tasks:

in the previous lesson,

tell

learners they will be talking about the

colours of people s dotkes next lesson. Give

and decide what activities you can spend

class:

them a handout with a list home; check to see if

of colour woii and WOsds these are recorded somewhere, or ask them to check pronunciation in clothes to learn at

less

the dictionary.

and practising (T^.l) with their own Ask them to time themselves at home lo eight sentences. Next lesson^ ask them to

after the tasks*, set the listening

CDs see

Here 1

are

Ask

some v^ys of tnaking more efficient use of

learners to prepare ropic-

As we have ah-eady suggested,

and

dassroom time:

how

fast

give

you

the

class.

they can say

all

and ask a few people to read the sentences fast to kind of follow-up shows you are serious abdui

their times 'Vhis

homework practice (as well as being good practice in usingiiumbers for

task-related

learners can

for their next lioniework.

words at home do sonu- nrenaraZ for rhe ne.t

timings)

4 Encourage independent vocabulary learning Helping learners to learn topic words and phrases can take up a lot of class time and is not necessarily the best way of approaching something whiJi ultimately depends on rote learning. Encourage learners to keep voail>nl;ny

2 Set grammar exercises for homework This has the advantage of each learner being able to work at their

might

like to start

each exercise in class

bur

rh.n.

notebooks, to write in

own

independently.

n

r

phrases and to revise their entries

has been suggested (is/km aooi) that 1f karners really put

minds to learning words from word lists they can learn up t(t 50 new words in one hour this will, however, depend on many factors, like the level of learners and similarities between the Li and the target language. Nation (2001) reports that the most effective method is for learners to use small word their

^?

.

It

new words and

—

on the back; they flip through the pack to see how many they can recall, then shufBe and go through again. (If learners wtiie in pencil they can erase the new word once they loiow it and re-use rhe cards.) This may seem old fashioned but it does seem to work. If the cards also contain one or wo typical phrases or collocations containing the new word it cards with translations

3

Do the listening/reading and follow

I

up

activities at

home

CD

HVn

INowadays most books come widi a student well as readrng can be done at hon.e (whl

1^

or

niiglu help learncrji

" aT:"'"' " i-

n l^sL ;r

nmesastheyneedto),a„dcheckedoutinckss/uic%

rxtleso^^^^^^^

™.ns.uhepre.vadln,orpre-HsteningtaskslchL^^ N>-I-.B and rcporcng back

(fbr

example, prdicfen or

.eq.Lc ng

to help recall. leinner'. \vA:

the

word productively

as well as

i

I'l

word»

iliul

phr.r.f.s

iliey

will

nei'il

providing a context

recall so

mind

miipji

tli*

vm

li

iiiliti*' i|iil^/t'i t|iiii;kly

as n

c{nild give n)pii

;mu1

and phrases on

They can compare mind wnrm up in the next Icsfion.

miip*. ni ituildrint iHld'WOi'd-oiit quizzes.

and

you

lor ihe nexi

cncoLn'a||;f ilu'iii in iiNt'rIiMiiiilyiim.u iivilics like piiuiiig woixls

to

dt

u.hc

Expoiullnn o^niiive effort also helps

— U,scM,„,.ucdd,.,u,k.,„„c

word family

IS

a

oUk„.,wl«l,,.„|.

.,.,„„w,„-.li;,„„li,..,„

woid

;,„d associated forms. For ex,„„|,lc. th. v.rl, \.IW w,n,ld ha«. ,n u. h,n„ly the inflected forms 'talking', and 'talked' "gciiierwith the noun 'talk' atid the adjective 'talkative'. In theory. ifMe

W,

are

I.K.n-..s

„.

tr-i's

would involve 40 houts of independent stndy Sn ofvocabulary study a day the target could be «ched in 80

?

tfefe

dlvTor days or sixteen weeks of study at .

mple as

Begmners.

that.

.ngh.sh words,

five

days a week.

Of course things ate not

who are not famUtar with the sounds and shape

10.5

How can you change attitudes ofStudents who

aren't

med to TBTf

Sometimes students

tell

you they

just

want

they are worried they never gei magically, they will, ifyou teach

often enough.

ihey

would

it

grammar because

to be tauglii

and they think

ii

right

thai

Most students

our will

day,

admit

also like to be able to talk to people in English, so

,s

of

would be teomr unlikely to reach the figure of fi^ words an HH"-. yen, forget a word, you have to relearn it. Then tfieW is the &ct that he abihty to recognize a word and its Li equivalent does not guarantee the abtkr to U,e that word. However, it would certatnly help learn'ers recogt^ mote worths when readmg graded readers, which ^tlld reduce the nstratton factor and mcrease enjoyment of reading, as well as giving givmgtnem them

• explain that they will only learn to talk •

and

that by talking,

by trying to

talk;

listening to people talking (and reading widely) they

I

will naturally consolidate their

grammar and

acquire more;

I

•

lessons.

(Prabhus pupils just did

they acquired etiough language

I

I

them grammar tell

plenty of people learn a foreign language

1'

insight.smtousesofthenewwords.

l o gain productive control, learners also need to experience these word, and phrases tn thetr natural sett.ngs (social chat, task-based tnteractions and. X and revise them (preferably within )^ 24 hours, then again within a weel and then at longer nitervals) in order to recall them. So a quick three-minutT burst of duect vocabulary revision in every lesson, would save leachmg vocabulary in class. Marilyn Bahl in the found her learners really enjoyed simple revision such as. for example:

tiD

tasks,

pa^ their

without having any

no grammar lessons, and and

giuitiniisti?i-baseii'.^)ams,

could communicate quite fluently. TBI. helped diem acquire naturally); • choose some simple engaging tasks that are fim and have concrete outcomes, that they can prepare in advance and achieve with satisfaction and. enjoyment; •

them prepare

to start with, let

what they might want to say

in writing

.

r^n^

Write lell

this gives

•

down as many food words and phrases as you can how many you got. Now compare lists

us

in

always:

lesson with a fiDcus

expressions that have

UAE

^es

them end a TBT

'discourse space' (Kelly 2001);

come up

on grammar and new words and

in the task. Learners

can practise these and

them in their notebooks to revise at home. Next lesson go back to these and recap with some quick pair-practice of language from their two short bursts of notebooks. It's very much a question of 'packaging' grammar a lesson with a task in b^ween. write

—

mo minutes.

with a partner by reading

themoutloud.combmethem.andcountagain.

The advantages of rapid tndependent learnnig ofwords and . .

something concrete and challenging for a learner can be rewarding and satisfying

^ti

get. aiu! find they

•

'come to do:

when they have reached their daily can understand more when reading and listening;

*

.

phrases include:

it is It

test

'-nanirages learner independence.

iF

dsn

X.

drawn

to

done

them

niustra^

common <^no^tionsandpattenis.Attentioncan

rn the post^task,

form-focused phase, when the basic can be further built on and extended, and written into vocabulary notcbooks/phrasebooks.

wu.ds and

pltra.es

a question of grammar. tasks,

When

then their attitudes

more likely-to change.

How can I motivate my students to do more

than just the U)

largely out of class

new worl Ld

then-

are

The

the bulk ofmitial vocabulary learning can be class .me for tasl. that wUl recycle the

hemmcontextwirh

once they realize that it is not just

they can express themselves in En^sh and do fim

10.6

lesson-

reaching the take-off point of 2000

^uss.y.s

alive'

each other (for example with their

word card cards) for two minutes at some point in each It wot d contribute heavily to learners II

in Chapter 9 (9.2.5), Jason Moscr's students had been very negative about their English before they statted TBL, but most learners will

As we saw

minimum^

key, as wesiressed

want

Lo

engage

in

Chapter

i, is

meaning on

guard against minimid

ies|>(inses,

the notion of engagement. Learners have their

way

to achieving

an outcome. To

the advice in Chapter 8 (8.2) will help.

There we sugge«t|lld,inWoduciiig interim goals, giving precise instructions, giving ehiifts or innlcii lo (ill in, ami pushing for more detailed output. If'Ic.n MCI'. Ii.ivr invriiicd

mimh-

iil

thru

pl.mmM)'.

.inil

likely to

\%Ay^y wlilljljj lilih wIhmi

v

iliiiilunjj, iIimmi^'Ji

own ime

wIi.ii

1

prior ut die speaking task in

iluy can lalk aboiii, dicy are

i;licy

more

do it^AtlcMtjhcywilllaiowitome

.

It is

estimated that a learner needs knowledge of some lono word fhmillcs to

be able

to njicratc in a

word laniily is would have in

its

together with the

language independently (Bauer and N.n Ion

and

a woixl

associaccd forms. For exarnpk-

I'amily die inflected

forms

'tallcs',

i'js)3).

ilie vei

'talkinjj',

ami

h

would involve 40 hours of independent

days, or sixteen weeks

who

are not fiimiliar with the

study.

you have to relearn it. Then there is the fact that the ability kj recognke a w^j4 and "it^ Li eqnival^int does' not guarantee the ability to use that word. However, it wotild certainly help learners recognize more words when reading graded readers, whicli would reduce the frustration factor and increase enjoyment of readingj as well as giving them hour. If you forget a word,

insigjits into uses

they

you .each

and

often enough.

it

would

really

class.

Marilyn Dahl in the UAF, found her learners

enjoyed simple revision games such

Write

as,

for example:

as many food words and phrases as you can in two minutes. how many you got. Now compare lists with a partner by reading

down

Tell us

them out loud, combine them, and count again.

•

it is

•

it

•

couWcomrnuni^t. some simple engaging

tasks that

when they have reached their daily targets and find they can understand more when reading and listening; it is

—

easily testable

•

i

t

it

learners can test each other (for

two minutes

at

some point

example

.

notebooks.

So

if the

bulk

this saves class

drawn

words and

new words, and

common collocations and

phrases can be further built

illustrate

patterns. Attention can

in ihcni in die post-task, forni-focu.sed plia.se.

are

much a

very

short bursts ol question of 'packaging -two

in

Chapter

9

(9.2.5). .la--"

Mi.ser's students

more likely to change.

How can I motivate my students to do more

than just the we

as

when

siressed

engage

n,

nodon of engagement. Learners haw outcome To meaning on their way to achieving an (

'.hapter

I, is

the

i

the basic

on and extended, and written into

minimum?

« responses, the advice in Chapter ^(8j,uard again.« minimal '"^'''^''ons, P''"''f---^^' "T. There we suj^'M-l ouipuu l.,r mote de.a,le
„,vr,lol»uli,euhhei,

III, „,„,,„ ;,„„,,

vocabulaiy notebooks/phrfUjebouks.

It's

gX

The key,

vocabtdary learning can be done largely out of class,

tlicm in context with their also be

say-

had been very startedTBL, hut most learne^ 11 about the,rV:nglish before they n ol grammar. When it is not jtet.Sl question 'come alive once they realize that fan tasks, dien dieir attitudes -press themselves in EngUsh and do

10.6

*

time for tasks that will recycle the

to

grammar a lesson with a task in between.

to wan': 10

of initial

what they might want

them 'discourse space (Kelly 2001); new won s a focus on grammar and always end a TBT lesson with these n the task. Learners can practise exprlssions that have come up in lesson go had t to revise at home. Next write them in their notebooks (,„n, ,1,, quick pair-practice of language these and recap with some

families;

encourages learner iiidjependence.

in writing

satisfaction

this gives

v^^th their

in each lesson;

wo tdd contribute heavily to learners reaching the take-off point of 2000

word •

cards) for

them prepare

.

^'t^ZM^,

^^'^J^^. achieve with and

A^-n

something coHGTiste and, eliallenging for a learner te do;

can be rewarding and satisfying

word

,

exams and to pass their grammar-based they acquired eflOtt#i language helped t em acquirc^^^ .luite fluently TBI,

As we saw

The advantages of rapid independ.ent learrung of words and phrases include;

Most

'I

students w.ll admit

S

To ^im prodtactive control, learners

reaching vocabulary in

th.nk

.

advance outcomes, that they can prepare in

need to ^pericnce these words and phrases in their natural settings (social chat, task-based interactions and texts), and revise them (preferably within 24 hours, then again within a week and then at longer intervals) in order to recall them. So a quick three-minute burst of direct vocabulary revision in every lesson, would save time spent

tliey

to people in English, so also like to he able to talk

. choose

of the new words.

.-.s^lu

i,

talk by tiying to talk; ., , exolain that they will only learn to widely) they to people tdking (and reading listeling nd talking.' by . more; their grammar and aequire will naturally consolidate without having any learn a foreign language . 7e 1 them plenty of people nd did tasks, *<, gr«mai: lesson , grammar lessons. (Prabhus pupils jusr

. !||'

if

who

M ^^"T^'^TtTZ'^TZ

worried they never get

inZically, thcv will,

8cj

sounds and shape of

«e

'1

So

words, would be most tuilikely to reach the figure of fifty words an

I'.nglish

TBTf

Sometimes students tdl you

of study at five days a week. OFcourse things are no c as

Beginners,

as that.

aren t used to

'talked',

given half an hour of vocabulary study a day the target could be reached in

simple

A

How can you ehMnpatHtudes ofstudents

'rall<'

noun 'talk* and the adjective 'talkative". Iit M'eory, if Meara's

are correct, this

(igiii'cs

irs

10.5

,

..,,,1

own

ol die basic vocabuJui-y uiiU ihcy arc less likely to

Duane Kindt

ifl&ip|iiSi'§fi'^!'lilS^Mtlents to

usln^ \Siudcnts

own

qui ol things to

i'liii

any.

prepare for conversation tasks

in '"ake clear the csnceK« ol .h. UKplain the rcal-llfe purpo.. -'f ol^l>c,.sl.|^.^v.,m^^ which the language

(SOCCs) on a range of topics. design and make for tlieniselves at

conversation cards'

These are illustrated cards that learners home, writing briefly about a specified numbisr of points on the given topic that they will talk about in class. The cards act as cues for both learners in the pair and give a sense of security. There are self assessment and grading schemes and a feed-back stage. (See Duane Kindts's S O CC website for more detail)

.

His learners ob^^msfy benefited from

SOCCs

anti

hopefully,

make an impact

(little

as

it

may

be)

on

the

way they

.^BJmunication in ,ue nossibilicy of interfiatlon4

I'^'T^-

soon tealized

they were able to hold a conversation in a social setting, which

is

in itself

of making tasks intrinsically motivating.

A lot of

motivating.

There

are other ways, too,

teachers gave advice

on

diis,

based on their experience. Here

it is,

divided

into broad topic areas.

ating.

See Ckapter •

The way

the task

is

presented visually has an enormous impact on

production. •

We

think personalization

is

the key.

We

x (1.4 (f))

be surprisingly •

Use tasks

do not alvrays guarantee our But talking about concrete, even mtmdane things can

class

nnd .nd

participation involved; encourage helir keep everyone

fruitful.

that require imagination, creativity (predict a story ending) or

involve htwnour (your silliest/most embarrassing great for

,

included: ^leachers' suggestions

that would motivate us to talkili a classroom students' interest.

real

world.

Methods in have found that abstract topics

and the Chapter 7 for mare on language

moment)* These

are

group-work dynamic.

.

students reaU« Stetthe activity, have year

how W.11 .hey have performed

An ejfample from Glen Poupore: Students were given background

one episode of the sitcom Friends. Students created questions they thought would be answered by the end of the episode and later they provided their own in FormariiOil .about

come up with humoroiis questions as well as and humorous answers. Observing students on videotape as they do this task, the smiles and laughter are numerous; they are just plain haviit%&n together and really enjoying the task.

of achievement;

answers. Students often crearive

Make the goals and real-life purposes very clear Many teachers put this as their main or second most advice. •

Here

are

you

tell

situation in real

life.

points fo*

answers, long rcspoii

them how

s,

"

ut^ic

f

^V detS in

™"^^^

Inal

dear

.

/r

excessive Ll

wthout

interesting/exciting

it is!)

Learners really appreciate sure

g-c

important piiece of

and what the purpose of the activity is. knowing wh)' they are doing an activity. Make them one of the goals is to enable them to face this kind of

the activity will be (if

Drav.ascorechartonthcboatdfoteachpaitortean.^Givepoin.K^^^^^^ aspect of content o,answers! for c.an,plc,

some thin^ they suggested:

Raise your students' motivation by telling

competition.

:;;i:

r: wi:. 'r.--

lotsofpoinw

i.wlu'

II

hni

„ilh,w:„,l, .on,.

bm

he

Ian

,...

P"»,hle.

Be generous ..a

g,vc

How can weprevent overuse ofLt and ^nmWM^ i^^^ers with the same Lx to use English ift 7

ilt-ai'

Most

teachers

do not think

clearly

no way to contribute in feel that if

class

we allowed Li

or

have been

known

in aft English [tsson, it

their teacher.

«

W

should

^ivniilcd,

ihc ivpoii Maj-r

tunii)'

1

(hink

I

lnt)'eiiingihfMiidi

ni'.

in wuik uigciher lo maiica report.

when, where, mid

liu

wh.ii

Japanese

may he

used.

is

it

lay

I

out

can speak

I

being used for learning and not. Most Japanese so Ldin die rules, work within them. students, once they understand

when

It is

outright.

to suffer, feeling they

communicate with

it

tell

good idea to ban use of Li

its a

level learners

iiit ial

I

duringpair-moph andproject worM Beginner and low

where

have

We used to

t&c thin end of the

M;iny RMchersdrawUpasetofrulesforwhen

U

LK her

I,i is

allowed lo be

and by learners. In fact, a task, and then share ideas and agree on a

tio this as

usi'd

by he I

to let

your siudents

final set

of guidelines.

one good way forward is

wedge-^learners would no longer try to cxpresS theim^ves in English— but now we rccognrze the advantages of using Li in certain cases.

You could also ask them to think of specific guidelines for Li use during work pi )jects and pair-work. Encourage them to keep to these during group

Some teachers of true beginners,

by:

Aurelia Garcfa in Argentina (Chapter z Heidi Vande Voort Nam in l
{2.3.1)),

I begin activities in Korean, and then more advanced students supply the vocabulary orl do, so that they can do the same thing in English.

As they dien repeat the task with others, and later work towards some kind of report or presentation of findings, their use of English gradually increases. By the end of the year, use of Li has normally dropped to a

minimum.

(

displaying the rules or guidelines where

•

all

can see

going round and monitoring, helping when they get stuck • asking groups afterwards how many points out of five they wmild give themselves for sticking to EngUsh during the task—according to die •

gtiidelines.

Aiu>ther task would be to ask students

and help them overcome

when and why they speak hi

these particular hurdles.

One

in

i l.i.ss,

teacher in Turkey

iunnd \v. (l''Jdridgelf96) recorded pair-work in his class of 13-year olds and Miidcnts consistently used Turkish for interactive phrases that mark agend.i \

points in interactions like 'Ok, then, shall

1

start?

'Fine, right,

'So, lets

the ma n task that's it then' In fact they tended to switch to Turkish once off of naiivr 01 recordings agenda. If his students liad been able rn listen to i

.

But there

are definitely other times

common language

—

when

the

mother tongue—or another

useful;

is

Ihient speakers

task,

they could have noticed (with leacher

how such meanings were expressed in Englisk; Hobbs

(2005: 149)

when an unknown word comes up— especially if it is a word not cx>mmcm enough to teach or spend time on guessing from

guidance)

context. Ask learners if they can translate the word for other students; if you speak their Li, you can check comprehension; with a mixed class, you will have to go with the student consensus— ask someone with a bi-

For more on aspects of spoken language that learnCJS.mi^t need help with,

• quick translation

lin^al dictionary •

doing a similar

generally

of interactive lexical phrases.

see Chapter 7 (7.4).

to help.

do all the classroom organization and instructiongiving in English, as this creates a very real context and purpose for it is

provides a useful cl^sification

best to

But check they understand the task instructions by asking someone to say what they think they have to do in Li. If some students disagree, you might need to clarify. At a higher level, they can do this in

10.8

How do we keep learners' interest during a post'

task report stage?

listening.

Here are some suggestions for maintaining the interest of learners during report stage;

English. • •

niake sure they Iniow why using En^ish

die

^much.as they can is beneficial:

I'.nsure,

when

encourage

li-iirner,s

ilieni 10

are

planning their reports, that die insiruciiuns

ineUtdc relevant detail which makes the reports

more

use it to learn it'. interesting.

Jason Moser in Japan reports:

Whatever the

task,

I.i

classroom managemciu.

will 1

•

emerge. There

is

diink Japanese has a

no formula except solid role to play, but I make it

lU'Coic .(,iiiin|'

di.

linifilied

pliuiiuii),;

Improve

their

i.

|i.Mi

dun

li.it

k

ii|pciit,'.,

|ih,iM'.

ni;tke sure niosl

oiherwi.se iliey will

twn wport \m\m\ of lUtenhig to

siill

each other.

n[

dicm have

be trying CO

them a purpose

• Give

down

note

diree diings tiiat are similar to or different From their hike note of the facts to colhiic Inr

rcpon.s/storics; or

•

for listening to or reading each otiicr's reports,

IcU tliem they have

to Usten so they

;i

t lii.s.s

i.e.

own

survey.

can prepare and write two/ threu

quality of the content of their questions.) •

Tlicy can write two true facts and one false statement about each report

•

Th^

hear or read, to give as a quiz after the reports are finished.

— give a on —or complete

can evalimte

grstde

i.e.

aspects of each report:

and/or a

comment

value/presentation

a different view, Jason

Ironically,

it

is

a sentence

on a

slip

Moser

fbt different

of paper; 'What

I

students

would rank

they

to share meatiliii^ful

s^ct

and just sliowing

and answer

come into class on

a regular basis

iheir .,neMion,s about .op.es ihey

Tlie visitor can also go ."OLind a.ul walch that they have done before and listen while lea.ners a.e rei>eauug tasks the end ot the and join m. with a difFerent partner (see Lopes 2004) they en)oycd what about some Feedback class the visitor can give the class If grades made. progress learners have hearing about, and comment on the teacher to sit at the is a chance for the class for oral work are needed, each learner contribuuon. back, Usten. and jot down points for visii.

dm

tkth fkvotante

10,10

How can we control and keep discipline in

large or difficult classes?

reports:

would say many part of the ^sequeliGe bec^se

the teacher-fronted reporting that as

to talk to learners in I'-ngNsh

teacher) to

the interest level and content/entertainment

liked particularly about X's report was

To give

Ask a visitor (not necMMiHly a h'lve covered si.ueilie Us.

questiotis^ to ask ike people reporting. (They could be graded on the

iticy

•

Patrick Kiernan advises;

I

.

time with the teacher who

is

sharing stories

interest in student Hves. 4

Usitlg msks

means

role fro.n ihc that the teachers have a different the focus throughout. It is easy to be

one where the teacher is most well-organized speak..ig concerned about discipUnc and even the wdl-designed and wcll.staged asks a re tasks are noisy However/ifl reality,

tradJtional

I

dilhculi

lo.' satisfaction. Ir .s motivating and give students a feeling of they are not participating it will students to fall asleep during a task and if and also^make sure they know be easy to see. Explain the task very carefully how using tasks can help them learn English ....

How can we give learners a sense oftheir

10.9

own progress? Much

of the language that students learn during

TBT

cycles

is

acquired

subconsciously and learners are simply not aware of what they are learning

*andways in which they mentioned elsewhere in

impiwing. The following techniques

are this

book

—have been found

to help

—

them

already

perceive

have large

classes

and fixed desks, and/or students who tend

Make sure learners keep records in their notebooks of new words,

sure they

knowwhatthe rules are.Aset of class rules can beproposc-d

then agreed on by the class as a and drawn up into a document or poster that phrases,

to get

out

for different activity types a.ul .nakc of control easily introduce set routines

target task In itselE It

(heir progress.

•

If you

is

in pait-s

can be skated, rehned

kept on display.

kind of a written or drawn w4th teacher-led tasks that require some example, listen and draw, or underiinc, or response from each student, for pairs to reduce your marking load, sequence. Get them to check answers in but go round the class as they are doing diis.

and patterns from each lesson; spend ten minutes every few lessons going over these in class and get thfi class to quiz each other on them. Count up totals of words and phrases every month. • Get learners to repeat the task once or twice with new paitners, and point out in what ways di^ have improved by the end.

Start

• Every so often, get learners to record, transcribe their task interaction,

front of them. Number rows, so the task or report to the student behind/in stay facing forward. To Start odd numbers turn ro.UKl, the even numbers the make it fun. Practise making fours with, practise doing tins last and in ohsei'ved teacher T once turn to lace another pair.

then correct and improve it, and finally do the same (or similar) task again later.

Save some early recordings and transcriptions so they can compare

them with those they do ol learners to

two

pairs

end of term. (You could get different pairs ume* SO each task is being recorded by one or

at the

record each

each lesson.)

Train them to

repeat the work m pairs with die sciKient nest to them, then to

m

same

way—

A

piiii'S

wooden desk u,..dr Inr iwo Teheran teaching 110 Imne.s (sining three to a she rang when suidenis needed IDIM' b.i/.i.ii h-"'! in -x a issrnoni ovrt )

1.

•

Make learners keep a portfolio of all written reports and (of tasks and

interviews done)

accumulated and improved over a

so they QUI (c-rm.

«t!C

all

transcriptions

llow miich they have

lodn.meauivih.T.

n Mo|.

.,dlu..|.'

:i

Ml

and

listen.

There was no way she could

)

them were speaking teacher-led class. R'si ilrs

more

far

And

were quicker to

l'nij,lLsli

than they would have done in a

40 pieces of group writing reporting mark than i2oindmdual scripts. the

rlie

task

the report stage in a

dui. ThcMv

Iftrgfli'

,mv

two ways round thi^finding an

device. outside audience and uiing a recording 1

Outside audience

•

If

.

,

a

try

Ill

liij,;

lKisscs,

it is

easier

and quicker

to get

round

to

monitor groups of four

iluui to monitor twice the number of pairs. But when you have groups of more than two, make sure eai^ person a role, and chec^ they know what their role is: 'Hands up all secretaries; hands up all reporters'; see Chapter 8 (8.6). Its useful to have a group leader, too, whose role it is to keep the group on the task agenda and using EngUsh, and who can raise a hand once they have finished or if they get stuck. A group of teachers in Thailand and the

one-to-one basis, you teach nnire lhan one student on a regular basis; then they can tell each tirne they can overlap for a spdl on a formaUty-what they have been other-^^fbs^ a table, to give some experiences. doing, and compare learning teachers you could exchange students If you work with other one-to-one intervals. on a formal basis fot half aft hour at regular

W

USA

have devised 'Team English' which

through colors and numbers while

fication

at the

2 Making recordings to you • Listen toyour student talking

work together

teacher might

call

same time incorporating

question?' or All

a common ofejecfe'.. Foi example, the team number 5 can you ask us your quiz hands up, you will be the spokesperson for your

to achieve

—

out: 'Red

number 4s,

Play

Try

to teach

the back

from the back of the qlass sometimes;

at least spend more

time at

Finally, a tip

we got from

all

learners to

move forward one row. The

row goes to the back. It is easier for learners nearer the front to hear, understand and concentrate. You can also encourage students to mix up a bit as they move forward or back. This means they will be in different pairs, and they

will learn different things

from

,

Ini

class

and

asrk

few

a

facts

wrong.) By

domg

tli.s,

you

arc

^

made m class and student listens to the recordingyou to talk about in cUiss language-wise, transcribe bits.tfaey find interesting recording ot the own make their next dav. For a later lesson, they could it back to you and same story, presentation Or speech at home, tnes to

m

class.

back) pushes d,e (and knowing it will be played ways of expressing something— a natural speaker to think of more effective way to impose a focus on language.

The very act of recording

different

10J2

<

lOdl

push

p%

front

people.

topic;

Esther Ramani, a teacher in India where classes can

be up to 70 or 80: eveiy week, get

at least for reporting,

back in

At home,

.

when monitoring group work.

on a prepared

meanings the student was trying to reformulating in standard English the listen to; express— a valuable resource for the learner tO

chapter.) ^

it

deliberately leave gaps or get

team'. (I^or their web-based articb on large classes^ see Fuiriier reading at the

end of this

.

in class

telling then make a recording of yourself detail where appropriate. You was ... ('So what you said them whatever you can remember about it. them to check the cotnent. (You could

of cooperative learning, an approach to education in which

pi inciples

students

team and member identi-

'uses

.

How can you do tasks with karmrs ofmixed

ability/on different levels,

One-tO'One classes

and ensure Mstudents can

do the task? Teaching in a one-to-one situation means that you can

and work with the data that they bring with them. For example, Beatrix Burghardt (teaching Hungarian) got her student (a diplomat) to bring in a first diaft of a Christmas speech he would have to make at the American Emba^sj^ it showed he was conversant with formal Hungarian, but it needed extending, so they worked on the content together. Another teacher in Ireland persuaded her very shy Japanese precisely to that learner's needs

student

(a

and

tailor the course. very

interests,

businessman) tojouiagolfclubjhefejfoia^tmbrodiurcs oflocal

golf courses to compare and select from,

he played

gofl in japan.

Mowcver,

it

is

more

adu«jiuri.wo dial

talking about where

that so

all

it

is

hv

think of ways to crcHlr U niilnnil siinaiion

iiiutc lotnuil

*->i"

P^||||Imjpu!*«,ii liuiuu.iue use,

in

hke

less

of

,,

pinl)lnn.

understand iVom d,. m.h ^^i,l,||V^

ililiiiuh lo

i;ci^u.ii.;cs

and practised

presentation-style methodology, For teachers working in a lock-step toamixedclass,mixed.U.lnye1as.esp...e teachingone target grammar item he borecl, a learners will know it already and a very difficult problem: some bc ready-will yet not while others— few mighi l>e inst ready to learn it, meam meaning where the focus is on bewildered. A i.isk based approach capabil-i u-s do the taskwithin their own students have a chance to

when yo„

Ir,.

.',.m

.,.1.

wh.n

ilil.

I

,

1

is

li

r.u h

h.mevcr

siagcof (he

to w».d
h^ ll'iHK

essential iasl<

own

all

sludcnts

level,

Whcn

and diere are limes

grouping students. wcftk with Htrong. «o the wc«k leiumrla

the wcttker oncs.

UKC two wiiyif .MHiUHlttM^n iiMbli.g

that

emails.

Mippnrifd

;iiul ilu-

sirongcr one learns

chrtnii rel="nofollow">,l, lu l|pinwi

lomctimcs piii while ymi spend

unci

ones U){>cthcr and k-t ihcm gci on Ity ilicinsi-lvcs, more time widi tiic weak ones. Weaker learners on their own together have more chance to speak out, an4 often gdn confidence by being able to help

sironj^

another person.

When

setting

—

will never get all learners to

language h.)tn

do the task equally well or

to reach the

same

11-

as teacher,

you may have been usiuy or

up TBT, what exams are there that

So, go to the

1 is

(he

main language

try to test candidates' capacity to receive

language appropriately

So,

your students need to take an external exam

recognized certificate .of their target-language

lest

one,

some or

all

il

die level

is

of the language

linked to the

meet outside the classroom

level,

skills

•

(eg. reply to

demands of the

eomniunicaiive

net): all

CEF

test for candMates needing an

Spoken Grade Examinations, 12 of language development, and their

www.ETS.org:

for their

colleges, universities,

exams

and

to

meet requirements

for

admission to

other organisations or companies.

10. 14 Teachers tips for

to gain a widely-

they will find that the

recognition

activities

the test-talters

an email, undmtand a lecture,

join a conversation)

use

on the

grouped into four stages Integrated Skills in English exam, which has a portfolio element

To end

(leading, miting, Hstening'Sl

the communaeaticm

• assess with marks or grades based

•

the following websites (and others

grades,

This means and produce the

Common European Framework {CEF)

test tasks which are like

overall language

information on:

x\m provided,

tests.,

;uid s[X'aking) at a specified level~n^z'iu\ for international

• use

especially, for

• www.trinirycollege.com.uk: for their

exams mentioned later try to: •

and look,

m authentic comniLmication.

l.n-gei

il-

of the exam providers. These

medium country

ESOL

rationale for task-based language teaching as outlined in equally applicable for language testing. The task has become

exams

testprovider websites,

levels,

exams from the well-known international exam nowadays based on the theory of communicative language

all

the basic element in the, design of most I

ex.unple with the inter mil tests

business English exams, IELTS English language qualification for fiiture studies or work in an English-

so we asked Roger Hawkey, currently worlcing as a testing consultant, to answer diis question for us. He eK^Iains:

Chapter

lasli

bail tests available to you. You will be wise

• www.cambridgeesol.org.uk: for their general English exams at

We wanted an expert opinion on this

The

yonrseli linw irnly

more comprehensive and detailed than they used to be because testers know it is good testing practice to try to tell test users what they need and want to know.

Hunt around

are truly task-based?

al)iliLy

llie

to look carefully at the Information materials

test papers

10, 13 Ifwe take

providers are

are, (onip;iied, lor

(oi

scheduled (forexamplc, twice.a)?fiai3Qrafe they offered whenever needed? and so on. Much easier for you to make your decisions, of course, sample

have done the bestyou can.

I

Well, nearly

indge

through what kinds of tasks? who de test is intend©! how it is marked luuI computer?), how it is delivered (pencil and paper? candidates can take a test in whichever skill certificated? is it modular? or skills they need, at the level(s) most suitable for them), are the exams

Butyou should aiifti at all iearnefs feeling they have improved

enjoy using their English, then you,

to

based die various exams

n.

for, -ndiat it tests,

whrrc they started and done dieir share of the task to the best of their they feel they have achieved something worthwhile and have come

Ions.

el

level.

aTBL teacher, will warn

are

up group work, share the roles round so students get practice at skills they are less good at, with support of the group. Make sure the best students do not dominate make them chairperson.

You

Bur. you, as

,tssrss)iii'i/i

on how well

test-takers

meet the

tasks

niicrui

(for

example,

llucncy, etc.) in descriptions ol the levels auia-rnal.

appropriacy,

'I

this

book,

we hand

implementing TBT

over to the voices of our band of practising

teachers who- have already contributed so many ideas to this book. What follows is a collation of their most useful tips for teachers intending to

implementTBT

for the first time.

'

br Task-based Teaching BE poaiiiTK

iK/Twmiwfr

HMSU •^^at

an

jrow tke

Stdrt

.

To begiH Witkj, trv|

(iwfle

4-u

t*i((t

to want to

• ,

a

oraativmy

vaiu-d. paritcipation aro

IT

(Kort

- ow Witk

U.f\Axvi tkc (Mrfoje

edditftjkj

*Viflir

exf erieMcef

I

.

tew

TO

fSlt)

^^'^

points

f^ake sure

m

mwiTH

ft

of

an* At tke eM*^

,:,pression. you he^J^. c pHxases which were ana p ^nl^ten. or spoken .vhole class. those with the

look at th. not half

f-^i;iXYJ:^lf

^?,riec-ts to be

^"^f

Start fractiwl

ofr^m^iWao ^rcUj

r.d^ritr:r^K.egooa^^^

,

1--/

can also ^.e ^or Ufe. f*^f.^';,eT approach.

Tof.ou

fterfUtask.. TkmyoM.hu>d-

""'"ber the st.n ^^^'1

t

^"cl

answer t,3^\°Vtudents not try

>

l-f

BE FIEZIBIE

Totdoviyva^f^ amuyuyrverroriyoiAy

Mik'

W

cUm- to- complete^mm^

thM^ ar&(M-e^ lots- of patte^-vw lai-E^acciUirai; Uke-thXTd^pe^^^ ii^ular i
ittiMiilim

very

tifw-t'*^^

'^'^^^

If a task is solrg really well, and all students are e^gagsd, let it go on-but stop in tioe to complete tHe task aa:d triag things together positively at the l«8son. If you 7^°/ don t have tlmsf for a full report in the 8«i&« olass. j'ou can set a wri-ttftji report of what they discussed for homework. Be prepared to tweak task as it progresses.the li'

things go wrong,

Don't give up •If a task doesn't work f"-st time, reflect on what went wrong, (maybe ask

To aet started .

^r the,r suggestions) 't

and

adapt

try again.

•Learn from your mistakes.

Aiwaysaskhnwyo.uould make a bad tabk hrii,., andaoood t«»k(;i,M( '

tliiDlc

on your feet and don't

and b« oreative thi^k of another way of doln^ At.. l|i|i|k^Ui^|i|||j^UUi|

U^rn

'^'^^'^^^

by ^oi"^^''^'^^^'^^

And findly, in

die words of two other teachers:

I'or w;ty,s 10 in.iii.ij'r vi

to TBL is a difficult change to make Ik-uulsc u in.piic. doing away with yeans of traditional training and methodology history, which though less than ideal, has for decades provided a secure frame where teachers can stand. There's only one answer to that: 'risking is winning'and once the experience has been successful, you realize that there's another way of teaching; and that this new way is, amofig Othef*ngs m Lich more motivating, and enjoyable for both

From PPP

to

•

students and teachers.'

DO NOT GIVE UP —IT REALLY WORKS.

We sincerely hope it works for you and your learners too. Try

it

and see.

Further reading

0

getting students to prepare for conversation tasks using Students

Conversation Cards (SOCCs). counts given i

tJ

i

Edwards, C. and Macmillan Oxford. For

J.

they

Own

miplemented and explored

m different countries and at different levels: Willis.

2005.

Teachers

E^nf^ x ^

coverage of the reseawiiccriiceriiingTBT

full

Ellis,

1^ teacher of the way

With theur classes

Tasks.

Palgrave &

andTBL:

R. 2003. Task-based Language Teaching and Learning. Oxford: Oxford

University Press. Ellis,

R.

led.)..

2005. Planning

and

Amsterdam: John Benjamin.

Task performance in a Second Lan^uase

For more on vocabulary learning:

Meara,

P.

1995.

'The importance of an

early

emphasis on

Lz'.

TheLanma^e

Icncher.

hi:tp://www.jak-puhlications.org/dt/files/95/feb/meara html Nation. P. and R. Waring. Vocabulary Size, Text Coverage And Word

http;/ /wwwl .harenet.ne.jp/-waring/papers/cup.htmi

Beaton

A.

M. Gruneberg, and N.

/..

'

I

'

l.i^st's:

hiriivilliul.

Team HngUshJor Large

Classes,

assroom-management/large„ciasses.htm

Coursebooks featured in Chapter 10 Cunningham,

S.

and

K

Mdc«re with

E

Eales. 2005.

New

Cutting Edge

Elementary. Student's Book. London: Longman: 120-1. Scudeiil's Gairns, R. and S. Redman. 2002. Natural English Intermediate. Hook. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 103. Book. Oxford; Kay, S. andY Jones. 2000. Inside Out Intermediate. Student's

leinemann Macmillan: 62. and G. Cuimingham. 2005. FacezFace Elementary SLudeiiLs

Iledston, C.

'Turning up the heaf: Energizing Conversation with Cassette ^W^r;.http://www.jdt-publications.()rg/dt/articles/20oo/o6/ki Kindt, D. http://www.nufs.ac.jp/^kindt/pages/SOCCs.htnil

On

\Myy

\

http://www.onestopenglish.com/teacker_support/methodology/archive/cl

1

On getting students to record tasks; Kindt.

MacDonald, M. ami

i

Ellis.

1595. 'Retention

vocabulary learned using the key-word metiiod: oecond Language Research III x\ 112-20.

.a

Lists.

of foreign

ten year follow-up'.

Book. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 6iS. Redston, C. and G. Cunningham. 2005. FacezFace Pre4ntermediate. Student's Book. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press:

72, 88.

Course Beginners. Soars, J. and L. Soars. 2000. New Headway English Student's Book. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 96.

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Bachman,

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S. P.

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Lexicography 61

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Nation.1993. 'Word families'. International Journal of

253-79.

1987.

'Contemporary paradigms in syllabus design:

(Parts i

and

Langu^ leaching^: 91-2 and 157-74. M.

Bpgate,

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M.

Bygate,

P.

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Skehan, and

the structure and control of

M. Swain

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Colder, S,

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S. P.

Introducing

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AppUed

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Council of Europe. 2001. Languages:

Learning,

Common

Teaching

European Framework of Reference for Cambridge: Cambridge

Assessment.

University Press. Coidsoii, I>. 2005. *Colld3oratiVe tasks hx cacoss-cultural oommimication' in

C. Edwards and Palgrave

Teachers Exploring Tasks in

J. "Willis (eds.).

ELT. Oxford:

MacmiUan. tasks?' in C.Edwards ELT. Oxford: Palgrave

Cox, D. Z005. 'Can we predict language items for open

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Djapoura, A. 2005. 'The

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M.

Ircdhain,

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Ixickcliannelling' in

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mvX^VrcI"'''^'''''^''"'"''''

f

Aml^

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™

Z005. 'Sto.7-telling: effects of planing, repetition

and context'

in

^^-'-^^'^rin^TaskinElT. Oxford"

P;iS:c:2„'''"" Foster, P. 1596.

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<^hmgetnUnguage Teaching. OySoti^HtintmiAn.

Foster,

R and R Skehan. 1996. 'The influence ol planning

ta,sl<-based

CmC'w

^"""^•^ ^'^

on performance in

^''^^-^

z,^^

»

Z005.

J

Imeracdve

_

PditSci™"

lexical phrases in

^^^^-^^

m

1988. 'Insri-uctcd intcrlanguagc development* in L. Beebe (ed.). Second Language Acquisition: Multiple Perspectives. Rowley, Mass.: Me#bui7 House. Issues in

M. and design. TESOL Long,

Croofces. 1992. 'Three approaeiics to task-based sylhihus

Quarterly i61r. 27-56.

1-opes, J. 2004. 'Introducing TBI for teaching English in Brazil: learning Ik.w to leap the hurdles in B. Leaver i-ind R. Willis (eds.). liMased J.

Instruction

Foreign

in

Language

Education:

Practices

/mtcies.

1

hU

Oxford:

Contextual Collocation

-

' thcsrs.

anivcrsityof Bn-mhigham.

and ESP ^^^J^ ofMedical ^searL

Johnston C. 2005. Jightingfossilisation: language

Liisk

'i:

and

repetition

J.

Maclean. 200L

on

'A case of exercising: effects of iniinediiMr performance in M. Bygate, P. Skehan, and

learners'

M. Swaia

(eds.). Rtsearching Pedagogic Tasks: Second Language Learning, Teaching and Testing. Harlow: Longman.

Lys,

E

2004.'Using web technology to promote writing, analytical thinking in German in B. Leaver and J. R.Willis (eds.). Task-

and creative expression

at the task

yas«:aiport

^

Prom WiMn. Cambridge: °

Programs.

McGaithy, M., McCarten, J. and H. Sandiford. 2005. Touchstone Cambridge: Cambridge UniversiiCf Press Meara,

1 1

cfnLL'^f

and

WashmgtonD.C: Georgetown University Press.

R

1

The

1995/2001.

The Language

vocabulary.-

(..ambridge University Press.

Programs.

LoLimpourdi, L. 2005. 'Developing from PPP to I'BL: a focused graniniaiC. Edwards and J. Willis (eds.). Teachers Mplmng Tasks in EIT. ( txford: Palgrave Macmillan,

based Instruction in Foreign Language Education: Practices

^tnT'r'

and

lask' in

lynch,

pair interview tasks' in

^-^^-^^^^r,ng,as,.nBLr.

'^97.. C.r/.... i^«^^,^;V..

Learned [Thxtd

Oran.mar.

BSoi:::^frZ- ^^.^""^^^ ^-"^'^ S^"^-^ Hobbs,

Lanptg0

Washington D.G.: Georgetown University Press.

learmng'. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 18:

ftt";

and

(eds.). Teachers Exp loringTasks

M.

l,ong,

« Second Language '

and N. Spada. 2006. Hoto Oxford University Press.,

P.

imiiscripu, iLiin-uiking

rdiiion). Oxford:

""''^'"S^nd learning. Oxford Oxford

Wr«.^;,.r>r™„„

ui.sk,s:

C. Edwards and J. Willis

i.

importance oF an early emphasis on Li Teacher.

http://www.jalt-:pubhcations.org/dt/

es/9 5/ fcb/ meara. h inil

Mehnert, U. lyyH. ^THe effects of different lengths of time for planning on second language perloiin.uKi'. Studies in Second Language Acquisition

20:

83-108. I

Mniliiiclgc:

C.;imbndge University

Pxess.

Nation,

P.

iooi.

I

nttv/nji

Cambridge Untvcridty

£:r"'-'

^''"^'--''^'H™-. Washtngton D.C.: Georgetoi^

Nnnan.

1).

Cambridge!

igHy.

Voeahidury in Another Language. Cambridge:

I'i-phn.

pfimhi^lhsks for Unlvvuli)' Vvm,

Crtiiibi'ld|||i'

the

Communicative

Classroom.

Nunaii, D, and Heinle,.

Uaming-cenrnd Communieatim, Uosion: Heinle

1995.

-a'

.|

i

Nunan, D. 2004. Task-based Langu^e 'MMng. University Press.

Ciainbridge:

,,

,

Ckmbridge

j

Willis, J.

1^9^ -M^^^^fls fir

in English

Task-based Learning Harlow:

Longman

Pearson Education.

''i,

.

U. 2003. Huies, Puuerm titul Words: Grammar and Lexis Langue^e M^hing Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Willis,

Peaty,

D. 2004.

Ym Me andthe WsM Tok^i Kinseido Publishing Co. Ltd.

I\':ity,

n. 2005.

Topics for Global Citizenship.

Tokyo: Kinseido Publishing

Willis,

D. and J.

Willis. 1987. 'Varied activities for variable language'.

ELT

Journal^ilv. 12-18.

Co. Ltd. Willisi

X, R. Kanagy, and

Pica,

communication G. Crookes and

tasiis

for

Gas%

Palodin.

J.

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second language instruction and research (eds.).

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(cds.).

The Cambridge Guide

to

Teaching English to Speakers oj

Other Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

ThksMtid Language Learning: Integrating

Theory and Practice. Rowley, Mass.: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Pinitr,

D. and J.

Teaching Young Language Learners,

Oxford: Oxford

Willis, J. and D. Willis. 1988. Collins Cobuild English Course Level 1 (Transcripts). London: Collins ELT.

University Press. Willis, J.

N.

I*r;ibhu,

Second Language Pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University

S. 1987.

Press.

Schmidt, R. 1990. "Hie role of" consciousness in second language Applied Linguistics 129-58,

learning'.

Selinker.L. 1972. Interlanguage'. International Review ofApplied Lmgumics 10; Z09-31. Sinclair, J.

and M. Coulthard. 1992. 'Towards an

M. Cniihhard

(cd.).

analysis of discourse' in Advances in Spoken Discourse Analysis. London 3iidl>lew

York: RoLitledgc.

Skehan,

A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford

P.

'

University Press. Stevens, V. 2004. 'Webhead communities: writing tasks interleaved with synchronous online Gommunieation and web page development' in B. Leaver and J. R. Willis (eds.) Task-based Instruction in Foreign Language .

Education:

Practices

and

Programs.

Washington

D.C.:

Georgetown

University Press. Storch,

N. 2002. Patterns of interaction

in

ESL

pair work'. Language

Learning $^kMi$-')%„. Sweeney,

S. 2004. The Ejfect of a Project Based Methodology on English Language Leamingand Performance amongst Elementary level Arab Students.

MSc Dissertation, Aston University, West,

M.

1953.

A

General Service

Green and Company.

Birminghiun.

list

oftin^M

Wotdi.

London: Longman,

and D. Willis

Teaching. Oxford;

(eds.). 1996.

Challenge

Heinemann Macmillan.

and Change

in

Language

2

INDEX

Corpus

accuracy 228

agenda

see Pedagogic corpus, see also cesearcJi

for task

corpus

and task structure 161 learners setting

anccdorcs

own

as basis for casks

artificial tasks

correction 133, 168, 228 as focus on form 121—

i

105-7

overcorrection 168

142

corrupted text

AsherJ. 8s

factual gap-fiUing

attitudes

chan^ng Students' attitudes

48-9

linguistic gap-filling

217

49-51

re-orderir^ 51-^

Bachman

L.

12

used to recycletext 53-4

BaigentM. 10^-6, loj^r/i Bauer L ii€ BcaudryY. 83,225

CoulsonD. 80-1,219 CoulthardR.M. 135

CoxD.

beginners tasks for 69,

BeyC.

96,122,210,251

creative tasks 99-105,110

98

couTs^oofes

xiijii^

and syllabus design 182-5,198 CrookesG. 185

BurghardtB. ^24 %cain"SCorming as part of task sequence

DahlM. 216 Davis

%^ateM. 170

V.

54

dictation C^iisadiaB

Language Benchmark 174

'can do' statements in

CEF

group dictation used to recycletott 54-5

183-5

dictionaries

Chcrnen J. 41,179-80.186 charts and tables as visual support 79

useofdurii^-Qt^

cjassil^^)ir^as&ba!d&:fbrta^ 75-8

dictogloss

classroom discourse 135 classifying tasks

75-9

code complexity

1S5

xiSiz

and frequent-words 194 difficulty

55,

80-2

of tasks 185-7

differences tasks based

cognitive familiarity 185

on 9^

discussion tasks f-ii^ 34

cognitive processitig 185

using questions to gjsnerace

collocation 195

discipline

^7

123-4

Gbmraon European Frameworik (CEF) Edwards C. 2,173

iRi. 2,i6

comniuiiii-ative language teaching 6,

communicacive stress 185 comparing and contrasting task based on 90-3,110 Cfflmprehension questions 208-9 concordiance

ICWIK concordance 187-8 consciousness-raising 115, 133, 190

content-based teaching 97—8

CorderS.P. 18,31

11,

226

EldridgeJ. 211 electronic Ellis

communication 140-2

R. 96, 160, 163, 168, 170,

181, 187,

210

email 140-1,219

English for specific purposes (ESP) 136-9,

179-^ English for academic purposes (EAP) 136-9 English for occupational purposes (EOP)

136-9 EssigW. 170,171

2

evalimtlciii nl

I.

cxatninaiioiis

|-iy,,

40—1,173-4

226-7

1

preparing for 131-2,181-2 i'\;irniii;i(i(iii pi-;R'lici'

(.iulii;iiiiiL;.ii.Mvi[i(.-s

linilin^ as

i

p;ii

L

23,

63

(if

cm

iliul

end of a task soqiitejQce: 25-7, 39-40,45,87,n4,i7a,2i7 and grammar book i2j :md grammaticization 125-6 iu the

omiiaivd wich locus on language 152

fcnusoii

l;niji;uagc

n.

In.s.sili/.acion

I'oslrr

I2I

R.

F,.

85

I'uchsM. 182

(

i.iTcia

A.

154,

252

103, 169, 220,

LcedhamM.

t iaiga;i,liaii(>

A.

161

113,

n4,

ofstructure 7 beginning a teaching sequence widi 16-18 j',raiiiiiiaiici/aii<)n

giiL-ssiiig

games

125-6, T33

as part

of task sequence 68

Hawkey R. 226 iiomcwork

27, 214

inf-orniariim finw in task

lii

rase

activities!

Redman

169, 171

i'l'P

73, 91, 170, 218,

242

classes

iVIullcrT.

241

54

group work 164, Ambassador 42

roles in

165,

226

role-playing 138-9

disadvantages ol

88, 114, 118, 128

138

routines

written l^l

importance of in everyday

pre-task 48, 71 |ireparari^in

pioviding encouragement 150

M.

Rinvolucri

preparation as stage iiltaskasquence 24,

l)yhighlighdng progress ifo increasing 217-9

222

in

research corpus 187-8

eoiitent-basetl leaciiing 97 in English for academic purposes 137

225-6

171

maintaining interest

4,209

ill

memory communal used, ro recycle text 5; mind maps as visual support 79-80

169-70,

95,

l'rabhuM.,S. 3,749,186

MosL-r J. 106, 107, 171, 182, 217, 220, 222 meinorychsillia:^' 51,68

162

report as part of task sequence 37-8, 49,

prediction tasks 3^-41

Meara P. iif, 216 MehnertU. r6o

154

repeaiion of task 170-1

language study 171-3

rnujiorc G.

S.

reference siipporr tluring task

re-ordering textbook activities 209-10

:6o-!

piisi-task

211

2-20.

planning as part of task sequence 24, 49, free

i

'133

recycling text 53-6 I'intc^A. 170. [7'. i7i.

guided 160-1

185

importance of I95 of familiar ttsct

recording lesarners^ln^faction 167

I'ieiurcdictogloss 81-2

74

136-42

world meanings 29, 142 world discourse 29,142

recall

63

I'ita'i:

motivation

iot-;t

world

as tasks 13-15, 23, 29-30,

book or vocabulary book 196

LongM.

ifi.|.--s

tcurbooldii

i i

reading and matching 87-8 real

means of recycling 56 enhancemotivadon 88,218

I

85-6

rwo-way

mks in

of task scqticnce 38-9, 48-9, ;o integratingwith writing 82—3 as part

useful phrases 195

\--y

intcgriiting

reading

real

\(^.\

iiH

on 73-4

tasks based

identifying and recording 127

one-way

mk

RamaruE. 224 rank-ordering

ip.iiu loles (see roles)

66 72, 109 logic problem as task 98

mining 22 mixed ability

IEI..TS icst

instructions for

Id

in syllabus 193-6 teaching 193,-6

matdiing, tasks based on 8^-5, no? meafllng-based approaches 4

importance of 1—2, 229

usedio recydeteact J4

phrases

McCarthy M. i8z Mannings. 90,240 MarchandT. 73-4, 83,

I'.iaiiiiiiar

12, 13, 15

real

II 5-6

Mclean J. 170

tasks 96, 185

astask 45-6, 68

as a

on as pan of priming

LysF. 103

iccouicnnic

of task

[lersdiiali/ing tasks

'

fV'i'linj^ (if

quiz

providing a ptirpose lor

general knowk-dyt; tasks 45-8 Ciencrid Service Wordlist 193 goals

LK ieristic

liai

1

personal experience as basis for task 105

172^3

Lotunpourdi L. Lynch T. 170

245

question master, students as 43 questionnaire as inpui: to task 34, 211

pauvrns in language 195 pedagogic corpus 131, 179!, iSj-^ 196, T97

Li use in classroom 26, 220-1 Leaver B. 211

Lopes J. 22 Cairn.s R.

211

listing tasks

frtiquent words 192-3,194 i'ltiM

Klostcr

listening aiul rnatcliing

frequency lisK 194

puzzles as tasks 93-9

9(>

m-oiie classes 224-22;

p.ii lii

listening stage in a lask sequence

160

P.

216

iin[H)rcance of precise 158

161,182

skills and project work 104 Lightbown V. 30 t listen and do acrivirics 85-6

l(miM.d approach 2—3

1,

outcomes

liife

168

1

I'almerA. 12

focus

if^4

fnllow-iiji lasks lutiii

KeUyC.

21s,

).

survey as input to task 34 ordering and sorting tasks 66-72, 109

lexis

compared with focus on form 132 focus on meaning 4-5 Poll

1

.IS

4-5, zz, 23,113-14,

132

--17,

I'.

Null. Ill

(ipiiiion

Jabbour G. 180 jigsaw task sequence 4t-3 Johnston C. 51, 169, 237

Kindt D. 2[8

m—

Tcccion

NaiiiiM

inif

130, 133, 153

tniisciinisness-raising IZ5

;iiul

l

ir.j

ntcracclon putccriiN in i/,rnupw(ii'k 163

tasksequcnce 67-8 Iccdback trom ceacher 167-8 focus on form 4-6, 16-18, 23-4, 30, 96, liu

iii(('i]i('[

intcrvciuiunmld-iii»li

communication 140

160

planning 160,171

Schmidt R.

prestige language 169

SelinkerL. 18

and pushed output 166 priming 21, 24, 30, 34, 37, 114,

iiipui

sequencing, task based on 72—3 yo, 63, 71, 93, 95,

I

tasks based

iiiii[]|;

i',')

Sinclair

>

prnblem ^(ilviii|,', lasks in ij. problems peivrivrd wiili'l'IU progress

1

bighlighiln|,t
progressive driciiiiii piiijci t^

similarities

ri5-6

and

ll'^,

Mil

proiiiiiii iaiiiiii

|iuHlied oiupiii

18

\'ift

f

lu

am ill

Skehan -i

I.

li

SI

on 92

55

12-14, 160, 162, 167, iKj, 187

skills lesson

207 30-1

8,

A research

Slivkin Y, 97. "i.

Innguagc 147*8

NDciiil vaii.iiinii in

S\ml\ N. ion

1

t<j

1

ipcDkltig Mlu^e in

ti

tusk Hoqucticr

74

51,

I

Index

spoken

timetable 26

text

as part

of task sequence 56—9' i^^~3

sources of 123 spontaneous spoken language 8,122-3

of 144-74 rcOTTclingfor classroom use 143 characteristics

55,

whales 46—8 cixonomy of tasks 107—8 teacher roles in the classroom

148-^

as fadlitator 149

Stevens V. 103

Scorch N.

vocabulary teaching 97 ways to improve your English 74-5

as lang^E^e

169

80—1

snii ylines as visual support

as

storytelling as basis for tasks 105—7,

140—2

summary as a means of recydii^tejct 56

knower and adviser 156-1

language teacher

151

and organizer of discussion 149 as manager of group and pair work as leader

149-50

Sweeney S. 103

asmotivabn 149

syllabus

teacher-led tasks 223

coursebook as syllabus 182-3 design procedures 196-8

Thompsons. 68,75,88,90,243,244

int^rated syllabus 191-2

time limit for rask r62

language-based 177-9 notional ^llabus 192

time for TBT preparation 211-12 time for TBT lessons a>-i7 timelines as visual support 80—

cables as

topic

support for task 162

target task 23

as basis for task design

task

selection

agendaandstruccure

Total physical response (TPR) 85

161

transcribing as learner activity 167, 173

analysing and adapting 155 characteristics iand de&iiiioa

IMJ

transcripts, analysis

of 172

Trinity Coll^eiQUns 227

closed cask 156

focused casks 210-11 in textbooks

63—6, 108

64-6

200-4

UCLES exams

227

^

open task 156 taskinstmcdons

vanAltenaA. 101-102,103

task sequence 21-^4,25-7

visual support for tasks 78—82, 162

task sequences

vocabulary

vandeVoortNamH.

animals and pets 106

moves 155 Cuha-(ipposingview5 101-2 dangerous drugs 9-10 Empire State Building 34-41 career

central to size

communication 8,179

216

independent study 215 tfn^i^adi^Dscening 153

giving directions 88

Wcb-based

helping people click 43-5 international words in English 69-70

WcstiVl. 193

jimk we carry round with us 68 logic problem 98 Monty's story 51-3 Mystery experiment 97—8 objects on a tray 28-9 potential holiday destinations 73 quaUtiesaf * world leader 73

sc^paremts 75 teaeher-led

88

zz

projects

104

Wiccck S. 90 Willis D. 49,98,116,147,209,252 Willis J. 2, 12, 49, 98, n6, 209, 211,

WoodL.

214, 252

97,100-101,104,169.198,247,

249, 255-8

word limit for task 162 Wright A. 6nr,4i Writing as part

summer hohdays

97
of task sequence 95 &2-3

mt^aea^wMlt reac^^

written text as part of task s<^uence 123

on meaning

language they have forms.

They will be

be

equipped to

less

make

will be lost. Learners will not if

I

the most of

heir efforis are tlireeietl lo repriuliu

the other liie

target

grow in fluency aiid co uliJcnce. They

less likely to

Itse tile

all

iiif^

will

language ou^ldie -die ^W^£^.

li^liii'n

the space of a single lesson incorporate it into their sponWe all know from our experience as teachers

taneous language production. that

take a long time before learners have spontaneous

it

command of 'do-

'What do you want?' or *'What does X mean?' have been presented and intensively practised, learners go on prt)ducing questions like 'What you want?' and 'What mean X?' The same is questions'. For a long time after

forms

continuous

and present simple

meiltioii. TMs^appare^nt feilure

or teachers are incompetent.

mental process which

comes about not because learners are careless comes about because learning is a develop-

not subject

is

almost any learning item you care to

It

forms will not lead to mastery.

it

attd

1.0

the learner's conscious control.

takes time for language to develop, 'i'he

will

he more

likely to notice the

It

new form

until they

h&eti a pait of the consenstis

studies of the late 1960s

and

first

treatment of a

may aid developiiaent

new form

or

in that the learner

Schmidt 1990) in future once not become a part of the learners'

(see

has been highlighted. Rut the form will

spontaneous repertoire

have had time to assimilate

on language

it.

This has

learning since the interlanguagc

early 1970s. (See

Cordcr

SeHnker 1972.) of strategies for second 191^7;

These studies described the learner as operating a set language development which are influenced, but not driven by a concern with language form. There is a certainly a place for a focus on specified forms in a cask-based approach. But form should be subordinate to meaning and, for this reason, should this in

more

come

detail in the

after rather

than before a task.

next chapter and again in Chapter

We will

discuss

6,

Further reading Ellis,

R. 2003. Task-based Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford; Oxford

Xftiiversity Press.

Chapter

1

gives

an overview of tasks used in

SLA

rcseaftlii

and

in the

language classroom.

Skehan,

Willis. 2001. 'Task-based language learning' in R. Carter

Hw (jiiiil>rid<^c (hiidc lo TatrfiiHi^ liii
(eds,).

Other Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University

ofes a

brief

summary of

Press.

the rationale behind task-based

learning and teaching.

P.

1998.

A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Chapter 5 evaluates the second language acquisition research relating to bflsed Instruction.

Willis,

D. 2003. Rules Patterns and Words:

task-

Gmmmar md Lexis

in English

Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chapters i and 2 look in more detail at the relationship between grammar

and lexis. Willis, J. 2004. 'Perspectives

J.R. Willis

like

true of past tense forms, question tags, the distinction between present

It

D. and J.

D.Nunan

is

look at language acquisition research in the next chapter (Chapter 2 (2.4)). I'his research shows that it is very rare for learners to be exposed to a new

form and,

and

This paper

an even more important reason for rejecting an initial and continuing focus on form: the procedure is likely to end in failure. We will

But there

Willis,

(eds.).

on

task-based instruction' in B. Leaver and

Task-based Instruction in Foreign

Langua^ Mducation:

Practices

and Programs. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University

Chapter

i

(pp. 3-44) gives

relationship

Press.

an overview of the origins of TBT, explores

with CLT and other perspectives on task-based practices.

its

Further reading l-iglitbown,

R and N.

Edition). Cbdbrd: (

;hapi.

m

"

'

r

Spada. 2006.

G contrasts the 'get

iglit in

How

Languages are Learned (Third

Oxford Titiiversity Press. it

from the beginnii^' approach and the which are bri^/ reviewed above.

right

the end' approach,

Nunari D. 2004. Task-based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Chapters 3 and 8 look at the component of tasks and at the notion of a task sequence.

Further reading Thornbury,

S. 2001.

Uncovering Grammar, Oxford: Macmilian Keinemann

F.I.T I'ull

o( useful ideas for

working with

texts

and for other consciousness raising

activities

D. 2003. Rules, Patterns and Words: Grammar and Uxis in English Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Willis,

( lliaptcrs 4 to 9 have .is|K'ctsofform.

Willis, J.

1998.

many

examples of activides diat focus on different

'Concordances in the classroom without a computer:

assembling

and expl citing concordances of common words' in B. Tomlinson (ed.). Materials Development in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chapter 2 pp. 44-66. This chapter exploited

illustrates

how

a pedagogic corpus of textbook texts can be

by learners themselves.

Further reading

and M. McCardrjr. 1996. 'Spoken grammar: what is it and how we teach it?' ELT Journal 50/^.: 369-71. This is a description of spolten Engiisii, showii^ how it differs from Carter, R.

can

'standard' written

Willis,

forms and offering suggestions for teaching.

D. 2003. Rules Pattern and Words: Grammar and Cambric^: Cambridge University Press.

Lexis in English

Teaching. (

1i;ipicr9 gives a description

uctivities to

ofspontaneous spoken discourse and describes

help learners focus

on it.

FurtKer reading i'or

a more in-depth treatment of the principles behind some of the chapter, read Skehan 1998 Chapter 3 on 'Psychohnguistic

|i,ir;imc:ters in this

and language

luoccsscs in language use

learning'.

more ideas on what to explore, and how to observe the results, see Edwards and J. Willis (eds.) 2005: 269-76, where Edwards summarizes 18 informal investigations into aspects of TBT carried out by teachers in l.''or

Full accounts

different

countries.

I'.dwards

and J. Willis

(eds.)

of these investigations are given in

2005.

you want some ideas for task-based writing activities, try: Kelly, C. with A. Gargagliano. 2000. Writing from Within. Cambridge: If

t

iambridge University Press.

Kelly, C. I,

with A. CargagHano. 2004. Writing from Within (Introductory).

Imnbi idgc:

Mure iunnal

andTBT

(

';nnbritli',c

University Press.

rcsL^iU'cli liiidiiigs

in general,

and

can be found

their implications for the design in Ellis

of casks

2003, especially Chapters 1-4.

And findly, in

die words of two other teachers:

I'or w;ty,s 10 in.iii.ij'r vi

to TBL is a difficult change to make Ik-uulsc u in.piic. doing away with yeans of traditional training and methodology history, which though less than ideal, has for decades provided a secure frame where teachers can stand. There's only one answer to that: 'risking is winning'and once the experience has been successful, you realize that there's another way of teaching; and that this new way is, amofig Othef*ngs m Lich more motivating, and enjoyable for both

From PPP

to

•

students and teachers.'

DO NOT GIVE UP —IT REALLY WORKS.

We sincerely hope it works for you and your learners too. Try

it

and see.

Further reading

0

getting students to prepare for conversation tasks using Students

Conversation Cards (SOCCs). counts given i

tJ

i

Edwards, C. and Macmillan Oxford. For

J.

they

Own

miplemented and explored

m different countries and at different levels: Willis.

2005.

Teachers

E^nf^ x ^

coverage of the reseawiiccriiceriiingTBT

full

Ellis,

1^ teacher of the way

With theur classes

Tasks.

Palgrave &

andTBL:

R. 2003. Task-based Language Teaching and Learning. Oxford: Oxford

University Press. Ellis,

R.

led.)..

2005. Planning

and

Amsterdam: John Benjamin.

Task performance in a Second Lan^uase

For more on vocabulary learning:

Meara,

P.

1995.

'The importance of an

early

emphasis on

Lz'.

TheLanma^e

Icncher.

hi:tp://www.jak-puhlications.org/dt/files/95/feb/meara html Nation. P. and R. Waring. Vocabulary Size, Text Coverage And Word

http;/ /wwwl .harenet.ne.jp/-waring/papers/cup.htmi

Beaton

A.

M. Gruneberg, and N.

/..

'

I

'

l.i^st's:

hiriivilliul.

Team HngUshJor Large

Classes,

assroom-management/large„ciasses.htm

Coursebooks featured in Chapter 10 Cunningham,

S.

and

K

Mdc«re with

E

Eales. 2005.

New

Cutting Edge

Elementary. Student's Book. London: Longman: 120-1. Scudeiil's Gairns, R. and S. Redman. 2002. Natural English Intermediate. Hook. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 103. Book. Oxford; Kay, S. andY Jones. 2000. Inside Out Intermediate. Student's

leinemann Macmillan: 62. and G. Cuimingham. 2005. FacezFace Elementary SLudeiiLs

Iledston, C.

'Turning up the heaf: Energizing Conversation with Cassette ^W^r;.http://www.jdt-publications.()rg/dt/articles/20oo/o6/ki Kindt, D. http://www.nufs.ac.jp/^kindt/pages/SOCCs.htnil

On

\Myy

\

http://www.onestopenglish.com/teacker_support/methodology/archive/cl

1

On getting students to record tasks; Kindt.

MacDonald, M. ami

i

Ellis.

1595. 'Retention

vocabulary learned using the key-word metiiod: oecond Language Research III x\ 112-20.

.a

Lists.

of foreign

ten year follow-up'.

Book. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 6iS. Redston, C. and G. Cunningham. 2005. FacezFace Pre4ntermediate. Student's Book. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press:

72, 88.

Course Beginners. Soars, J. and L. Soars. 2000. New Headway English Student's Book. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 96.

nr inw.

This series

is

BFA

;

BFA

15632

longer-term reference text for the wor

Doing Task-based Teaching is

currently

enormous

interest in task-based teaching

and learning. This highly readable book is a practical guide and using tasks and task sequences, and to providing a focus on grammar and lexis in a task-

to designing, creating,

based context. It

includes:

—Accessible explanations of the basic principles behind task-based learning and teaching. Examples of tasks and lesson plans from teachers around

—

the world, suitable for

all

learner levels.

— Sample materials illustrating a three-way focus on

—

15632

designed to provide a sou

language teacliers and teacher trainers to serve both as a basis for courses and

There

-

meaning, language, and form. Guidance on adapting course materials to include a task-based element, and advice on overcoming tj^ical problems.

DAVE WILLIS

has published widely on both methodology

and grammar and lexis. After working overseas as a teacher, he was a British Council English Language Officer for twenty years, and later taught for ten years on MA TEFL/TESOL

programmes

at

Birmingham

University.

Writer of several prize-winning books,

iane will is

has worked extensively overseas as an English teacher and trainer. She then taught for twelve years on the Aston University Masters in TESOL programmes, and continues to travel widely as

an ELT consultant.

OXPORD

OXFOKD ENGLISH ISBN 978-0-19-442210-9

UNIVERSITY PRESS

www.oup.com/elt

9

'7801 94"4221 09