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ICAR-JRF (PGS) in Agriculture General Topics Research · March 2017 DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.19705.26727

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Foundation Course Manual on

ICAR-JRF (PGS) in

Agriculture General Topics

 KS Bangarwa  Surender S Dhankhar

 RK Pannu

Students’ Councelling & Placement Cell Directorate of Students Welfare In Collaboration with

College of Agriculture CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar http://hau.ernet.in/

August, 2014

Foundation Course Manual on

ICAR-JRF (PGS) in

Agriculture General Topics Editors Dr KS Bangarwa Professor & Head

Department of Forestry

Dr Surender S Dhankhar Assoc Director (C&P)

Directorate of Students Welfare

Dr RK Pannu Dean

College of Agriculture

Students’ Counseling and Placement Cell

Directorate of Students’ Welfare CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004 2014

CONTENTS Chapter No. 1.

Title of the Chapter

Author (s)

Page No.

Organizational Set Up of Agricultural Research, Education and Extension in India

RK Pannu

1-5

2.

General Features of ICAR Junior Research Fellowships for Postgraduate Studies

KS Bangarwa and MK Singh

6-19

3.

Importance of Agriculture in National Perspective in India Basic Principles of Crop Production Cultivation of Rice, Wheat, Chickpea, Pigeonpea, Sugarcane and Groundnut

KK Kundu

20-28

AK Dhaka AK Dhaka

29-44 45-68

6.

Cultivation of Tomato and Other Important Vegetable Crops

MK Rana

69-75

7. 8.

Fruit Crops Major Soils of India

76-96 97-103

9.

Role of Essential Plant Nutrients and their Deficiency Symptoms Rural Development Program in India Mendelian Genetics General Structure and Function of Cell Organelles Mitosis and Meiosis Elementary Knowledge of Growth and Development Elementary Knowledge of Photosynthesis, Respiration and Transpiration Structure and Function of Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nucleic Acids, Enzymes and Vitamins

SK Sehrawat KS Grewal and Dinesh KS Grewal and Dinesh Jatesh Kathpalia Mukesh Kumar Mukesh Kumar

4. 5.

10 11 12 13 14 15 16

17 18 19 20

Major Pests of Rice, Wheat, Cotton, Chickpea, Sugarcane and their Management Major Diseases of Rice, Wheat, Cotton, Chickpea, Sugarcane and their Management Elements of Statistics Career Avenues in Agriculture & Councelling

104-110 111-117 118-126 127-131

Mukesh Kumar KD Sharma

132-138 139-147

KD Sharma

148-161

Shiwani Mandhania

162-174

Sunita Yadav and SS Yadav

175-184

Rakesh Sangwan

185-189

BK Hooda Surender S Dhankhar

190-199 200-207

Preface Agriculture has been the mainstay of Indian economy since ages. The science and art of agriculture has many references in the Vedic literature and the ancient history of the mankind. The agriculture sector in India provides livelihood to about 52% of the population of the country and contributes nearly 15% to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Trained human resource has been the key factor behind the Green Revolution, White Revolution, Yellow Revolution that has led India to become self-reliant in food and a fast developing economy. Agricultural education system is producing invaluable human resource and every year about 15,000 graduates, 11,000 Masters and 2500 PhDs are admitted. The interest of female candidates towards agricultural education is rising and during 2013 about 35% female candidates were admitted through AIEEA-PG.. Triggered primarily by professional and academic linkage with Agricultural Universities (AUs), ICAR has been able to foster a countrywide arrangement with the AUs to set aside 25% seats of their seats for Master degree programs to be admitted through ICAR’s All India Entrance Examination so as to reduce inbreeding, increase mobility among students, encourage national integration and infuse merit and uniform examination standards leading to improved overall quality of agricultural education. Besides, BSc (Hons) Agriculture will be eligible for 100% seats of Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI). ICAR Junior Research Fellowships for postgraduate studies namely, ICAR-JRF (PGS) will be awarded to 475 (247 for MSc in Agriculture) candidates based on merit in this examination as per their overall merit-rank and seat availability in different disciplines. The final year students of BSc (Hons) Agriculture will be required to choose one of eight major sub groups viz., Plant Biotechnology, Plant Sciences, Physical Science, Entomology and Nematology, Agronomy, Social Sciences, Statistical Sciences and Horticulture. The comprehensive knowledge of prescribed syllabus of chosen major sub group is of utmost practical importance for achieving ICAR Junior Research Fellowship. In order to encourage the Students, College of Agriculture in collaboration with Students’ C&P Cell, Directorate of Students’ Welfare organized the Foundation Course - ICAR-JRF (PGS) Examination in Agriculture during August, 2014 for final year students of BSc (Hons) Agri to prepare them for ICAR Junior Research Fellowships for postgraduate studies namely, ICAR-JRF (PGS). The forthcoming examination for ICAR-JRF (PGS) will be held in April, 2015. The Foundation Course covered general topics which are common for all eight sub groups under agriculture. Twenty expert lectures were organized and in order to ensure the successful organization of the course, lecture notes were obtained from all the experts. The lecture notes have been compiled in the form of manual as reference material for the benefit of aspiring agricultural graduates.

KS Bangarwa Surender S Dhankhar RK Pannu

Foundation Course Manual on ICAR-JRF (PGS) in Agriculture – General Topics Eds KS Bangarwa, Surender S Dhankhar and RK Pannu CCS HAU, Hisar 2014, pp 1-5.

Organizational Set Up of Agricultural Research, Education and Extension in India RK Pannu Dean College of Agriculture, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125004 Agriculture is and will continue to be the most crucial sector in economic growth of the country. Agriculture growth had an increasing trend till mid nineties but slowed down thereafter mainly due to increase in growth of service sector. India is the largest producer of milk, fruits, pulses, cashew nuts, coconuts and tea. Contribution of agriculture to National GDP is around 16%. But, still it is the major job provider to huge population and around 55% is engaged in agriculture. The record food grain production of more than 250 mt is not a small achievement and earning huge foreign exchange through export of agricultural commodity for national development is increasing every year, but we should not complacent with these achievements. As India requires growth rate of 4% agricultural GDP but actual is less than 3% during this plan period. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is the apex body responsible for agricultural research, education and extension at national level. ICAR due to large size of country, ecological and crops diversity is unable to meet all the requirements, so SAU’s came in picture for location specific research, education and extension. Hence, today, the Agricultural Research System has two components i,e. ICAR and SAUs at national and state level, respectively. Other participants are traditional universities, Government Departments/Ministries, Private Organizations, NGOs and Agro- Industries.

NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SYSTEM

SAUs ICAR

Res. Mgt. Acad. National Institutes Central Institutes NRCs

Other Universities AICRPs NARPs Adhoc schemes Centres of Excellence

Colleges

Regional Research Station

Faculties /colleges

CSIR, ICMR, NARC etc.

Spl. Schemes: •Prof. Eminence •National Fellow • Emeritus Prof.

1

Pvt./ Voluntary Organizatio n

Departments

Central & State Deptts

Other Ministries

The ICAR was set up on 16 July 1929, as the Registered Society under the Societies Registration Act 1860, on the recommendations of the Royal Commission of Agriculture. It was reorganized twice, in 1965 and 1973. The headquarters of the ICAR is located at Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi, and its other buildings are Krishi Anusandhan Bhavan I and II, and NASC Complex, New Delhi. The Union Minister of Agriculture is the President of the ICAR. The Principal Executive Officer of the ICAR is the Director-General, who is also the Secretary to the Government of India in the Department of Agricultural Research and Education. The General Body of the ICAR Society is the supreme authority of the ICAR, and the Minister for Agriculture, Government of India, heads it. Its members are the Ministers for Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Fisheries, and the Senior Officers of the various state governments, representatives of Parliament, industry, education institutes, scientific organization and farmers. The Governing Body is the chief executive and decision-making authority of the ICAR. It is headed by the Director-General. It consists of eminent agricultural scientists, educationists, legislators and representatives of the farmers. It is assisted by the Standing Finance Committee, Accreditation Board, Regional Committee, Policy and Planning Committee, several Scientific Panels, and Publications Committee. In the scientific matters, the Director- General is assisted by 8 Deputy Directors-General, one each for (i) Crop Sciences, (ii) Horticulture, (iii) Natural Resource Management, (iv) Agricultural Engineering, (v) Animal Sciences, (vi) Fisheries, (vii) Agricultural Education, and (viii) Agricultural Extension. The DDGs are responsible for the Institutes, National Research Centers, and the Projects Directorates belonging to their respective fields. National Agricultural Research System (NARS) ICAR has developed considerably after independence; initially few Central Research Institutes were there to address regional problems. Presently NARS has Crop/Commodity/Resource oriented institutes (NRCs), Crop Directorates, National Bureaus (SSLUP, Plant/Animal/fish/ microorganism). It is largest agricultural research system in the world conducting research through 49 Central/National Research Institutions, 17 National Research Centers, 6 National Bureaux, 23 Directorates/Project Directorates, 60 All India Coordinated Research Projects, 18 Network Projects and 10 Other Projects on Technology Mission on Cotton (CICR, Nagpur), Technology Mission on Jute (CRIJAF, Barrackpore), Continuation, Strengthening and Establishment of Krishi Vigyan Kendras, Strengthening & Development of Higher Agricultural Education in India, New Delhi, Central Agricultutral University, Imphal, Strengthening and Modernization of ICAR Headquarters, Intellectual Property Management & Transfer/Commercialisation of Agricultural Technology (Upscaling of existing component IPR HQ), Indo US Knowledge Initiative, National Agricultural Innovative Project, New Delhi ICAR has eight divisions each headed by DDG to assist DG to run the largest agricultural research system of the world Crop Science Division The Division has 13 national institutes including one deemed-to-be-university, 3 bureaus, 9 project directorates, 2 national research centres, 27 all-India coordinated research projects, and 5 all-India network projects. Located at the ICAR Headquarters, the Division has 6 commodity/subject-specific technical sections, namely, (i) Food and Fodder Crops, (ii) Oilseeds and Pulses, (iii) Commercial Crops, (iv) Seeds, (v) Plant Protection, and (vi) Intellectual Property Rights. Each section is headed by an Assistant Director General (ADG) 2

Natural Resource Management Division The headquarters of the Division is functioning at Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan-II, Pusa Campus, New Delhi. The Division has two commodity/subject specific technical sections (Soil and water management and Agronomy & Agro forestry). Two ADGs are assisting the Division headed by Deputy Director General (NRM). Natural Resource Management Division of ICAR spearheads the research on natural resources like soil, water, plants and weather resources for their conservation, improving their efficiency and judicious use of these resources in India, which is carried out through 6 Research Institutes, 3 Research complex, 1Bureau, 3 Project Directorates, 1 NRCs, 11 AICRPs and 3 Network Projects / Outreach programmes Horticulture Division The headquarters of the Division is functioning at Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan-II, Pusa Campus, New Delhi. The Division has two commodity/subject specific technical sections (Horticulture I & II). Two ADGs are assisting the Division headed by Deputy Director General (Hort.). Horticulture Division of ICAR spearheads the horticulture research in India, which is carried out through 10 Central Institutes, 6 Directorates, 7 NRCs, 13 AICRPs and 6 Network Projects / Outreach programmes. Agricultural Engineering Division The Division has two commodity/subject specific technical sections (Agricultural Engineering & Process Engineering). Two ADGs are assisting the Division headed by Deputy Director General (Agricultural Engineering). Agricultural Engineering Division of ICAR spearheads the Farm machine and power engineering, Agro processing engineering research in India, which is carried out through 6 Research Institutes, 6 AICRPs and 1 Network Projects / Outreach programmes. Animal Science Division Animal Science Division of ICAR coordinates and monitors research activities in its 19 Research Institutes and their Regional Centers. Deputy Director-General (Animal Sciences is the Head of the Division assisted by three Assistant Director Generals (ADGs), in disciplines of Animal Health, Animal Nutrition & Physiology and Animal Production & Breeding respectively. The Division has 2 Deemed Universities, 7 National/Central Research Institutes, 1 Bureau, 1 Directorate, 1 Project Directorates and 6 National Research Centers and 4 Krishi Vigyan Kendras. The Division coordinates 7 All India Coordinated Research Projects and 6 Network Research Programmes. In addition, 4 Outreach programmes and 3 Mega seed projects (poultry, sheep and pig) are also being operated in different parts of the country at different ICAR institutes, State Agricultural / Veterinary Universities/ State Animal Husbandry Departments and Non-Governmental Organizations. Fisheries Division The Division has two commodity/subject specific technical sections (Inland fisheries & Marine fisheries). Two ADGs are assisting the Division headed by Deputy Director General (Fisheries). Fisheries Division of ICAR spearheads the Fresh and brackish water fisheries and aquaculture research in India, which is carried out through 5 Research Institutes, 1 Deemed university, 1 National bureau, 1 Directorate and 3 Network Projects / Outreach programmes.

3

Agricultural Education Division Agricultural Education Division is Located at Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan-II, Pusa Campus, New Delhi. The division is headed by the Deputy Director General (Education) and has three sections, namely, (i) Human Resource Development, (ii) Education Planning and Development and (iii) Educational Quality Assurance and Reforms, each headed by an Assistant Director General (ADG). Education Division undertakes planning, development, coordination and quality assurance in higher agricultural education in the country and, thus, strives for maintaining and upgrading quality and relevance of higher agricultural education through partnership and efforts of the components of the ICAR-Agricultural Universities (AUs) System comprising State Agricultural Universities (SAUs), Deemed universities (DUs), Central Agricultural University (CAU) and Central Universities (CUs) with Agriculture Faculty. The Division has a National Academy of Agricultural Research Management (NAARM) at Hyderabad for facilitating capacity building of the National Agricultural Research System (NARS) in research and education policy, planning and management and a National Centre for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research. Agricultural Extension Division The major activities of Agricultural Extension Division are assessment, refinement and demonstration of technology/products through a network of Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVK). There are 44 Agricultural Technology Information Centres (ATIC) established under ICAR institutes and State Agricultural Universities. There is one National Research Centre for Women in Agriculture (NRCWA) located in Bhubaneswar (Orissa). The Division is headed by Deputy Director-General (Agricultural Extension) supported by 2 Assistant Director-General. Teaching ICAR also imparts UG and PG teaching through four national institutes having status of deemed university namely Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar and Central Institute on Fisheries Education, Mumbai. In states SAU’s imparts education in different discipline of agriculture. Extension ICAR has established 8 Zonal Project Directorates as under covering all states for execution of extension education programmes and transfer of technology. Zone I PAU Campus, Ludhiana -141004 Punjab – 70 KVKs (Delhi1, Haryana18, Himachal Pradesh12, Jammu and Kashmir18, Punjab 20) Zone II Bhumi Vihar Block – GB, Secotor – III Salt Lake, Kolkata – 700097 West Bengal – 83 KVKs (A & N Islands3, Bihar 38, Jharkhand24, West Bengal 18) Zone III ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam – 793103 Meghalaya– 75 KVKs (Assam 22, Arunachal Pradesh 13, Manipur 9, Meghalaya5, Mizoram 8, Nagaland 9, Sikkim 4, Tripura 4) Zone IV GT Road Rawatpura, Near Vikas Bhavan, Kanpur – 208002 Uttar Pradesh – 81 KVKs (Uttar Pradesh 68, Uttarakhand 13) Zone V CRIDA Campus, Santoshnagar, Hyderabad - 500059 Andhra Pradesh – 78 KVKs (Andhra Pradesh 34, Maharashtra 44) Zone VI CAZRI Campus, Jodhpur – 342005 Rajasthan - 70 KVKs (Rajasthan 42, Gujarat 28)

4

Zone VII JNKVV, PO : Adhartal, Jabalpur – 482004 Madhya Pradesh – 100 KVKs (Chattisgarh 20, Madhya Pradesh 47, Odisha 33) Zone VIII MRS, H.A.Farm Post Hebbal, Bangalore – 560024 Karnataka – 81 KVKs (Karnataka 31,Tamil Nadu 30, Kerala14 , Goa 2, Pondicherry 3,Lakshadweep1) Total Krishi Vigyan Kendras 638 STATE AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITIES (SAU): SAU’s Established on land grant pattern cater to the need of the state and looks after three major mandates i.e, teaching, research and extension. The number of SAU’s jumped to 70 recently due to bifurcation of agriculture faculty in Horticulture, Veternary and Animal Science and Fisheries. The statewise number is Andhara pardesh including Telengana 3, Rajasthan 6, U.P. 10 (including IVRI, B.H.U. and AMU-CU), Gujrat 4, Assam 1, West Bengal 4,Haryana 3 (inclunding NDRI), Punjab 2, H. P. 2, J & K 2, U. K. 2, T. N. 3, Delhi 1 (IARI), Bihar 2, Jharkhand 1, Manipur 1,Orissa 1, Nagaland 1, Kerala 3, M.P. 3, Karnataka 6, Maharastra 7 (including CIFE) and Chhatisgarh 2. The extension work is also looked after by the State Department of Agriculture, Horticulture, Animal Husbandry, Fisheries, Forest and allied departments dealing in transfer of technology, input supply, proving subsidies, service providers, processing and value addition of agricultural produce and marketing of agricultural produce.

5

Foundation Course Manual on ICAR-JRF (PGS) in Agriculture – General Topics Eds KS Bangarwa, Surender S Dhankhar and RK Pannu CCS HAU, Hisar 2014, pp 6-19.

General Features of ICAR Junior Research Fellowships for Postgraduate Studies KS Bangarwa and MK Singh Department of Forestry CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125004 1. Scope of Agricultural Education Agriculture has been the mainstay of Indian economy since ages. The science and art of agriculture has many references in the Vedic literature and the ancient history of the mankind. The agriculture sector in India provides livelihood to about 52% of the population of the country and contributes nearly 15% to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Trained human resource has been the key factor behind the Green Revolution, White Revolution, Yellow Revolution that has led India to become self-reliant in food and a fast developing economy. Knowledge based, input-use efficient, eco-friendly, and high tech precision agriculture has been the next stage for which efforts have been directed by Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and the State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) in planning, designing and executing the national agricultural educational programmes. Agricultural education system is producing invaluable human resource and every year about 15,000 graduates, 11,000 Masters and 2500 Ph.D.s are admitted. The interest of female candidates towards agricultural education is rising and during 2013 about 35% female candidates were admitted through AIEEA-PG. Presently, efforts are being directed by the ICAR and Agricultural Universities to impart necessary skills and confidence among agricultural graduates to start and operate their own business units 2. ICAR Junior Research Fellowships for Postgraduate Studies ICAR’s 20th All India Entrance Examination for Admission (AIEEA-PG-2015) to 25% seats in master degree programmes of agricultural universities, 100% seats of ICAR deemed- tobe-universities and award of ICAR-JRF (PGS) in agriculture & allied sciences for academic session 2015–16 will be held in April, 2015. Triggered primarily by professional and academic linkage with Agricultural Universities (AUs), ICAR has been able to foster a countrywide arrangement with the AUs to set aside 25% seats of their seats for Master degree programmes to be admitted through ICAR’s All India Entrance Examination so as to reduce inbreeding, increase mobility among students, encourage national integration and infuse merit and uniform examination standards leading to improved overall quality of agricultural education. Besides, B.Sc. (Hons.) Agriculture will be eligible for 100% seats of Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI). ICAR’s 20th AIEEAPG-2015 examination for the academic session 2015-16 will be conducted at 34 examination city centers spread all over the country enabling participation of a large number of candidates seeking admission in Master degree programmes in AUs in different disciplines of Agriculture. ICAR Junior Research Fellowships for postgraduate studies namely, ICAR-JRF (PGS) will be awarded to 475 candidates based on merit in this examination as per their overall merit-rank and seat availability in different disciplines. Candidates qualified for counseling will be considered for allocation of subject and the Agricultural University.

6

3. Degree Programmes Available for Admission-Major Subject Groups, Subsubjects, No. of Seats & ICAR-JRF (PGS) Master degrees are awarded by Agricultural Universities in 95 sub - subjects under 20 major subject-groups. But B.Sc. (Hons.) Agriculture are eligible for 34 sub-subjects under eight major subject-groups namely (1) Plant Biotechnology, (2) Plant Sciences, (3) Physical Science, (4) Entomology and Nematology, (5) Agronomy, (6) Social Sciences, (7) Statistical Sciences, and (8) Horticulture. Candidate should select one major subject-group among the following for appearing in the Entrance Examination. The sub- subject choices, within the major subject-group in which the candidate qualifies the entrance examination, will be available at the time of counseling. Numbers of seats and ICAR-JRF (PGS) in various subjects/sub- subjects are given in Table 1. Table 1: Major Subject Groups, Sub-subjects, No. of Seats & ICAR-JRF (PGS) - The number is tentative at present, the final position will be known at the time of counseling. Major Major SubSubject Subject- Subject Code Group Code No.

(1) 01

02

03

(2)

(3)

Sub-Subject

(4)

Plant Biotechnology Total Plant Biochemistry 1.1 /Bio. Chem Plant Biotech & 1.2 Molecular Biology/Biotech Plant Physiology/Crop 1.3 Physiology Plant Sciences Total Plant Breeding and 2.1 Genetics 2.2 Plant Pathology Agril.Microbiology/ Microbiology 2.3 Seed Science and 2.4 Technology 2.5 Plant Genetic Resources Physical Science Total Agril Meteorology 3.1 /Agrometeo. Soil Science and Agricultural 3.2 Chemistry/ Soil Conservation and Water Management/ SWC/ Irrigation and Water Management 3.3 Agricultural Physics 3.4 Agricultural Chemicals 7

No of Seats (Tentative)

Total ICARJRF (PGS)

No. of ICAR-JRF (PGS) (Tentative) Gen./ SC ST PC* OBC/ UPS

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

168

27

21

04

02

01

40

06

05

01

00

00

74

12

09

02

01

01

54 364

09 57

07 45

01 08

01 04

00 02

147 120

23 19

18 15

03 03

02 01

01 01

46

07

06

01

00

00

46 05 189

07 01 30

05 01 23

01 00 05

01 00 02

00 00 01

21

03

03

00

00

00

136

22

16

04

02

01

04 07

01 01

01 01

00 00

00 00

00 00

04

05

06

07

08

3.5 Environmental Science Entomology and Nematology Total Agricultural/ Horticultural 4.1 Entomology 4.2 Nematology 4.3 Apiculture 4.4 Sericulture 4.5 Plant Protection Agronomy Total Agronomy/Forage 5.1 Production 5.2 Tea Husbandry Social Sciences Total 6.1 Agricultural Economics Agri. Extension 6.2 Education/ Communication Development Agri./Livestock Economics 6.3 Agri/ Vety. Extension 6.4 Edn Statistical Sciences Total 7.1 Agricultural Statistics 7.2 Statistics 7.3 Computer Application 7.4 Bioinformatics Horticulture Total 8.1 Horticulture Vegetable Crops/ Sci, Olericulture 8.2 8.3 Pomology, Fruit Sc., Fruit and Orchard Crops, Mgt. of Plantation Crops, Fruit Breeding, Fruit Prod & PHT

Post-harvest Technology of Horticultural Crops/ PHM Floriculture and 8.5 Landscaping Spices and Plantation Crops/ 8.6 Medicinal & Aromatic Plants 4. Eligibility Requirements 8.4

21 156

03 25

02 20

01 03

00 02

00 01

131 15 01 07 02 163

21 03 00 01 00 26

16 03 00 01 00 20

03 00 00 00 00 04

02 00 00 00 00 02

01 00 00 00 00 01

161 02 236 108

26 00 37 17

20 00 28 13

04 00 06 03

02 00 03 01

01 00 01 00

112

18

13

03

02

01

08

01

01

00

00

00

08 46 34 01 05 06 240 50

01 07 05 00 01 01 38 08

01 05 03 00 01 01 30 06

00 01 01 00 00 00 05 01

00 01 01 00 00 00 03 01

00 00 00 00 00 00 01 01

70 60

11 09

08 07

02 01

01 01

00 00

12

02

02

00

00

00

36

06

05

01

00

00

12

02

02

00

00

00

Age and Nationality: Indian Nationals having age not below 19 years as on 31.08.2015 (i.e., candidate should not have been born after 01.09.1996) are eligible to appear in the examination. No relaxation is admissible regarding the minimum age limit. 8

Qualifying Examination (i) B.Sc. (Hons.) Agriculture are eligible for 34 sub-subjects under eight major subject-groups namely (1) Plant Biotechnology, (2) Plant Sciences, (3) Physical Science, (4) Entomology and Nematology, (5) Agronomy, (6) Social Sciences, (7) Statistical Sciences, and (8) Horticulture. (ii) The candidate must have passed Bachelor degree examination securing Overall Grade Point Average (OGPA) of at least 6.60/10.00 in ten-point scale, 3.25/5.00 in five-point scale, 2.60/4.00 in four-point scale for General, OBC and UPS categories whereas for SC/ST/Physically Challenged (PC) candidates, the said requirement is an OGPA of at least 5.60/10.00, 2.75/5.00, 2.20/4.00, respectively. In other cases, where grade-points are not awarded and only marks are awarded, the candidate must have secured at least 60% marks for General, OBC and UPS categories, whereas for SC/ST/PC categories the requirement is 50% marks. (Please note that equivalence between OGPA and % marks will not be acceptable). 5. Reservation of Seats for Scheduled Caste/ Scheduled Tribe/ Physically Challenged/ Other Backward Classes (i) There would be reservation of seats as well as Junior Research Fellowships [ICARJRF (PGS)] to the extent of 15% for Scheduled Caste and 7.5% for Scheduled Tribe candidates in different disciplines. The reservation of seats among SC/ST categories is interchangeable, i.e., if sufficient number of candidates are not available to fill up seats as well as ICAR-JRF (PGS) reserved for ST candidates, these can be filled up from among suitable SC candidates and vice-versa in a given subject as per merit-rank in examination. The original SC/ ST certificate in prescribed form is required to be produced for verification. Depending on merit and choice they can also take seat from the General Category. (ii) Three percent seats are reserved, horizontally across the categories in different subjects, for Physically Challenged (PC) candidates suffering from low vision, hearing impairment, locomotor disability or cerebral palsy with appropriate medical certificate having at least 40% disability and found suitable by the Counseling Committee/University official. The candidate applying for admission under this category should submit a copy of the certificate about being handicapped from a Govt. Hospital/Medical Board (duly attested by a Gazetted Officer) at the time of counseling. The criteria for assessing the degree of handicap could be variable from one subject to another. The decision of the University allotted will be final in this regard. 6. ICAR Junior Research Fellowship for Post Graduate Studies “ICAR-JRF (PGS)” and PG Admissions (without fellowship) ICAR Junior Research Fellowships will be awarded to meritorious candidates seeking admission in the Agricultural Universities where Master degree programme consists of course and research work. Candidates pursuing Master degree programme can also apply for fresh admission and compete for ICAR-JRF (PGS) provided they have not completed the first year of their postgraduate degree programme. The ICAR-JRF (PGS) would be awarded for two years from the date of registration in the Master degree programme. For graduates with 10+2+3, if admitted and awarded ICAR-JRF (PGS), no fellowship would be payable during the first year of their degree program, i.e. while completing remedial courses in the first year. No extension in ICAR-JRF (PGS) duration beyond 2 years will be granted. In case the fellowship allotted to a candidate is 9

vacated for any reason, the same will not be allotted/ transferred to any other candidate even if there are candidates next to him/her in the merit in same or other subject group. ICAR-JRF (PGS) awardees of last year(s), even if in merit, will not be awarded ICARJRF (PGS) again; however, admission would be granted to them as per their merit rank. Further, if ICAR-JRF (PGS) holder seeks fresh admission, entire amount of fellowship received by him/her shall have to be refunded back to the university with Interest. The fellowship will be at the rate of `12,000/- per month for graduates of Veterinary Sciences pursuing Veterinary studies and ` 8,640/- per month in other cases for a period of two years together with a contingent grant of ` 6,000/- per year for procurement of essential chemicals, equipments, books and travel connected with the research work. Not more than 50% of the contingent grant will be spent for purchase of books. All purchases are to be made with the approval of the Major Advisor/Chairman of Student Advisory Committee. All candidates who have been awarded ICAR-JRF (PGS) have to execute a Bond of `40,000/- compulsorily at the time of registration in the University. The admission (without fellowship) as well as with ICAR-JRF(PGS) will be given to only that candidate who joins the Master degree programme in the University other than that from where he/she has obtained his/ her Bachelor degree except at NDRI, Karnal where admissions for 100% seats are made on All India basis through ICAR Entrance Examination. After the admission, under no circumstances, change of subject and university will be entertained. 7. General Scheme of Entrance Examination (a) Examination Schedule (i) Date of Examination (ii) Duration

Second Sunday, April 2015 2½ hours, Time 10.00 A.M. to 12.30 P.M.

(b) Major Subject Groups, Question Papers and Writing Answers in the Examination (i) The examination shall have one question paper for each of the major subjectgroups, consisting of 150 multiple-choice objective type questions, each with four options and also 10 cross-matching type questions, each having five subquestions/pairings for every subject-group paper. The details of the major subjectgroups are given in Table 1. (ii) In each subject-group, 150 multiple choice, objective type questions would be serially numbered from 1-150 whereas 10 cross-matching type questions would be serially numbered from 151-160. (iii) Marking scheme: Each correctly answered multiple-choice objective type question will earn four marks whereas each correctly answered cross-matching type question will earn 5 marks (1 mark for each correct pairing) with a maximum of 650 marks for each major subject-group paper. For each incorrectly answered multiple-choice objective type question, one mark would be deducted from the total score whereas for each incorrectly answered cross-matching type sub-question/pairing, 0.2 marks would be deducted from the total score. Question with no response indicated will not be awarded any mark and there will be no negative marking for that question. The candidates are advised not to attempt such questions in the OMR answer sheet, for which they are not sure of the correct answer. More than one answer indicated against a question will be deemed as incorrect answer and will invite negative marking. 10

(iv) Candidate will be required to choose the correct answer and mark in the OMR answer sheet by darkening the corresponding circle/bubble against the serial number of the question with black/ blue ball-point pen. (v) Syllabi for the 8 Major Subject-groups for the entrance examination are given below. 8. Syllabi for ICAR’s All India Entrance Examination for Admission to Master Degree programmes and ICAR-JRF (PGS) Code 01: Major Subject Group - Plant Biotechnology (Subjects: 1.1: Plant Biochemistry/ Bio. Chem. 1.2: Plant Biotechnology & Molecular Biology/Biotechnology, 1.3: Plant Physiology/Crop Physiology) Unit-I: Basic Sciences & General Agriculture: Importance of agriculture in national economy; basic principles of crop production; cultivation of rice, wheat, chickpea, pigeon-pea, sugarcane, groundnut, tomato, and mango. Major soils of India; role of NPK and their deficiency symptoms. General structure and function of cell organelles; mitosis and meiosis; Mendelian genetics. Elementary knowledge of growth, development, photosynthesis, respiration and transpiration; Elements of economic botany. General structure and function of carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, enzymes and vitamins. Major pests and diseases of rice, wheat, cotton, chickpea, sugarcane and their management. Organic farming; biofertilizers; biopesticides. Recombinant DNA technology; transgenic crops. Important rural development programmes in India; organizational set up of agricultural research, education and extension in India. Elements of statistics. Unit-II: Plant Biochemistry: Importance of biochemistry in agriculture. Acid-base concept and buffers; pH. Classification, structure and metabolic functions of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Structure and function of nucleic acids. Enzymes: structure, nomenclature, mechanism of action; vitamins and minerals as coenzymes and cofactors. Metabolic pathways: glycolysis, TCA cycle, fatty acid oxidation, triglyceride biosynthesis. Electron transport chain; ATP formation. Photosynthesis: C-3, C-4 and CAM pathways. Nitrate assimilation; biological nitrogen fixation. Colorimetric and chromatographic techniques Unit-III: Plant Biotechnology and Molecular Biology/Biotechnology: Characteristics of prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms; differences between fungi, bacteria, mycoplasms and viruses. Physical and chemical basis of heredity; chromosome structure. DNA replication, transcription and translation; genetic code; operon concept. Genetic engineering; restriction enzymes; vectors; gene cloning; gene transfer. Plant cell and tissue culture; micro-propagation; somaclonal variation. Transformation; recombination; Heterosis. General application of biotechnology. Molecular and immunological techniques. Concept of bioinformatics, genomics and proteomics. Unit-IV: Plant Physiology/ Crop Physiology: Plant physiology– importance in agriculture. Seed germination, viability and vigour. Photosynthesis- significance of C-3, C-4 and CAM pathway; photorespiration and its implications. Translocation of assimilates; dry matter partitioning; Harvest index of crops. Growth and development; growth analysis; crop-water relationship. Plant nutrients and their functions. Phytohormones and their physiological role. Photo-periodism, vernalisation; pollination/ fertilization in flowering plants. Post-harvest physiology and its significance. 11

Code 02: Major Subject Group -Plant Sciences (Subjects: 2.1: Plant Breeding & Genetics, 2.2: Plant Pathology, 2.3: Agricultural Microbiology/Microbiology, 2.4: Seed Science & Technology, 2.5: Plant Genetic Resources) Unit-I: Importance of Agriculture in national economy; basic principles of crop production; cultivation of rice, wheat, chickpea, pigeon-pea, sugarcane, groundnut, tomato, potato and mango. Major soils of India, role of NPK and their deficiency symptoms. Unit-II: Structure and function of cell organelles; mitosis and meiosis; Mendelian genetics; elementary knowledge of photosynthesis; respiration, and transpiration; structure and functions of carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, enzymes and vitamins. Major pests and diseases of rice, wheat, cotton, chickpea, sugarcane and their management. Unit-III: Characteristics of prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms, differences between fungi, bacteria, mycoplasmas and viruses; physical and chemical basis of heredity; chromosome structure; genes/operon concept; protein biosynthesis; transformation, recombination, Heterosis; Elements of economic botany; integrated diseases management; sterilisation, disinfection and pasteurization; Koch’s postulates; etiological agents of rusts, smuts, powdery/downy mildews, wilts, yellows, mosaic, necrosis, enations, blights and witches- broom; pH, buffer, vitamins, role of plant hormones in seed germination and dormancy; pollination/ fertilization in flowering plants; methods of seed testing; breeders, foundation and certified seeds; seed production in self and cross pollinated crops, nitrate assimilation; biological nitrogen fixation and other uses of microorganisms in agriculture. Unit-IV: Food and industry; composting and biogas production. Important rural development programmes in India; organizational set up of agricultural research, education and extension in India. Code 03: Major Subject Group – Physical Science (Subjects: 3.1: Agricultural Meteorology/ Agrometero 3.2: Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry/ Soil Conservation and Water Management/ SWC/ Irrigation and Water Management, 3.3: Agricultural Physics, 3.4: Agricultural Chemicals, 3.5: Environmental Science.) Unit-I: Importance of Agriculture in national perspective; basic principles of crop production, diversification, diversification of Agriculture, principle of nutrient and water management, package of practices for rice, wheat sorghum, maize, chickpea, pigeon pea, potato, sugarcane, groundnut, major vegetable crops. Role of essential plant nutrients, their deficiency symptoms and management options. Structure and function of plant cells, cell division, Basic concept of plant physiology relating to crop production- Biochemical compounds viz, carbohydrates, proteins, enzymes, fats, liquid vitamins and their function, developmental programmes relating to rural upliftment and livelihood security; organisational set up of agricultural education research and extension and future strategies for up gradation. Unit-II: Volumetric and gravimetric analysis including complexmetric methods, periodic classification of element, Basic principle of instrumental analysis including spectrophotometry (Absorption and emission spectrography), Atomic structure –elementary concept of radioactivity, element and compound common ion effect, solubility product—hydrolysis of salts, buffer solution indicates equivalent weights and standard solution. Elementary concepts of organic compounds- nomenclature and classifications including hydrocarbons, alcohol, aldehydes, acids and esters, carbohydrates, fats and liquids, amino acids, nucleic acids. Pesticides, their classification and uses; biopesticides and botanical pesticides. 12

Unit-III: Soil as a medium for plant growth, composition of earth’s crust, weathering of rocks and minerals, components of soil- their importance, soil profile, soil partialsphysical mineralogical and chemical nature. Mechanical analysis, Stokes law, assumptions, limitations and applications. Soil, physical properties- density, porosity, texture, soil structure and their brief descriptions. Rheological properties in soils, calculations of porosity and bulk density. Soil air-Aeration, causes of poor aeration, factors affecting aeration, importance for plant growth. Soil temperature - sources and losses of soil heat. Factors affecting soil temperature, its importance in plant growth. Soil water- structure of water, soil-water-energy relationship, classifications, surface tension and movement in soil. Soil colloids- properties, structure of silicate clay minerals, sources of negative charges, properties, kaolinite, illite, montmorillonite and vermiculite clay minerals, milli-equivalent concept , cation exchange capacity, anion exchange capacity, buffering of soils. Problem soils- acid, saline, sodic and acid sulphate soils – their characteristics, formation, problems and management. Irrigation, water quality and its evaluation. Waterlogged soils- basic features, distinction with upland soils. Unit-IV: Essential plant nutrients- criteria of essentiality, functions for plant growth, mechanisms for movement and uptake of ions in soils and plants, Forms of nutrients in soils, deficiency symptoms on plants, luxury consumption, nutrient interactions and chelated micronutrients. Soil fertility, evaluation and management for plant growth, soil testing and fertilizer recommendations. Soil classifications- diagnostic surface and sub-surface horizons, soil survey- types, objectives, uses, land capability classifications. Remote sensing and its application in agriculture, SIS, GIS and GPSbasic features and uses in agriculture, Elementary concepts of radio isotopes and uses in agriculture. Soil micro-organisms, Classifications and their roles. Organic matterdecomposition, C:N ratios, mineralization and immobilization processes, humus, role of organic matter in soil quality. Soil erosion, types and control measures. Fertilizers and manures- classifications, NPK fertilizers, their reactions in soils, green manuring, recycling of organic wastes, composting. Soil and water pollution-sources, brief idea about different pollutants in soils and their managements. Code 04: Major Subject Group - Entomology and Nematology (Subjects: 4.1: Agricultural/ Horticultural Entomology, 4.2: Nematology, 4.3: Apiculture, 4.4: Sericulture, 4.5: Plant Protection.) Unit-I: Importance of Agriculture in national economy; basic principles of crop production; cultivation of rice, wheat, chickpea, pigeon-pea, sugarcane, groundnut, tomato, cole crops, mango, grapes, banana, oilseeds other than groundnut, soybean and mustard. Major soils of India, role of NPK and their deficiency symptoms. Mendelian genetics; elementary knowledge of photosynthesis; respiration, and transpiration; Major cropping systems (rice-wheat cropping, crop rotations, mixed cropping); soil degradation-soil salinity and acidity and management; some aspects of post-harvest technology; varietal improvement; importance of Heterosis in crop production; crop protection principles in field and storage. Major insect pests and diseases of agricultural crops like rice, cotton, pulses, oilseed crops like groundnut, soybean and mustard, vegetables like tomato, cole crops; fruit crops like mango and banana and their management principles. Transgenic crops. Important rural development programmes in India; organizational set up of agricultural research, education and extension in India; Elements of statistics. 13

Unit-II: Classification of animal kingdom up to class; distinguishing characters up to orders in class Insecta; general organization of an insect external morphology with special reference to lepidopteran larvae, coleopteran adults; and honeybee; metamorphosis and moulting; different physiological systems; insect- plant relationship; insect pests of agricultural and horticultural crops, and their stored/processed products, insect vectors of plant diseases- identification, biology, nature of damage, and their management tactics; and pests of household, medical and veterinary importance and their control; useful and beneficial insects like honeybee, lac insect, silkworm and pollinators; Nematode taxonomy, biology of important plant parasitic nematodes and their control; entomopathogenic nematodes, basic principles of insect and nematode pest management-cultural, biological, insecticidal, quarantine, and regulatory aspects; insecticide classification and insecticide resistance management; and insect protective transgenic crops. Code 05: Major Subject Group-Agronomy (Subjects: 5.1: Agronomy/Forage Production/ 5.2: Tea Husbandry) Unit-I: General: Importance of Agriculture in national economy; basic principles of crop production; cultivation of rice, wheat, chickpea, pigeon-pea, sugarcane, groundnut, rapeseed and mustard, potato. Major soils of India, role of NPK and their deficiency symptoms. Structure and function of cell organelles; mitosis and meiosis; Mendelian genetics: elementary knowledge of photosynthesis; respiration, photorespiration and transpiration; structure and functions of carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, enzymes and vitamins. Major pests and diseases of rice, wheat, cotton, chickpea, sugarcane and their management. Important rural development programmes in India; organisational set up of agricultural research, education and extension in India; Elements of statistics. Unit-II: Principles of Agronomy, Crop ecology and geography and Agricultural Meteorology: Agronomy –meaning and scope, National & International agricultural research institutes in India, Agro climatic zones of India, Tillage, crop stand establishment and planting geometry and their effect on crop, Physiological limits of crop yield and variability in relation to ecological optima, organic farming, Precision farming, Integrated farming systems, Principles of field experimentation. Principles of crop ecology and crop adaptation, climate shift and its ecological implications, Agro-ecological regions in India, Geographical distribution of crop plants, Greenhouse effect, Climatic factors and their effect on plant processes and crop productivity, Role of GIS and GPS in agriculture. →eather & climate, Earth’s atmosphere, Solar radiation, Atmospheric temperature and global warming. Crops and atmospheric humidity, Weather forecasting. Unit-III: Field crops: Origin, distribution, economic importance, soil and climatic requirement, varieties, cultural practices and yield of cereals ( rice, wheat, maize, sorghum, pearl millet, minor millets, barley), pulses (chickpea, lentil, peas, Pigeon pea, mungbean, urdbean), oilseeds (groundnut, sesame, soybean, rapeseed & mustard, sunflower, safflower, linseed), fiber crops (cotton, jute, sun hemp), sugar crops(sugarcane), fodder & forage crops (sorghum, maize, napier, berseem, Lucerne, oats), medicinal & aromatic plants (menthe, lemon grass and isabgol) and commercial crops(potato, tobacco). Unit-IV: Weed management: Principles of weed management, Classification, biology and ecology of weeds, crop weed competition and allelopathy, concepts and methods of 14

weed control, Integrated weed management, Classification, formulations, selectivity and resistance of herbicides, Herbicide persistence in soil and plants, Application methods and equipments, Weed flora shifts in cropping systems, Special and problematic weeds and their management in cropped and non-cropped situations, Weed management in field crops. Unit-V: Water management: Principles of irrigation, Water resources and irrigation development in India, Water and irrigation requirements, Concepts and approaches of irrigation scheduling, Methods of irrigation, Measurement of irrigation water, application, distribution and use efficiencies, Conjunctive use of water, Irrigation water quality and its management, water management in major field, crops (rice, wheat, maize, groundnut, sugarcane) Agricultural drainage. Unit-VI: Soil fertility and fertilizer use: Essential plant nutrients and their deficiency symptoms, concept of essentiality of plant nutrients, Indicators of soil fertility and productivity, Fertilizer materials and their availability to plants, slow release fertilizers, Nitrification inhibitors, Principles and methods of fertilizer application, Integrated nutrient management, site specific nutrient management. Unit-VII: Dryland Agronomy: Characteristics of Dryland farming and delineation of Dryland tracts, constraints of Dryland farming in India, Types of drought and their management, contingency crop planning and mid- season corrections for aberrant weather and its recycling. Watershed management. Unit-VIII: Problem soils : Problem soils and their distribution in India, Characteristics and reclamation of these soils, Crop production techniques in problem soils. Unit-IX: Sustainable land use systems: Sustainable agriculture: parameters and indicators, Conservation agriculture, safe disposal of agri-industrial waste for crop production, Agro-forestry systems, shifting cultivation, Alternate land use systems, Wastelands and their remediation for crop production. Code 06: Major Subject Group - Social Sciences (Subjects: 6.1: Agricultural Economics, 6.2: Agriculture Extension Education/ Communication Development, 6.3: Agricultural/ Livestock Economics, 6.4: Agriculture/ Veterinary Extension Education) Unit-I: Importance of Agriculture in national economy; basic principles of crop production; cultivation of rice, wheat, chickpea, pigeon-pea, sugarcane, groundnut, tomato and mango. Major soils of India, role of NPK and their deficiency symptoms. Structure and function of cell organelles, mitosis and meiosis; Mendelian genetics; elementary knowledge of photosynthesis; respiration, and transpiration; structure and functions of carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, enzymes and vitamins. Major pests and diseases of rice, wheat, cotton, chickpea, sugarcane and their management. Important rural development programmes in India; organisational set up of agricultural research, education and extension in India; Elements of statistics. Measures of central tendency and dispersion, regression and correlation; concept of probability, sampling techniques and tests of significance. Unit-II: Theory of consumer behaviour, theory of demand, elasticity of demand, indifference curve analysis, theory of firm, cost curves, theory of supply, price determination, market classification, concept of macroeconomics, money and banking, national income. Agricultural marketing—role, practice, institutions, problems and reforms, role of capital and credit in agriculture, crop insurance, credit institutions, 15

cooperatives, capital formation in agriculture, agrarian reforms, globalization, WTO & its impact on Indian agriculture. Unit-III: Basic principles of farm management, concept of farming system and economics of farming systems, agricultural production economics-scope and analysis, factorproduct relationship, marginal cost and marginal revenue, farm planning and budgeting, Agricultural finance: nature and scope. Time value of money, Compounding and discounting. Agricultural credit: meaning, definition, need, classification. Credit analysis: 4R’s, 5C’s and 7 P’s of credit, repayment plans. History of financing agriculture in India. Commercial banks, nationalization of commercial banks. Lead bank scheme, regional rural banks, scale of finance. Higher financing agencies, RBI, NABARD, AFC, Asian Development Bank, World Bank, role of capital and credit in agriculture; credit institutions, co-operatives and agrarian reforms in India. Unit-IV: Extension Education- concept, meaning, principles, philosophy, scope and importance; Extension programme planning and evaluation- steps and principles, models of organizing agricultural extension; historical development of extension in USA, Japan and India. Rural development, meaning, importance and problems; Rural development programmes in India- Pre-independence era to recent ones; Extension teaching methods, definition and concept of sociology, differences between rural & urban communities, social stratification., social groups, social organization and social change. Rural leadership, educational psychology- learning and teaching, role of personality in agricultural extension Indian rural system- its characteristics; value system, cost and class; structure and customs; rural group organization and adult education. Unit-V: Communication, principles, concepts, process, elements and barriers in teaching methods. Different kinds of communication methods and media and AV aids/materials. Media mix, Campaign, Cyber extension- internet, cybercafé, Kisan Call Centers, teleconferencing, agriculture journalism, diffusion and adoption of innovations-adopter categories, capacity building of extension personnel and farmerstraining to farmers, women and rural youth. Code 07: Major Subject Group - Statistical Sciences (Subjects: 7.1: Agricultural Statistics, 7.2: Statistics, 7.3: Computer Application, 7.4: Bioinformatics) Unit-I: Agriculture: Importance of Agriculture/Forestry/Livestock in national economy. Basic principles of crop production. Major diseases and pests of crops. Elementary principles of economics and agri-extension. Important rural development programmes in India. Organizational set up of Agricultural research, education and extension in India. Unit-II: Mathematics: Real and complex numbers; polynomial and roots; de Moivre’s theorem and its applications. Elements of set theory- De Morgan’s laws; vector space, linear independence, orthogonality; matrices- addition and multiplication, rank of a matrix, determinants, inverse of a matrix, solution of a system of linear equations, characteristic roots and vectors; convergence of infinite sequences and infinite series- tests for convergence, absolute convergence; coordinate geometry in two dimensions - line, circle, parabola, ellipse and hyperbola. Differential calculus: limits, differentiation of function of a single variable; Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s theorems, mean-value theorem; maxima and minima; indeterminate form; 16

curvature, asymptotes, tracing of curves, function of two or more independent variables, partial differentiation, homogeneous functions and Euler’s theorem, composite functions, total derivatives, derivative of an implicit function, change of variables, Jacobians. Integral calculus: integration by simple methods, standard forms, simple definite integrals, double integrals, change of order of integration, Gamma and Beta functions, application of double integrals to find area. Ordinary differential equations: differential equations of first order, Exact and Bernoulli’s differential equations, equations reducible to exact form by integrating factors, equations of first order and higher degree, Clairaut’s equation, methods of finding complementary functions and particular integrals. Calculus of finite differences, interpolation; numerical differentiation and integration, difference equations; solution of simple non-linear equations by numerical methods like Newton- Raphson method. Unit-III: Introduction: Statistics – definition, use and limitations; Frequency Distribution and Curves; Measures of Central Tendency: Arithmetic mean; Geometric mean, Harmonic mean, Median, Mode; Measures of Dispersion: Range, Mean deviation, Quartile deviation, Variance and Coefficient of Variation; Probability: Definition and concepts, law of addition and multiplication, conditional probability, Bayes’ theorem; Binomial, multinomial, Poisson and normal distribution; Introduction to Sampling: Random Sampling; Standard Error; Tests of Significance - Types of Errors, Null Hypothesis, Level of Significance, Testing of hypothesis; Large Sample Test- SND test for Means, Single Sample and Two Samples; Student’s t-test for Single Sample, Two Samples and Paired t test. F test; Chi-Square Test for goodness of fit and independence of attributes; Correlation and Regression and associated tests of significance. Experimental Designs: basic principles, Analysis of variance, Completely Randomized Design (CRD), Randomized Block Design (RBD). Unit-IV: Computers: input, output devices, memory, hardware, software; Classification, booting computer. Viruses, worms and antivirus. Operating System- some DOS commands, FORMAT, DIR, COPY, PATH, MD, CD and DELTREE. Types of files. WINDOWS: Desktop and its elements, WINDOWS Explorer, working with files and folders; setting time and date. Anatomy of WINDOWS. Applications – MSWORD: Word processing featuresCreating, Editing, Formatting and Saving; MSEXCEL: Electronic spreadsheets, concept, packages. Creating, editing and saving a spreadsheet. In-built statistical and other functions. Excel data analysis tools, Correlation and regression, t-test for two-samples and ANOVA with one-way classification. Creating graphs. MS Power Point and its features. MSACCESS: Concept of Database, creating database; Computer programming: Flow charts and Algorithms, Programming languages- BASIC, FORTRAN and C. Internet: World Wide Web (WWW), Concepts, web browsing and electronic mail. Bioinformatics - NCBI Genebank sequence database- primary and secondary database. Code 08: Major Subject Group – Horticulture (Subjects: 8.1: Horticulture, 8.2: Vegetable Crops/ Sci, Olericulture, 8.3: Pomology Fruit Sc., Fruit and Orchard Crops, Management of Plantation Crops, Fruit Breeding 8.4: Post-harvest Technology of Horticultural Crops/ PHM, 8.5: Floriculture & Landscaping, 8.6: Spices and Plantation Crops/Medicinal and Aromatic Plants) Unit-I: Importance of Agriculture in national economy; basic principles of crop production; cultivation of rice, wheat, chickpea, pigeon-pea, sugarcane, groundnut, tomato and mango. Major soils of India, role of NPK and their deficiency symptoms. Structure and function of cell organelles; mitosis and meiosis; Mendelian genetics; elementary knowledge of photosynthesis; respiration, and transpiration; structure and functions of carbohydrates, 17

proteins, nucleic acids, enzymes and vitamins. Major pests and diseases of rice, wheat, cotton, chickpea, sugarcane and their management. Important rural development programmes in India; organizational set up of agricultural research, education and extension in India; Elements of statistics. Unit-II: Layout and establishment of orchards; pruning and training; propagation, climatic requirement and cultivation of fruits like mango, banana, citrus, guava, grape, pineapple, papaya, apple, pear, peach and plum; cultivation of plantation crops like coconut and cashew nut and spices like black pepper, coriander, turmeric, important physiological disorders; major vegetable crops of tropical, subtropical and temperate regions ‘like cole crops (cauliflower, cabbage and knol khol), cucurbits (pumpkin, bottlegourd, bittergourd, luffa, muskmelon and watermelon, cucumber), root crops (radish, tapioca sweet potato and potato), leafy vegetables (fenugreek and spinach); solanaceous crops (tomato, chillies and brinjal); techniques for raising the nursery; nutritive value of fruits and vegetables and their role in human nutrition; basic physiology of ripening in fruits and vegetables and their products; type of fruits and vegetable products and control of fungal and bacterial diseases; major floricultural crops grown in India for commercial purposes like rose, carnation, chrysanthemum, marigold, tuberose, gladiolus, orchids; establishment and maintenance of lawns, trees, shrubs, creepers, hedges and annuals; type of gardens, methods of crop improvement; male sterility and incompatibility; pure line and pedigree selection; backcross, mass selection; heterosis; plant nutrients, deficiency symptoms of nutrients, manures and fertilisers, systems of irrigation, management of important pests and diseases of fruits and vegetables 9. Options for Agricultural University/ Subject for Admission: Candidates are not required to give any option for Agricultural University/subjects at the time of filling up application form. The allotment of seats in the Agricultural Universities will be made through counseling as per the choice made by the candidate in the Counseling Form, from amongst the seats available at his/her merit-rank within the Major subject-group in which he/she appeared for the Entrance Examination. 10. Evaluation and Declaration of Result (i) OMR answer sheets of the candidates shall be scanned through computer/scanner and evaluated through computer by matching the OMR sheet responses of the candidate with the major subject-group-wise Answer Key templates prepared beforehand. Overall merit-rank list shall be prepared separately for every major subject-group. In the event of candidates getting equal marks in the Entrance examination, relative merit will be determined on the basis of marks obtained in the qualifying Bachelor degree examination. In the event of tie again, the ratio of positive and negative marks will be decided. Candidate with higher absolute value of the ratio will be given better rank. In the event of tie again, a candidate, higher in age, would be rated higher in merit. Category-wise final merit list for counseling shall be prepared based on the reservation category information given by the candidate in OMR Answer sheet. (ii) The result of the AIEEA-PG-2014 is likely to be declared in 5-6 weeks and will be placed on ICAR website. The copies of the result will also be displayed at the Examination Cell of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Anusandhan Bhavan II, Pusa, New Delhi-110 012.

18

(iii) Assistant Director General (HRD) Division of Agricultural Education, Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan - II, New Delhi - 110 012 INDIA Phone: (Off.) 91-1125843392; Fax: 91-11-25843329 is responsible officer for conducting Examination. 11. Important Dates for AIEEA-PG-2014 On line application/ Availability of application at sale 20.12.2013 to 7.2.2014 counters of Agricultural Universities Admit card/Roll no query

Last Week of March of 2014

Date of Examination

13.4.2014

Declaration of Result

After third week of May 2014

Schedule for Counseling/Personal Appearance

26.6.2014 to 4.7.2014

19

Foundation Course Manual on ICAR-JRF (PGS) in Agriculture – General Topics Eds KS Bangarwa, Surender S Dhankhar and RK Pannu CCS HAU, Hisar 2014, pp 20-28.

Importance of Agriculture in National Perspective in India KK Kundu Department of Agricultural Economics CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125004 Importance of Agriculture in Indian Economy: The following points emphasize the importance of agriculture in Indian Economy. Indian is an agricultural country, where 70 per cent population is dependent on agriculture. This forms the main source of income. The contribution of agriculture in the national income in India is more, hence, it is said that agriculture in India is a backbone of Indian Economy. The importance of agriculture in the National Economy is explained by the following points. Role of agriculture in Indian economy: Agriculture is the main sector of Indian economy which is amply powered by the following points:1. Share in National Income: The contribution from agriculture has been continuously falling from 55.1% in 1950-51 to 37.6% in 1981-82 & further to 18.5% in 2006-07 and 14.2% in 2011-12 and now 13.1%. But agriculture still continues to be the main sector because it provides livelihood to a majority of the people. The share of the agricultural sector’s capital formation in GDP declined from 2.2% in the late 1999s to 1.9% at present. 2. Largest Employment Providing Sector: in 1951, 69.5% of the working population was engaged in agriculture. This percentage fell to 66.9% in 1991 & to 56.7% in 2001 and 54% in 2012 and now 56%. However, with rapid increase in population the absolute number of people engaged in agriculture has become exceedingly large. Agriculture sector, at present, provides livelihood to 65 to 70% of the total population. The sector provides employment to 58.4% of country’s work force and is the single largest private sector occupation. 3. Provision of Food Surplus to the Expanding Population: Because of the heavy pressure of population in labor-surplus economies like India & its rapid increase the demand for food increases at a fast rate. Therefore, unless agriculture is able to continuously increase its surplus of food-grains, a crisis is likely to emerge. Experts foresee that by the end of 11th five year plan (i.e., 2011-2012), the demand for food-grains is expected to increase to 280.6 million tons. Meeting this demand would require 2% growth per annum. The challenge facing the country is clear as during the last 10 years the food-grains have been growing at a meager 0.48%. 4. Contribution to Capital formation: There is a general agreement on the importance of Capital Formation in economic development. Unless the rate of Capital Formation increases to a sufficient high degree, economic development cannot be achieved. Agriculture can play a big role in pushing the Capital Formation in India. Rural sector can transfer labor & capital to the industrial sector which can be effectively used to increase the productivity in the latter. 5. Providing Raw Material to industries: Agriculture provides raw materials to various industries of national importance. Sugar industry, Jute industry, Cotton textile industry, Vanaspati industry are examples of some such industries which 20

depend on agriculture for their development. Various important industries in India find their raw material from agriculture sector – cotton and jute textile industries, sugar, vanaspati etc are directly dependent on agriculture. Handloom, spinning oil milling, rice thrashing & milling etc are various small scale and cottage industries which are dependent on agriculture sector for their raw material. This highlights the importance of agriculture in industrial development of the nation. Many industries dependent on agriculture as the raw material from agriculture is supplied to these industries e.g. Paper Industries, tobacco industries, Chilies, turmeric etc. Many industries supply the inputs to the agricultural industry e.g. fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, implements and machineries like tractors etc. 6. Market for Industrial Products: Since more than two-thirds of the population of India lives in rural areas, increased rural purchasing power is a valuable stimulus to industrial development. 7. Importance in International Trade: Agriculture constitutes about 75% of the total exports of the country. Such is the importance of agriculture as far as earnings of foreign exchange are concerned. India’s foreign trade is deeply associated with agriculture sector. Agriculture accounts for about 14.7% of the total export earnings. Besides, goods made with the raw material of agriculture sector also contribute about 20% in Indian exports. In other words, agriculture and its related goods contribute about 38% in total exports of the country. Many agricultural products like tea, sugar, oilseeds, tobacco, spices contribute the major share in export. In addition to this, we are exporting fruits some vegetables and flowers to the other countries. Now days we are exporting basmati rice to foreign countries. The proportion of agri. goods is to the tune of 50%. In addition to this goods manufactured from agriculture products contribute 20 percent. Thus, agriculture contributes significantly about 20% in total export. In addition to the above the role played by agriculture in Indian is as under. 

Many agriculture produce like food grains, fruits are transported by roadways and railways. Thus, it helps in employment of many people in this field.



If the agricultural production is good, cultivators will earn more income. They will be in position to purchase manufactured products and other inputs required in agriculture. In short, we can say that the prosperity of the country will depend upon the prosperity of agriculture.

Minimum Support Price of Agriculture Products: Keeping in view the interests of the farmers as also the need of self reliance, Government has been announcing Minimum Support Price (MSP) for 24 major crops. The main objectives of announcing MSP are: a) To prevent fall in prices in the situation of over production. b) To protect the interest of farmers by ensuring them a minimum price for their crops in Minimum support price announced by the government is that price at which government is ready to purchase the crop from the farmers directly if crop price becomes lower to MSP. As a result, market price of the crop never comes down from the level of MSP This minimum price security gives incentives to farmers to increase their production. These minimum support prices of various crops are announced on the basis of recommendations 21

made by Agriculture Cost and Price Commission (ACPC) which takes into consideration the inputs costs and favourable returns to the farmers while recommending MSP. Food grains Procurement and Stocks in India Food grains procurement by the Government serves the dual purpose of providing support prices to the farmers and of building up public stocks of food grains. Procurement operations are carried out by the Food Corporation of India ( FCI ) and the state agencies designated by State Government Procurement prices are based on support prices recommended by CACP ( Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices ). Food stocks are maintained by the Central Government for 3 purposes:  Meeting the prescribed minimum buffer stock norms for food security.  For monthly release of food grains for supply through PDS (Public Distribution System).  For market intervention to augment supply so as to help moderate the open market prices. Buffer Stock in India The years 2001 – 02 and 2002 – 03 witnessed high levels of stock buildup in the central pool. Food grains stocks reached a peak of 64.7 million tonnes, an all time record in June 2002. The year 2003 – 04 witnessed a general easing in the food grains stocks with relatively lower procurement of rice and wheat following a bad agricultural year in 2002 – 03 and relatively high off – take of food grains especially for drought – related relief operations and under the welfare schemes. The steady reduction, in stocks prompted the Government to stop fresh allocation of rice and wheat for export with effect from August 2003, which has continued till date. The year 2004 – 05 started with a much lower stock of 20 million tonnes on April 1, 2004, down from 32.8 million tonnes on April 1, 2003. Stocks however, remained consistently higher than the buffer requirement during 2004 – 05 with sufficient procurement of rice and wheat and relatively lower off – take than in the previous year. On April 1, 2005, the stock at 17.40 million tonnes was above the buffer norm of 16.2 million tonnes. Green Revolution in India 

Indian Green Revolution is associated with the use of HYVS ( High Yielding Variety Seeds ), chemical fertilizers and new technology which led to a sharp rise in agricultural production during the middle of 1960.

 

The term Green Revolution was given by American scientist, Dr. William Gande. During the middle of sixties, Indian agriculture scientists developed a number of new high yielding varieties of wheat by processing wheat seeds imported from Mexico. A similar improvement in variety of rice was also observed. The credit of this goes not only to Nobel Laureate Dr. Norman Borlaug, but also to India’s Dr. MS Swaminathan.



Second Green Revolution in India: Strategy Adopted In 11th Plan. The urgent need for taking agriculture to a higher trajectory of 4 per cent annual growth can be met only with improvement in the scale as well as quality of agricultural reforms undertaken by the various states and agencies at the various levels. These reforms must aim at efficient use of resources and conservation of soil, water and ecology on a sustainable basis, and in a holistic framework. Such a holistic framework must incorporate financing of rural infrastructure such as water, roads and power. The 22

Approach Paper to the Eleventh Five Year Plan has aptly highlighted such a holistic framework and suggested the following strategy to raise agricultural output.     

   

Doubling the rate of growth of irrigated area Improving water management, rain water harvesting and watershed development Reclaiming degraded land and focusing on soil quality Bridging the knowledge gap through effective extension Diversifying into high value outputs, fruits, vegetables, flowers, herbs and spices, medicinal plants, bamboo, bio – diesel, but with adequate measures to ensure food security Promoting animal husbandry and fishery Providing easy access to credit at affordable rates Improving the incentive structure and functioning of markets; and Refocusing on land reforms issues.

National Commission on Farmers has already laid the foundation for such a framework. Program formulation as well as their implementation in the States must be based on unique regional contexts incorporating agro – climatic conditions; and availability of appropriate research and development (R and D) backed by timely and adequate extension of finance. Agriculture Holdings in India Type Holding (in hectares) Marginal Holding Less than one Small Holding 1-4 Medium Holding 4 - 10 Large Holding More than 10 Other Revolutions Revolution Area Yellow Revolution Oil seeds White Revolution Milk Blue Revolution Fish Pink Revolution Shrimp Gray Revolution Wool Golden Revolution Horticulture

(% of Total) 59% 32.2% 7.2% 1.6%

White Revolution and Operation Flood in India White revolution is associated with a sharp increase in milk production. During 1964 – 65, Intensive Cattle Development Program (ICDP) was introduced in the country in which a package of improved animal husbandry was given to cattle owners for promoting white revolution in the country. Later on, to accelerate the pace of white revolution, a new program named ‘Operation Flood’ was introduced in the country. The Operation Flood Program, which is the world’s largest integrated dairy development program, has made considerable progress in achieving its outlined objectives. Buffaloes, Cows and Goats contribute 50%, 46% and 4% respectively in total milk production of the country. India stands first in the world in milk production. USA stands second in the world. Dr. Varghese Kurien is the pioneer of operation flood in India.

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Agriculture for Future, Why? For our countrymen, Agriculture is not merely an occupation or a Business proposition; it is a tradition, a way of life, which for centuries have shaped their thoughts, out look and culture. However even after 58 years of independence, 65% of the population is still dependent on Agriculture and there is a per annum increase of 1.84% of farm population. Further 60% of total labour force of the country is engaged in agriculture, which renders potentially high levels of un- employment and under employment there by wastage or nonoptimal utilization of the country’s precious human resource. On the production front also even though India ranks high in Area and production of many crops ‘productivity wise’ we are nowhere in the picture. (Table 1) Table 1 India’s Share and Rank in World Agricultural Production Crop India’s Share (%) India’s Rank Productivity Area Production Area Production Tonn/Ha Rank Paddy 28.5 21.4 1 2 2.8 35 Wheat 11.2 11.4 2 2 2.5 32 Groundnut 35.2 28.6 2 1 1.0 50 Sugarcane 20.00 22.6 2 2 65.9 34 Pulses 36.6 26.0 1 1 0.6 118 Cotton 20.7 14.00 1 3 0.9 57 Further there is a huge pressure on the existing agricultural land. The statistics show that the Net Sown Area across States either remained constant or changed slightly. Efficient land utilization is approaching the peak level in all states. About 38% Net Sown Area irrigated are classified as GREY AREAS showing the depletion of ground water resources. Rate of growth of use of High Yielding Varieties has declined in the 1990s as compared to 1980s. There is a Skewed Pattern of Fertilizer Consumption in Areas and Nutrients (NPK) indicating the decline in soil fertility. Even now there is a heavy dependency on Monsoon and a large majority of the farms are still rain fed. Newer problems by way of incidences of agri related pollution due to increased level of pesticide residues in water and resultant diseases are reported from various parts of country every day, the Endosulphan Incidence of Kasargode, Kerala and Pepsi – Coca cola issue of Kerala and Karnataka to name a few. On the macro economic front also things for agriculture are not turning for the better. Annual average, farm growth rate has been declining at the Alarming Rate i.e. from 4.5% in 8th plan, it declined to 2.2% in 9th Five and in the First three years of 10th Plan, it has dropped to 1.1%. This is the scenario while the nation has an accelerating GDP Growth of near to 7% with the present year expectation for over 8%. Thus to go in line with the national growth, the farm output growth should be 4%. Contribution of agriculture to GDP is also not proportional when compared to other sectors. The contribution of agriculture to GDP is only 14% when compared to 54% of the service sector implying that 60% of the population contributes less than a quarter of the Nation’s economic product. On the other side there are challenges raised by the changing international economic scenario. The WTO and related agreements have rendered the world as an open market with wide disparities between members. The member countries of the WTO were compelled to open up their markets to the world resulting in no more preferential protection to the areas like agriculture. This has necessitated an efficiency oriented and market driven production system wherein only those who can offer better products at a lower/ competitive price only can survive in the market. The latest and hottest issue of farmer suicides should be read in 24

line with this. The new market arena has brought with it the toughest of challenges along with brightest of opportunities. Newer Jargons of Export oriented agriculture; World market share and Value Addition have started lingering in the air. Quality and efficiency have become the key market governing factors. The ever relevance that Agriculture profession commands arise from this situation. For a country like ours whose vast majority of the population is dependent on the profession has to find its answer for the future through the same only. The huge chunk of the underutilized labour force cannot be totally retrenched to other sectors. Productivity in agriculture has to go up for efficient utilization of the depleting resources to improve Agriculture’s share in the national product. At present India’s share in the world exports is only 0.60%, which is pittance for a country of our size. All of these call for the need to create newer opportunities in agriculture to retain the same population while effectively utilizing their capabilities. To remain vibrant in the post - liberalization global market driven economy, there is an urgent need to give a facelift to our agriculture from a tradition bound subsistence oriented system to a commercial market driven techno savvy production with a stress on the value addition and preferential marketing and Agri. Exports. Agri business – New facet of Agriculture through Class Agri banking: Agri-business includes crop, livestock, and fishery-based projects in terms of production, processing, storage and value addition. Agri-business also includes infrastructure for post-harvest handling (pre-cooling), processing, and marketing and even equipments manufacturing, (micro-irrigation), fabrication of green houses etc. For a banker financing to high tech agriculture means “Class Banking” wherein Target Group for Commercial Agriculture could be Creamy layer of Priority Sector like Big Farmers growing commercial crops and treat agriculture as a Business. Entrepreneurs dealing with agricultural inputs, marketing and processing sub-system are ready to purchase inputs and pay higher price for the Technology. They grow specialized crops for or Market Oriented Commodities and tend to operate individually, not as a Group. Some of such avenues that the banker can look forward to are, 1. Green House Farming and Controlled atmosphere cultivation for off season production of fruits and vegetables as well as production of market demand oriented specific quality produces. The activity commands heavy capital investment and is specifically market driven or export oriented and is therefore a profitable avenue for the bankers. 2. Bio Technology, Embryo Transfer, Artificial Seed production, Micro propagations, tissue culture of fruits/flowers/vegetables and horticulture nurseries at location where demand exists which in turn is the input for high-value crop cultivation and is a highly capital intensive activity with assured returns 3. Scientific storage and Transport Facilities including establishment of Rural Godowns, Cold storages, Transport chains including the Refrigerated Vans and Pre cooling centres for efficient quality management of the fruits and vegetables which has to act as support system for the market oriented production and needs a heavy investment requirement. 4. Value Addition Chains including Food Processing Units catering Export market or the domestic market of both are the result of change in food habits where the perish ability of the food products is overcome to have a regular and more hygienic supply of products to market. The value addition units are the integration of agriculture with industry and are the future of the agriculture postproduction management. 25

5. Commercial Dairying including establishment of Milk Bulk Chilling and Processing Units with more emphasise on the value added products of milk 6. Agriculture Retail Chains are the upcoming concept of integrating agriculture with trade catering the upwardly affluent society with the choicest of agriculture commodities with or without branding at a premium prices. Contract farming comes as an integral part of the value addition and agri retailing wherein the farmer is contracted to plant the contractor’s crop on his land harvest and deliver to the contractor, a quantum of produce, based upon anticipated yield and contracted acreage at a pre agreed price. Contract farming is viable proposition for small and marginal farmers, who are otherwise left out in the market driven economy get the benefits of the same. In addition to getting exposure to the latest production technologies, farmer is hedged against the price risk. Contract farming also provides a win win situation for the banker who can mobilize bulk level of production credit to large number of farmers with assured repayments at lower follow up costs. AGRICULTURE MUST BE VIEWED AS AN INDUSTRY MODEL: The spiraling cost of production of food crops and low margin utilization dampens the spirit of the farmer and their generations to get out of agriculture. The major problems that plague the agriculture sector: is the spiraling cost of production due to high input costs; so the 1st problem is to lowering the input costs, and other is the proper marketing of agricultural produce. Early disposal of farm produce There is an imperative need to strengthen need based research in areas like biotechnology & use friendly farm machineries to improve productivity & farm incomes. What needs to be done? 1. Double or multiply the investments in agro-infra structure & farm machineries 2. Incentives upto 50% PPP mode of investment. 3. Improving the extension system through the more scientists involvement on farmers field. 4. Need for relook into the seed act & absolute need based permit for GM seeds. 5. Separate central & state budget for agriculture. 6. Implementation of M. S. Swaminathan committee report. 7. Linking rivers on the primary agenda at a definite timeframe to ensure food security. 8. Wealth Appreciation: e.g. growing trees continuous to wealth appreciation reduce costs, irrigation requirements, working capital requirement. 9. Integrated Farming Systems even at small scale 10. In addition to crops other like dairying, poultry, fisheries, beekeeping etc. A production system by the masses, not for the masses. Change in land use regulations: A threat to food security Right to fair Compensation and transparency to land acquisition, Rehabilation & Resettlement Act 2013 has passed by parliament .Inadequate compensation, New law, Uncertain yields, Economic conditions, exploitation of ground water. More demand: soils on 1/3rd of India’s total arable lands have become too depleted for agricultural productivity. Every rupee invested in agri’I R&D gives 8-times returns to rural economy & is the most effective way to reduce poverty now when we do manage to lift the 26

present world’s 30% of poor & hungry residing in India out of the quagmire they existed to subsequent demand for more poultry, meat, milk & milk products, protein is herculian task to fulfill. a. China is able to pay a much higher minimum support price to farmers than India because of more efficient industry. b. Neglect of farm sector and worsening plight of cultivators: c. The adverse effect of food inflation are obvious as it accounts for about two third of consumption basket of poorer sections; 1991 Policy Coup:Persistant inflation: WPI rose to 11.54 compared to 5.02. 1992-93 (base). 9.97 from 4.08 with 2004-05 as the base. Now still 13% i.e. > 10% Demand and supply mismatch: The supply side and the demand side effect in a dynamic economy can not remain independent of each other; the income effects generated by price spiraling generate further round of cumulative effect on structure of output and pattern of demand and growth resulting into accentuation of inflation led inequalities of income.   

Financialization of farm goods Unorganized segments Inflationary expectations

Agriculture credit and the indiscernible beneficiaries. In year 2002 has again witnessed an increase in the %age accrueing in debt from moneylenders to a level to a level greater than 1981. Critical factor; Revolving credit for SHG’s: Borrowers are expected to repay the weekly instalments. Whether subsidies and credit reach grass root farmers. There has been a lopsided approach in subsidy allocation and rainfed farming has not received its due. International Scenario: EU spend Euro 35 billion direct subsidies to farmers and 57 billion Euro on agril. Development, U.S.A. $ 20 billion direct subsidies; 40,000 US $ per farmer as farm stabilization income; Japan 46 billion US dollar on farm subsidies than why we can not support our agriculture. Greater support needed, Direct transfer, Loan waiver Silver lining Inadequate flow:1. Kisan credit cards connected with ATM 2. General purpose credit 3. Facilitators/ business correspondent reach out to farmers 4. Contract farming Recent initiatives to support producer companies of small & marginal farmers as part of priority sector lending: LO→ COST ATM’s. CROP INSURANCEIs it far removed from reality? Presently there are 3 major crop insurance schemes implemented in country The first, the yield base (NAIS) 27

2nd proxy to yield base (WBCIS) 3rd as improvised version of NAIS called Modified NAIS. Several hitches: urgent requirement, Geographical risk, Absence of Proper legislation. Ideally, weather insurance is best suited to cover catastrophic losses.  New age Extension Systems: There is no agency at ground level, other than agril. Extension services that can provide knowledge and support to farmers. 1. Fast declining; Continued focus on technology dissemination. 2. Better support extension: KVK ,ATMA  Capacity building for development: 1. No complemency ,fall in income , Improving skills 2. Enhance leadership, governance and innovative capacities.

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Foundation Course Manual on ICAR-JRF (PGS) in Agriculture – General Topics Eds KS Bangarwa, Surender S Dhankhar and RK Pannu CCS HAU, Hisar 2014, pp 29-44.

Basic Principles of Crop Production AK Dhaka Assistant Professor, Department of Agronomy CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125004 Crop production principle: Crop production is the exploitation of plant morphological or structural and plant physiological or functional responses with in a soil and atmospheric environment in order to produce maximum yield per unit area per unit time. The climatic and edaphic environment in which crops are grown can influence the rate of growth and development. The management of physical environment under field conditions is very difficult, costly and often impossible. Agronomic adjustments necessary for higher yield are aimed at creating optimal conditions for crop production to the extent possible. A principle means a scientific law that explains natural action. Crop production principles are the ways and means for the better management of soils, plants and environment for economically maximum returns per unit area for years. These principles largely depend on the type of farming namely specialized, diversified, mixed and integrated and also on the physical and technological facilities available. The crop production includes various principles related to seed, sowing, tillage, irrigation, nutrition, plant protection, harvesting and storage. The objective to study the basic principles of crop production is to develop an understanding of the important principles underlying the practices used in cultivation of crops and to develop the ability to apply these principles to crop production situation. The basic principles of crop production are as follows:            

Principle of seed Principle of tillage Principle of sowing Principle of plant density and geometry of planting Principle of plant architecture Principle of fertilization Principle of irrigation Principle of plant protection Principle of weed management Principle of harvesting Principle of storage Principle of post harvest management

Principle of seed: Seed material or propagule is the living organ of crop in rudimentary form used for propagation. Good quality seeds are basic to profitable crop production. The seed or planting material largely determines the quality and quantity of the produce. A good seed or stalk of planting material is genetically satisfactory and true to type, fully developed and free from contamination, deformities, diseases and pests. 29

Crops differ in their ability to extract and forage nutrients from different layers of soils and capacity to utilize them for the production of economic products. Thus for higher production, select crop varieties adaptable to the particular agro-climate, land situation, soil fertility, seasons and method of cultivation. A good quality of seed should have following characteristics: A good quality seed should posses the following characteristics. Seed must be true to its type i.e., genetically pure and their duration should be according to agroclimate and cropping system of the locality.         

Seed should be pure, viable, vigorous and have high yielding potential. Seed should be free from seed borne diseases and pest infection. Seed should be clean; free from weed seeds or any inert materials. Seed should be in whole and not broken or damaged; crushed or peeled off; half filled and half rotten. Seed should meet the prescribed uniform size and weight. Seed should be as fresh as possible or of the proper age. Seed should contain optimum amount of moisture (842%). Seed should have high germination percentage (more than 80%). Seed should germinate rapidly and uniformly when sown.

Factors affecting germination are soil (soil type, texture, structure and microorganism), Environment ,Water (soil moisture and seed moisture, Imbibitions of water is the prerequisite process for germination), Temperature (cardinal temperature), Light (The most effective wavelength for promoting and inhibiting seed germination is red (660 mu) and infrared (730 .nm), Atmospheric gases ( most crop seeds germinate well in the ambient composition of air with 20% 02, 0.03% CO2 and 78.2% N) and exogenous chemicals (Gibberellins and Ethylene). Seed rate should be recommended for a particular crop can be calculated with formula: Plant population needed x Weight of one seed Seed rate (kg /ha) = -----------------------------------------------------------Real value of seed x 1000 x 1000 Seed treatment is a process of application either by mixing or by coating or by soaking in solutions of chemicals or protectants (with fungicidal, insecticidal, bactericidal, nematicidal or biopesticidal properties), nutrients, hormones or growth regulators or subjected to a process of wetting and drying or subjected to reduce, control or repel disease organisms, insects or other pests which attack seeds or seedlings growing there from Seed treatment also includes control of pests when the seed is in storage and after it has been sown/planted. Methods may be dry, wet, slurry and pelleting.

Principle of tillage: Tillage is a physical manipulation of soil with tools and implements to obtain in good tilth for better germination and subsequent growth of crops. Tillage is done to prepare a seed bed, to break weeds, insects and disease cycles, to burry plant residue and incorporate fertilizers and amendments , to break surface crust and hard sub soil fraction. Tillage practices aimed at reducing soil degradation, improving weed control and helping in timely decomposition of organic matter. A common aim is to provide optimal conditions for beneficial soil organisms, thereby enhancing organic matter decomposition and nutrient 30

recycling. Managing the top 15 cm of soil is vital because most of the biological activity, microorganisms and organic matter in this layer. Tilth is a physical condition of the soil resulting from tillage, which is a loose friable (mellow), airy, powdery, granular and crumbly condition of the soil with optimum moisture content suitable for working and germination or sprouting of seeds and propagules i.e., tilth is the ideal seed bed. Thus tillage has considerable influence on soil physical properties like pore space, structure, bulk density, water content and colour. The correct time for ploughing depends on soil moisture. The optimum range of soil moisture for effective ploughing is 25 to 50 per cent depletion of available soil moisture. Light soils can be ploughed in a wider range of soil moisture conditions while the range is narrow for heavy soils. Depth of ploughing mainly depends on the effective root zone depth of the crops. Generally, crops with tap root system require greater depth of ploughing, while fibrous, shallow rooted crops require shallow ploughing. The number of ploughing necessary to obtain a good tilth depends on soil type, weed problem and crop residues on the soil surface. In heavy soils, more number of ploughing is necessary, the range being 3 to 5 ploughing. Light soils require 1 to 3 ploughing to obtain proper tilth of the soil. When weed growth and plant residues are higher, more number of ploughing is necessary. To obtain higher crop yield, under tillage following points should be kept in mind : 1. 2. 3. 4.

Optimum time of tillage, Intensity and depth of ploughing, Proper kind of tillage system, Size distribution of aggregates

Types of tillage (on the basis of time of operation): 1 . Preparatory cultivation – before sowing a) Primary tillage b) Secondary tillage c) Layout of seed bed and sowing 2 . After cultivation- in the standing crop Tillage implements: 1. 2. 3. 4.

For Primary tillage -Wooden plough , soil turning plough , sub soil plough ,chisel plough , ridge plough ,rotary plough ,basin lister etc. For secondary tillage- Cultivator , harrows , guntakas etc. For lay out of seed bed- Country plough ,ridge plough ,marker, zindra etc . For sowing – Plough , seed drill , fertilizer cum seed drill etc.

Modern concept of tillage: a) b) c)

Minimum tillage Zero tillage Stubble mulch tillage

Factors affecting intensity and depth of tillage operation: They are soil type, crop and variety, type of farming, moisture status of the soil, climate and season, extent of weed infestation, irrigation methods, special needs and economic condition, and knowledge and experience of the fanner.

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Crop - Small sized seeds like finger millet, tobacco etc. require a fine seedbed which can provide intimate soil-seed contact as against coarser seed bed required for larger size seeds such as sorghum, maize, pulses, etc. Root or tuber crops require deep tillage whereas rice requires shallow puddling. Soil type - It dictates the time of ploughing. Light soils require early and rapid land preparation due to free drainage and low retentive capacity as against heavy soils. Climate - It influences soil moisture content, draught required tilling and the type of cultivation. Low rainfall and poor water retentive capacity of shallow soil do not permit deep ploughing at the start of the season. Heavy soils developing cracks during summer (self tilled) need only harrowing. Light soils of arid regions need coarse tilth to minimize wind erosion. Type of farming - It influences the intensity of land preparation. In dry lands, deep ploughing is necessary to eradicate perennial weeds and to conserve soil moisture. Repeated shallow tilling is adequate under such intensive cropping. Cropping system - In involves different crops, which need different types of tillage. Crop following rice needs repeated preparatory tillage for obtaining an ideal seedbed. Crops following tuber crops like potato require minimum tillage. Similarly crops following pulses need lesser tillage than that of following sorghum, maize or sugarcane. Desirable ploughing depth is 12.5-20 cm. Ploughing depth varies with effective root zone depth of the crops. Ploughing depth is 10-20 cm to shallow rooted crops and 15-30 cm to deep-rooted crops. The time of ploughing is decided based on moisture status and type of soil. The optimum moisture content for tillage is 60% of field capacity. Ploughing at right moisture content is very important. Ploughing aims at stirring and disturbing the top layer of soil uniformly without leaving any unploughed strips of land. Straight and uniformly wide furrows give a neat appearance to the ploughed field. When the furrows are not straight or when the adjacent furrows are not uniformly spaced, narrow strips of land are left unploughed. After the harvest of a crop the land is first ploughed along the length of the field. The next ploughing is done across the field for breaking furrows of the previous ploughing. Principle of sowing: Seed sowing is the placement of seed in seed bed at appropriate depth in the environment ideal for optimum germination and crop stand establishment. It depends on time, depth and method of sowing and seed treatment. Sowing very early and late in the season may not be advantageous. Sowing the crop at optimum time increases yields due to suitable environment at all the growth stages of the crop. Flowering is induced after sufficient vegetative growth. Depth of sowing is another aspect for establishing a good crop stand. Uneven depth of sowing results in uneven crop stand. Shallow and deep sowing results in lesser plant population as all seeds do not germinate. The optimum depth of sowing depends upon size of seed, seed reserve, and coleoptiles length and soil moisture. Crops with bigger sized seeds like groundnut, castor and sunflower etc can be sown even up to a depth of 6cm. Small sized seeds like tobacco, ragi have to be sown as shallow as possible. The, thumb rule is to sow seeds to a depth approximately 3 to 4 times their diameter. The optimum depth of sowing for most of the field crops ranges between 3 cm to 5 cm. Shallow depth of planting of 2 cm to 3 cm is resorted for small seeds like finger millet and pearl millet. Very small seeds like tobacco are placed at a depth of 1 cm. This is generally done by broadcasting on the soil surface and mixing them by raking. In the same crop, coleoptile length may differ due to varieties. Traditional tall varieties of wheat have long coleoptile. Generally, they are sown deep in the soil with seed drill. Mexican varieties 32

with short coleoptile do not emerge when they are sown deep. The Mexican wheat give higher yields compared to tall varieties only when they are sown at a depth of 4 cm. The short coleoptiles of semi-dwarf wheat can results in poor seedling establishment when sown at deeper depth. Method of sowing may be broadcasting, drilling, planting and transplanting. Broadcasting method results in uneven plant stand. In drilling method the seeds are in lines at uniform depth. Other mmechanical factors are emergence habit, seed size and weight, seedbed texture, seed—soil contact, seedbed fertility, soil moisture. Biological factors like companion crops, competition for light, soil microorganisms will also affect the germination and density per unit area with healthy and uniform seedling. Principle of plant density and geometry of planting: Plant density is the number of plants per unit area. Optimum plant population is must for potential yield. Sparse and dense crop stands beyond a certain level is the major cause of low yields. Thinning, spacing and weeding etc are aimed to reduce the competition between plants for growth resources. Crop plants are not grown in isolation but in closely spaced populations. At establishment and early seedling phase, there is no competition. At some point as the seedlings grow – start interferes with neibours and competition starts. Plants do not compete with each other so long as long as the growth resources are in excess of the needs of both. The immediate supply of a single necessary factor falls below the combined demands of the plants competition begins. According to Donald (1963) Most of the factors for which there is competition are found as a pool of material from which competitors draw their supplies. If resources are limited or intermittent depletion by the competing plants, then successful competitor draw most rapidly from the pool. If all the plants in community have equal competing ability, they share equally until supply is exhausted. Yield of individual plants and community: The full yield potential of individual plant is achieved when sown at wider spacing. Yield per plant is decreases gradually as the plant population per unit area is increased. Maximum yield per unit area is can be obtained when the individual plants are subjected to severe competition under high plant population. Plant population and Growth: Plant height increases within increase in plant population due to competition for light. Increase in plant height is responsible for better interception of light due to exposure of individual laves at wider vertical interval. Reduction in leaf thickness and leaf orientation is also changed .The relationship between plant density and yield can be grouped into two categories. Holliday suggested two types of response curves: Asymptotic Response: Where entire dry matter is the economic product as in the case of fodder crops or most of dry matter as in tobacco, the response to the increasing plant density is asymptotic. Further increase in the in density, increases the dry matter of individual plants at a diminishing rate. Further increase the plant population result in plateau. This type of response gives the asymptotic curve which is expressed as follows Y= Ap+1/1+Abp Where, Y is yield of dry matter/unit area, A apparent maximum yield per plant, p is number of plant /unit area and b is regression coefficient.“1/1+Abp” term is known as competition factor.

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Parabolic response: Parabolic curve is used to describe plant population and yield relationship when the economic yield is fraction of total dry matter. Holliday suggested that the curve can be fitted to the quadratic equation. Y=a+bp+cp2 Where Y is yield /unit area, p plant population and a, b, and c are regression coefficient. The extent of plateau is depends on elasticity of plants .This aspect is not considered in the quadratic equation. Square Root function: The disadvantage of quadratic function can be overcome by square root function Y= a +bp +c root of p This is similar to quadratic equation except that root of p is taken instead of square. Reciprocal Function: Reciprocal function can also be used to express relation between plant population and yield. The increase of average yield of individual plant is directly related to plant density. In case of biological yield it is expressed as follows 1/w= a+ bp Where w is weight of individual plant, p population /unit area and a and b are constants. To describe economic yield and plant density the reciprocal equation is 1/w = a+bp+cp2 where a, b and care constants. Factor affecting optimum plant population:       

Time of sowings Size of plant Planting pattern Elasticity of plant Irrigation Fertilizer application Dry matter partitioning

Time of sowing: Among weather factors the most important factors that influence optimum plant population are day length and temperature. Size of plant: The spread or the volume occupied by the plant at the time of flowering has a influence on the spacing to be adopted for these crops. Plants of Red gram, cotton, sugarcane etc occupy larger volume of space in the field as compared to plants of wheat, rice, and finger millet etc. Crop geometry: Planting pattern influence crop yield through its influence on light interception, rooting pattern and moisture extraction pattern. Different planting pattern are follows – a) Square planting b) Rectangular planting c) Miscellaneous planting arrangement Square planting: inter cultivation is possible in both direction. In square planting efficient utilization of light, water and nutrients available to the individual plants than in rectangular arrangement. Rectangular planting : In this type of planting pattern wider inter row spacing 34

and closer intra-row spacing is adopted. Miscellaneous planting arrangement: In this skip row planting and paired row planting is adopted. Elasticity of plant: Variation in size of plant between the minimum size of the plant that can produce some economic yield to the maximum size of plant can reach under unlimited space and resources is elasticity of the plant. Elasticity of growth and yield character of plant are higher in inseminate and long duration crops. For determinate plants , the elasticity is less and optimum plant population range is small as in maize, sorghum etc. Dry matter partitioning: Dry matter production is related to the amount of solar radiation intercepted by the canopy. As the plant density increases , the canopy expands more rapidly, more radiation is intercepted and more dry matter is produced. Biological yield , increase with increase in increase in plant population up to a point and with further increase in plant population no additional biological yield. Economic yield increases with increase in plant population up to a point and subsequently decreases with increase in plant population. The availability of irrigation and nutrients will also affect the plant population. Principles of plant architecture: Crop variety is amongst the most important factors that determine the yields and profitability of farming enterprises. Among the various morphological and physiological traits, knowledge of plant architecture is important to grower. Vegetative vigor and canopy development are other important aspects influenced by plant architecture. Leaf characters such as number, size and thickness also dictate plant architecture. A good agronomist should have a clear-cut idea about the morphological, physiological and different phenological characteristics for the variety/crop using in the field. For the better management and to get the maximum efficiency from the applied agricultural inputs one should also have knowledge about the relationship of growth stages and peak demand period for inputs of a particular variety or crop. Principle of fertilization: To obtain the maximum benefit from fertilizers, it is most essential that fertilizers are applied at the proper time and at proper place. There are 16 essential elements like N, P, K, C, H, O, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, B, Cl. Timing of fertilization depends upon plant’s need. The fertilizers to be applied possess different quality with regard to solubility in water and movement into the soil solution. Similarly, soils are of different nature, sandy to clayey. The nature of the soil governs the movement of applied fertilizers. Again, the requirement of plants for different plant nutrients varies in relation to their stage of growth. For example, nitrogen is absorbed by the plants throughout the growth period, while phosphorus is absorbed at a faster rate during the early growth period. Thus, the time and method of fertilizer application will vary in relation to: a) The nature of fertilizer b) The soil type c) The difference in nutrient requirement and nature of field crops. Besides these three main factors, the following general principles govern the selection of proper time for application of fertilizer. Proper time for application of fertilizers: 1. Nitrogen is required throughout the crop growth. As such, it is absorbed by the plant at the same rate as that of its growth. All plants grow at a slow rate in the beginning. Then follows a rapid increase in the growth rate. Near the harvest 35

time, the rate of growth again slows down. Accordingly, nitrogen is taken up by the plant slowly in the beginning, rapidly during the grand growth period, and again slowly as it nears maturity. In other words, the nitrogen requirement of a growing plant is less in the early stages of growth, maximum during its grand growth period, and low at the subsequent stages up to harvest. It is thus s een that nitrogen is required throughout the growth period. 2. Nitrogenous fertilizers are soluble in water. They are mobile and move rapidly in all directions within the soil. As such nitrogen is easily lost through leaching. Since nitrogen is required throughout the growth period and nitrogen fertilizers are lost through leaching, it is better not to apply too much nitrogenous fertilizers at one time, but to apply in split doses throughout the growth period. This will supply nitrogen to growing plants during the entire growth period and the plants will not suffer from nitrogen deficiency. 3. Phosphorus is required during the early root development and early plant growth. As such, crop plants utilize 2/3 of the total requirement of phosphorus when the plants accumulate 1 / 3 of their dry weight. In other words, plants require more of phosphorus during the early growth period. 4. All phosphatic fertilizers release phosphorus for plant growth slowly. This is true even of superphosphate which contains monocalcium phosphate or water-soluble P2O5. On application of superphosphate to the soil, water-soluble P2OS becomes immediately slightly insoluble or is converted into dicalcium phosphate or citrate-soluble P2O5. In this form, phosphorus becomes available to plants slowly. On the one hand, phosphorus is required in greater quantities during the early growth period, while on the other, all phosphatic fertilizers become available to the growing plants slowly. As such, it is always recommended that the entire quantity of phosphatic fertilizers should be applied before sowing or planting. Potash behaves partly like nitrogen and partly like phosphorus. From the point of view of the rate of absorption, it is like nitrogen, being absorbed up to the harvesting stage. But potassic fertilizers, like phosphatic fertilizers, become available slowly. As such, it is always advisable to apply the entire quantity of the potash at sowing time. Leaching is greater from sandy soils than from heavier textured soils, like clayey soils. This means that more frequent application, or split application of nitrogenous fertilisers, and sometimes of potassic fertilisers, is desirable on sandy soils. Practical recommendations based on the principles guiding the time of application of fertilisers can be summed up as follows:  Nitrogenous fertilizers should be applied in two split doses to crops of four to five months duration, in three splits to crops of 9 to 12 months duration, and in four to five splits when crops are of still longer duration, like adsali crop of sugarcane.  On sandy soils or lighter soils, more frequent or split application of nitrogenous fertilizers is desirable, compared to heavy textured soils, like clayey soils. This is important for reducing losses due to leaching.  The entire quantity of water-soluble phosphatic fertilizers should be applied in one dose at sowing time. In acid soils, it is advisable to apply bone-meal or rock phosphate a week or fortnight prior to sowing.  Potassic fertilizers also should be applied in one dose at planting time. 36

Selection of correct method of fertilizer application: Nitrogenous fertilizers are easily soluble in water and move rapidly in all directions from the place of application. In other words, nitrogenous fertilizers applied on the soil surface reach the plant roots easily and rapidly. As such, these fertilizers are broadcast on the soil surface just before sowing. Since nitrogen is liable to be lost by leaching, it is applied at different stages of plant growth. Since nitrogenous fertilisers move rapidly in moist soil, application of nitrogenous fertilisers on the soil surface followed by irrigation is good enough to meet the nitrogen requirement at the critical stage of plant growth. In other words, nitrogenous fertilisers are suitable for top-dressing and side-dressing. Since phosphorus moves slowly from the point of placement, it should be placed where it will be readily accessible to the plant roots. Progressive fixation of phosphates by soil clays continues to diminish their efficiency for a considerable period following application. Fixation refers to any chemical or physical interaction between the applied plant nutrients and the soil whereby the nutrients become less available to crops. To reduce the fixation of phosphate, phosphatic fertilisers should be so placed that these come into minimum contact with the soil particles and are closer to the plant roots. In other words, localized placement of phosphatic fertilisers near the seeds or seedling roots should be practised. This is desirable for three important reasons: (i) (ii)

Restricted contact of fertilisers with the soil lessens the fixation of phosphate; Necessary plant food is placed within easy reach of the plant roots. The possibility of injurious concentrations is minimized if the placement is accurately controlled; and (iii) The fertiliser placed in a side band along the row does not readily furnish nutrients to weeds growing between the rows. Since potassic fertilizers move slowly in the soil, they should also be placed near the root zone. Different methods of fertiliser application: 1. Application of fertilisers in solid form A. BROADCAST Broadcasting at planting Top-dressing B. PLACEMENT Plough- sole placement Deep placement Sub-soil placement C. LOCALIZED PLACEMENT Contact placement, Combined-drilling or drill placement Band placement Pellet application Side-dressing 37

2. Application of fertilisers in liquid form Starter solutions Foliar application or spray fertilisation Direct application to the soil Application through irrigation water Balanced fertilisation is also referred as integrated nutrient management or integrated plant nutrient supply (IPNS). This refers to an approach in which the external nutrient needs of a crop are met from the approximately combined use of fertilisers, crop residues, recyclable wastes, organic manures and fertilisers (Tandon, 1994). Profitable use of fertilisers: For the most profitable use of fertilisers, the following common questions should be answered. How much fertiliser to use? What kind of fertiliser to use? How to apply fertiliser? When to apply fertiliser? Factors affecting optimum fertiliser dose: The optimum fertiliser doses worked out from field experiments for each crop and for each region of the country need to be adjusted to suit the local differences in various factors like previous crop, supply of farmyard manure, soil texture, etc. The factors which affect the optimum fertiliser dose are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Initial soil fertility; Soil pH; Soil texture; Soil erosion; Rainfall and distribution; Irrigation; Previous crop raised and rotation of crops; Intensity of cropping plant density, legume mixture, etc.;

The use farmyard manure and other organic manures like green manuring; Variety of crop; and Sowing period. To a farmer, instead of a crop, land is a unit and management practices should be applied to agriculture for efficient utilization of all resources, maintaining stability in production and obtaining higher net returns. Timely application of proper and balanced nutrients to the crop or crops in sequence and improvement of soil fertility and productivity, correction of ill effects of soil reactions and increasing soil organic matter through the application of green manure, organic wastes, biofertilizers and profitable recycling of organic wastes are must for higher production. Determining the fertilizer schedule is complex in sequential cropping system as several factors have to be considered. The important factors are: soil supplying power, total uptake by crops, residual effect of fertilizers, nutrients added by legume crop, crop residue left on the soil and efficiency of crops in utilizing the soil and applied nutrients. Soil contribution to the crops should be known before deciding on the quantum of fertilizer application. The total amount of nutrients taken by the crops in one sequence gives an indication of the fertilizer requirement of the system. Balance sheet 38

approach is followed to know whether the amount of fertilizers applied is equal, more or less to the total uptake of nutrients by different crops in the system. The balance is obtained by subtracting the fertilizers applied to crops in the system from the nutrients taken up by the crop. Application of manures and fertilizers is essential to make up the loss of nutrients from soil taken up by the crops. Different crops require variable amount of nutrients. Green manuring and green leaf manuring are also practiced by the farmers and this practice adds nitrogen to the soil in addition to organic matter. Green manuring with Dhaincha is a common practice. However, green manuring in dry lands is not practicable due to limitation of soil moisture. Principle of irrigation: Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the soil for the purpose of supplying moisture essential for plant growth. Irrigation principle deal with what, when, how and why regarding the irrigation of crops. The purpose of irrigation is :           

To add water to soil to supply the moisture essential for plant growth. To provide crop insurance against short duration drought. To reduce the hazards of soil piping. To soften tillage pans. To facilitates cultivation and preparation of good seed bed. To improve seedling establishment after transplanting. To facilitates germination after a dry sowing. To facilitate seedling emergence in a soil crusted, compacted soon after sowing. To provide protection against frost. To wash down surface applied fertilizers in to the root zone. To discourage the incidence of certain soil borne pathogens (wilt) and insects pests (Termite).

But irrespective of the purpose for which irrigation water is used by the irrigators, we have a good understanding of the factors and processes having a bearing on the following questions: i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi)

Is the water available for the irrigation suitable for the purpose? How best to convey the water from the source to the field? When to apply the water? How much water to apply? How best to apply the water? When to repeat?

Different methods are used to apply irrigation water to the crop depending on the land slope, amount of water and equipment available, the crop and method of cultivation of crop. These irrigation methods are classified as surface, sub surface, overhead or sprinkler and drip irrigation methods. Among them, surface irrigation methods are the most common. Sprinkler irrigation is adopted where land levelling is uneconomical or impractical and drip irrigation is used where water is scarce. Under irrigation management to obtain maximum yield various points should kept in mind: 1. Optimum time of irrigation 2. Amount and interval of irrigation 3. Depth of irrigation 39

4. Minimize water use: Apply only enough water to meet crop needs. This can be determined through regular soil moisture monitoring or through a “check book” system to monitor water applied and crop needs. 5. Improve Irrigation efficiency: use efficient irrigation system such as drip irrigation to minimize evaporation. 6. Apply water at rate the lower than the soil infiltration rate to reduce runoff due to excess irrigation that cause soil erosion. 7. Uniform irrigation: make sure water is applied uniformly. This makes the water more efficient, and reduces the chance of runoff and leaching in certain areas where water may be over applied. 8. Provide good drainage: Stalinizations in areas of low rainfall can be minimized by providing good drainage along with the irrigation, to leach down through the soil profile. 9. Method of irrigation There are four primary types of irrigation: 1. Surface Irrigation - With surface irrigation, water flows directly over the surface of the soil. The entire surface can be flooded or the water can be applied through furrows between the rows (for row crops). 2. Sub irrigation - With sub irrigation, the water table is artificially raised either through blocking ditches or by supplying water through the perforated pipes also used for subsurface drainage. 3. Sprinkler Irrigation - With sprinkler irrigation, water is sprayed through the air from pressurized nozzles, and falls like rain on the crop. 4. Trickle or Drip Irrigation - Trickle or drip irrigation supplies water directly onto or below the soil surface through "emitters' that control water flow. Principle of plant protection: Successful weed, disease and insect control are another important factor in raising healthy crops. Apart from reduction in yield, the quality of produce from weed, disease and insect affected plant is invariable poor. General principle may be adhered to for effective management of disease and pests in crops. i) seeds should be treated with appropriate chemicals ii) Spray of chemicals iii) Rouging of diseased plants. Adoption of adequate, need based, timely and exacting plant protection measures against weeds, insect pests, pathogens, as well as correction of deficiencies and disorders. The principles of plant protection provide the basis for the identification of optimal practice in the use of plant protection products. It provides a practical standard for assessing individual practices with efficacy, human health, animal health and environmental safety being the principal endpoints. The principles of plant protection provide the basis for: (i) Choice of active substance and formulation (ii) Choice of – a) Dosage (and if appropriate volume) b) Number of applications to be used c) Their timing d) Application equipment to be used and the method of application e) Crop factors (e.g. cultivar, sowing rate, timing of sowing, fertilization regime, training system, age, spacing) f) Climatic and edaphic factors (e.g. topography, soil type, rainfall, temperature, light). 40

g) h) i) j)

Possibilities for cultural and biological control, Cost effectiveness The harmful organism spectrum to be controlled Compatibility between products and identified side-effects

Principles of weed management: Weed is a plant that originates under a natural environment and in response to imposed and natural environment, evolved and continues to do so as an interfering associate our desired plants and activities. Weeds account for 45% reduction in the yield. Climatic, edaphic and biotic factors influence the distribution, prevalence, competition ability, behavior and survival of weed. Types of weed management: •Prevention •Control: •Eradication In weed science, prevention is better than control, but control is required because weeds arrive without notice and are present before they are prevented. Prevention and eradication require long-term thinking and planning Methods of weed control: Mechanical/physical (Hand-pulling, hand-hoeing, tillage, mowing, flooding, mulching, burning Cultural –Crop competition, crop rotation, crop varieties, fertility manipulation, planting date, plant population and spacing Biological –Insects, pathogens, herbivores Chemical –Herbicides Pre plant incorporated, pre emergence, post emergence Points to be remembered for best weed control results:     

 

Adopt the field sanitation practices that prevent weeds from entering or spreading across your field Planting certified seed is a good starting point to reduce weeds Control of volunteer weeds along field edges and ditches Cleaning equipment before moving from field to field Help the crop to compete against weeds o Several things can be done to give the crop an advantage over weeds like fertilizer o placement o placing the fertilizer where the crop, but not weeds, has access allows the crop to be o more competitive Banding reduces competitiveness and population density of weeds Always take the competitive crop varieties e.g. taller varieties close the canopy more completely than shorter types, which helps shade weeds 41

    



Don’t give weeds a chance to adopt Crop rotation – rotating crops with different life cycles will help prevent weeds from adapting Rotating crops allows rotating herbicide practices Scout your field to assess the type and number of weeds to help determine spray operation Consider timing of weed emergence relative to the crop growth stage – use the concepts of CPWC( critical period of weed crop competition) and economic thresholds ( it is the level of weed infestation at which the cost of weed control equals the increased return on the crop yield ) Always keep in mind the cost of delaying weed control

To make weed control program effective first very critically identify the problem, secondly select the proper control measure and finally implement the program properly. To get maximum efficiency of applied herbicides follow these points:      

Do it right Proper herbicide(s) Proper herbicide rate Proper placement of material Proper time of application Proper manner of application

Principle of harvesting: The reaping what has been sown is literally harvesting or harvesting is the process of collecting the mature crop from the field. With increase in irrigation facilities and easy availability of fertilizers, intensive cropping is being practiced. Harvesting assumes considerable importance because the crop has to be harvested as early as possible to make way for another crop. Adoption of suitable method and time of harvesting of crop to release land for succeeding crop/crops and efficient utilization of residual moisture, plant nutrients and other management practices should be taken into consideration. The crop can be harvested at physiological maturity instead of at harvest maturity. The field can be then be vacated one week earlier for planting another crop. Because of continuous cropping, the harvesting time may coincide with heavy rains and special post-harvest operations, like artificial drying, treating the crop with common salts etc. are practices to save the produce. The following points must be kept in mind in this regards are: 1. The crop generally harvested at physiological maturity. 2. The time of crop harvest influences the yield, use quality and storage. 3. Ideal time to harvest depends upon several factors like economic part, utilization of product and post harvest management. 4. Method of harvesting i.e. manual and mechanized harvesting depends upon time availability and cost associated with harvesting. Under threshing bullock trampling and animal drawn thresher were used which were replaced by power thresher operated by tractor or electric motor.

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Time of harvesting: If the crop is harvested early, the produce contains high moisture and more immature grains.. The yields will be low due to unfilled grains. It is very difficult to store the produce as shrivelled grains with high moisture are prone to primary infestation of pests. The quality of grain as well as germination percentage is reduced. Late harvesting results in shattering of grains, germination even before harvesting during rainy season and breakage during processing. Hence, harvesting at correct time is essential to get good quality grains and higher yield. Crops can be harvested at physiological maturity or at harvest maturity. Crop is considered to he at physiological maturity when the translocation of photosynthates are stopped to economic part. In other words, physiological maturity refers to a developmental stage after which no further increase in dry matter occurs in the economic part. In cereals, moisture content of grains is very high during milking stage and it gradually decreases due to accumulation of photosynthates. The moisture content falls steeply from 40 per cent to 20 per cent which is an indication of attaining physiological maturity. At this stage, translocation of carbohydrates is stopped due to formation of abscission layer between rachis and grain. Harvest maturity generally occurs seven days after physiological maturity. The important processes during this period are loss of moisture from the plants. The general symptoms of harvest-maturity are yellowing of leaves, drying of grains or pods. Crop is harvested at physiological maturity when there is need to vacate the field for sowing another crop. Under all other situations, it is advisable to follow harvest-maturity. Principle of storage: During storage, food grains are subjected to several losses. Several factors that influence the storage of food grains are moisture content, quality of produce, climate and storage conditions. The most important factor deciding the storability of the produce is moisture content of grains. Higher moisture content of grains results in severe attack of insects and microorganisms in addition to heating and germination. Grains with high moisture respire at higher rate than dry seeds. When the moist seeds are stored, Insects obtain water needed for their body from the food material they eat. Moist seeds are amenable for easy biting or chewing by insects. Due to this, grains with high moisture are prone to higher insect attack than dry seeds. Sometimes. moist grains may even germinate and become unfit for consumption. Moisture content for safe storage of grains of most crops is about 14 per cent. Among the climatic factors, temperature, light and relative humidity are important factors influencing storage of food grains. Respiration of grains increases with increase in temperature. In addition, temperature influences metabolism, growth, development, reproduction, behaviour and distribution of insects. Insect development is generally limited below 10°C and above 45°C. Light influences movement ovipositor and development of stored grain pests. Darkness is necessary for egg laying. Grains are hygroscopic and absorb moisture from the atmosphere. Under high relative humidity, moisture content of grain increase. Dunnage, stacking and pest control are three important aspects of storage. Dunnage is any material like crates, mats, wooden beams, stones which are placed over the ground and below the bags so as to avoid direct contact of grains with the floor and for providing aeration. Wooden crates provide sufficient space between floor and produce and allow free air circulation. If the bags are placed on the floor itself, moisture from the top layers migrates to lower layers and accumulates at the bottom as there is 43

no escape. This process causes caking up, charring and development of heat in lower layers of the stack. It is advisable to spread mats on crates before placing the bags. The mats do not allow spilled grains to fall on the ground and avoid attracting insects. The second important aspect of storage is stacking. In case of bag storage, stacking is done up to 13 bags high. The stack should be brought to p yramidal shape. Several pests attack the produce during storage. They can he controlled by adopting different ideal methods of pest control like prevention, spraying and fumigation. Moisture content of grain and pest intensity is directly related. Pest attack can be reduced by thorough drying of the produce. There are two type of storage: a) Bulk storage b) Bags storage Principle of post-harvest management Good designs of cleaners, graders, driers, decorticators, rice mills, dhal mill, oil mills and other processing equipments are commercially available for primary processing and value addition and recycling wastes. These equipments help in minimizing losses and maintaining the quality of produce.

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Foundation Course Manual on ICAR-JRF (PGS) in Agriculture – General Topics Eds KS Bangarwa, Surender S Dhankhar and RK Pannu CCS HAU, Hisar 2014, pp 45-68.

Cultivation of Rice, Wheat, Chickpea, Pigeon-pea, Sugarcane and Groundnut AK Dhaka Assistant Professor, Department of Agronomy CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125004 Rice (Oryza sativa L.) belongs to family Poaceae which is the staple diet of half the worlds’ population. India is the largest rice-growing country, while China is the largest producer of rice. Rice is healthful as it does not contain fat, cholesterol, sodium free and good source of protein, vitamins and minerals such as thiamine, niacin, iron, riboflavin, vitamin D, calcium, and fiber. It is low sugar. All rice is gluten free, making rice the essential choice for people with gluten free dietary requirements. Classification The genus Oryza includes 24 species, of which 22 are wild and 2 namely Oryza sativa and Oryza glaberrima are cultivated. All the varieties found in Asia, America and Europe belongs to Oryza sativa and varieties found in West Africa belong to Oryza glaberrima. Oryza sativa has three sub species: 1. Indica (High tillering, easily lodged, photoperiod sensitive, vulnerable to grain shattering with non sticky grain texture) . 2. Japonica (Low tillering, medium in height, photoperiod non sensitive, tolerant to cool temperature, short and round and sticky grain. 3. Javanica (Low tillering, tall height, photoperiod non sensitive, tolerant to cool temperature and large and bold grain) Climatic requirement Rice is essentially a short day plant. A combination of temperature, photoperiod and light intensity determines the growth period and crop performance. The optimum climate requirements for its normal growth include 20-25 oC temperature throughout the crop duration, clear sky during day for better interception of solar energy and high photosynthetic activity, low night temperature for reduced maintenance respiration and equitable distribution of rainfall. Soil requirement Rice is grown in all types of soils. However, soils capable of holding water for a longer period such as heavy neutral soils (clay, clay loam and loamy) are most suited for its cultivation. It is grown normally in soils with soil reaction ranging from pH 5 to 8. Sowing time In parts of Eastern region and Peninsular India, the mean temperature is favourable throughout the year for rice cultivation; hence two or three crops are taken in a year. In northern and western parts of the country, where temperatures are fairly low only one crop of rice is taken during kharif season. There are three seasons for growing rice in India.

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Crop season Autumn Rice/ Pre-Kharif Rice Winter Rice/ Kharif Rice Summer Rice/ Rabi Rice

Local Name Aus (W.B., Bihar)

Sowing time May - June

Harvest time Sept. – Oct.

Area 7% of total area

Aman

June - July

Nov. – Dec.

84% of total area

Boro, Dalua (W.B., Assam.)

Nov. - Dec.

March - April

9% of total area

Systems of Rice cultivation In India rice is grown mainly on two types of soils i.e. uplands and lowlands. The system of rice cultivation in a region depends largely on factors such as situation of land, type of soil, irrigation resources, availability of labourers, intensity and distribution of rainfall etc. a) Dry (Upland) cultivation: This system is mainly confined to rainfed ecosystem with no supplementary irrigation facilities. Land is ploughed using disc harrow twice to obtain fine tilth and uproot the weeds with the first rain of the season. The seeds are sown either by broadcasting or drilling in line. In general, traditional tall varieties combining early maturity and drought tolerance are preferred and hardly any chemical fertilizers are used. b) Wet (low land) cultivation: This system is prevalent in areas where adequate water supply is assured either through rainfall or irrigation or both. The land is ploughed thoroughly and puddle in 3-5 cm standing water. Puddling is done largely by bullock-drawn country plough and wooden planker. In large farms, puddling is done with power tiller or tractor mounted caze wheel depending upon soil condition. It may be of two types i.e direct seeded or transplanted rice. Direct Seeded Rice (DSR) in place of the traditional transplanted rice is a way to drastically reduce labour charges for nursery raising, puddling and transplanting. DSR avoids puddling and does not need continuous submergence. So it reduces overall water requirement of rice crop. In DSR, rice is sown directly into the moist soil like wheat, corn or cotton. The best planting time of DSR will be 10 to 15 days earlier than the traditional transplanting time. Laser leveling is necessary. It increases water efficiency, improves crop stand and optimizes input use. Advantages of DSR are labour saving up to 75 %, water saving up to 30 %, 10-12 days early maturity as compared to transplanted rice, timely sowing of successive wheat crop, saving of machinery operations (needed for puddling), avoids compaction of soil due to puddling and good precursor of zero tillage technology. Planting techniques and seed rates in DSR Sowing is done in moist soils using a wheat drill or Zero- till drill calibrated to deliver desired seed quantity for basmati and course rice varieties keeping 22 cm row spacing. Fields should be irrigated when nursery planting time begins and properly prepared for planting the crop. Sowing can be done by broadcast also. In the later case seed should be moistened in water for 8-10 hours to hasten germination. Soaked seed should, however, be dried in shade to avoid stickiness of wet seed for broadcasting. Soaking of seed with fungicide eliminates or reduces seed borne and soil-borne diseases. The seed rate for direct seeding of fine grain rice 46

varieties should be 25-30 kg/ha and for coarse varieties it should be 30-35 kg/ha. Seed should be sown 2-3cm deep for good crop stand. Placing seed below 3cm affects seed emergence. Fertilizer management The optimum quantity of fertilizer needed depends on the fertility status of the field soil. A generalized recommendation is 150 kg N, 60 kg P2O5 and 60 kg K2O with 25 kg ZnSo4 per ha. All ZnSo4, P and K, 1/3rd of N should be drilled along with the seed; the remaining N can be applied in two splits; 1/3rd after 25 days of sowing and 1/3rd after 45 days of sowing. Irrigation management Irrigation is very critical in DSR especially at earlier stages. Soil must be kept moist for the first 12 days to ensure complete germination. First irrigation should be applied a day after sowing. DSR crop does not require continuous submergence and can be safely irrigated when hairline cracks appear on the soil. Moisture stress should be avoided at tillering, panicle initiation, and grain filling stages which are crucial for obtaining higher yields. At these stages it is advisable to keep fields flooded. Weed management In DSR fields, weeds are major challenge. Weed control through adequate land preparation, judicious use of water, and use of appropriate herbicides is, therefore, essential. The crop should be kept free of weeds during the first 40-45 days after that weeds will not influence yield adversely. Pendimethalin @ 800 ml/acre pre-emergence application can control weeds effectively. Transplanted rice: About 45% of rice is grown under irrigated condition, predominantly as transplanted crop. Direct seeding of germinated seeds in wet soil (puddled field) is also practiced in areas with abundant irrigation water and problems of labour availability. Nursery raising: The choice of method of nursery raising depends on soil type, irrigation water availability and seasonal factors. There are 3 recognized methods of nursery raising. Wet nursery: Seed-beds are prepared 25-30 days before the scheduled transplanting time by ploughing the field twice in dry condition and puddling later in standing water (2-3 cm deep). The total seed bed required is 10% of the total area for transplanting. For raising nursery in one hectare 25 kg N + 25 kg P2O5 + 25 kg ZnSO4 should be applied before sowing of seed. Divide the area into small beds and level it. After 4-5 hours when soil particles settle down than broadcast the sprouted seeds. 45-50 g sprouted seeds per square m. area is required. Irrigate the nursery area in the evening and do not allow the water to stand. Two weeks after sowing apply 25 kg N/ha. If iron chlorosis occurs than spray 0.5% FeSO4 solution. (a) Dry nursery: Prepare the seed bed as per wet nursery. In this method dry seeds are sown either broadcast or in close lines and covered with a thin layer of soil. Dry beds are irrigated frequently. Seedlings are ready for transplanting 20-25 days after germination. Adequate moisture should be ensured in nursery beds to avoid root damage while uprooting the seedlings. (b) Dapog nursery: This method of raising nursery has been introduced in India from Philippines. Although this method requires more care, it saves water and expenses on nursery uprooting. Seedlings can be transplanted easily over long distances and used in mechanical transplanting. A small area of 30 m2 is required to raise seedlings sufficient for 1ha. Mat nursery is required in any flat surface including cement floors, which should however be lined with banana leaves or polythene sheets to prevent direct contact 47

between seedlings and the surface. A mixture of soil and FYM in equal proportion is sprinkled as a thin layer before sowing. Pre-germinated seeds are sown on the top of leaves or polythene sheets @ 1 kg seed/m2. Seed-bed is irrigated to 1-2 cm depth after 6 days. Seedlings are ready for transplanting 14 days after sowing. Time of nursery sowing Short duration dwarf varieties:

15 May to 30 June

Medium duration dwarf varieties: Basmati group:

15 May to 30 May Ist week of June

Preparation of main field Plough the field 20-25 cm deep by mould board plough or by harrow and keep the field free from weeds and other stubbles. Before transplanting irrigate the field and allow the water to stand for 5-7 cm. Puddle the field by 2-3 times depending upon the soil condition. Apply fertilizer as per recommendation. Phosphorous can also be applied in two splits: half at the time of puddling and half at three weeks after transplanting. If due to some reasons ZnSO4 is not applied at transplanting than it can be applied as foliar spray. Depending upon the requirement 2-3 spray of 0.5% ZnSO4 + 2.5% urea can be done one month after transplanting. The first spray can be done one month after transplanting. For efficient utilization of nitrogen, apply ammonium form of nitrogen (Urea or ammonium sulphate). Fertilizer requirement Duration N P2O5 K2O ZnSO4 Time of application kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha Non basmati Short 120 60 60 25 Apply full P, K, zinc and1/3N at puddling & remaining N in two split at 3 and & 6 weeks after transplanting Medium 150 60 60 25 -doBasmati Tall 60 30 25 Apply full P and zinc at puddling & N in two equal splits at 3 and 6 weeks after transplanting Dwarf 90 30 25 Apply full P, K, zinc &1/3N at puddling & remaining N in two split at 3& 6 weeks after transplanting Always apply nitrogenous fertilizers in the evening. Green manuring also helps in improving the yield. After harvesting of wheat in Rice – wheat rotation sowing of Sesbania can be done using a seed rate of 25-30 kg/ha and it must be incorporated in the soil at 45–50 days stage which will provide 20-30 kg N/ha to the succeeding crop of rice. Biofertilizers such as blue-green algae or Azolla provide 20-25 kg N/ha, if added as partial supplement to inorganic fertilizers. Transplanting Generally 2-3 seedlings per hill should be transplanted at following spacing. For all varieties at 20 x 15 cm for normal sowing and 15 x 15 cm for late planting while for basmati varieties spacing should be 20 x 15 cm. 48

Varieties Non scented medium duration (136-150 days) : HKR 127, HKR 126, HKR 120, PR 106 and Jaya (1) Non scented medium early duration (120-135 days) : HKR 47, HKR 46, IR 64, Birsa Dhan-101, TRC 246-C10 and CR-1009 (2) Non scented early duration (110-120 days) : Govind, Pusa 33, Annada, IR-36 and IET-7613. (3) Scented Tall (140-155 days) Taraori Basmati, Basmati 370 and CSR 30 (4) Scented Semi-dwarf (140-155 days) Haryana basmati no.1, Pusa basmati No.1,Pusa 1460 ,Pusa 1121 (6) Hybrids : Haryana Sankar Dhan 1, Haryana Sankar Dhan 2 Water management Proper water management facilitates good tillering and better nitrogen uptake and helps to reduce weed population. It is ideal to maintain 2-5 cm water throughout the growing season. The water requirement is high during initial seedling period covering about 10 days. Tillering to flowering is most critical stage when rice crop should not be subjected to any moisture stress. Ensure enough water from panicle initiation stage to flowering. Application of small quantities of water at short intervals to keep the soil saturated is more effective and economical than flooding at longer intervals. Make sure that cracks should not develop in the field otherwise water retention in the field becomes a problem and more irrigation water will be required to complete the life cycle of the crop. Water should be drained out from the field 7 to 15 days before harvesting depending on the soil type to encourage quick and uniform maturity of grains. Weed management Weeds causes yield losses on rice from 10 to 40% depending upon weed flora and their intensity. Grassy weeds emerge soon after transplanting, but broadleaf weeds and sedges appear after 3-4 weeks of transplanting. Control measures One or two ploughing by harrow or cultivator followed by puddling are helpful in controlling weeds. Some of the weeds viz. Echinochloa and Cyperus sps emerge even after puddling and need inter-culture or mechanical operations to check their infestation. Clean nursery is very important to have healthy seedlings for transplanting. Pretilachlor 50 EC + safener (Sofit) at 2.0 litre/ha product per acre can provide 80-90% control of weeds when applied 1-3 days after sowing (DAS) by mixing in 60 kg sand. Other herbicides viz. butachlor (Machete or Delchlor or Hiltachlor) or thiobencarb (Saturn) or pendimethalin (Stomp) at 3.0 litre/ha applied at 6 DAS by mixing in 60 kg sand can also be used, though the level of weed control is lower than with pretilachlor with safener. Major herbicides recommended for the control of weeds in transplanted rice Sr. Common name No. 1.

Butachlor 50 EC

Trade name

Machete, Trapp, Teer, Fast Mix, Delchlor, Narmadachlor, Hiltachlor, Milchlor, Capchlor 49

Application rates (kg/ha) 3.00

Application time 2-3 days after transplanting (DAT)

2.

Anilofos 30 EC

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Anilofos 50 EC Anilofos 18 EC Pretilachlor 50 EC Thiobencarb(satrun EC) Oxadiargyl 80 WP Metsulfuron+Chlorimuron (Ready mix) 2,4-D Ester 38 EC / Amine 58% Ethoxysulfuron 15 WDG

9. 10.

Aniloguard, Arozin, Control-H Aniloguard Rico Rifit, Eraze Saturn Top Star Almix

1.32

2-3 DAT

0.81 2.25 2.00 3.00 0.12 0.02

2-3 DAT 2-3 DAT 2-3 DAT 2-3 DAT 2-3 DAT 25-30 DAT

Several

1.00

25-30 DAT

Sun Rice

0.12

25-30 DAT

Note: 1. Herbicides at serial No. 1-6 should be applied by mixing in 150 kg sand/ha. These herbicides are mainly effective against grassy weeds and to some extent on sedges. 2. Top Star should be applied by spray method using 375 L water per ha. 3. Herbicides at Sr. No. 8-10 are used to control broadleaf weeds and sedges. 4. For the control of complex weed flora, apply recommended rate of anilofos, butachlor or pretilachlor at 2-3 DAT and follow up application of Almix or 2,4-D or Sun Rice at 25-30 DAT after draining out water. Precautions: 1. Herbicides should be well mixed with sand. 2. Interval between puddling and transplanting should be minimum; otherwise germinating weeds will not be controlled by herbicides. 3. Water level of 4-5 cm should be maintained for at least 4 to 5 days after herbicide application. System of Rice Intensification (SRI): It was developed in 1983 by the French Jesuit Father Henri de Laulanie in Madagascar and has now spread to many parts of the world. SRI is neither a new variety nor a hybrid. It is only a method of cultivating paddy. Any paddy variety can be cultivated by this method.SRI encourages rice plant to grow healthy with large root volume, profuse and strong tillers, non-lodging, big panicle, more and well filled spikelets and higher grain weight and resists insects because it allows rice to grow naturally. Under SRI Paddy fields are not flooded but keep the soil moist during vegetative phase later only one inch water depth is sufficient.SRI requires only about half as much water as normally applied in irrigated rice.In SRI method, utmost care should be taken in the preparation of nursery bed, as 8-12 days old seedlings are transplanted. Golden rice: Rice kernels do not contain vitamin A, so people who obtain most of their calories from rice are at risk of vitamin A deficiency. German and Swiss researchers have genetically engineered rice to produce beta-carotene, the precursor to vitamin A, in the rice kernel. The beta-carotene turns the processed (white) rice a "gold" colour, hence the name "golden rice". The beta-carotene is converted to vitamin A in humans who consume the rice. Wheat Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is locally known as Gehun/Kanak belongs to family Poaceae. It is the world’s number one cereal crop with an area of about 214 million hectare, which is about 14% of the global arable land area. Wheat is the second most important food 50

crop of the country, which contributes nearly one-third of the total food grains production. It contains more proteins (10-12%) than other cereals. Wheat has a relatively high content of niacin and thiamine. Due gluten content some time especially in children an allergic disease named ‘celiac’ may appear. Classification of wheat: According to Bayles and Clark (1954) the 12 cultivated species of Triticum are Triticum aestivum / vulgare (Common bread Wheat), T .durum (Durum/macroni Wheat), T. dicoccum (Emmer Wheat), T. sphaerococcum (Shot Wheat), T. macha (Macha Wheat), T. vavilovi (Vavilovii Wheat), T. spelta (Spelt Wheat), T. compactum (Club Wheat), T. polonicum (Polish Wheat), T. turgidum (Poulard Wheat), T. persicum / carthlicum (Persian Wheat) and T. monococcum (Einkorn Wheat). T. sphaerococcum has now practically gone out of cultivation because of its low productivity and high susceptibility to diseases. Only spring-type wheat varieties are grown in the country, though these are raised in winter. Common bread wheat (T. aestivum) is the most important species, occupying more than 90% of the total wheat area in the country. It is grown all over India from the sea-level up to an elevation of 3,500 m in the Himalayas. Mexican dwarf wheat developed by incorporating dwarfing gene Norin 10 was introduced in India by Dr. N.E. Borlaug (Noble Laureate). Macaroni wheat (T. durum) is the second most important species, occupying nearly 10% of the wheat area. Earlier its cultivation was primarily confined to the central and southern India, with very small area in Punjab and West Bengal. Its cultivation was most common under rain fed conditions only, on account of high susceptibility to rusts. But with the development of high-yielding semi-dwarf types, a large area has come up in Punjab under irrigated conditions. The durum wheat is good for making suit, semya, spaghetti. Emmer wheat (T. dicoccum ), is grown on a very restricted scale in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, where it is known as popatiya, khapli, ravva, godhumalu, samba etc. A large pocket of several thousand hectares of this species exists in Belgaum district of Karnataka along the river Krishna. It has a very high degree of heat tolerance and can be sown as late as December and January without much fear of heat damage during grain filling, even in the southern zone. It is preferred for several south Indian dishes, which use granular form of wheat. Climatic requirement: The best crop are produced in areas favoured with cool, moist weather during the major portion of the growing period followed by dry, warm weather to enable the grain to ripen properly. The optimum temperature range for ideal germination of wheat seed is 20 to 250C though the seeds can germinate in the temperature range of 3.5-350C. During the heading and flowering stages, excessively high or low temperature and drought are harmful to wheat crop. The temperature conditions at the time of grain filling and development are very crucial for yield. Temperature above 25oC during this period tends to depress grain weight. Very hot temperature during grain-ripening period can result in grain shrivelling. Soil requirement: Well-drained loams and clayey loams are considered the best for growing wheat. However, good crop of wheat can be raised in sandy loams and the black soils also. Durum wheat is considered more suitable for cultivation in heavy and black soils, whereas aestivum wheat is grown in all types of soils.

51

Field preparation: Wheat crop requires a well pulverized but compact seedbed for good and uniform germination. With 3 to 4 ploughings, repeated harrowing, cultivation and planking before sowing to produce firm seedbed are considered desirable for raising a good crop of wheat. Recently zero-tillage and minimal tillage sowing practices using a specially designed zero-till seeding-cum-fertilizer drill have been recommended to save the time required to prepare proper seedbed under the rice-wheat rotation, particularly when medium long and long duration varieties of rice (or basmati types) are grown and the fields get vacated very late in November and December. Sowing time: Normally wheat is sown when the average daily temperatures fall to around 22-23°C, which happens only in November in most wheat-growing areas. Sowing wheat while the temperatures are high (around 25°C) results in poor germination reduced tillering and early onset of flowering, thereby exposing the floral parts to cold damage. Under irrigated conditions, the first fortnight of November is considered the optimum time for sowing the medium and long-duration varieties, which are capable of producing the highest possible yield. Seed rate: For varieties with the medium sized grains (38 to 44 g for 1,000 seeds) a seed rate of 100 kg/ha is recommended. For bold seeded varieties (around 45 g or more/1,000 seeds) a seed rate of 125 kg/ha is optimum. For late-sown and mild salinity condition, 25% higher seed rate (125-150 kg/ha) is recommended. Method of sowing: In many places the seed is sown by hand in furrows behind the plough, drawn by bullocks by the kera method. In Paddy - wheat rotation areas the sowing of wheat should be done with the help of zero till seed- cum -fertilizer drill. The seed of semi-dwarf varieties should be placed at seeding depth of 4 to 5cm depth, since they have short coleoptiles, but that of the tall types can be placed up to a depth of 6 to 7 cm. For irrigated timely sown wheat, a spacing of 20 cm between the rows is considered optimum. For irrigated late-sown conditions, the row spacing is reduced to 18 cm. Under rain fed conditions seed is required to be placed deeper, and after sowing, the furrows are left open. Rain fed wheat is sown at relatively wide spacing of about 25 to 30 cm between the rows. Some farmers sow the crop by broadcasting seeds in the well-prepared fields followed by harrowing. This is an undesirable practice since seed cannot be spread uniformly, and get placed at variable depths resulting in erratic crop stand. The sowing of wheat on Furrow irrigated raised bed system (FIRBS) accommodate 2-3 rows of wheat on raised bed with 75-90 cm spacing between beds. The furrows in between the beds are used for irrigation purpose. The method helps in saving of water up to 40% without loss of yield. Varieties: 1) Early sowing, medium fertility and restricted irrigated conditions : C 306, WH 1025 and WH 1080 2) Timely sowing, medium fertility and restricted irrigated conditions :WH 147 & WH 416 3) Timely sowing, high fertility and irrigated conditions :WH 711,WH 542,WH 283, PBW 502, PBW 550,DBW 17,UP 2338,WH 1105 and PBW 343. 52

4)

Late sown and high fertility conditions: WH 1021,PBW 373, Raj 3765 and Sonalika 5) Timely sowing under salinity and alkalinity conditions :WH-157,KRL 210 and KRL 213 6) Durum wheat varieties: WH 896, WH 912 and PDW 233 Fertilizer requirement: It is better to apply fertilizer on soil test basis. Under irrigated conditions for dwarf varieties of wheat, 150 kg N+ 60 kg P2O5 + 60 kg K2O + 25 kg ZnSO4/ha is recommended. While for tall/desi variety 60 kg N+30 kg P2O5+30 kg K2O/ha is recommended under irrigated conditions. Half nitrogen and full dose of phosphorus, potash and zinc should be drilled at the time of sowing. Remaining half nitrogen should be applied after first irrigation. If the zinc is not applied at the time of sowing then sprays twice 0.5% zinc sulphate + 2.5% urea at 45 and 60 days after sowing.Under rain fed conditions 30 kg N+15 Kg P 2O5/ha is recommended. All the fertilizers must be drilled at the time of sowing. Treat 100 kg seed with 10 packets of azotobacter + 10 packets of P.S.B before sowing will improve the wheat nutrition as INM. If wheat is sown after legumes or fallow then 25% dose of nitrogen can be reduced. In case of light soils, nitrogen can be splitted at three times instead of two times. In light soils, in case of nitrogen deficiency spray 3% urea at tillering stage. Irrigation management: Generally 5-6 irrigations are applied to wheat crop in the absence of winter rainfall. The first irrigation should be applied at CRI stage (22DAS). In case of late sowing 1 st irrigation should be delayed to 4 weeks after sowing. Irrigation at CRI should not be avoided in wheat crop. Depending upon the irrigation availability the following schedule should be followed. Available number of irrigations Irrigation application (DAS) 1 (CRI) 22 2 (CRI and heading) 22, 85 3 (CRI, Jointing and milking) 22, 65, 105 4 (CRI, Tillering, heading and milking) 22, 45, 85, 105 5 (CRI, Tillering, heading, milking and dough) 22, 45, 65, 105, 120 6 (CRI, Tillering, jointing heading, milking and dough) 22, 45, 65, 85, 105, 120 In high water table areas, after pre-sowing irrigation only two irrigations at 25 and 85 DAS are sufficient. Weed management: Weeds reduce the grain yield of wheat by10 to 80% depending upon intensity and type of weed flora under different cropping systems. Integration of cultural, mechanical and chemical methods gives good control of weeds in wheat. Crop rotation with pulses, oilseeds and fodder crop and hoeing after 35-40 DAS gives good control of weeds. Chemical control of weeds in wheat S. No . 1 2

Weeds Broadleaf weeds Hardy broadleaf weeds (R.

Herbicide 2,4-D Na salt (80% WP) or 2,4-D Ester (34.6% EC) 2,4-D Na (80% WP) or 2,4-D E (34.6% EC) 53

Dose (g/ha) 625 750 1250 1500

Time of application (DAS) 30-35 30-35 30-35 30-35

3

4

5

6

dentatus, C. arvensis, C. arvense and L. aphaca) Broadleaf weeds and Asphodelus tenuifolius, Grassy weeds

Grassy weeds Particularly Avena Ludoviciana Pluchea lanceolata

Metsulfuron-methyl (Algrip, 20% WP) Carfentrazone-ethyl (Aim 40 % DF) Isoproturon 50% WP (Delron, Tolkan, Taurus, Greminan, Hilproturon. Isoproturon (75% WP) Nocilon75, Arelon 75% WP) or with Triton, Selvit) Triallate (Avadex, 10 % EC) Triallate fb Isoproturon

Complex weed flora (grassy + broad leaf weeds)

Glyphosate (Round up, Glycel 41 % SL) or

2,4-D E (34.6% EC) Isoproturon (75% WP) + 2,4-D Na (80% WP) or Isoproturon + metsulfuron Total (SSN + MTS)

30-35

50

30-35

2000

30-35

1250

30-35

3000

PPI – Use 25% extra seed rate PPI & 30-35

2500 fb 1250 2.0% Solution

Glyphosate + surfactant or

7

20

1.0% + 0.1% 3000 900 + 650 900 + 15

Spray after wheat harvest at peak growth of Weed ---do-

40

---do30-35 30-35 30-35

Precaution should be taken that Isoproturon has been found to cause phytotoxicity in wheat WH-157 and DWL 5023. 2, 4-D should not be used under mixed cropping where gram, raya or any other broadleaf crop has been grown with wheat. It should also not be used in wheat varieties viz. WH 283, HD 2009, Raj 3077, WH 416 and Sonak. Medicago denticulata and Melilotus indica spp. and Rumex dentatus are not controlled by 2, 4-D, but can effectively be controlled by Algrip. Fumaria parviflora is not effectively controlled by Algrip, but can be controlled by 2,4-D only. Aim is very effective against Malva parviflora, Convolvulus arvensis and Rumex dentatus. Delayed application may lower its efficacy against Chenopodium album, Melilotus indica, Medicago denticulata and Anagallis arvensis. Chemical control of weeds in Isoproturon resistance affected areas Herbicide

Common name

Sulfosulfuron 75% WP

Leader, SF-10 and Safal -75

Clodinafop-propargyl

(Topik, Point,

Dose (g/ha) 32.5 + 1250 ml Surfactant (0.25%) 400 54

Weeds controlled Avena ludoviciana, P. minor and 30-40 % control of broadleaf weeds Avena ludoviciana and P.

15% WP Pinoxaden

Moolah, Rakshak Plus) Axial

Fenoxaprop-p-ethyl

Puma Power

Sulfosulfuron+ metsulfuron (R.M.)

Total

Minor 1000 1000 + S (Puma activator 0.1%) 40 + S (0.25%)

Avena ludoviciana and P. Minor Avena ludoviciana and Phalaris minor

Grassy as well as broad leaf weeds such as Rumex dentatus, Malva parviflora, C. album, Medicago Denticulate and Coronopus didymus Mesosulfuron+ Atlantis 400 + 0.1 Grassy as well as broad leaf Idosulfuron ( R.M.) activator weeds . Clodinafop-propargyl Vesta 400 + 1250 ml Grassy as well as broad leaf + Metsulfuronsurfactant weeds such as Rumex methyl (R.M.) dentatus, Malva parviflora, C. album, Medicago Denticulate and Coronopus didymus Note- Apply any one of the above mentioned herbicides by mixing in 500 litre of water per hectare area after 30- 35 days of sowing. For complex weed flora (grassy and broadleaf weeds) where clodinafop or fenoxaprop are used; sequential application of 2, 4-D, one week after the application of grassy herbicides provides good control of most of the weed flora. Tank mixing of grassy weed herbicides with 2, 4-D is antagonistic and should be avoided. Tank mix of clodinafop or fenoxaprop with Aim (carfentrazone) is compatible, but not that of fenoxaprop plus Algrip (metsulfuron). Sequential application of Algrip, one week after fenoxaprop spray should be followed. Precautions: Sulfosulfuron or its ready mix formulation (Total) should be avoided in areas where sorghum or maize is grown after wheat harvest; however, no residual effect of these herbicides was observed on cotton. CHICKPEA Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is an important cool season food legume. It is also known as Bengal gram. Globally it is the third most important pulse crop after dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) and dry peas (Pisum sativum L.). Chickpea seeds contain on average 1822% protein, 52-70% total carbohydrates, 4-10% fat, 6% crude fiber and 3% ash. Seeds are rich in mineral content as phosphorus (340 mg/100 g), calcium (190 mg/100 g), magnesium (140 mg/100g), iron (7 mg/100 g) and zinc (3 mg/100 g). Its leaves contain consist of mallic and citric acid, which is very useful for stomach ailments. Classification Two major cultivar types designated as Desi/Brown gram (microsperma) and Kabuli/ White chickpea (macrosperma) have emerged under domestication. Desi chickpeas are small and angular with rough brown to yellow testas, while kabuli types are relatively large, plump, 55

and with smooth cream colored testas. Kabuli types are considered relatively more advanced because of their larger seed size and reduced pigmentation achieved through conscious selection. Climatic requirement Chickpea is essentially a subtropical crop, it grows well in a wide range of climates. The crop is very sensitive to excess moisture, high humidity and cloudy weather, which limit flower production, seed set and yield. Severe cold and frost are injurious to it. Chickpea is usually grown after rainy season on stored soil moisture during winter in tropics or spring in temperate and Mediterranean regions. The average air temperature varies from 25° to 30°C with warmer nights with 20°-25°C temperature. Chickpea is a long day plant requiring 12—16 hrs bright sunshine per day. Soil requirement Chickpea thrives well on a wide range of soils including sandy, sandy loam and black cotton soils. It is highly sensitive to saline and sodic soils. A pH range of 6-9 is favourable. Well drained sandy/silty clay loam to deep loam soils of medium fertility which may retain up to 200 mm of moisture in a profile to a depth of 1 meter are considered ideal for chickpea cultivation. The alluvial soils of the Indogangetic belt support bumper crop of Chickpea. Field preparation Chickpea needs cloddy and rough land for good aeration in root zones and does not need a fine seedbed. When grown on residual moisture under rainfed conditions, care should be taken to conserve rain water. At the onset of monsoon deep ploughing and one light harrowing followed by planking at the end of monsoon helps to conserve the moisture. Sowing time The ideal time of sowing in rainfed areas is the middle of October whereas under irrigated condition, middle of November is the optimum time. If the temperature is more than 30oC than chickpea should not be sown as it will lead to high vegetative growth and increase the incidence of wilt. While the optimum time of sowing of Kabuli chickpea is the end of October to the first week of November. Seed rate For timely planting of desi type, 40-45 kg seed per ha is adequate, however for bold seeded varieties like HC-3 and Gaurav a seed rate of 75-80 kg seed per ha is optimal. In case of kabuli types the optimal seed rate is 80 - 100 kg per ha. Method of sowing Seed treated with specific Rhizobium culture should be sown at optimal row spacing of 30cm for timely sown crop under sufficient moisture condition, whereas for rainfed condition it should be wider i.e. 45 cm. However for late (December) planting in irrigated areas, it should be 25 cm. Sowing depth decides the period of emergence. The period of emergence can be shortened with appropriate sowing depth according to soil types and moisture. In loamy sand soil of northern India seeding at 10 cm depth is better than shallow seeding (5 cm depth) if the chickpea be sown on conserved soil moisture condition. Varieties High yielding cultivars for specific situations are: o Drought tolerant: RS 10, G 24, T 3, T 87 and RSG 888 o Late sown situation: JG 74, Strain 76, G 235 and Pant G 114. 56

o Wilt resistant: HC 1, GPF 2, JG 315, KWR 108, DCP 92-3, Vijay, Vishal and JG 74. o Ascochyta blight tolerant: Gaurav, GNG 146, Pusa 261, GNG 469 and PBG I. o Early maturing thermo sensitive: KPG 59, BG 372 and Pant G 186. o Extra bold and bold seeded: Kabuli KAK 2, BO 1053 and HK 2. The popular varieties in Haryana are: H 208, C-235,HC 1,HC 3,HC 5,HK 1 and HK 2 Fertilizer management Chickpea responds 15-20 kg N per ha on coarse textured soils unless the soil is rich in organic matter. Foliar application of 2 % urea at the time of flowering and 10 days thereafter is useful, specially in rainfed areas. The crop responds to 40 - 60 kg P2O5 per ha. Application of 20 kg K2O per ha is recommended under deficient soil conditions. The recommended fertilizer should be drilled at sowing. In addition to this, it is also advised to apply zinc sulphate @ 25 kg/ha in irrigated conditions. Irrigation management Pre-flowering (45-60 DAS) and pod filling stages appear to be the most sensitive to soil moisture stress. Depending upon the initial moisture content, winter rains and sowing time, the schedule may vary. Kabuli chickpea needs a little more irrigation. Chickpea should not be irrigated at flowering stage otherwise flower drop may take place. Weed management The initial 4-8 weeks are most critical for weed competition and the first mechanical weeding has been advised 25-30 DAS, and the second 45-50 DAS. However, in case of severe infestation, a third weeding may be needed around 70-75 DAS. Chemical weed control with pre-sowing Fluchloralin application @ 1.0 kg per ha followed by one hoeing 45 DAS has been effective. Pendimethalin @ 1 kg a.i. per ha as pre-emergence followed by one hand weeding at 45 DAS provide effective control of annual broad leaved and grassy weeds in chickpea crop. Nipping It is the process of plucking the apical buds of the crop at about 30-40 days after sowing to control excessive vegetative growth. Nipping stops the apical growth and promotes the lateral branching, thus the plants become more vigorous and produce more flowers and pods and yield per plant is increased. PIGEONPEA Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.) is the second most important pulse crop in the country. In Hindi it is also known as Arhar/Red gram. India accounts for over 75% of acreage and production of the globe. It is consumed extensively as dal, rich in protein (21%), iron and iodine. Classification All the cultivated Cajanus are classified into 2 groups: (i) Cajanus indicus var. bicolor: Also known as arhar, comprises most of the perennial types that are late-maturing, tall and bushy. Pods are dark coloured and each pod has 4 to 5 seeds. Pods are synchronous in maturity. (ii) Cajanus indicus var. flavus: Also known as tur, comprises the commonly cultivated varieties, which are relatively short stature, early maturing and bear yellow flowers and plain pods with 2-3 seeds. Pods do not mature at a time and picking is done at an interval of 15-16 days. 57

Climatic requirement Pigeonpea is cultivated in wide range of climatic conditions in tropical and subtropical areas with a temperature range of 20°- 40°C. Its drought hardy nature makes it a crop of low rainfall situations; however, it cannot withstand water logging and frost. Moist and humid conditions during vegetative phase and dry conditions during reproductive phase are suitable for successful raising of pigeonpea. Low temperature at pod filling stage results in delayed maturity. Pigeonpea is a short day plant with critical photoperiod of 13 hours. Low light intensity at pod formation is harmful. For flowering and pod setting 24oC is the optimum. Soil requirement Pigeonpea can be grown on a wide range of soils, however, sandy loam to clay loams are ideal. The soil should be deep, well drained and free from soluble salts. It can be grown on soils with a pH range of 5.5-8.0 successfully. It cannot tolerate soil acidity owing to aluminium toxicity. Field preparation Pigeonpea with its deep root system (>150 cm) can break hard pans in plough layer, and hence called “biological plough”. In case of hard pan in the soil, sub-soiling is done. A clod and weed-free seed-bed for proper germination and establishment of seedlings This is achieved by opening the soil through soil-turning plough or disc harrow followed by the cross-harrowing or ploughing with desi plough on or before the onset of monsoon. Finally the seed-bed should be planked and levelled. Thorough levelling is essential for quick drainage and also to avoid water logging. Sowing pigeonpea on a ridge and furrow planting is preferred to overcome water logging. Seed rate Seed rate of 8-10 and 10-15 kg/ha is required for long duration and short and medium duration varieties. During rabi season, 15-18 kg/ha of seed is needed. Sowing method Seed should be sown after seed treatment as in chickpea behind the plough or with the help of seed drill in rows. The row spacing in kharif varies from 40-60 cm in short and medium duration varieties to 60-90 cm in long duration varieties. In rabi season, the crop is grown in 30 cm rows. After germination, the seedlings are thinned to maintain an intra-row spacing of 15-20 cm. The optimum population thus varies from 60,000-1, 00,000 in kharif and 1.5-3.0 lakh/ha in rabi. Sowing time Pigeonpea sowing in kharif under rainfed condition varies from June-July, depending on onset of monsoon. For summer pigeon pea, early May sowing is followed in north India. Time of sowing should be adjusted in such a way to avoid rains and frost at flowering and reproductive stages. For early rabi planting in Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, September sowing is ideal. The rabi cultivation of pigeonpea in rice fallows is increasingly popular, and is sown immediately after rice harvest in southern India. In Haryana, T-21 is sown from mid March to mid June, UPAS-120 from March to Ist week of July, Manak and Paras are sown from mid of June to July end and in the second fortnight of June in Uttar Pradesh and northern Rajasthan. Medium-early varieties are sown in the first fortnight of April for double cropping. The late pigeonpea is sown with the onset of monsoon, preferably by first week of July. 58

Varieties 1. 2. 3. 4.

Early maturing: UPAS 120, Manak, Paras, ICPL 151 and AL201. Wilt-resistant: Asha (ICPL 87119), Maruti (ICP 8863) and Pusa 9. Sterility mosaic resistant: Bahar, Asha, and BSMR 736. Recently hybrids, viz. PPH 4, CoPH 1, CoPH 2, AKPH 4101, AKPH2022 and ICPH 8. 5. For Haryana: Manak, Paras, UPAS-120 and Type 21. Fertilizer requirement Follow the recommendation as given for chickpea. Water management Long duration pigeonpea with deep root system and flushes of flowering can withstand drought. The short duration cultivars, however, are grown with irrigation only. Post-rainy season crop responds better to irrigation. The critical stages for irrigation are branching, flowering and pod filling. The crop requires 20-25 cm water to produce a tonne of grain. At times of prolonged drought, irrigation at flowering and pod filling stages is highly rewarding in Kharif. Weed management The initial 7-8 weeks period of crop i.e. from sowing to branching stage is critical period of crop-weed competition in medium and long duration varieties. In short duration varieties initial 4-6 weeks from sowing is critical. Thus, it is important to keep the crop free from weeds during this period. Hand-weeding at 25 and 45 days after sowing or application of weedicide immediately after sowing is useful for weed control. Pre-plant incorporation of fluchloralin @ 1 kg/ha or pre-emergence application of pendimethalin 1 kg/ha are effective in controlling weeds. The above herbicides integrated with one hand-weeding or mechanical hoeing at 6-8 weeks after sowing is more effective to either of the methods alone. SUGARCANE Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) also known as Ganna/ Ekh belongs to Poaceae family. It is the most important sugar crop, contributing more than 62% of the world sugar production. India has the largest area under sugarcane in the world and also ranks first in sugar production. Classification: 1) Saccharum officinarum: These are noble canes known as ‘Ponda’ in north India and grown for chewing purposes. These are thick and juicy canes good for chewing purpose also. This species includes the tropical canes indigenous to the New Guinea. These canes contain high sugar content, low fibre and produce high tonnage. These are generally resistant to smut but are susceptible to red rot and mosaic diseases. The cultivation of this species is limited to tropical areas. But in recent years these canes have been succeeded by hybridization among officinarum, spontaneum and other species in subtropical regions. 2) Saccharum sinense: This specie of cultivated sugarcane is indigenous to north-eastern India. This specie is characterized by long and thin stalks, broad leaves, low to medium sucrose content and early maturity. This species includes 'Pansahi'. 'Nargori' and 'Mungo' groups of sugarcane. Internodes of these canes are long and more or less zigzag and nodes are prominent.

59

3) Saccharum barberi: This species is also indigenous to north-eastern India. It is characterized by short and thin stalks, narrow leaves, low to medium sucrose content, and early maturity. This species includes 'Saretha' and 'Sunnabile' groups of sugarcane. Climatic requirement: Sugarcane cultivation requires a tropical or subtropical climate. It requires humidity of 70% for more vegetative growth. Heat, humidity and sunlight intensity play important role in sugarcane germination, tillering, vegetative growth and maturity. Sugarcane grows well in humid and hot weather. An average mean temperature of 26 to 32 oC is best suited for growth of sugarcane. Temperatures above 38° reduce the rate of photosynthesis and increase respiration. For ripening, relatively low temperatures in the range of 12° to 14° are desirable. Severe cold weather inhibits bud sprouting in ratoon crop and arrests cane growth. It needs a period of water stress for sucrose accumulation in the stems. Sugarcane in India is grown from 8oN to 30oN latitude covering a wide range of climatic conditions and soils. Two distinct regions of cane cultivation are recognized: the tropical and subtropical. The tropical region is south of Vindhyas and climatically best suited for sugarcane cultivation while the subtropical region, North of Vindhyas experiences extremes of temperature. Soil requirement: Sugarcane does not require any specific type of soil as it can be successfully raised on diverse soil types ranging from sandy soils to clay loams and heavy clays. Sugarcane grows extremely well in medium to heavy, well drained, soils of pH 7.5 to 8.5 and high organic matter content. Water logged soils and soils with poor drainage are not suitable. Growth of sugarcane will be poor in light sandy soils. Field preparation: The successful raising of plant and subsequent ratoon crop depends, to a considerable extent, on the seed-bed provided to the plant crop. The soil should therefore be well prepared in improving tilth which contributes to good germination, stand and final yield of the crop. It is essential that preparatory tillage is done at deeper layers for better spread of roots. After the harvest of previous crop, the field is deep ploughed with a soil turning plough. All large clods are broken and leveling is done to facilitate irrigation and drainage. Sowing time: The crop must be planted according to the season as follows: 1) Spring season (Basant kalene): Mid February to end of March. 2) Late planting (After wheat): Up to 15th May (Co H 110, Co H 119, Co S 767, CO H 35). 3) Autumn season: End of September to first week of October. Selection of seed: Sugarcane is propagated by cuttings or section of the stalks called setts. The setts should be: Fresh and juicy, age should be of 9-10 months, should be free from pests and diseases, eye buds should be fully developed, select setts from planted cane for seed and never from a ratoon cane and always use 2/3rd top portion of cane, being comparatively immature, has buds of good viability, high nitrogen content and high monosaccharide like fructose and glucose thus best portion for use as seed. 60

Seed treatment: Dip the cane setts in 0.25% solution of Mencozeb (Dithane M 45) for 4-5 minutes. 250 liters of solution is sufficient for treating setts for one hectare area. Rubber gloves should be put on while treating the setts. The person employed for should not have any cuts or scratches on his hand. Spacing: The crop is planted at a spacing of 60 to 75 cm between rows. But in intercropping with potato the row spacing should be kept at 90 cm. In case of winter season the crop can be intercropped with wheat and sowing of wheat should be done with the help of bed planter with three rows of wheat by applying 80 kg seed/ ha. Irrigate the furrows up to half level and this will help in better and early germination of the sugarcane. Seed rate: Before planting, the leaves of the cane-stalks are stripped off by hand to avoid damage to buds. These stalks are then cut into 1 or 2 or 3 budded setts each depending upon the method of planting. 87000 two boded setts or 58000 three budded setts which weigh about 7 to 10 t are required for planting sugarcane in one hectare area. Method of sowing: Sugarcane sowing can be done by so many methods depending upon climatic condition, soil type, moisture availability and availability of labour and machinery. The recommended different methods are : Flat planting, Spaced transplanting (STP) method with single eye sett, Furrow planting, Trench planting, Ring or Pit system, Ridge and furrow method, Wider row/Paired row plantation and Bud transplanting method. Varieties: In our country, sugarcane is being cultivated over a wide range of contrasting agroclimatic conditions and accordingly the varietal requirements also vary from location to location. A list of such high yielding, high sugar varieties are given as follows. Varieties recommended for Haryana State are : A) Early maturing varieties: Co J 64, Co H 56 and Co H 92. B) Medium maturing varieties: Co 7717, Co H 99, Co S 8436 and Co H 119. C) Late maturing varieties: Co 1148, Co S 767 and Co S 110 Fertilizer management: Crop N

Nutrient (kg/ha) P2O5 K2O

Plant crop (Basant / spring) Ratoon crop

150

50

50

225

50

50

Autumn planting

150

50

50

Time and method of application Drill all P, K2O and 1/3 N at sowing, 1/3 with second irrigation and 1/3 with fourth irrigation. Broadcast 1/3 N and full P2O5 and K2O in Feb. with first inter culture, 1/3 N each in April and June For inter crop, apply the recommended dose of fertilizer. For sugarcane crop, apply full dose of K2O, P2O5 and 50 kg N/ha at planting time, 50 kg N/ha after harvesting of inter crop and the final dose in the month second fortnight of June or with the start of monsoon.

If sugarcane is planted after harvest of wheat then apply full dose of P2O5 and 75 kg N/ha at planting time and 75 kg N/ha in the end of June or with the start of monsoon. If 61

sugarcane is sown in the sandy loam then it is necessary to apply 25 kg ZnSO4/ha at the time of planting. Irrigation management: First irrigation should be done after 5-6 weeks after sowing. Irrigate the crop at 10 days interval before monsoon and 25 days interval after monsoon. Co J 64 requires limited irrigation. Co 1148 and Co S 767 can tolerate water stress condition up to some extent. Weed management: The most critical period for the weed competition in sugarcane is up to 4 months after sowing beyond which the crop smoothers the weed flora by itself. Blind hoeing followed by planking 7-10 days after sowing takes care of emerging weeds. Two hoeing 30 and 60 DAS followed by inter culture with country plough between the rows at 90 DAS helps to eliminate crop weed competition in sugarcane. Trash mulching in ratoon crop checks the emergence of weeds in addition to moisture conservation. Pre-emergence (2-3 DAS) application of Simazine @ 4 kg/ha or Atrazine @ 2.5 kg/ha or Sencor @ 1.5-2.0 kg/ha by mixing in 625700 L water can provide effective control of several grass and broad leaf weeds. For the control of Cyperus and Ipomoea spp., spray 1.0-1.25 kg/ha of 2,4-D ester or amine, Almix @ 20 g/ha or 2,4-D Sodium salt @ 2.5 kg/ha in 500-625 L water at 30 and 60 DAS. Earthing up: Hilling the clumps in stages is required to provide habitat to the shoot roots and sufficient height of the soil thus achieved suppress the formation of late shoots. The earthing up results in formation of furrows which helps in drainage of excess water during rains. Earthing up is done at maximum tillering stage. Light earthing in the month of May and heavy earthing in the end of June, prior to the break of monsoon, should be done. Propping up: This should be carried out in the month of August and September, so as to prevent lodging of crop. Ratoon management Following points should be followed for higher ratoon productivity:  Selection of sugarcane varieties which can give fair or better ratoon yield  The crop should be timely harvested close to the ground.  The leftover of plants viz. dry leaves or cane trashes should be partially removed and make stubble shaving at ground level. If the preceding crop is infected with severe pest, diseases and weeds then burn the field soon after harvesting. Burning evolves heat, which converts sucrose of stubbles into glucose for a quick sprouting of tillers during winter.  After stubble removal and burning of trashes the field should be given irrigation and then inter cultivation by plough for providing better aeration to roots, for making soil loose and root pruning. This helps in a quick root production and sprouting of ratoons. This is termed as off-barring.  The gaps in the ratoon crop should be attended.  With pre-germinated settling raised through poly bag system  Taking the clumps from thickly populated area and filling the gaps  Removing the clumps from one side of the plots and the place vacated in the process may be replanted fresh. 62

 When all the above-mentioned operations are over the field should be given irrigation according to the crop needs.  Trash mulching helps to check the weeds, reduce water requirement and as organic manure for soil.  The crop should be provided an efficient drainage for draining out excess water from the field.  The weed control, earthing up, hoeing and plant protection measures should be followed as they are done in the planted crop. GROUNDNUT The groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L) belongs to Leguminosae/ Fabaceae family. It is also called peanut or mungfali. Groundnut cake is chief oil cake feed to animals (7-8% N, 1.5% P2O5 and 1.2% K2O) and also used as manure. Groundnut seed contains about 45% oil and 26% protein. Peanuts are a good source of niacin, folate, fiber, magnesium, vitamin E, manganese and phosphorus. Classification Morphologically groundnuts have been divided into two groups. (1) The erect or bunch type-include Arachis hypogaea subspecies fastigiata. Pods in erect type are borne in bunch close to the base of plant. Erect types are normally short duration. Seeds have no dormancy and sometimes the first form pod may sprout before harvest if conditions are suitable. This is due to presence of water soluble auxins. (2) The trailing or spreading type-include Arachis hypogaea subspecies procumbens. Pods are spreading so harvesting is difficult. Comparatively longer duration. Seeds have dormancy which can be broken by storing the shelled seed 15 days after harvest at 40 oC for 12 days. Comparatively germination is low. Lateral branches spread at a less height. Climatic requirement The crop can be grown successfully in places receiving a minimum rainfall of 500 mm and a maximum of 1250 mm. The rainfall should be well distributed during flowering and pegging stages. The groundnut, however, cannot withstand frost, long and severe drought or water stagnation. It seems that plant will grow best when the mean temperature is from 2126oC. During ripening period it requires about a month of warm and dry weather. Soil requirement Groundnut is grown on a wide variety of soil types but, thrives best in well-drained sandy and sandy loam soils, as light soil helps in easy penetration of pegs. Heavy and stiff clays are unsuitable for groundnut cultivation as pod development is hampered in those soils. Groundnut gives good yields in the soils with pH between 6.0-6.5. Field preparation Groundnut is a deep rooted crop but looking to its underground pod forming habit, deep ploughing should be avoided. Because deep ploughing encourages development of pods in deeper layers of soil which makes harvesting difficult. One ploughing with soil turning plough followed by two harrowings would be sufficient to achieve a good surface tilth up to 12-18 cm depth.

63

Seed treatment For seed purposes, pods should be shelled by hand one week before sowing. Hand shelling ensures little damage to seeds. Pods shelled long before sowing time are liable to suffer from loss of viability and storage damages. Bold and healthy seeds should be used for sowing. Treat the selected kernels with 5 g of Thiram or Captan or Ceresan per kg of kernels so as to check various seed and soil borne diseases. Seed should be inoculated with proper strain of Rhizobium culture particularly in those places where groundnut is to be grown for the first time. Seed rate and sowing method Seed rate depends upon the growth habit of variety and seed weight for obtaining good yields. Seed rate can vary according to the region also. In bunch types, the row to row distance is kept 30-40 cm and in spreading types 45-60 cm. For this, 80-100 kg of seeds per hectare would be enough for bunch types and 60-80 kg for spreading types. Plant to plant distance would be 15 and 20-22.5 cm for bunch and spreading types respectively. Sowing of groundnut is done either by seed drill or behind the country plough or by hand dibbling. Sowing can be done through tractor-mounted groundnut planter. The depth of sowing should be 5 cm. Sowing time Sow the rainfed crop with the onset of monsoon in the last week of June to first week of July. In irrigated conditions sow groundnut in last week of June. In rabi, groundnut is sown in southern states during November-December, mostly in rice fallows. Summer groundnut in Gujrat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh is sown during the second fortnight of January upto the first fortnight of February. Varieties Popular varieties are Jyoti, RS-1, Chitra, Amber, PG. NO.1, Moongphali No. 145, Moongphali Haryana No.2, MH-4, BG-2, Kopergaon No.1 and Phule Pragati Fertilizer requirement Groundnut, being legume, needs more phosphorous, and being an oilseed requires more sulphur, besides it needs more calcium for shell formation and filling. Seed inoculation with efficient strains of rhizobium can partially meet nitrogen requirement of the crop. To sustain overall health of soil and continued good yields, a desirable level of organic carbon in the soil (0.3-0.7%) must be maintained. Well decomposed FYM or compost @ 5-10 tones/ha should be applied about 15-20 days before sowing. Apply 15 kg N, 50 kg P2O5 and 25 kg ZnSO4/ha at the time of sowing. Phosphorus should be applied preferably through single super phosphate; it provides sulphur in addition to phosphorous. The fertilizers should be placed at the time of sowing about 4-5 cm in the side of the seed and 4-5 cm below the seed level. Calcium too has pronounced effect on proper development of pods and kernels. Use of gypsum @ 100-150 kg/ha at the time of field preparation can add to the yield. Water management Being a rainy season crop, groundnut does not require irrigation. Care should be taken that at the time of pegging the soil must be friable and have sufficient moisture content in soil. The field should be well drained. Flowering and pegging are the most critical stages for irrigation. In the southern part of the country where groundnut is grown in Rabi season too, three to four irrigations are necessary. The last irrigation before harvesting will facilitate the full recovery of pods from the soil. 64

Weed management A reduction of 20-45% in yield due to weeds has been recorded. Two weedings 20 and 45 DAS are recommended. No weeding or intercultural operation should be done after pegging has commenced; pegs have started moving undergrounds. Earthing up can be done in bunch and semi spreading types to facilitate maximum penetration of pegs. Pre- emergence application of Pendimethalin @ 1 kg a.i./ha along with 2 interculture at 30 and 45 days after sowing have been recommended in irrigated conditions. Fluchloralin (Basalin) at the rate of 1 kg a.i. per hectare dissolved in 800-1000 litres of water can also be used as pre-planting incorporation. Aflatoxin Damp nuts (high moisture) if stored will ferment and allow the development of poisonous mould such as Aspergillus flavus in kernels during post harvest processing and storage, leads to contamination of carcinogenic substance called aflatoxin both for humans and livestock . So, It is desirable to store groundnuts in gunny bags as pods rather than kernels. The gunny bags are stacked in a store- room over planks in tiers comprising not more than ten in each in such a way that air keeps circulating.

65

Area, production and productivity of crops. Particulars

Wheat

Rice

Pigeonpea

Chickpea

Sugarcane

Ground nut

Origin place

Abyssinia (Durum) Western Pakistan,S-W Afganistan and Southern part of Bebshara ( Soft wheat)

South east Asia

India

Western Asia (South Eastern Turky and north Syria)

Papua New Guinea

North Argentin a and Southern Bolivia

1. China 2. UK ( 7.9 t/ha) 3. India

1. China 2. Egypt (10.0 t/ha) 3. India

Top country at world level 1.Production 2. Average productivity 3. Area India’s position ( Production) National India area(Mha) India total production (Mt) India average productivity of India(t/ha) Average productivity of world (t/ha) Leading state in area Leading state in production Leading state in productivity

1. India 2. Myanmar (1.2 t/ha) 3. India

1. India 2. 3. India

1.China 2. USA ( 3.8t/ha) 3. India

2nd.

2nd.

Ist.

Ist.

1. Brazil 2.Peru (131.8t/ha) 3.Brazil 2nd.

28.5 80.8

41.9 133.7

3.5 2.5

8.1 7.4

4.9 285.02

5.4 5.51

2.8

2.1

0.697

0.915

64.4

1.0

3.0

4.3

0.774

-

69.86

1.5

UP UP

West Bengal West Bengal

Maharastra Maharastra

MP MP

UP UP

Gujrat Gujrat

Punjab ( 4.3 t/ha)

Punjab (4.0 t/ha)

Bihar (1.5 t/ha)

AP (1.3 t/ha)

Tamilnadu (104.3t/ha)

Tamilna du(1.9t/h a)

66

2nd.

Important insect pest and diseases of crops Wheat

Rice

Pigeonpea

Chickpea

Sugarcane

Groundnut

Major diseases

Brown, Yellow and black rust, Karnal bunt, loose smut

Stem rot, Blast, Sheeth blight, Bacterial leaf blight, False smut

Wilt, sterility mosaic virus

Wilt, alternaria blight, Stem rot ,Root rot

Red rot, Smut, wilt, Grassy shoot, Ratoon stunting

Seed and preemergence rot, Tikka and Charcoal rot

Control methods

Solar heat treatment- Soak the seeds in water for four hours in the morning and spread the seed in the noon for drying during the months of May – June, and seed treatment with Vitavax or Carbendazim (Bavistin) @ 2g or Tebuconazol (Raxil-2DS) @ 1g per kg seed is quite effective. For Molya control Use resistant variety Raj M R- 1. Apply Temik 10G @ 10 kg or Furadan 3G @ 32 Kg/ha at sowing time

Before sowing, seed should be treated with thiram @ 2.5 g/kg seed. Use of resistant varieties is best in diseaseprone areas. Use crop rotation. Remove the excess rain or irrigation water. There should be proper aeration in the field.

Deep summer ploughing and crop rotation reduces diseases. For control of blight seed treatment with Bavistin or Captan @ 2.5 g/kg seed and spray of Dithane M-45 @ 0.2% at the initiation of the disease.

Sett treatment with 0.25% Emisan- 6 for controlling smut, Moist hot air treatment (MHAT) at 54 o C for 2 hours at RH > 95% is most effective against GSD, RSD and external sett borne infection of smut and red rot

For the control of Seed and pre-emergence rot, Charcoal rot

Spray Bavistin @ 0.2% or Beam or Hinosan @0.1% with initiation of leaf blast and repeat at neck blast stage.

Seed dipping for 24 hrs in Emisan-6 @ 5g in 10 lt. of water /10 kg seed. Spraying of Dithane M-45 @ 0.2% at initiation of disease and repeat after 1015 days.

For False smut Spray Blitox-50 @ 0.25 % at 50 per cent flowering and repeat after 10 days interval.

For wilt Seed treatment with Trichoderma viride (Bioderma) @4g + Vitavax @1g by making a paste in 5 ml of water per kg seed is also effective. 67

Treat the seed before sowing with Thiram or Captan @ 3.0 g / Kg seed.For Tikka control Spray the crop two to three times with Dithane M-45 or Blitox-50 @ 1.5-2.0 kg/ha at 10-15 days interval starting from the first appearance of spot. Removal of disease debris and use of certified seeds etc. reduce the disease intensity.

Important insect pest and diseases of crops Major insects/p ests

Termite, Aphid, Jassid

Root caterpillar, Leaf hopper, Hopper, Gundhi bug, Stem borer

Pod borer, Tur pod fly, Hairy catter piller

Termits, Leaf minor, pod borer

Pyrilla, Black bug, White fly, Top borer, shoot borer, stalk borer, mealy bug

Control method

Treat the 100 kg seed with 150 ml Chlorpyriphos 20 EC or 250 ml Formothion 25 EC or 500 ml Ethion 50 EC, make the total solution of 5 litre by adding water and then after spreading the seed on polythine sheet or floor mix solution with seed. To control termite in standing field condition mix the 5 litre of Chlorpyriphos 20 EC in 5 litre of water and 5 kg sand or ash, then spread in field evenly followed by a light irrigation.

For WBPH Apply 25 kg/ha methyl parathion dust (2%) or 1 litre Quinalphos 20 AF /ha should be sprayed in 500 litres of water.

For pod borer control spray monocrotophos 36 SL@750 ml/ha or 187.5 ml cypermethrin 25 EC or 300 ml fenvalerate 20 EC or 537.5 ml deltamethrin 2.8 EC in 750 liter of water per hactare at 50 % pod formation stage.

For control of termits treat the 100 kg seed with 850 ml Monocrotophos 36SL or 1500 ml Clorpyriphos 20 EC make the total solution of 2 litre by adding water and then after spreading the seed on polythene sheet or floor, mix solution with seed.

For termite control Immediately after planting the setts ,spray 6.25 liter chloropyriphos 20 EC or 20 kg Canodane 6 G in 600 – 1000 liter water/ha.

For Aphid control For cntrol: If you find 10 pests in one group on flag leaves of crop then go for spray of 625 ml Fanitrothion 50 EC or 1000 ml Malathion 50 EC mix with 625 litre of water per hectare area.

For Pod borer control spray 1 liter Quinalphos 25 EC or 1 kg Carbaryl 50 WP or 500 ml Monocrotophos 36 SL or 200 ml Fenvalerate 20 EC or 300 ml Cypermetharin 10EC or 375 ml Decametharin in 250 litre of water per acre hectare as and when average one catterpiller per metre row length of plants at 50 % pod formation stage is noticed. Repeat second spray after 15 days.

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Whitefly can be controlled by spray 2 liter of malathion or 1.5 litre of rogor in 1000 liter of water. Control Top borer by application of 20 kg/ha of Phorat 10 G (Thimat). For Root borer Apply 20 kg/ha of Quinalphos 5 G before irrigation.

Aphid,Jassid, White grub and Hairy catter piller

White-grub, a menace in the light soils of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana can be controlled effectively by treating seed with Chlorpyriphos 20 EC or Quinalphos 25 EC@ 15 ml/kg of seeds. White grubs live in soil and remain active from July to September. The grubs feed on the functional roots of the plants, leaving behind only tap root. Major sucking pests like aphids, jassids and thrips can be effectively controlled by spraying 500 ml malathion 50EC in 500 lt. of water per hactare. Setting up light traps for destroying moths may control leaf minor. Carbaryl 50 WP 0.02% spray is most economical.

Foundation Course Manual on ICAR-JRF (PGS) in Agriculture – General Topics Eds KS Bangarwa, Surender S Dhankhar and RK Pannu CCS HAU, Hisar 2014, pp 69-75.

Cultivation of Tomato and Other Important Vegetable Crops MK Rana Department of Vegetable Sciences CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125004 

Vegetable are those herbaceous plants, of which, some plant portions are eaten either as cooked or raw during principal part of the meal.



Vegetables are those annuals, biennials and perennials, of which, different parts, i.e., mature, immature, succulent root, stems, immature flower parts, leaves, seeds, or fruits are used for culinary purposes.



Vegetables are rich source of minerals and vitamins and thus referred as natural protective foods.



China leads in area and production with 39% share in total area and 46.7% share in total vegetable production in the world.



India ranks 2ndin area and production of vegetables after China



India is the second largest producer of vegetables (162.18 million tonnes) with an area of 9.20 million hectares, next to China(NHB, 2013)



Productivity of vegetables in India is 17.6 tonnes per hectare (NHB, 2013)



The state having maximum production under vegetables is West Bengal (NHB, 2013).



The state having maximum area under vegetables is West Bengal (NHB, 2013).



The requirement of vegetables per capita is 300 g/day (out of which, 125g green leafy vegetables + 100g root vegetables and 75g other vegetables).



In India, the availability of vegetables per capita is 170 g/day.



India’s share in world trade of spices is around 18%.



India is 19th largest exporter in the world for edible vegetables.



Monocotyledon vegetables are onion, garlic, yam and asparagus.



Liquid nitrogen at -196 °C is used for long-term storage of any germplasm.



The Arka series of varieties are released from IIHR,Bangaluru.



The Kashi series of varieties are released from IIVR, Varanasi.



Olericulture is the study of vegetable cultivation.



Truck gardening is an extensive method of vegetable cultivation.

69



Rutabaga (Brassica napus var. napobrassica), which is a cross between turnip and Chinese cabbage, is a man-made vegetable.



Pro-trays are related to nursery in protected cultivation.



King of spices is black pepper.



Queen of spices is cardamom.



India is the major producer and exporter of fenugreek seed spice.



An average monthly temperature of 15-17°C is required for cool season vegetables.



Pumpkin has highest vitamin A content among cucurbits.



Molecular markers are used for determining the genetic variation in plants.



Auxanometer is used to measure growth of the plant.



NPK requirement in legume is 1:2: 2



Curcumineis present in turmeric.



Vine crops are referred to cucurbits group of crop.



All Green is a variety of spinach.



Potato and onion have very low respiratory activity duringstorage.



Isolation distance for certified seed production of tomato is 25m.



Isolation distance for certified seed production of pea is 5m.



Warm days and cool nights are ideal conditions for melons cultivation.



All India Coordinated Vegetable Improvement Project (AICVIP) was started during the 4th five years plan in 1970-71.



The primitive effect of low temperature on flowering is called vernalization.



Home or kitchen garden is a most ancient type of garden.

TOMATO 

Tomato is also known as Wolf apple or Wolf Peach.



Tomato is universally treated as protective food.



The botanical name of tomato is LycopersiconesculentumMill. The scientific name of varieties that developed from Solanumgenome is Solenumlycopersicum.



Chromosome number of tomato is 2n= 24.



The family of tomato is known as Solanaceae.



Tomato is real day natural plant.



The origin of tomato is Peru (South America).



The tomato fruit is botanically known as berry. 70



Tomato is a number one processing vegetable.



Tomato puree and tomato paste have great export demand.



The red tomatoes contain lycopene and it is highest at 18-21°C.



The popular varieties of tomato are Pusa Ruby, ArkaVikas, ArkaSourabhandArkaAshish.



Boron and zinc are the important micronutrients required for tomato cultivation.



The seed rate of tomato is about 300-350 g/ha.



Staking is followed in indeterminate type of tomato.



Blossom end rot in tomato is due to the deficiency of calcium (Ca).



Cat face is the disorder of tomato whichis caused by faulty pollination and fertilisation.



Fruit cracking is due to the deficiency of boron and long dry-spell followed by rain or irrigation.



Major pest of tomato is fruit borer (Helicoverpaarmigera).



Tomato leaf curl, tomato mosaic, tomato spotted wilt and tomato yellow virus are the major viral disease of tomato.



Chemical used for thepreservation of tomato sauce is Sodium Benzoate.



Seed treatment with 2,4-D @ 2-5 ppm gives early fruit set and leads to parthenocarpy.



Tomato is a climacteric fruit.



Tomato variety developed by the use of biotechnology isFlavrsavr. It was developed by Calgene fresh a California based biotechnological company.



Genome sequence is completed of tomato in 2012.

BRINJAL (EGGPLANT) 

Brinjal is a native to India.



The botanical name of brinjal is Solenummelongena.



Brinjal is an often-cross pollinated crop.



Dry fruit contains goiterogenic principal.



Heterostyle is common in brinjal.



Orobunche is serious weed affecting solanaceous crop in some areas.



Dark purple brinjal have more vitamin C than those of white skinned.



The maximum fruit setting takes place in long styled flower (70-80%).



→hite brinjals are said to be good for diabetic’s patient.



PPL (Pusa Purple Long) and PPR (Pusa Purple Round) are popular varieties of brinjal.



Bt-brinjal is resistant to shoot and fruit borer. 71



Shoot and fruit borer is a most serious pest of brinjal under conditions of high temperature and high humidity.



Phomopsis blight is the most serious seed born disease of brinjal.



Little leaf of brinjal is due to the mycoplasma.

POTATO 

Potato is popularly known as King of vegetable/poor man’s friend.



Potato is known as Irish potato because it is a staple food of Ireland.



Potato was introduced in India from Europe in early 17th century.



The botanical name of potato is Solanumtuberosum.



Family of potato is known as Solanaceae.



Chromosome number of potato is 48 (2n= 48, which is 4x)



Origin of potato was in South America.



Botanically, the potato fruit is known as berry.



Potato is long day plant.



TPS(True Potato Seed) seed rate is 150 g.



Nitrogen is most important nutrient for potato crop.



The maximum soil area under potato production in India is in alluvial soil.



Tuber moth is the most destructive insect of potato.



Late blight is the most devastating disease of potato.



Irish famine (1845) was caused by Late blight (Phytopthorainfestans)of potato.



Seed plot technique in potato was developed by Dr.Pushkarnath.



Dehulming of potato is done by Gramaxone.



The most critical stage for irrigation is 25% tuber formation stage.



Bitterness in potato is due to the presence of alkaloids solanine, chaconine and solasidine.



UpTo Date is most popular variety of potato in India.



CPRI (Central Potato Research Institute) was established in the year1949 at Shimla.



Kufri Chipsona-1,Kufri Chipsona-2, Kufri Chipsona-3,KufriChipsona-4and Frysonaare suitable for processing purpose.

TUBER CROPS 

Sago food product is made from cassava.



Cassava is monoecious, while yams are dioecious.



Sweet potato is short day plant. 72



The sweet potato family is convolvulaceae.



High temperature and high humidity are ideal conditions for cassava and yam cultivation.



Sweet potato is a modified root.



Taro is propagated through corms.



The edible part of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatus) is adventitious root.

CABBAGE 

The botanical name of cabbage is Brassica oleraceavar. capitata.



The chromosome number of tomato is 18 (2n=18).



The edible part of cabbage is known as head, which consists of leaves.



Sauerkraut is fermented product of shredded cabbage.



The type of inflorescence in cabbage is catkin.



The Cole crops belong to the family Cruciferae and sub-family Brasssicaceae.



In cabbage, anticancer property is due to Indol-3-carbinol.



The largest producing country is China followed by India.



Tip burning in cabbage is due to Ca deficiency.



Bt-cabbage is resistant to DBM (Diamond Back Moth).

CAULIFLOWER 

The botanical name of cauliflower is Brassica oleracea var. botrytis



Edible part of cauliflower is known as immature inflorescence.



Blanching is common practice in cauliflower to protect the curd from yellowingof curd after direct exposure to sun, and it arrests enzymatic activity.



Whiptail disorder in cauliflower is due to the deficiency of molybdenum (Mo) and excessive supply of nitrogen.



Buttoning in cauliflower is due to the deficiency of nitrogen or planting of early varieties late.



Diamond back moth is the most destructive insect of Cole crops.

CHILLI 

Chillies are rich in vitamin A and C.



The pungency in chilli is due to an alkaloid capsaicin (C18 H27NO3).



The red colour in chilli is due to the pigment capsanthin.



Oleoresin is extracted from chilli.



CH-1 and CH-3 arechilli hybrids developed by using male sterile line by PAU, Ludhiana.



PusaJawala and PusaSadahbhar are important varieties of chilli. 73

ROOT CROPS 

Heart rot in sugar beet is caused by boron deficiency.



Carrot is a rich source of carotene, a precursor of vitamin A.



Carrot is highly cross-pollinated crop due to protandry and male sterility.



The family of carrot is umbelliferae.



Beetroot belongs to the family chenopodiaceae.



The pungency in radish is due to the presence of an alkaloid isothiocynate.



Mustard saw fly (Athalialugensproxia) is the most commonly occurring pest in radish.



The type of inflorescence in beetroot is known as spike.



The seed of European type (temperate) varieties of root crops can be producedin temperate or hilly region in India.

OKRA 

The botanical name of okra is Abelmoschusesculentus.



The chromosome number of okra is 130 (2n= 130).



Botanically, the fruit of okra is capsule.



YVMV is major problem in okra cultivation.



PrabhaniKranti is variety of okra.



Okra is a direct seeded crop.

BULB CROPS 

Onion is the highly cross-pollinated crop due to its protandry nature.



Onion accounts 77% of total foreign exchange earning among fresh vegetables.



The pungency of onion is due to the presence of sulphur compound allyl propyl disulphide.



The pungency of garlic is due to the presence of sulphur compound diallyl disulphide.



Inbreeding depression (loss of vigour due to inbreeding or selfing) is highest in carrot, moderate in onion and cabbage, low in cucurbits and nil in tomato.



Garlic is propagated through cloves.



Purple blotch is the most destructive disease ofonion.

CUCURBITS CROPS 

Advance sex form of cucurbits is monocecious.



Cucumber is originated from India.



Most of cucurbits contain an alkaloid cucurbitacin, which is responsible for bitter taste of the fruit. 74



First triploid watermelon established by HitashiKihara (1947).



Diara/river bed cultivation method is followed in cucurbits.



Muskmelon is a climacteric fruit



Pointed gourd (TrichosanthesdioicaRoxb.) commonly called parwal is a dioecious, perennial cucurbit, which is propagated vegetatively through vine cuttings.



The first F1 hybrid to be released from IARI was PusaMeghdoot in bottle gourd in 1971.



In 1981, IIHR, Bangaluru released first F1 hybrid in brinjal named ArkaNavneet.



Application of GA3 @ 1,500-2,000 ppm and chemical like silver nitrate @ 200-300 ppm is used to maintain gynoecious line in cucumber.



The first triploid watermelon (PusaBedana) was established by HitashiKihara in 1947.

OTHER VEGETABLES 

The botanical name of spinach/vilayatipalak is spinaciaoleracea.



Amaranth is important summer leafy vegetable.



The quality of pea is ascertained by tenderometer.



Arkel and Bonneville are important varieties of pea.



The botanical name of Frenchbean (Rajmash) is Phaseolus vulgaris.

POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT 

Post-harvest losses are 35-40% in vegetables.



Curing of root, bulb and tuber vegetables offers effective means of reducing post-harvest decay and water loss.



In vegetables, waxing is done to reduce water loss through epidermal openings. Waxes are applied only to fruit vegetables.



Pre-cooling refers to rapid removal of field heat from the harvested produce.



Vegetables are highly perishable living commodities that continue to respire and transpire even after harvest.



Fruit ripening hormone is ethylene.



Refractormeter is used for measuring the TSS (Total Soluble Solid).

ACRONYMS AVRDCAsian Vegetable Research and Development Centre, Taiwan CIPInternational Potato Centre, Peru (South America) IIVRIndian Institute of Vegetable Research, Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh) APEDAAgriculture Processed and Marketing Export Development Authority IIHR Indian Institute of Horticulture, Bangaluru CPRICentral Potato Research Institute, Kufri (Himachal Pradesh) NHB National Horticulture Board, Gurgaon (Haryana) 75

Foundation Course Manual on ICAR-JRF (PGS) in Agriculture – General Topics Eds KS Bangarwa, Surender S Dhankhar and RK Pannu CCS HAU, Hisar 2014, pp 76-96.

Fruit Crops SK Sehrawat Department of Horticulture CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125 004 India is the second largest producer of fruits with a total production of 81.0 million tons from 6.98 million ha in 2012 - 13. The leading states in terms of area and production are STATE AREA(million ha) PRODUCTION (million tons) Andra Pradesh Maharastra Tamil Nadu Karnataka Uttar Pradesh Haryana

0.94 1.55 0.309 0.388 0.326 49,000 th. ha

The leading fruits in terms of area and production are FRUIT AREA(million ha) Banana Mango Citrus Papaya Guava Apple

0.776 2.5 1.04 0.132 0.236 0.312

13.9 9.7 6.69 6.61 5.17 0.5 Source: NHB DATA BASE 2012 – 13

PRODUCTION (million tons) 26.50 18.0 10.0 5.3 3.1 1.9 Source: NHB DATA BASE 2012 – 13

Impressive as this progress is, it only serves to show the tremendous potential for increasing the production of horticultural crops in India including fruits, vegetables and flowers. While there are pockets of modern horticulture in states like Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh, for the country as a whole traditional practices of production of both fruits and vegetables have continued. This is particularly true of large states like Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar which have some of the largest areas under fruit production in the country. MANGO Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is one of the most important fruit of India. It is the choicest fruit and often known as the king of fruits. Andhra Pradesh rank first with respect to area and production. Other important mango growing states in India are Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka Orrisa, Kerala, Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Punjab & Haryana. In Haryana mango is cultivated in the Districts, Ambala, Panchkula, Yamuna Nagar, Kurukshetra, Karnal and parts of Jind and Panipat. Mango is a rich source of vitamin A and has a 76

fairly good content of Vitamin C. It also contain a good amount of minerals particularly potassium. Mango fruits (young & unripe) are used for preparation of pickles, chutneys and amchoor while ripened fruits are utilized in preparing squash, Jam, nector, custard powder, baby food, mango leather (ampapar) and to toffee. Besides, fruits of some varieties like alphonso and Dashehari are sliced and canned for catering to the needs of consumers during the ‘off’ season. Varieties:Mango (Mangifera indica L.) belongs to family Anacrndiaceae and believed to be originated in Indo-Burma Border region of the country. In India, more than thousand varieties are grown in different parts of the country. Most of the varieties are characteristically specific to geographical adoptation and their performance is satisfactory in a particular region. Therefore, selection of varieties for cultivation of mango should be based on their suitability for a particular region. In Haryana, Dashehari, Langra, Chausa, Bombay green, Amrapali and Mallika varieties are cultivated. Dashehari: Most popular variety in north India. It is a mid season variety, maturing towards the end of June. The fruits are medium in size (4 to 8 per kg), elliptical oblong in shape and have an attractive greenish-yellow colour. It has a tendency towards regular bearing but susceptible to mango malformation. Langra: An important variety of north India. It is also a mid-season variety. The fruit are large in size (3 to 4 per kg) oblongish-oval in shape and have lime-green colour. It is a heavy yielder, especially after the age of 15 years. However, this also is biennial in bearing. Chausa: It is a late ripening variety of north India and mature fruits are harvested in the end of July and beginning of August. The fruits are large sized (3 to 4 per kg), almost oblong in shape (With a characteristic sinus) and bright yellow in colour. It starts bearing good crop only after 15-20 years. Its major draw backs, besides alternate bearing, are susceptibility to mango malformation and vigorus growth habit. Bombay Green: This is the earliest variety of north India, mature during the first half of June. The fruits are medium in size (4 to 6 per kg), ovate in shape and yellowish green in colour. The taste is good and yield moderate. However, highly susceptible to both vegetative and floral malformation and also biennial in bearing. Amrapalli: It is a hybrid evolved as a cross between Dashehari and Neelum. It is a late ripening variety and mature towards end of July or beginning of August. The variety is dwarf and regular bearing in habit but highly susceptible to mango malformation. Mallika: It is a cross between Neelum and Dashehari. It is also a regular bearing variety with good quality fruits. It is late ripening variety having good keeping quality. Climate: Mango thrives well in tropical and subtropical climate. The ideal temperature for the crop ranges from 24-270C during growing season. The temperature blow 100C and above 420C retards growth and adversely affects the flowering time of mango. A cool and dry period, which slow or stop the growth, is essential for flower initiation. Higher temperature during the period of fruit development hastens the maturity and improves the fruit-size and quality. The limiting factors for its profitable cultivation are low temperature (Freezing) and commonly occurring frost during the period of flowering. Rainfall during the period of flowering adversely affects the fruit setting. Fog and cloudy weather at the time of flowering from Nov. to March also result in poor setting of fruits and favour attack of pests and diseases. Winds of high velocity also cause great damage to the crop. Areas having bright sunny days and moderate humidity during flowering are ideal for mango cultivation.

77

Soil: Mango can be grown in vide range of soils. There should not be any hard pan or compact Kankar layer in top 2 meter soil. The water table in all seasons should be below 180 cm. Like most other fruit crops, it prefers slightly acidic soil. It does not grow well beyond PH 7.5. Favourable soil pH vary from 5.5 to 7.5 Saline and alkaline conditions are not conducive for profitable mango cultivation. Propagation: There are two type of variety i.e monoembryonic and polyembryonic. The phenomena of polyembryony are known to occurs in a number of mango varieties. So true to type seedlings can be obtained in polyembryonic varieties. The polyembryonic varieties are Bappakai, Olour, Goa, Kurukkan, and Bellary. Most of the varieties grown in north India are monoembryonic and needs to be propagated by asexual means. Among various methods of vegetative propagation veneer grafting is commercially followed. Other important methods of multiplication are inarching and epicotoyl/stone grafting. Planting: The best time of planting during rainy season is mid-July to mid-September and in spring season mid-Feb. to mid-March. The pits of 1x1x1 m size are dug in the month of May-June during summer and November to December in winter season. While digging the pits, the top soil up to a depth of 50 cm. and soil below this should be placed separately. The pits are left open for 15 days to kill the harmful soil organism for healthy development of the plants. The pits are then filled with 50 Kg of well decomposed FYM and equal amount of top soil. After filling, the pits should be watered so that soils settle down properly and heat generated by FYM is removed. The planting is done in square system at a distance of 9x9 m. High density planting: Amrapalli which is considered as dwarf variety is best suited to high density plantation and can be planted at a distance of 2.5x2.5 m. Vellakolaimban when used as root stock also impart dwarfing in Alphonso. Manures and Fertilizers: The following doses of manures and fertilizers are suggested for young and grown up plants. Age of Plants (Years) 1-3 4-6 7-9 10 and above

Fertilizer Dose/plant/year FYM CAN (Kg) (g) 5-20 200-400 25-50 400-800 60-90 800-1000 100 1000

SSP (g) 250-500 500-750 750-1000 1000

Sulphate of Potash (g) 175-350 375-700 700-1000 1000

How to apply: Apply full dose of FYM, phosphorus and potassium in the month of December by placement method at a depth of 20-30 cm. and 1-2 m. away from the main trunk of the tree in case of fully grown up trees. Half dose N should be given in the month of Feb. and remaining half in April. During “On” year an addition of N should also be given in the month of June. Irrigation: The water requirement mainly depend upon the age, soil type and climate especially the rainfall and its distribution. Bearing trees with well developed root system require irrigation during the fruit development period between April to end of June, at an interval of 10-12 days depending upon the evapotranspiration losses. In addition to this, irrigation should be given in the month of February after fertilizers application. During November to December there is no need of irrigation. Young plants should be irrigated at 7-10 days intervals during summer and 10-15 days during winter. Cropping: In mango, fruit buds are borne on past season shoots terminally. Flowering occurs during February-March in northern India, October to December in Andhra Pradesh, December-January in 78

Tamil Nadu. The duration of flowering is generally 2-3 weeks. The fruit let varies with cultivars and 0.1 per cent is considered optimum. Training and Pruning: Mango hardly needs any training & pruning. Normally a young plant is allowed to grow uninterrupted for initial 3-4 years and scaffold branches are selected spaced at 2025cm apart on the main stem. No further training is required. Fruit drop: Fruit drop in mango is very high and it is up to 99 per cent in various stages of growth and development. The extent of fruit drop can be reduced significantly by adopting following measures: 1. By planting wind break of tall growing trees at the periphery of an orchard. 2. Regular irrigation during fruit development period. 3. By timely and effectively control of major pests and diseases. 4. By application NAA 50 ppm and 2,4 – D 20 ppm during ‘off’ year about six week after fruit set. 5. By spraying the tree with 2 % urea solution in the end of May and beginning of April. Weed control: Mango orchard should be completely free from weeds. In order to control the weeds, shallow hoeing at quarterly intervals should be done Black plastic mulch or organic mulch (hays, paddy straw, mustard straw) should be used to restrict the germination of weed seeds & suppression of weeds growth. Weeds can also be effectively control by intercropping of vegetables and pulses and raising of green manuring crops live dhancha, sunhemp, moong and urd. Intercropping: In the initial 7-8 years, the mango orchard can be intercropped with vegetables, pulses and short duration fruit crops viz. tomato, cabbage, cauliflower, chillies, onion, papaya etc. Avoid growing of intercrops in the plant basin. Protection of young plant from frost and hot wave: Frost during winter and dry & hot winds during summer causes serious damage to young plants if not protected timely. Young plants can be protect from hot and dry wind in the following way: 1. 2. 3. 4.

By planting of strong wind break of tall growing trees at the periphery of an orchard. White washing of main stem of plants in the month of May and November. Judicious irrigation of young plants during summer and writer months. By covering the plant with thatches or plant guard.

Alternate bearing/biennial bearing: It is a serious problem in mango where plant bears a good crop in one year and bears a poor or no crop in the successive year. The year in which crop is obtained is called as “On” year and in which poor or no crop is obtained is known as ‘off’ year. ↑arious factors like varietal difference, growth habit crop load, cultural practices, sex ratio, insect pest and disease etc. have been attributed to this problem. Other factors such as endogenous levels of growth regulators, reserve metabolites and nutrients status has also been considered responsible for alternate bearing.. Control: So far no definite control measure has been put forward but its incidence could be reduced to some extent, like improved cultural practice, pruning, debloosming growing & regular bearing varieties (Amrapalli) and exogenous application of plant growth regulars. Mango malformation: This problem is more under north Indian conditions. It is of two types viz. vegetative and floral malformation. The first one is more common in nursery seedlings and young trees and in, floral malformation flower panicles are infected and such types of flower bears no crop. The factors responsible for this malady could be viruses, mites, fungus, nutrients deficiency, imbalance of growth hormones and unfavourable environmental conditions. 79

Control: Malformed trees can be improved by a single spray of NAA (200 ppm.) in this first week of October and deblossming at bud burst stage. Important insects and pests: Mango crop suffer seriously form the pests: hopper, mealy bug, shoot and stem borer and stone weevil. Hoppers are most devastating during flowing period as they suck the sap from tender shoot, leaves and panicles. Spray of 500 ml malathion (Cythion) 50 EC or 1.5 Kg. carbaryl (sevin 50 WP) in 500 litre of water in the month of February and March has been recommend as the protection from the hoppers. Mealy bug suck the sap and causes drying of plants that results in immature fruit drop. Banding the trunk in the month of December with slippery band of polythene sheets and application of coaltar has been recommended. Digging the soil around the mango trunk during hot summer and clearing of weeds are recommended as control measures. Spraying of trees with 500 ml methyl parathion (Metacid) 50 EC or 1.25 litre dizinon (Basudin) 20 EC or 1.5 litre quinalphos (Ekalux)25 EC in 500 litre water per acre is also recommenced to control the mealy bug. Damage caused by stem borer is caused by grub of its beetle as it feeds inside the stem, boring upward those results in drying of branches and stem. It can be control by injecting the 10 ml methyl parathion (4 ml metacid 50 EC per litre of water) emulsion in to borer hole and plugging the hole with mud. Stone weevil lay eggs on the epicarp of partially developed fruits or under the ring of ripening fruits. Newly emerged grubs of the stone weevil bore through the pulp, feed on the seed coat and subsequently causes damage to cotyledons. Spray of (0.01 %) fenthion concentration has been found effective for the control of stone weevil. Diseases: Anthracnose attack the leaves, shoots and panicles and the fruits. The disease is characterized by the appearance of black necrotic area on the affected parts. The affected young shoots finally show die back symptoms. The disease can be controlled by spraying 0.3 % Blitox, thrice a year i.e February, April and September. Powdery Mildew: Greyish white powdery bloom appear on the flowers buds and fruitlets, causing the panicles dried and black, resulting in total failure of the crop. Control: Spray kerathane (0.1%) at prebloom stage as a preventive step, second spray at full bloom and third spray after fruit set if required. Sooty mould: Common in areas where hopper incidence is more, the fungus develops on the honey dew secreted by the hopper in the leaves, twigs and inflorescence. Control: Spray dimecron 0.039 % + starch boiled with one litre of water and diluted to 20 litre. Physiological disorder: Black tip: This is associated with toxic gases emanating from brick kilns chimneys. There is a development of a small etiolated area at distal end of the fruit which turn black at ripening and render the fruit unmarketable. The incidence of black tip can be reduced by spraying trees the with 0.6 % Borax and caustic soda (0.8%) before flowering, at flowering and pea nut stage of the fruits. Spongy tissue: This disorder is very common in the fruits of Alphonso wherein non-edible, sour, yellowish sponge like pattern with or without air pockets develops in the mesocarp of the affected fruits during ripening. Externally, the affected fruits appear healthy. It has been observed that this incidence is more in fruits harvested at full maturity than harvested at ¾ maturity. No exact cause is known till today. 80

Harvesting: Fruits are generally harvested when a few fruits ripen naturally and fall from the tree. In case of coloured varieties change in the skin colour is also indicative of maturity. Mango usually takes about 100-105 days after set to mature. Harvesting should be done individually with the pedicel attached. Avoid injury to the fruits during harvest which invites the fungal attack to the fruits. Yield: The yield of mango varies greatly depending upon the varieties and agro-climatic conditions prevailing in a region. The grafted plant starts bearing at the age of 5 years (15-20 fruits) and the optimum yield starts from the tenth year when each tree yield about 500 fruits (100 Kg). In the age group of 20-40 years, a tree bears 1000-3000 fruits (200-600 Kg). Postharvest handling and storage: After harvesting, the mango fruits are graded to their size, weight and maturity. Packing of fruit should be done in corrugated fiberboard (FFB) boxes. Polythene lining has been found beneficial as it maintains high humidity, which results in lesser shrinkage during storage. The mature green fruits can be kept at room temperature for 4 to 10 days depending upon the variety. Precooling, chemical treatments, low temperature etc. extend shelf life of fruits. Fruits of Dashehari, Amrapalli, Mallika should be stored at 120C with relative humidity of 85-90 %. Dashehari treated with calcium chloride solution (4 %) at subatmospheric pressure of 500 mm Hg for 5 minutes can be stored at 120C for 27 days. BANANA Banana is widely grown in India with great socio-economic significance. The edible banana is believed to have originated in the hot tropical region of South East Asia (Assam, Burma, Indo-China). It is believed that banana has been taken by Arabs from India to Palestinian Egypt. Banana is fourth important food crop in terms of gross value exceeded only by paddy, wheat and milk products and forms an important crop for subsistence farmers. It is also a dessert fruit for millions apart from a staple food owing to its rich and easily digestible carbohydrates with a calorific value of 67-137/100 g fruit. Being a rich source of vitamin A, and fair source of vitamin C, B2, C and minerals, it makes healthy and salt-free diet. Owing to its multifaceted uses – from underground stem up to the male flower – it is referred as Kalpatharu (a plant of virtues). In India, banana contributes to 31.72 per cent of the total fruit production. India is the largest producer of banana in the world. Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa and West Bengal are major banana-growing states, the highest productivity being 52.18 tonnes/ha in Maharashtra followed by Gujarat (40 tonnes/ha). The lowest productivity is from the north-eastern region. Climate and Soil: Banana is well-suited for cultivation from humid subtropical to semi-arid subtropics upto 2,000 m above mean sea-level. In India, it is successfully grown from 8oN to 28oN latitudes with a temperature of 15-35oC and a rainfall of 500-2,000 mm/year. At higher altitudes, banana cultivation is restricted to a few varieties like ‘Hill banana’ which can be grown successfully without any deterioration of quality and specific aroma. Bananas grown under mid-subtropical conditions have better-quality fruits, as they develop better aroma with crisp pulp. Mean temperature of 20-30oC is optimum for its growth. Its growth declines with increase or decrease in mean temperature. If bunch emergence coincides with low temperature, it results in inflorescence emerging through pseudostem. Chilling temperature results in similar malformed bunches. Temperature above 36-38oC causes scorching effect with increased transpiration. High temperature in combination with water stress cause loss in growth. Water stagnation in poorly-drained soils also leads to slow growth. The plants collapse in extreme cases. Apart from temperature and water, wind poses a major constraint in banana production. High wind results in uprooting and collapse of plants. Avoidance of bunching during the period of high wind velocity is advocated through adjustment in time of planting. Banana can be grown in all kinds of soils having good 81

drainage. In sandy loam soil plants grow faster compared to vertisol or clay loam soil. Though soil pH of 6.5-7.5 is optimum, banana can be grown in soils having a pH upto 8.5 with suitable amendments. More organic amendments are essential in sandy as well as heavy soils. Varieties: India has an array of cultivars grown throughout the country depending upon preference, resource availability and production system (Table 1). Dwarf Cavendish and Robusta are widelyadopted commercial banana owing to high yield, wide market acceptability, ability to withstand wind, short duration and high economic returns/unit area. Poovan is another important banana grown widely due to a wide range of adaptability and tolerance to many biotic and abiotic stresses. Rathali is significant in commercial production, especially for excellent quality fruits. Table 1 Banana cultivars grown in different states of India State Cultivars Andhra Pradesh Dwarf Cavendish, Robusta, Rasthali, Amritpant, Thellachakrakeli, Karpoora Poovan, Chakrakeli, Monthan and Yenagu Bontha Assam Jahaji (Dwarf Cavendish), Borjahaji (Robusta), Honda, Manjahaji, Chinia (Manohar), Kanchkol, Chini Champa, Bhimkol, Attikol, Jatikol, Digjowa, Kulpait and Bharat Moni Bihar Dwarf Cavendish, Alpon, Chinia, Chini Champa, Malbhog, Muthia, Kothia and Gauria Gujarat Dwarf Cavendish, Lacatan, Harichal (Lokhandi) and Gandevi Selection Karnataka Dwarf Cavendish, Robusta, Poovan, Rasabale (Rasthali), Hill Banana, Monthan and Elakkibale Kerala Nendran (Plantain), Palayankodan (Poovan), Rasthali, Monthan and Red Banana Maharashtra Dwarf Cavendish, Basrai, Robusta, Lal Velchi, Safed Velchi, Rajeli Nendran and and Clones of Basrai Tamil Nadu Virupakshi, Robusta, Red Banana, Poovan, Rasthali, Nendran, Monthan, Karpuravalli, Sakkai, Peyan West Bengal and Champa, Mortman Rasthali, Amrit Sagar, Giant Governor, Lacatan Orissa and Monthan. Orchard Cultural Practices Irrigation: Banana is a moisture loving plant, therefore, it’s water requirement is very high. It requires adequate soils moisture throughout the year. Irrigation is given just after planting. Banana requires irrigation regularly throughout the year except during heavy rains. In Western Cost of India, it is normally grown as a rainfed perennial crop. In hilly areas also no irrigation is given. In Bihar, irrigation is given after every 10 days from December to June. In banana, trenches are dug between alternate rows which serve to drain off excess water during the rains and later as irrigation channels. In West Bengal, the plants are irrigated at an interval of 10-15 day during dry periods. Irrigation facility is a must to Cavendish banana, whereas tall cultivars are grown under unirrigated condition or marginally irrigated condition. Drip irrigation can reduce quantity of water and increases yield and decreases number of days to harvest and increases leaf production. In banana cv. Robusta, as the availability of water in the soil increases, the stomatal number per unit area and stomatal size increases, resulting in the improved photosynthetic efficiency and ultimately increase the yield. Water use efficiency is more with drip 82

irrigation as compared to basin system of irrigation. The drip irrigation system saves 50 per cent water and also yields higher. Intercropping: Intercrops can easily be grown in banana plantation at the earlier stage of growth. In some parts of India, mixed cropping is also practiced. Planting of banana may be followed by planting of intercrops like brinjal, colocasia, turmeric, chillies, bhindi, radish, cauliflower, cabbage, spinach, etc. depending on climatic conditions. Mixed cropping of banana, arecanut, coconut is a common practice along the coastal belts of Tamil Nadu. Paddy is also grown as mixed crop. Banana is grown as a shade plant for coffee, cocoa, rubber, young mango trees and orange in different parts of India. Manuring and Fertilization: In banana, it is essential to induce quick growth and produce more leaves with longer area. To achieve this, complete dose of manures and fertilizers should be applied by six months after planting. Nitrogen hastens maturity and increases yield. Phosphorus promotes strong root system, healthy rhizome, favours fruit setting and accelerates ripening. Application of potash increases the number of hands/bunch and finger size, improves fruit quality, develops resistance to diseases and reduces water uptake in banana. The third leaf is taken as standard for analysis for establishing critical values. The application of nitrogen should be done at 2, 4 and 6 months after planting. Phosphorus should be applied at planting time. Potash should be given in two split doses-one at planting and another at the time of initiation of flowers. In Bangalore, the fertilizers recommended for Robusta banana are 200 g N, 100 g P2O5 and 200 g K2O per plant. Nitrogen and potash are to be applied in four equal splits at 30, 75, 120 and 165 days after planting while phosphorus can be applied at the time of planting. For ratoon crop, the requirement of N and P2O5 can be reduced to 100 and 50 g per plant, respectively while K2O is to be applied at 200 g/plant. Complete fertilizers application before flower initiation which normally occurs within 5-6 months after planting. Desuckering: Desuckering or pruning is the removal of unwanted suckers. These suckers have to be removed periodically as otherwise they compete with the mother plant for nutrients, resulting in lower bunch weight and total yield. It is done either by cutting off the sucker or the heart may be destroyed without detaching the sucker from the parent plant. Sometimes, kerosene is poured into the cavity left after digging the sucker. In South India, crowbar with a chisel-like end is used for damaging the sucker. Removal of all suckers upto flowering of mother plant and maintaining only one follower afterwards is the best desuckering practice. However, under high density planting, it is better to leave the follower after harvesting 75-80% of the plant crop so that uniform cultural practices can be followed. It has been observed that sucker removal had no effect on yield in the first harvest, but yield in the second harvest was highest in plants left with one sucker (12253 kg/ha), followed by plants left with 2 or 3 suckers (8606 and 8879 kg/ha, respectively) and was lowest in plants without removal of suckers (6721 kg/ha). Weed Control: Shallow cultivation at early stage of crop is essential to keep down the weeds and to provide better conditions for plant growth. Weeds can also be checked with the use of herbicides. Diuron @ 4 kg per hectare and Simazine @ 6 kg per hectare control grasses and broad leaved weeds when applied after planting and repeated 30 days after planting. At Bangalore, application of glyphosate @ 1 kg a.i. per hectare at the time of planting followed by 0.5 kg a.i. per hectare at 30 and 60 days after planting of suckers is recommended. 83

Removal of Style, Perianth of Male Bud: This practice helps in overcoming ‘fingertip’ disease. Remove the perianth and style while the bunch is still young. The male bud or ‘heart’ should be removed immediately after the last hand appears and the fruit starts to curve up. The perianth and style are easily removed by a light brushing movement of the hand a few days after flowering. If not brushed off, they become brown and shrivelled and it is difficult to remove. The male bud or heart is used as a vegetable in parts of India and as animal or stock feed in some countries. Removal of male bud is said to favour fruit development. It is a practice recommended for improving the appearance of the bunch as well as to ward off ‘fingertip’ disease. Trashing: In the banana field, lot of undesirable material is necessary to remove such as dried, diseased and decayed leaves, pseudostem after harvest, male bud, last end of inflorescence, and withered floral parts etc. Propping: Propping is a method by which support is given to banana bearing plants with the help of the bamboo cruteches, protecting them from bending or falling down due to heavy bunch load and from any damage by wind. Propping is very essential for tall varieties. Wooden props such as bamboo or casuarina or eucalyptus poles are to be given. Earthing Up: Earthing up should be done during the rainy season to provide drainage and to avoid water logging at the base. It is to be done once in 2 or 3 months to prevent soil erosion from the basins and to avoid direct contact of water with pseudostem. Due to earthing up there are fair chances of formation of good root system. Wrapping of Bunches: It is covering of bunches with polythene or gunny cloth that protects the fruits from intense heat, hot wind, etc. and improves the colour of the fruits. Mattocking: After the harvest of bunch, the plant stem should be cut in stages at least after 30 to 45 days to facilitate mobilization of the nutrients from the mother to the developing ratoon plant. The pseudostem should be cut leaving a stump of about 0.6 m height. Harvesting and Handling of Fruits: Banana is categorized as a climacteric fruit. Fruits do not ripe early and uniformly on the plant. Therefore, they are harvested when they are green and fully mature. The fruits are harvested when top leaves start drying. The colour of the fruit changes from deep green to a lighter green. The ridges on the surface of the skin change from angular to round, i.e. after the attainment of 3/4th full stage. Banana comes into flowering in 9 months or so after planting. The dwarf bananas are ready for harvest within 11 to 14 months after planting, while tall cultivars take about 14 to 16 months to harvest. The fruits become ready in 3-4 months after flowering. In India, the main banana season is from September to April. The total period required from planting to first harvesting will also depend on type of variety under cultivation and climatic conditions. Stage of harvesting of fruits depends on its uses. For table purposes and for transporting a long distance, the harvesting of mature fruits should be done earlier. The harvesting is performed by cutting the bunch, retaining 15-20 cm stalk, this will help in handling. Tall cultivars usually yield 15-20 tonnes/ha. Average yield of dwarf varieties is 3040 tonnes/ha. Bananas are not usually allowed to ripen on the tree as it takes long time. Moreover, the fruit-peel splits, fruit ripens unevenly and fails to develop good colour and aroma, hence the marketable quality deteriorates. Therefore, banana needs to be ripened artificially. The bunches of banana are heaped in dry and clean air-tight room and covered with leaves. The fruits are ready within 4 days. Smoke treatment is the common method to induce ripening in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Smoking is done with straw, leaves and cow dung in a closed chamber with bunches arranged in a 84

heap for 18-24 hours in summer and 48 hours in winter. After taking the bunches from the chamber, they are placed in a well ventilated room for development of colour. Besides these methods, chemicals can be used for inducing early ripening. Among them 2,4-D is the cheapest for inducing artificial ripening. The fruits should be dipped for 10 seconds in 1000 ppm 2,4-D. Ethrel @ 5000 ppm with 5 g of NaOH pallet kept in a beaker in the ripening chamber ripened the banana fruits within 48 hours. After harvesting or ripening, the fruits can be stored for some period. The fruits can be stored at a temperature of 13oC and a relative humidity of 85-95 per cent for about three weeks. Ripening of banana fruits can easily be retarded for 10-12 days at ambient temperature (30oC) held in sealed polythene bags. Ripening of banana ca be retarded significantly with post harvest dip in 150 ppm GA + 500 ppm benomyl or 150 ppm GA + 6% waxol. Shelf life of banana fruits and their quality can also be extended 3 days more than the control with the use of ethylene absorbent like vermiculite blocks when they are soaked in potassium permanganate at 100 g/litre and inserted into polythene bags each holding one hand with 12 fruits. Physiological Disorders 1. Neer Vazhai: is a malady of unknown etiology. It affects Nendran banana in Tamil Nadu. Infested plants show poor plant growth, delayed shooting, lanky bunch with few hands and immature unfilled fingers. Fruits ooze out watery fluid when cut, hence the name ‘Neer’ meaning ‘water’ and ‘vazhai’- ‘banana’. In infested plants, severe root damage is noted. Cause of this disorder is not known but is of serious concern causing considerable loss. There are stray reports of this malady affecting ‘Poovan’ around Trichy in Tamil Nadu. Application of growth hormone NAA improves the finger filling. It is transmitted through suckers. Thus it can be suspected to be caused by virus or mycoplasms. 2. Kotta vazhai: is also malady of unknown etiology affecting Poovan banana. ‘Kottai’ means seed, referring to conspicuously enlarged ovules and immature dark green fruits. Though few studies conducted earlier with sprays of 2,4-D, 120 ppm enabled to obtain normal bunch, the cause of this malady is not known. It is suspected to be associated with incidence of banana streak virus. Insect-Pests 1. Stem borer (Odioiporus longicollis Oliver) : It causes much damage to banana plant. The larvae feed and tunnels inside the corm, leaves turn yellow, wither and ultimately plant die. Remove all infested plants and destroy them. Spray 0.04% Endosulfan or 0.1% carbaryl. Use celphos (3 tablets per plant) tablets inside the psuedostem and plaster the slit with mud. 3. Banana aphid (Pentalonia nigronervosa) : The insect is particularly important as it is the vector of the virus causing bunchy top disease. The nymphs and adults suck sap from young and tender leaves. Spray 0.3% Rogor 30 EC (dimethoate) or phosphamindon or monocrotophos or 0.05 per cent malathion or 0.01 per cent metasystox. Soil application of phorate or Carbofuran @ 4-5 kg/ha near the base of suckers or rhizome at the time of planting is very effective. 4. Rootstock weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus Germar) : The pest does harm to the banana crop throughout the year. The grubs bore into the rhizomes. Adults hide in leaf sheathes and suckers. Remove and destroy infested rhizomes and stumps. Apply 10 per cent BHC in the pit and also mix it in the soil just before planting of suckers/rhizomes. Spray 0.05% Fenitrothion or 0.03% phosphamidon around the base of plants. 5. Banana beetle (Nodostoma subcustatum Jucoby, Colaspis hypochlora) : The pest generally attacks young leaves and fruits. They hide under folded leaves. The spots are 85

seen on fruits. The quality of fruit is deteriorated. Occurrence of pest is maximum during rainy season. For the control of pest follow clean cultivation practices. Dust with malathion to check the pest. 6. Nematodes (Rhodopholus similes) : They are now recognized as an important soil-borne pathogens causing decline in yield in bananas. Affected plants do not response to fertilizer, irrigation or cultural practices. Small dark spots appear on the root. The nematode lays eggs in the root tissue. After hatching out, larvae also feed on the root. Plant growth is retarded and yield is affected adversely. Banana sets may be disinfected either by paring, heat therapy, chemical treatment or by combination of these methods. The pared sets can be disinfected by dipping them in a hot water bath at 55 oC for 10 minutes or soil application of carbofuran at 2 kg a.i. per hectare can check the nematodes. Diseases 1. Panama disease or Banana wilt: The disease is caused due to the fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. cubense. The disease was first reported from Panama in early 1900. It is a soil borne fungus and gets entry in the plant body through roots. It is a serious disease in poorly drained soils with planting of banana year after year. The leaves of affected plants turn yellow and later they hang around the pseudostem and wither. Black streaks appear on rhizomes and pseudostems. The disease spreads fast on acid alluvial soils. Warm soil temperature and bad drainage favour the spread of the disease. a. The affected plants should be uprooted and destroyed. Always avoid banana planting on infested soil. Disease free rhizomes and suckers should only be used for planting. Apply Bavistin @ 1 g per litre. It is advisable to plant disease resistant varieties like Basrai Dwarf, Poovan, Champa, Raja Vazhai, Vaman Keli, etc. Apply more quantity of farmyard manure for its control. 2. Leaf spot or Sigatoka disease: It is caused due to Mycosphaerella musicola- Sexual stage and Cercospora musec –sexual stage. a. Sigatoka is the name of the valley in Fiji where the disease first attached during 1913. It is a fungal disease. The presence of light yellowish spots on the leaves are the first symptoms. A small number of these enlarge, become oval and changes to dark brown. Infection occurs through the stomata of the young leaves, the lower surface being much more important than the upper. The size of bunch and fruit is reduced due to reduction of leaf area available for photosynthesis. Fruits may ripe prematurely. High humidity occur due to close planting, heavy weeds and failure to remove suckers, favour in spreading the disease. b. Proper drainage of field is very important for control of this disease. Avoid too close planting and remove suckers and weeds regularly. Affected leaves should be removed and destroyed. Bordeaux mixture 1 per cent + 2 per cent linseed oil spray should be given. Spray with Dithane M-45 at 0.2 per cent. 3. Bunchy top: The disease is said to be due to virus (Bunchy Top Virus, Banana Virus I or Musa Virus I). The banana aphid (Pentalonia nigronervosa Cog) is the main agent of transmitting the disease. The dwarf banana are very susceptible to this disease. The leaves are bunched together into a rosette at the top and their margins are wavy and slightly rolled upward. The presence of interrupted dark green streaks along the secondary veins of the lamina or the midrib or petiole is a characteristic symptom of bunchy top. The diseased plants remain stunted and do not produce bunch of any commercial value. 86

a. It is advisable to always plant virus free suckers obtained from reliable nursery. Remove all affected plants along with complete rhizome. To check aphid, spray 0.3 per cent Rogor or Phosphamidon or Monocrotophos (0.05%). Never allow banana plant at a place for more than 3 years. Herbicide like 2,4-D may be applied on the stool after cutting down for effective killing of the plant. 4. Fruit rot (Macrophomina musae and Gloeosporium musarim) : Lesions are formed on fruits and stalks followed by rotting. Such fruit ripen prematurely and finally turn brown and rot. To check the disease, remove affected fingers (fruits) and stalk. Spray 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture. Dip the fruit in Mycostain 400 ppm or in melted paraffin. 5. Pitting disease (Pyracularia grisea): Round, sunken pits appear on the fruit as it approaches maturity or after harvest. Splitting may occur in the centre of the pit. Pits do not extend to the pulp. All collapsed and drying leaf tissues including transition leaves and bracts should be removed at regular interval, especially during the rainy season. To protect the fruits, spray weekly with Dithane M-45. 6. Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum) : On young plant, one of the youngest three leaves becomes pale green or yellow and collapse near the junction of the lamina with the petiole. The presence of yellow fingers often indicate the presence of this disease. Fruit rot and fruit stalk vascular discolouration, wilted or blackened regrowth of suckers, blackened and dead male flower buds are the characteristic symptoms of bacterial wilt. Flower visiting insects are main agents for transmitting the disease and this is a good reason for following the practice of removing the bud from the male axis before the bunch mature. Herbicide 2,4-D can be used to kill infected plants in situ. CITRUS Citrus is the world’s leading tree fruit crop. It is a crop adaptable to wide range of soils, terrain, planting and cultural arrangement. Citrus comprising of mandarins, sweet orange, grapefruit, limes and lemons is most important fruit crop grown in India. Citrus fruits are grown under varying agroclimatic conditions in all the States of the Indian Union, except in the high hilly temperate regions. The cultivation of citrus in the North-Western States of India has steadily increased over the past few years due to its high productivity and adaptability to various agro-climatic regions. Origin and History: Most of the citrus species are native to tropical and subtropical regions of South East Asia, particularly India and China and in the region between these two countries. The northeastern region of India is considered as one of the natural home of few citrus species. Citrus was probably introduced in Europe in 16th century by the Portuguese. Kinnow, a hybrid between King mandarin and Willow leaf (Mediterranean mandarin), was developed by H.B. Frost in 1915 and released in 1935. A noble introduction of this cultivar made at Fruit Research Station, Layallpur (Now in Pakistan) inspired the growers to extend the cultivation in adjoining areas. In 1958 Dr. J.C. Bakhshi brought the virus-free bud wood of 25 different species of citrus-including kinnow from California (USA). The major citrus producing countries of the world are USA, Brazil, Japan, Spain, Italy, Mexico, India, Israel, China, Egypt, Turkey, Argentina, Morocco, Algeria, South Africa, Greece, Australia, Jamaica, etc. Area and Production: In India citrus fruits (Mandarin, sweet orange and lime and lemons) are grown in 3.49 lakh hectares with total production of 27.58 lakh tones annually, accounts for 10.80 and 9.77 per cent of total area and production, respectively. Productivity of citrus varies from 5.0 to 15.0 tonnes per hectare depending upon agro-climatic regions which is much below the potential. Among the citrus fruits, mandarin is placed at first position with respect to area and production which is followed by 87

sweet orange and limes. Other citrus fruits viz., grapefruit, pummelo and lemons are mostly grown as backyard plants. Different citrus fruits are now grown in foot hills of Himachal Pradesh to Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and North Eastern India (Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur and Nagaland). Importance and Uses: Citrus fruits contain considerable amount of vitamin C. Kinnow contains 60 mg of vitamin C per 100 ml of juice. Lime is also a good source of vitamin C. Lemon has high medicinal value as it is a richer source of antiscorbutic vitamin C than the sour or acid lime. It is also good source of vitamin B, A and P. Lemon is very useful in the case of the prevention of capillary bleeding and very useful in the case of teeth, hands and face and as a hair rinse. Grapefruit is a rich source of vitamin C and thiamin B1. The mid bitterness in juice is due to the presence of glucoside called Naringin which is said to have a high medicinal value. Grapefruit is considered very good for prevention against malaria. The total soluble solid in the fruit juice in most of the sweet group of citrus varies from 8-12 per cent, while the titrable acidity usually ranges from 0.5 to 1.5 per cent. Most of the citrus fruits such as sweet orange, grapefruit and mandarins are taken as fresh fruits. The citrus fruits can, however, be utilized in a number of other ways as salads (orange salad, grapefruit-cheese salad, grapefruit-pineapple salad, grapefruit salad), juices, squashes (orange squash, lime and lemon squash), cocktails, syrup, concentrate, marmalades and pickles. Climate: Citrus plants being subtropical cannot withstand extended cold periods. Temperature of -2oC to 0oC are injurious to the citrus fruits if such low temperature prevail for long periods. The citrus fruit may freeze at temperature of -2.8oC to 2.2oC, or even little higher temperature. Extremely high temperatures are also not conducive to the production of high-quality citrus fruits. The foliage is killed and much of the fruit drops. Under high temperature condition, the exposed fruit may become sunburned. In areas which have more total heat available during the growing season, oranges mature early with a high amount of total soluble solids than the oranges produced in places where the temperature is not so high. It is, therefore, clear that the citrus plants thrive best under rather warm conditions. Kinnow (King x Willow leaf) growing in arid irrigated and mountainous region of NorthWestern India, especially, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, etc. is doing very well. It appears to be exacting in its climatic requirement which is evident from its performance in different ecological regions of the country. Obviously, it needs sharply contrasting warm cool temperature with chilling temperature for economical cropping and adequate quality of fruit. This is due to the significant influence of preharvest temperature on acid metabolism and total soluble solid development. The development of carotenoids is also determined by temperature 2-3 months preceding the harvest which is more favourable in sub-tropics than in tropics. Areas with sub-tropical type of climate with temperature range of 10 to 40oC with annual rainfall of 100 to 150 cm and adequate facilities for regular irrigation are most suited for Kinnow. The amount and distribution of annual rainfall and seasonal humidity regions are very important aspects of the environmental complex which influence the adaptability of citrus culture to various climates. In sub-tropical regions annual use of water by evapo-transpirational losses in a wellwatered mature citrus orchard ranges somewhere between 762 mm in cool climate to 1245 mm in the hot semi-arid climate. On an average, 1000 mm to 2000 mm of rainfall would be required to maintain ideal soil moisture throughout the year. Soil: All the citrus fruit trees are very sensitive to high salt concentration in the soil. Under such conditions, the plants cannot absorb adequate water from the soil and consequently remain stunted. In 88

addition, the toxicity due to high salt concentration in soil shows up in the form of typical leaf burn symptoms. The condition may further result in the reduction of plant growth and yield. Therefore, the soil with high salt concentration and having an electrical conductivity of the saturation extract of more than 2 mmhos per cm should be avoided when planting citrus. The citrus plants thrive best in soils having slightly acidic reaction with a pH range of 5.5 to 6.2. Under such conditions, most of the nutrients are readily available to the plants. The soils having pH more than 8.7 pose many production problems and should never be used for planting citrus. The soils which are water-logged or have a very high and fluctuating water-table should not be put under citrus. Soils with inadequate surface drainage should be avoided. Citrus orchards should not be planted in areas where water stagnates for many days during the monsoon season and those field which get flooded after every fall of rain. For best citrus cultivation, well drained medium to high loamy soil, which should be free from injurious salts and which have a slightly acidic reaction should be selected for planting citrus orchards. In general for citrus fruits, pH should be less than 8.5, conductivity based on 1:2 soil water suspensions within 0.5 mmhos/cm, free lime less than 5 per cent and lime concentration less than 10 per cent. These limits may well apply to sweet orange mandarin as well. Choice of Varieties 1. Sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) A. Common group or Mediterranean oranges: (1) Pineapple (2) Hamlin (3) Jaffa (4) Valencia B. Acidless group : (1) Musambi (2) Succari C. Pigmented group: (1) Blood Red (2) Ruby (3) Moro (4) Torocco D. Naval group: (1) Washington Naval (2) Roberston (3) Bahianiana 2. Sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) A. Reticulata group: (1) Nagpur santra or Ponkan (Chhina) (2) Coorg B. Mediterrarnean group or Deliciosa group: (1) Kinnow (King x Willow leaf) (2) Willing (Sister hybrid of Kinnow) (3) Willow leaf (4) Emprior C. Satsuma group: (1) Ovari (2) Wase (3) Kara D. Tangerine group: (1) Dancy (2) Beauty (3) Naartja E. Nobilis group: (1) King (2) Kunembo F. Mitis group: (1) Calamondin (2) Billi kichilli (3) Cleopatra 3. Mandarin – like Tangers (Hybrid between Tangerine x Sweet orange) : (1) Temple (Natural hybrid) (2) Clementine 4. Mandarin – like Tangelos (Hybrid between Grapefruit x Tangerine): (1) Orlando (2) Minneola 5. Grapefruit (Citrus paradise): (1) A. Seeded group: (1) Duncan (2) Triumph (3) Pink marsh (4) Ruby (5) Foster B. Seedless group: (1) Marsh seedless (2) Cecily 6. Pummelo (Citrus maxima) : (1) Kao pan (2) Red fleshed (3) Chakaiya 7. Lime (Citrus aurantifolia) A. Acid or Sour lime: (1) Kagzi (2) Mexican (3) Palmetto B. Large fruited or Tahiti lime: (1) Tahiti (2) Pond (3) Bearss C. Mandarin lime: (1) Rangpur lime D. Sweet or Acidless lime (Citrus limettiodes) : (1) Palestine (2) Sweet 8. Lemon (Citrus limon) A. Eureca group: (1) Eureca (2) Villafranca (3) Nepali oblong (4) Galgal (5) Italian round (6) Baramasi 89

B. Lisbon group: (1) Bonnie (2) Kennedy (3) Lisbon C. Anamalous group: (1) Meyer (2) Cuban (3) Ponderosa D. Sweet or Acidless lemon group: (1) Mill sweet Propagation and Rootstock: The sexual as well as asexual methods of propagation are used to raise plants of different species of citrus. The seedlings of acid lime and mandarins are still planted in some regions of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and North-East region. The rootstocks are also grown from seeds and then scion cultivars are budded/grafted upon these seedlings in sweet oranges, mandarins and grapefruits. Vegetatively propagated plants raised from cuttings/ layers are used in limes and lemons. Seeds of most citrus species are polyembryonic and thus nucellar seedlings are used both for raising uniform rootstocks as well as for direct planting especially in acid lime and mandarins. This also helps to raise healthy plants as citrus viruses are not transmitted through seed. All the commercial citrus fruits grown in India are generally propagated through ‘T-budding’. Jatti Khatti (C. jambhiri) is the common rootstock used for the propagation of these fruits. This rootstock is tolerant to viral diseases like tristeza, exocortis etc., and the plants raised on it are vigorous and produce fruits of good quality. Preparation of seedbeds and sowing of seed: For raising the rootstock, seeds freshly extracted from mature fruits or Jatti Khatti collected from healthy and vigorous trees are sown on raised beds. The land used for preparing the seedbeds should be well drained and fertile. The beds should be 2-3 meters long, 60 cm wide and 15 to 20 cm high from the ground level. There should be sub-channels on both sides of the beds for irrigation. The seeds of Jatti Khatti may preferably be sown in September. If the sowing is delayed, the germination reduces due to onset of winter and also the growth is slowed down. The seed is sown in rows 10 cm apart and in these furrows the seeds are placed 2 cm apart and 1 cm deep. After the seeds are sown, they are covered with layer of sand and farmyard manure mixture about ½ cm thick. The seedbeds are irrigated immediately after sowing. The first irrigation is usually applied by sprinkling with hand hose and the next little irrigation is applied in a way that the beds are moistened through seepage. The seeds should be sown immediately after extracting from the fruit as its viability decreases during storage. For facilitating sowing, the seeds should be washed and dried in shade. Care of young seedlings and its transplanting: The germination of seed starts about 3 weeks after sowing. These young seedlings are likely to be damaged by frost during winter. It is advisable to cover them with Sarkanda to avoid any damage from cold. It will also improve the growth of seedlings. The seedbeds should be kept free from weeds by doing hand weeding or with small khurpa from time to time. Light dressing of nitrogenous fertilizers makes the seedlings to attain the height of about 15 cm by the next March, which is the optimum size of transplanting. By sowing the seed in September and transplanting the seedling in March, one can save a year in the propagation of plants. If the seedlings do not attain the transplanting size by March, their transplanting should be done in August-September. The field in which the seedlings are to be transplanted should be well prepared and levelled thoroughly. The seedlings should be transplanted at the distance of 15 cm in rows which are 30 cm apart and a distance of 60 cm after every two rows should be kept for facilitating the budding and hoeing operations. After transplanting, a light irrigation is applied to the field. Thereafter the irrigations are given at 8-10 days interval. Budding the seedlings: The transplanted seedlings become buddable 6 to 12 months after transplanting depending upon the time of transplanting. The seedlings which are to be budded should be of pencil thickness at about 20 cm from the ground level. All the seedlings may not attain the 90

buddable size at the same time. Inspite of the fact that the uniformity was maintained at the time of transplanting, some of them may become more vigorous and some may remain week. Most of them, however, grown uniformly. It is necessary to do second cutting at this stage. About 10 per cent seedlings are discarded at the time of budding. The remaining uniform seedlings are budded. Citrus plants can be budded either during March-April or August-September. ‘T’ budding or shield budding is the common method of propagation in citrus. Planting Operations: Under North India, citrus is planted twice in a year. The spring planting season, suitable for citrus plantings, starts after the 15th of February. The monsoon season starts from middle of July and continues upto the end of September. Citrus is however, commonly planted when rains have set in and the weather has cooled down sufficiently. Preparation of land: The land on which young citrus trees are to be planted should be prepared well in advance. Soil should be thoroughly ploughed up and levelled. Preferably, soil should be planted with a green-manure crop such as guara or senji. These crops should be buried when they have attained the maximum vegetative growth and field should be irrigated immediately. The land should be heavily manured with farmyard manure a few months before the actual planting. Planting distance: It depends upon the variety, the rootstock, the type of soil and the climate. The spacing commonly given to citrus plants in north India is 6 m x 6 m in square system and accommodates 275 plants per hectare. The tree should not be planted closely, because they grow tall and slender and make spraying, pruning and picking difficult. The trees planted too closely bear poor crops of inferior quality and are susceptible to the attack of many insect-pests and diseases. Cultivation in closely spaced orchard is also very difficult. Irrigation: It is suggested that young citrus trees upto 8 years may be profitably irrigated by basin system. The application of irrigation at right time and in right quantity is more important. Under North India weekly irrigation during March to June and fortnightly irrigation during November to February are followed. In Punjab, it is reported that the young plants upto the age of 3-4 years, should be irrigated after 7 days intervals, whereas older trees after 15-20 days interval depending upon climate, rainfall and type of soil. Utmost care needs to be given to irrigation before sprouting in February, after fruit set in April and in the hot weather, otherwise the growth of the trees may be adversely affected resulting in the excessive shedding of flower/fruits. Citrus trees are highly sensitive to excess moisture and waterlogging conditions. The trees require good soil aeration. The excessive irrigation may result in poor soil aeration leading to root rot and other diseases. Excessive irrigation also results in the leaching of essential nutrients from soil as well as in accumulation certain salts if the irrigation water is not of good quality. Citrus trees are sensitive to salinity and the total soluble salts in the irrigation water should not exceed 1000 ppm. Over-irrigation of citrus causes decline of orchards in most cases. Waterlogging particularly near the tree trunk can be avoided by providing mounds of earth around the tree trunk well below the bud union. Weed Management: Best results in citrus were achieved with diuron at 5 of 6.25 kg/ha and tafazine at 7.5-10 kg/ha when applied at pre-emergence stage. Diuron at 4 kg/ha was the most effective to control monocot weeds in sweet orange orchard. Paraquat at 5 kg/ha applied twice annually gave better and control than dalapon at 8-12 kg/ha. Oxidizon at 5 kg/ha was the most effective treatment for controlling weeds in Kinnow orchard for 90 days when applied at post-emergence stage of weeds. Similarly, in Kinnow orchard, Diuron, atrazine and simazine @ 5 kg/ha as pre-emergence and paraquat and glyphosate 5 kg/ha as post-emergence treatments were adjudged best in checking weeds. 91

In a long term adaptive trial conducted at different locations, it was concluded that glyphosate @ 41/ha as post-emergence (second fortnight of March) followed by glyphosate/paraquat @ 3 1/ha (second fortnight of July) ordiuron @ 5 kg/ha as pre-emergence (first fortnight of March) followed by glyphosate/paraquat @ 3 1/ha (second fortnight of July) in 500 litres of water effectively control broad spectrum of weeds in kinnow orchards. Intercropping: In order to utilize the vacant land to generate income till the plants become productive, intercropping is recommended. However, indiscriminate use of exhaustive inter-crops may led to decline of orchards. Intercropping should not be done in the bearing orchard. But in young and non-bearing orchards, intercropping upto 4 years with a leguminous crop such as guara, moong, mash, cowpea, gram and pea may be done. Guara-wheat rotation with guara as a green manure can be taken in sweet oranges for 5-6 years. Sufficient space should, however, be left unsown to permit young trees to make unrestricted growth. More of fertilizers should be added to meet the requirements of the intercrop. The fruit tree and intercrops should be provided with independent irrigation system. Tall and exhaustive crops like cotton, chari, bajra, maize, berseem, bhindi and creeper types vegetables should not be grown in the orchard. During summer season, vegetables like tinda, pumpkin, onions and bitter gourd and leguminous crops like moong, mash, moth and cowpeas may be grown. Guara may be grown as fodder or as green manure crop. Chillies should not be grown in a citrus orchard as they have proved to be harmful to the citrus plants. During winter season, turnip, cauliflower, carrot and radish can be grown. Peas and gram make excellent intercrops as they enrich the orchard soil. Senji may be grown as fodder or as a green manure crop. Berseem proves to be harmful to citrus trees because it requires frequent irrigation while the citrus trees do not require the same amount of water during winter. Therefore, barseem is incompatible in irrigation requirements with citrus. Manuring and Fertilization: One of the major causes of citrus decline in India is improper and inadequate nutrition. The deterioration and unthrifty growth of citrus trees is reported to be due to lack of adequate nutrition. Citrus trees require a judicious supply of plant nutrients for proper growth and regular harvest of high quality fruits. The ill fertilized trees may have hidden hunger and in acute cases may show a variety of deficiency symptoms. Further recommendations have been made based both on experience and experimental results to achieve optimum orchard performance. For proper growth and development of citrus, about 17 elements have been known to have important role to play. Apart from major nutrients like N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S, citrus requires micronutrients like Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, B, Mo, etc. Inadequate nutrition of citrus plants causes serious disorders and may eventually lead to decline of the orchards. The citrus soils are sandy to sandy loams, low in N, P and medium in K, low in Zn, high in pH and with CaCO3 concretion in sub-soil. In Kinnow annual application of farm yard manure @ 100 kg per tree, N @ 400-800 g/tree, P2O5 @ 200 g/tree are recommended as a general practice and three foliar applications of 0.3% ZnSO4 in April, June and September are also recommended. Generally, Nitrogen is found to be in deficient in all the citrus growing areas. The whole quantity of farm yard manure should be applied in December. Nitrogen dose is given in two split doses, the first part is given in February and the second in April-May after the fruit-set. Physiological and Pathological Fruit Drop: Fruit drop is a serious problem in citrus. Generally the trees bear large numbers of flowers and fruits, all of which they are unable to carry to maturity. It is a common observation that not more than 7-8 per cent of the flowers develop into mature fruits. First, the unfertilized flowers drop from the trees and, later, some of the fruits also drop in two or three 92

definite waves. A considerable number of fruits drop in April soon after the fruit-set. Another drop comes when the fruit is about 3-5 cm in diameter. Usually, these two drops are not of such intensity as to materially affect the total yield. The last fruit-drop, known as pre-harvest drop, occurs just before the fruit is matured. It, however, reduces the yield considerably. There are two main causes of fruit drop i.e., physiological and pathological. 1. Physiological causes of fruit-drop: The following are the possible physiological causes of fruit drop: (i) Climatic factors (ii) Disturbed water relations (iii) Lack of nutrition (iv) Relation of seed to fruit drop Symptoms: The flower-drop, as well as the fruit-drop is primarily due to the formation of an abscission layer at the point of attachment of the fruit with the twig. The growth-regulator balance within the tree is responsible for setting in motion the processes leading to the abscission layer. For checking excessive pre-harvest fruit drop, spray the trees with 10 ppm of 2,4-D in September about 2 months before harvesting. For spraying one acre of sweet orange trees add 5 g of 2, 4-D in 500 litres of water. Do not spray 2, 4-D when dicot crop is intercropped in citrus orchard. Do not spray 2, 4-D when the adjacent fields are cultivated with cotton or other dicot crops. 2. Pathological Causes of Fruit-Drop: A good proportion of fruit drop in citrus has also been reported because of incidence of pests and diseases. Causes: Stylar-end rot (ii) Stalk-end rot Symptoms: The casual organism of the stem-end fruit rot is Collectotrichum gloeosporioides and Alternaria citri. Dark circular depressions with yellowish margins on leaves, branches, and fruits. Later the spots become raised, rough and light brown and the yellow margins disappear. Sand paper texture on the surface of leaves and fruit. The stem-end-fruit rot can be effectively checked by spraying the trees with 20 ppm aureofungin (35 g in 500 litres of water) or Bordeaux mixture 2:2:250 in April, July-August and September. 3. Citrus Decline: Citrus decline may be due to several causes such as mis-management of the orchard, defective soil, poor drainage, malnutrition, insects and diseases. 4. Rejuvenation: For the rejuvenation of declining citrus orchard, the following schedule is recommended: 1. Remove dead wood during January-February before the new growth starts. Apply 2:2:250 Bordeaux mixture immediately and apply Bordeaux paste to the cut surface and the trunk of the trees. Apply Bordeaux paint to the trunk after a week. 2. Add farmyard manure and nitrogen to the plants as per recommendations. 3. Follow strictly spray schedule for the control of insects pests and diseases. 4. Spray the solution containing 1.5 kg of zinc sulphate in 500 litres of water and Bordeaux mixture, separately in April, June and September on new growth flushes when the leaves have attained two-third of their size. There should be a minimum gap of one weak between the two sprays. 5. Granulation: Granulation is a complex pre-harvest disorder of citrus fruits characterized by apparent drying up of juice vesicles which become hard, assume a grayish colour and are enlarged with an increase in pectin, lignin and other polysaccarides, resulting in considerable decrease in total soluble solids, acidity and juice percentage and sugars. A good proportion of fruits is affected by this malady causing huge economic loss to the orchardists. 93

Factors affecting granulation: (1) Climate (2) Species and cultivars (3) Rootstock (4) Mineral nutrition (5) Enzymes and plant growth regulators (6) Crop load (7) Tree location. Control: (i) Spray of lime, zinc sulphate and Bordeaux mixture (ii) Spray of 2,4-D (10 ppm), 245T (20 ppm), NAA (200 ppm) and GA3 (10-20 ppm). Harvesting: The citrus fruits should be harvested when they are fully ripe as they are non-climacteric in nature. Citrus fruits develop their characteristic flavour and aroma in fully ripe stage. The fruits do not at all improve in quality after they have been harvested from the trees. Total soluble solids: acid ratio is a scientific and reliable index for adjusting maturity of citrus fruits. The studies on fruit quality at maturity and ripening of Kinnow mandarin on different rootstocks were conducted at the Regional Fruit Research Station, Abohar. The growth of fruit in terms of length, diameter and weight increased rapidly upto 30th January on Jatti Khatti and Kharna Khatta and upto 20th January on Troyer and Carrizo rootstocks. Thereafter, a slight decrease in fruit growth was observed. The best harvesting time of Kinnow mandarin on Jatti Khatti and Kharna Khatta fell between 20th January to 9th February and on Troyer and Carrizo between 20th January to 30th January. The optimum harvesting time of important fruits viz., sweet orange is Musambi (November), Pineapple and Jaffa (December), Blood red (December-January, Valencia (February-March). Mandarins cultivars – Kinnow (mid-January to mid February). Grapefruit cultivars – Foster (November-December), Marsh seedless (DecemberJanuary), Duncan (January) and Lemon (August-November). Harvesting should be done by clipping from the tree. A sharp clipper or shear is used. A short, slightly curved blunt shear is best suited for this purpose. The ‘Secateur’ is commonly used as clipper to harvest Kinnow fruits. The stems are cut as short as possible without actually cutting into the bottom or the fruit itself. Stem left on the fruit is source of mechanical injury during packing and transport. Kinnow fruits are likely to torn off easily, if pulled with hand, hence this method should not be used. The full grown sweet orange tree yield 500-1000 fruits. However, yield varies with climatic conditions, soil type, varieties grown, age of plantation and orchard cultural practices. Well grown up Kinnow tree of about 10-12 years ago bears about 1000-2000 fruits depending the prevailing conditions. Insect-Pests: 1. Citrus psylla (Diphornia citri) : It is more active in March-April, June-July and SeptemberOctober. The density of pests is more in arid-zone than submontome zone of Punjab. Orange yellow nymphs and grey adults of citrus psylla suck the plant sap from the growing shoot which ultimately dries up. Spray 625 ml Nuvacron 36 SL (monocrotophos) or 670 ml of Rogor 30 EC (dimethoate) in 500 litres of water for its control. 2. Citrus leaf-miner (Phyllocnists citrella : It is serious pest of acid lime and cause substantial economic damage to mandarin and sweet orange. It attacks tender leaves in which larvae feed making shinning slivery serpentine mines. It also mines young tender shoots. The leaves become distorted and crumples. The pest is more serious problem in the nursery and young plantation during flushing seasons. The pest can be controlled by spraying on nursery plants 50 ml of Sumicidin 20 EC (fenvalerate) or 100 ml of Ripcord 10 EC (cypermethrin) or 350 ml of Decis 2.8 EC (decamethrin) or 148 ml of Nuvacron 40 SC (monocrotophos) in 100 litres of water at fortnightly intervals. 3. White or black fly: (Dialcurodes citr) : Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from the foliage and reduce the plant vigour. The pest is more active during spring and early autumn. It can be effectively checked by spraying 570 ml of Thiodan 35 EC (endosulfan) in 500 litres of water. 4. Citrus leaf folder (Psorosticha zizyphi) : It remains active from May to October. The young leaves are webbed together and are bitten off by the larvae. The pest can be controlled by spray of 625 94

ml Nuvacron 36 SL (monocrotophos) or 1250 ml Dursban 20 EC (chlorophyriphos) or 1000 ml Ekalux 25 EC (quinalphos) in 500 litres of water. 5. Barkeating caterpillar (Indarbela sp.) : It causes damage by boring holes into the stem and branches and feeding on the bark under the cover of its excreta. Remove webbing and apply kerosene into the holes during September-October and again in January-February. Treat all the alternate host plants in the vicinity. Diseases: 1. Citrus Canker: The bacterial Canker is caused by Xanthomonas citri. It is one of the most serious disease of acid lime prevalent all over the country. The disease is highly infectious, spreads from tree to tree through the water splash. Disease appears on leaves, twigs and fruits. On leaves canker appears as yellowish spot, which gradually enlarge, turn rough and brownish and become raised on both the sides of the leaf. These spots are surrounded by a yellow halo. Fruit lesions become rough and corky and are confined only to the rind. Kagzilime and grapefruit are highly susceptible. The disease can be controlled by three spraying of 100 ppm streptocyclin, the first in October, the second in December and third in February. Prepare solution by mixing 50 g Streptocyclin in 500 litres of water. Also add 25 g copper sulphate to increase the potency of the antibiotic in the mixture. Bordeaux mixture or copper oxychloride can also be sprayed. 2. Scab: The disease is caused due to the fungus Elsinoe fawcetti. Small, dark brown, rough, irregular raised lesions appears mostly on under side of the leaves. Twigs and fruits are also infected. For its control, spray Bordeaux mixture (2:2:250) or 50% copper oxychloride during May-June and JulyAugust. 3. Gummosis (foot rot): It is caused with fungus Phytophthora palmovira. Phytophthora diseases produce symptoms of decline through rotting of the rootlets, girdling of trunks and dropping of blighted leaves. Important symptoms above ground include dead areas of bark, exudation of small or large amounts of gum, a yellow gummosis zone at the cambium beyond the invaded, killed area and later drying and longitudinal cracking of bark. Symptoms known as foot rot below ground include dead area with less noticeable gum, being soluble in soil water. Symptoms on leaves appear as dark, watery patches either on the edges or on the tops. The blighted leaves drop and complete defoliation may take place near ground. Treat foot rot, gummosis and cankers by decortication. The methods of treating gummosis is the removal of the diseased bark along with 5-10 cm strip of healthy bark beyond the diseased portion, disinfecting the wound with mercuric chloride (0.1%) or sodium hypochloride (0.1%) solutions. Cover the wound with Bordeaux paste. After the paste dries up in about a week, apply Bordeaux paint. Afterwards, give a spraying of copper oxychloride (1.5 kg) in 500 litres of water or preferably Bordeaux mixture 2:2:250. 4. Anthracnose or die back or wither tip: The disease is caused due to the fungus Colletotrichum glooeosporioides or physiological causes. The disease manifests itself as light green spots which soon turn brown. If the spot has sufficient moisture, pinkish masses of spores ooze out of the surface. Sometimes fruiting bodies appear like black dots on pustules. The spots may be at the margins or tips of the leaf blades and sometimes near the midrib. The lesions are usually surrounded by concentric rings. In advanced stages, lesions are found on the twigs which start dying back. Unfavourable conditions such as extreme temperature and moisture make the plant more valuable to the disease. Kinnow being early and prolific bearer is prone to this disease. Regulation of the crop in early years, pruning of the diseased twigs and sprays with Bordeaux mixture (2:2:250) or 50% copper oxychloride (0.3%) during March, July and September help in reducing the disease. 95

5. Virus and Virus like diseases: (A) Greening: It is caused due to mycoplasma like organism. Leaves of infected trees show chlorotic pattern similar to zinc deficiency. The leaves may be completely yellow or yellow with green veins. Mature leaves show yellowing of midribs. Leaves become small, thick and upright. Pre-mature defoliation occurs. Die-back of branches and greening of fruit takes place. The disease is spread through the vector Diaphornia citri which is most effective in transmitting the disease. For its control use disease free budwood and spray against the vector citrus psylla. (B) Tristeza: It is caused due to virus. The appearance of a tree infected with tristeza is that of a tree which roots have been injured. This is due to the sieve tube necrosis at the bud union which check carbohydrate transportation from top to roots resulting in root starvation and heavy bearing which exhaust the tree. The first noticeable symptoms are chlorosis and bronzing of leaves, lack of new growth, off season flowering heavy bearing, gradual defoliation and finally decline of the tree. Under field conditions, the only fairly specific symptom of tristeza is honey combing-a fine pitting of the inner face of the bark in the sour orange portion of the trunk below the bud union. Stem pitting in many citrus varieties is also caused by this disease. Although the disease is graft transmissible, spread is caused by several species of aphids of which Toxoptera citricida is considered to be a most efficient vector. Its incidence has been found to be very high in Southern India. For its control use disease free bud wood and tolerant rootstocks such as rough lemon and Trifoliate orange. The vector (aphid) should be checked by giving timely spray. (C) Exocortis: Exocortis is caused due to viroids. Cracking and scaling of bark of trifoliate, citranges and Rangpur lime rootstocks is noted. Epinasty and curling of leaves, yellow blotches and cracks appears on shoots of some citrus species. Trees show stunted growth. The disease spreads through contaminated budding knives and also through infected bud wood. No insect vectors is known. 6. Melanos or stem and fruit-rot: Disease is caused due to Phomopsis citri. Dark circular depressions with yellowish margins appears on leaves, branches and fruits. Later, the spot become raised, rough and light brown and yellow margins disappear. Sand paper texture appears on the surface of leaves and fruits. To check this disease, spray of Bordeaux mixture (2:2:250) or 50% copper oxychloride (0.3%) during July-August and September is recommended. 7. Citrus nematode: Tylenchulus semipenetrans: The female adult is oval and remains attached to the roots and suck the cell sap, as a result of which the terminal growth of the plants is reduced and the general vigour is adversely affected. No chemical control is available. However, nurseries should be raised in the nematode free soil. Attempts have been made to reduce the population of citrus nematode by use of organic amendments. Application of neem cake recorded 35.7 per cent reduction in nematode population over control.

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Foundation Course Manual on ICAR-JRF (PGS) in Agriculture – General Topics Eds KS Bangarwa, Surender S Dhankhar and RK Pannu CCS HAU, Hisar 2014, pp 97-103.

Major Soils of India KS Grewal and Dinesh Department of Soil Science CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125004 India exhibits a large variety of soils due to its variability in landforms, geological formations and climatic conditions. The variety is so that, barring a few soil Orders (Andisols, spodosols and Gelisols), India represents all the major soil Orders of the world. Govindarajan (1965) divided the soils of India into 24 major Soil Groups. Raychaudhuri and Govindarajan (1971) revised the existing soil map of India giving the equivalents of different soil gropus in terms of US Comprehensive System of Soil Classification. The National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (1982, revised in 1985) prepared a soil map of India (on 1:7 M Scale), using the units of Soil Taxonomy. The 1985 – attempt was to separate Suborders within each Order. The Soil Survey Staff of the National ureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning (NBSSLUP), in cooperation with State’s Soil Survey Staff prepared a comprehensive soil resource maps of different States (on 1:250,000 scale) and then based on these maps a final Soil Map of India on 1:1 M scale was prepared and presented (Sehgal, 1995). The grouping of soils could be achieved by using either of the two Systems, viz., Genetic and Soil Taxonomy. Whereas the Genetic System is based on genetic factors and processes, the Soil Taxonomy is based on the properties of soils, as they exist to date. Since the objective of this lecture is to apprise students of the major soils of India, it is considered desirable to discuss briefly, the major soil Groups, as per the Genetic approach, rather than explaining a large number of Soil Groups in terms. According to the Genetic approach, the committee appointed by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), classified the Indian soil in the following main groups: 1. Alluvial Soils 2. Black Soils 3. Red Soils 4. Laterite Soils 5. Saline and Alkali Soils 6. Desert (Arid) Soils 7. Forest and Hill Soils 8. Peaty and Marshy Soils The most-widely occurring and represented Soil Groups of India (see Fig. 1) are discussed in Genetic terms and their equivalents in terms of Soil Taxonomy and estimated are covered under different Soils is given in table 1 and 2, respectively. Table 1 Major Soils of India and their equivalents in Soil Taxonomy Sr. No.

Major Soils

Area (Mha)

1.

Alluvial Soils

75

US Soil Taxonomy (in order of predominance) Inceptisols, Entisols, Alfisols, Aridisols 97

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Black (Cotton) Soils (Regur) Red Soils Laterite Soils Saline and Alkali Soils Desert Soils Forest and Hill Soils Peaty and Marshy Soils

72

Vertisols, Inceptisols, Entisols

70 25 7.5

Alfisols, Inceptisols, Entisols Oxisols, Ultisols, Inceptisols Aridisols, Inceptisols, Alfisols, Entisols, Vertisols Aridisols, Entisols Inceptisols, Alfisols, Mollisols, Ultisols, Entisols Histosols, Inceptisols, Entisols

29 -

(Source: Sehgal, 2011)

Fig. 1 Major soil types of India 98

Table 2 Area covered under each soil Order, represented in India Order Area Percent Equivalent Great Group (genetic (US Soil (Mha) representation System) Taxonomy) Alfisols 79.7 24.25 Red, Forest/Hill, Alluvial Soils and Solonetz Entisols 80.1 24.37 Alluvial, Black, Red, Desert, Hilly, Peaty and Marshy Soils Inceptisols

95.8

29.13

Vertisls Mollisols Aridisols

26.3 14.6 8.0

8.02 4.47 2.41

Ultisols Oxisols Histosols Non-classified (uncultivable land)

0.8 0.1 23.1

0.26 0.03 7.04

Forest/Hill, Laterite, Red, Black and Alluvial Soils Black (Cotton) Soils Forest/Hill, Alluvial Soils Desert, Solonchak, Solonetz and Alluvial Lateritic Soils Typical Lateritic Soils Peat and Marshy Soils -

(Source: Sehgal, 2011) 1. Alluvial Soil: It is the most important type of soil found in India covering about 40 per cent of the total land area. It is very fertile and contributes the largest share of agricultural wealth. This soil supports nearly half of the Indian population. The name alluvial is given to soils that have developed on alluvium, irrespective of their place of occurrence and degree of profile development. The fine transported particles of sand, silt and clay are called alluvium. Many rivers originate from the Himalayan Mountains and bring a large amount of sediment with them. It is deposited in the river valleys and the flood plains. Thus, the parent material of the alluvial soils is always of transported origin. The alluvial soils are found mostly in the Northern Plains, starting from Punjab in the west to West Bengal and Assam in the east. They also found in the deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri rivers in the Peninsular India. The northern parts and the coastal areas of Gujarat also have some deposits of alluvial soil. The alluvial soil can be divided into old alluvium, called bangar, and new alluvium, called khadar. Remember, the new alluvium can be about ten thousand years old. i. The new alluvium is deposited in the flood plains and deltas. These areas are flooded almost every year. ii. The old alluvium is found on the higher side of the river valleys, i.e. about 25 metres above the flood level. iii. The khadar soil is sandy and light in colour, while the bangar soil is clayey and dark. iv. The alluvial soils contain adequate potash, phosphoric acid and lime. v. They are generally deficient in organic and nitrogenous contents. vi. The old alluvium often contains lime nodules, known as kankar. The fertility of the alluvial soil varies from place to place. Due to its softness and fertility, alluvial soil is most suited to irrigation and can produce bumper crops of rice, wheat, maize, sugar cane, tobacco, cotton, jute, oilseeds, etc. 99

2. Black Soil: The name black is given to soils that are very dark in colour and turn extremely hard on drying and sticky and plastic on wetting, and hence are very difficult to cultivate and manage. They are deep black in colour but there is almost complete absence of humus. Water can remain stored in the soils for a long period and this can continue to provide water to the roots of the plants in the dry period. That is why these soils are used for the cultivation of cotton even in those areas where irrigation is not available. Their black colour is due to certain salts. Black soils are said to have developed in the Deccan Trap area on basalt rocks in semi-arid conditions. The black soil is locally called regur, a word derived from Telugu word ‘reguda’. It is also called the Black Cotton Soil, as cotton is the most important crop grown in this soil. The black soil is mostly found in the Deccan Trap, covering large areas of Maharashtra, Gujarat and western Madhya Pradesh. It is also found in some parts of Godavari and Krishna river valleys, covering parts of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. a. The black soil has been formed thousands of years ago, due to the solidification of volcanic lava. b. This soil is made up of extremely fine clayey material with clay content ranging from 30 to 80 per cent and dominated by smectite clay mineral. c. The black soil is well-known for its capacity to hold moisture. d. This soil is rich in calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, potash and lime, but poor in phosphorous content. e. During the rainy season, black soil becomes sticky and is difficult to till as the plough gets stuck in the mud. f. During the hot dry season, the surface of this soil develops cracks. g. These cracks help in the aeration of the soil. Generally, in the upland regions, the black soil has low fertility, while in the valleys or lowlands; this soil is darker, deeper and very fertile. Due to high fertility and capacity to hold moisture, black soil is widely used for producing cotton, wheat, linseed, millets, tobacco and oilseeds. With proper irrigation facilities, this soil can also produce rice and sugar cane. 3. Red Soil: The reddish-yellow colour is due to the presence of iron oxide. These soils are formed where the rainfall is low and there is a little leaching lesser than that in the laterite soils. Red soils are as such usually developed on old crystalline and metamorphic rocks. These are sandier and comparatively less clayey. These soils cannot retain moisture for a longtime. Use of manures increases their fertility. The soils are deficient in phosphorus, nitrogen and humus. They are acidic in nature and have iron, aluminium and lime in sufficient quantities. The red soil occupies about 10 per cent area of India, mostly in the south-eastern part of the Peninsular India. This area encircles the entire black soil region. The red soil is found in Tamil Nadu, parts of Karnataka, southeast Maharashtra, eastern parts of Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Jharkhand. Broadly, their existence may be found in three regions: a) Central- From Bundelkhand, Baghelkhand to the south, from Orissa, eastern A.P and T.N., these soils occupy large areas. b) Western- The eastern and south-eastern narrow belt to the eastern side of the Aravalis. c) Eastern- Parts of Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, etc. The main crops grown are wheat, cotton, potato, rough grains and others. i. ii. iii.

Most of the red soil has been formed due to weathering of igneous and metamorphic rocks. The red colour is due to the high percentage of iron contents. The texture of the red soil varies from sandy to clayey, and the majority being loamy. 100

iv. v. vi.

On the uplands, the red soil is thin, poor, and porous and has loose gravel. In the lower areas, the soil is deep, rich, fine grained and fertile. This soil is rich in potash, but poor in lime, phosphate, nitrogen and humus.

4. Laterite Soil: The word ‘laterite’ has been derived from a Latin word meaning ‘brick’. These soils are in those areas which are hot and get seasonal rainfall. Due to higher temperatures the bacteria eat away humus and the rainfall leaches silica and lime. As a result the soils are acidic and are rich in aluminium and iron oxides. At places where aluminium compounds dominate, the laterites are called bauxite. On account of presence of iron oxides in them the soils appear red. These soils are classified into three types on the basis of their particles: a. Deep Red Laterite.: They have excess of iron oxide and potash but are short of Kaolin. The soils are not fertile. b. White Laterite: The colour of the soil is due to excess of Kaolin. Soils lose fertility at a faster rate. c. Underground Laterite: The upper parts are dissolved especially in iron which settles down below the upper layer. This makes the soils fertile. Laterite soils do not retain moisture. The use of manure is necessary for increasing soil fertility. Their occurrence is not spread on large areas but they occur in patches, however, continuous also in some areas. Bihar and Jharkhand Plateau has laterite soils. They are in patches on the Eastern Ghats through Orissa, A.P and T.N. In the western parts of India such soils are in a narrow belt from the north to the south through Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala extending more or less continuously. Shillong Plateau has a laterite soil belt which extends towards Sadiya in Assam. Soils are useful for making bricks because of presence of lot of iron in them. Its form in-which aluminium is in excess is called Bauxite and is used for extracting aluminium. Soils become fertile with the addition of fertilisers and manures. i. The laterite soil is formed under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with alternate wet and dry periods. ii. Such climatic conditions promote leaching of soil. iii. The laterite soil is red in colour and composed of little clay and much gravel of red sandstones. iv. Laterite soil generally is poor in lime and deficient in nitrogen. The phosphate contents are generally high. Due to intensive leaching, the laterite soil generally lacks fertility and is of low value for crop production. But when manured and timely irrigated, the soil is suitable for producing plantation crops like tea, coffee, rubber, coconut, etc. Tapioca and cashew nuts are also grown in these soils. The latter is a cash crop. It also provides valuable building materials. (5) Saline and Alkali Soil: These soils are also known as salt affected soils. Salt affected soils are the soils that contain considerable amounts of soluble salts and/or sodium on the exchange complex. They occur where potential evapotranspiration greatly exceeds precipitation, which is in arid and semi-arid regions. Due to high evaporative demand, the dissolved soluble salts (sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium as chlorides, sulphates and bicarbonates) move towards the soil surface by capillary action and accumulate at or near the surface, after the water is evaporated, and renders the soils as saline or alkaline.

101

The S.W Monsoons which cross Rann of Kutchch bring with them salt particles and form a layer in the Gujarat state. In the swampy areas and in the coastal tidal areas, the swamps are saturated with salts. These soils are deficient in nitrogen and calcium. In coastal regions, saline soils are predominant. They have high soluble salts (EC>4 but generally <30 dS m-1); low ESP 9<15) and have pH values of less than 8.5. In Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana, such soils are strongly sodic (ESP > 15 and pH >8.5) and have carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium. Also by and large the salt affected soils of the Indogangetic plains are generally sodic and are reclaimed by using gypsum. The western Gujarat area (Kutchch) is known for saline soils. These soils are known as Khar, Khanjan, etc. In the Cauvery and Mahanadi deltas, the sea water makes the soil saline. In West Bengal the Sunderbans are well known for such soils. In Punjab, Haryana, U.P and Bihar, Saline soils are encompassing more and more agricultural areas. Same is the position in the southern Indian states. However, the fertility of soils can be regained by way of putting gypsum in the soils and improving drainage. 6. Desert (Arid) Soil: The name Desert/Arid is given to the soils that support almost negligible vegetation, except xerophytic plants, unless irrigated. These soils are found mostly in the arid and semi-arid regions, receiving less than 50 cm of annual rainfall. Such regions are mostly found in Rajasthan and the adjoining areas of Haryana and Punjab. The Rann of Kachchh in Gujarat is an extension of this region. (i) The sand in the desert areas is partly of local origin and partly being blown in from the Indus Valley. (ii) It includes even the wind-blown loess. (iii)The desert soil has sand (90 to 95 per cent) and clay (5 to 10 per cent) and lacks in organic matter. (iv) Because of the limiting rainfall, the desert soils generally show accumulation of salts at or near the surface, forming gypsic, salic, calcic, or petrocalcic horizon. (v) The nitrogen content is low, but the phosphate content is as high as in normal alluvial soil. When water is made available through irrigation, the desert soil can produce a variety of crops, such as wheat, millets, barley, maize, pulses, cotton, etc. Shortage of water in the arid regions is the main limiting factor for agriculture. 7. Forest and Hill Soil: This name is implied for soils developed under any forest cover, irrespective of the forest specie and/or profile development. These soils are found in the hilly areas, covered with forests. Apart from the Himalayan region, this soil is also found in the Western and Eastern Ghats and in some parts of the Peninsular India. The main characteristic of these soils is the accumulation of organic matter derived from forest cover. The soils are not uniform everywhere but there are variations in their distribution. The soils are loamy and have silt in the valley areas and are coarse grained, kankar etc. in the higher areas. There are some important types of soils which have been spread over areas described below: i. ii.

Fine Textured Soil: Usually the outwash and river valleys develop these type of soils. For example, in many areas of upper Himalayas (Lahul-Spiti, Kinnaur and even in Ladakh), soils have not fully developed as such stone, kankar and shallow soils are met with. Alpine Soil: In the higher areas about 3,000 metres high, the climate is cold. As a result, the soils have undecomposed vegetative matter derived from grasses resulting in immature soils. 102

iii.

iv.

Podzol: The area where Podzol soils are found varies in height from 2,000 to 3,000 metres. The soil consists of partly decomposed vegetation derived from the coniferous forests that grow at this height. Heavy rainfall results in leaching of the soils and turns it acidic. Its colour is greyish brown. Soils are not much fertile. Lower Forest Soil: The height of the mountainous area where these soils develop lies between 1000 to 2000 metres. The forest cover is mostly of deciduous trees. The soils are brown in colour, deep and slightly acidic. The soils have humus and are thus fertile.

8. Peaty and Marshy soil: The name peaty and marshy is given to the soils that have developed in the low lying coastal marshy land or to the soils confined to depressions caused by dried lakes in the alluvial and coastal plain areas, formerly occupied by mangrove swamps. These soils develop under humid tropical climate in the tidal swamp areas, having large accumulation of organic matter. They also show accumulation in moderate amounts of ferrous and aluminium sulphates and iron pyrites. A large amount of dead organic matter accumulates in areas which have heavy rainfall and high humidity. As a result these soils are saline, rich in organic matter (40%) but deficient in potash and phosphorus. These are alkaline, heavy and black in colour. Such soils are found in the coastal areas of W. Bengal, Orissa and Tamil Nadu, northern Bihar and Almora area of U.P. These soils are:    

Dark to almost black in colour with abundant (20-40%) organic matter content Fine in soil texture Very strongly acidic (pH as low as 3.5 to 4.0). This may be due to the decomposition of organic matter under anaerobic conditions where no nitrification is possible Also called as Cat –clay or Acid Sulphate Soils in south east Asia, west Africa and northeastern South America. In India, such saline peat soils are termed as Kari in the Kerala State.

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Foundation Course Manual on ICAR-JRF (PGS) in Agriculture – General Topics Eds KS Bangarwa, Surender S Dhankhar and RK Pannu CCS HAU, Hisar 2014, pp 101-110.

Role of Essential Plant Nutrients and their Deficiency Symptoms KS Grewal and Dinesh Department of Soil Science CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125004 Plant absorbs a large number of elements from soil but all of them are not essential for its life. Arnon and Stout (1939, 1954) gave the criteria for the essentiality of a nutrient for a plant. An element is essential if (i) without it the plant cannot complete its life cycle; (ii) the element is specific and cannot be replaced by another; and (iii) it is a part of the molecule of in essential plant constituent or metabolite. Nicholas (1963) suggested the term “functional or metabolic nutrient” to include any mineral element that functions in plant metabolism, whether or not its action is specific. This definition avoids the confusion that sometimes occurs when the more rigid criteria of essentiality are imposed. Seventeen elements are essential for plant life. Classification of plant nutrients based on biochemical behaviour and physiological functions Mengel and Kirkby (1987) have divided essential plant nutrients into four groups: Group I includes C, H, O, N and S, which are major constituents of the organic plant materials (carbohydrates, proteins, fats, etc.), and are essential elements of atomic groups which are involved in enzymatic process, etc. Group II includes P and B, which are involved in biochemical reactions such as esterification with native plant alcohol. Phosphate esters are involved in energy transfer. Group III includes K, Ca, Mg, Mn and Cl. These elements are present in the free ionic state or are adsorbed to in diffusible organic anions (e.g. absorption of Ca2+ by the carboxylic group of pectin’s). They have nonspecific functions, and are involved in establishing osmotic potential. Ca is a component of plant structural parts. Group IV includes Fe, Cu, Zn and Mo. These elements are predominantly presented as chelates in the plant. General Classification (based on relative concentration in plants): Macronutrients: These are required in large quantities and are generally expressed in percentage, minimum being 0.1%. Their number is nine: Carbon, Oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulphur. Micronutrients: There are required in small quantities and are generally expressed in ppm. Their number is eight: iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron, molybdenum, chlorine and Nickel. Nickel is the latest edition in the essentiality list. Micronutrients are often referred to as minor elements, but this does not mean that they are less important than macronutrients. Micronutrient deficiency or toxicity can reduce plant yield similar to macronutrient deficiency or toxicity.

104

Five additional elements sodium (Na), cobalt (Co), vanadium (Va) and silicon (Si) have been established as essential micronutrients in some plants. These are not still in the category of essential nutrients for plants, in general. Table 1 Average concentration (dry wt. basis), forms absorbed by plants, and sources of essential elements Plant nutrient C O H N

Average concentration 45% 45% 6% 1.5%

P K

0.2% 1.0%

Forms absorbed by plants CO2 O2, H2O H2O NH4+, NO3-, Urea H,PO-4, HPO42K+

Sources

Ca

0.5%

Ca2+

Mg

0.2%

Mg2+

S

0.1%

SO42-

Soil, amendments, manures, fertilizers, some underground waters.

Fe Zn

100ppm 20ppm

Fe2+ In2+

Soil, FeSO4.9H2O Soil,ZnSO4.H2O, ZnSO4.9H2O, manure

Mn Cu Cl

50ppm 6ppm 100ppm

Mn2+ Cu2+ Cl-

Soil,MnSO4.H2O, manure Soil, CuSo4.5H2O, Manures Soil, underground water, organic manure

B Mo

20% 0.1ppm

BO33MoO42-

Soil Na2B407.10H2O Soil,Na2MoO4.2H2O

Atmosphere Atmosphere Atmosphere, Hydrosphere Soil, manures, fertilisers, microbial fixation from atmosphere Soil, manure, fertilizers Soil manures fertilizers, in few underground waters. Soil, amendments, manures, fertilizer ground water. Soil, manures, underground waters, amendments

Nitrogen Functions: Nitrogen first among the mineral elements is absorbed mostly as NO3-, which is reduced by enzymes to NH3 or NH4 for assimilation into amino acids and proteins. These reactions occur in roots and/or leaves, depending of plant species. Both reactions occur in series so that toxic nitrite (NO2) does not accumulate.

Step1 Setp2 

Reduction reaction NO3 NO2 NO2 NH3

Enzyme Nitrate reductase Nitrite reductase

It is a constituent of amino acids, nucleotides and coenzymes.

105

Reaction site Cytoplasm Chloroplast

  

In addition to the formation of proteins, N is an integral part of chlorophyll. An adequate supply of N is associated with high photosynthetic activity, vigorous vegetative growth and dark green colour. It is a constituent of protoplasm and influences carbohydrate utilization. Nitrogen helps in synthesis of enzymes as well as in activating some enzymes for which potassium is normally the activating cation.

Deficiency symptoms: An early and dramatic symptom of N deficiency is a general yellowing of leaves or chlorosis due to inhibition of chlorophyll synthesis which results in slow downing of synthesis of amino acids, organic synthesis of carbohydrates and carbon skeleton. Due to mobility to younger leaves, N deficiency symptoms first appear on lower leaves which turn brown and die. The necrosis begins at the leaf tip and progresses along the midrib until the entire leaf is dead. Growth is retarded and the plants have spindly appearance. Fruit is often exceptionally ill coloured when the roots are unable to absorb sufficient N to meet their growing requirement, protein in the older parts is converted to soluble N, translocated to active meristematic tissues, and reused in the synthesis of new proteins. Phosphorus Functions: 

The most essential function of P in plants is in energy storage and transfer. ADP and ATP act as ‘energy currency’ within plants.



Phosphorus is also an important structural component of nucleic acids, coenzymes, nucleotides, phosphoproteins, phospholipids and sugar phosphates. It is associated with increased root growth and their proliferation which helps in better exploitation of soil nutrients and moisture. It is important in the development of flowers, fruits and seeds. Phosphate promotes the absorption of molybdates by plants. It helps in improving the quality of certain fruits, forage, vegetable, grain and straw strength. Application of P raises the disease resistance to some extent and lowers the risk of winter damage, particularly on low P soils and with unfavourable condition to some extent.

    

Deficiency symptoms: P is mobile in plants. Deficiency symptoms appear on older leaves. Dark green or blue green foliage is one of first symptoms. Purple discolouration of leaves or leaf edges also occurs in corn and some other plant species. Often red, purple or brown pigments develop in the older leaves especially along the veins. Growth is reduced, lack of tillering and poor seed formation are other symptoms. Roots are small and their proliferation is weak. Older leaves dry and die early. Potassium Functions: 1. K is an activator of numerous enzymes especially in meristematic tissues, e.g. starch synthetase and nitrogenase. 2. Improves water relations in plants. It can affect the rate of transpiration and reduces transpiration rate by stomatal closure. 3. Helps in assimilation, translocation and transportation of sugars by helping the ATP synthesis. 4. Provides strength to stems, resistance against insect-pest and diseases and improves the quality of fruits, grains and cotton.

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Deficiency symptoms: Potassium is mobile in the plants, hence visual deficiency symptoms first appear on lower leaves, which may spread to new leaves also with the severity of K deficiency. Leaf margins tanned, scorched, or have necrotic spots (may be small black spots which later coalesce). Margins become brown and cup downward. Growth is restricted and die back may occur. Weakening of stem in grain crops causes lodging and stalk breaking. K deficient plants become susceptible to diseases, insects, nematodes and virus infection. There may also be marginal necrosis or leaf scorch. Growth is subnormal and under severe conditions terminal and lateral buds die (“dieback”).Mild symptoms appear first on recently matured leaves Calcium Functions: 1. Ca is essential for cell elongation and division. It keeps membranes in a functional state. 2. Ca is a constituent of one metalloenzyme, amylase. 3. Calcium is the major cation of the middle lamella of cell walls of which calcium pectate is a principal constituent. Ca has therefore, an important bearing on the mechanical strength of tissues. Deficiency symptoms: Calcium is generally immobile in plants. Although all growing points are sensitive to Ca deficiency, those of the roots are affected most severally. They cease growing, become disorganized and discoloured and in severe deficiency, die. Deficiencies in flowers and fruits are also spectacular as indicated by the term “blossom end rot”. In corn, Ca deficiency prevent the emergence and unfolding of new leaves, the tips of which are almost colourless and are covered with a sticky gelatinous material that cause them to adhere to one another There is very little translocation of Ca2+ in the phloem and for this reason there is a often a poor supply of Ca2+ to fruits and storage tissues. Failure of terminal buds of shoot and bitter pit of apple are Ca2+ disorder. Magnesium Functions: 1. Mg is a primary constituent of chlorophyll which usually accounts for about 15-20% of the total Mg content of plants. 2. Mg also serves as a structural component in ribosome’s, stabilizing them in the configuration necessary for protein synthesis. 3. It is one among the most common activators of enzymes concerned with energy metabolism and carbohydrate metabolism. Deficiency symptoms: Mg is mobile in plants; therefore, deficiency symptoms appear first on the lower leaves. Interveinal chlorosis in which only the veins remain green is common in some species. Cattle consuming low Mg forages may suffer from hypomagnesmia or grass tetany which is an abnormally low level of blood Mg. In more advanced deficiency of Mg, the leaf tissues become uniformly pale yellow, then brown and necrotic. In other species notably cotton; the lower leaves may develop a reddish-purple cast, gradually turning brown and finally necrotic. Sulphur Functions: 1. S is required for synthesis of S-containing amino acids cystine, cysteine and methionine, which are essential components of protein. Approximately 90% of the S is found in these amino acids. 2. Improves the quality of fodder by narrowing N/S ratio An N/S ratio of between 9:1 and 12:1 is needed for effectiveness of N by rumen microorganisms. 3. It is needed for the synthesis of coenzyme A and chlorophyll. 4. S is a vital part of ferrodoxins needed in NO2- and SO42- reduction and assimilation of N2 by both rhizobium and azotobactor microbes. 107

5. S occurs in volatile compounds responsible for the characteristic taste and smell of plants in the mustard and onion families. S deficiency symptoms: Retarded plant growth, uniformly chlorotic plants-stunted, thin stemmed and spindly are common S deficiency symptoms, which resemble to N deficiency symptoms. Unlike N, however, S is not easily translocated from older to younger plant parts; therefore deficiency symptoms occur first on younger leaves. S deficient cruciferous crops such as cabbage and canola/rapeseed initially develop reddish colour on the undersides of leaves. In canola/rapeseed the leaves are also cupped inward. As the deficiency progresses in cabbage, there is reddening and purpling of both upper and lower leaf surfaces. The cupped leaves turn back on themselves, presentating flattened to concave surfaces on the upper side. Paler than normal blossoms and severely impaired seed set also characterize S deficiency symptoms in rapeseed. Iron Functions: 1. Fe is an important part of oxidation – reduction reactions both in soils and plants. The transfer of electrons between the organic molecules and Fe provides the potential for many of the enzymatic transformations. Several of these enzymes are involved in chlorophyll synthesis. 2. Fe is a structural component of porphyrin molecules. cytochromes hemes, hematin, ferrichrome and leghemoglobin, These substances are involved in oxidation reduction reactions in respiration and photosynthesis, fixation of N2 in root nodules by microbes. 3. It is associated with lipoprotein of the chloroplast and mitochondria membranes. It is an integral part of cytochromes and ferrodoxins. 4. Fe is also an important part of the enzyme nitrogenase, essential for N2 fixation in N fixing microorganisms. Deficiency symptoms: Fe deficiency symptoms show up first in the young leaves of plants, because Fe does not readily translocate from older tissues to the tip meristem; as a result growth cresses. The young leaves develop in interveinal chlorosis, which progresses rapidly over the entire leaf. In severe cases the leaves turn entirely white. The deficiency is common in fruit trees. On calcareous soil, Fe deficiency is frequently due not to a lack of iron but to its being immobilized or inactivated by carbonate or bicarbonate (lime induced chlorosis). Iron deficiency causes marked changes in the ultra structure of chloroplasts. Manganese Functions: 1. The involvement of Mn in photosynthesis, particularly in the evolution of O2 is well known, as it is a component of chloroplast. 2. It also takes part in oxidation-reduction processes and in decarboxylation and hydrolysis reactions in Krebs cycle. 3. Mn is needed for maximal activity of many enzyme reactions in the citric acid cycle. 4. Mn acts as an activator of many enzymes but only one manganoprotein, manganin, has been isolated from seeds of peanuts. Deficiency symptoms: Like Fe, Mn is a relatively immobile element and deficiency symptoms first appear on young leaves. In broad-leaved plants the visual symptoms appear as an interveinal chlorosis Mn deficiency of several crops has been described by such terms as gray speck of oats, marsh spot of peas and speckled yellow of sugar beets. Wheat plant low in Mn is often more susceptible to root rot disease. In legume seeds, necrosis may appear in the embryo or the adjacent inner surfaces of the 108

cotyledons. Leaves of some species become malformed (mouse ear of pecans). In severe cases plants are badly stunted. In wheat yellow strip appear on young leaves. Zinc Functions: 1. Zinc is the metal component of a number of metalloenzymes, including several dehydrogenases, alcohol dehydrogenase and lactic dehydrogenase among them. 2. Zn is important in the synthesis of tryptophan, a component of some proteins and a compound needed for the production of growth hormones (auxins) such as indolacetic acid via tryptomine. Deficiency symptoms: 1. Occurrence of light-green, yellow or white areas between the veins of leaves, particularly older lower leaves. 2. Death of tissues in these discoloured, chlorotic leaf areas. 3. Shortening of the stem or stalk internodes, resulting in bushy, rosette appearance of the leaves, clustering of leaves in fruit trees. 4. Small, narrow, thickened and cup shape leaves in cotton. Often leaves are malformed by continued growth of only part of the leaf tissue. 5. Early loss of foliage. 6. Malformation of the fruit, often with little or no yield 7. White bud in corn and sorghum, little leaf in cotton mottle leaf or frenching in citrus and fern leaf in potato are common Zn deficiency symptoms. Copper Functions: 1. Copper is a component of several enzymes including ascorbic acid oxidase, phenolases laccase and several others. 2. It is also a constituent of cytochrome oxidase. 3. It also takes part in oxidation reduction reactions. 4. Cu takes part through enzymes in protein synthesis and carbohydrate metabolism. Deficiency symptoms: Symptoms vary greatly depending on the species. Leaves may be chlorotic or deep blue green with margins rolled up. The bark of trees is often rough and blistered, and gum may exude from fissures in the bark (exanthema). Young shoots often die-back, whereupon new shoots emerge from multiple buds further back, making a bushy appearance. Flowering and fruiting are curtailed; annual plants may fail to develop and may die in the seedling stage. In corn the youngest leaves become yellow and stunted and as the deficiency becomes more severe, the young leaves are pale and older leaves die back. In advance stage, dead tissues appears along the tips and edges of the new leaves in a portion similar to that of K deficiency. In wheat flag leaf does not come out of stem, which is hardened and internodes are noticed. Boron Functions: Plants require B for a number of growth processes. 1. New cell development in meristematic tissue 2. Proper pollination and fruit or seed set. 3. Translocation of sugars, starches, N and P. 4. Synthesis of amino acids and proteins. 5. Nodule formation in legumes. 6. Regulation of carbohydrate metabolism. 109

Deficiency symptoms: B is not readily translocated from older to actively growing tissues; the first visual deficiency symptom is cessation of terminal bud growth, followed by death of young leaves. In B-deficient plants the youngest leaf becomes pale green, losing more colour at the base then at the tip. The basal tissues breakdown and if growth continues, the leaves have a one sided or twisted appearance Flowering and fruit development are also restricted by a shortage of B. Its deficiency symptoms often appear in the form of thickened, wilted or curled leaves; thickened, cracked or water soaked condition of petioles and stems; and a discolouration, cracking, or rotting of fruits, tubers, or roots. The breakdown of internal tissues in root crops gives rise to darkened areas referred as brown heart or black heart. The plants give bushy or shrubby appearance. Molybdenum Functions: 1. Mo is an essential component of enzymes NO3 reductase and nitrogenase required for conversion of NO3 to NO2 and biological N fixation by microbes respectively. 2. Molybdenum is the metal of several metalloenzymes. 3. It also helps in absorption and translocation of Fe in plants. Deficiency symptoms: Deficiency symptoms of Mo generally in acidic or neutral soils. Its deficiency causes interveinal chlorosis of older leaves. The veins remain pale green, so that the chlorosis gives the leaf a mottled appearance. Leaf margins tend to curl or roots. In severe cases necrosis follows, and the entire plant is stunted. In brassicas, the leaf blades become necrotic and disintegrate leaving only a much reduced strip along the midrib (whiptail) Chlorine Functions: 1. It is likely that chloride ions have more than a single specific function but the only one that has been identified is the requirement of chloride in oxygen evolution by photosystem II of photosynthesis. 2. The essential role of Cl- seems to lie in its biochemical inertness. This inertness enables it to fill osmotic and cation neutralization roles. 3. Cl- is the counter ion during rapid K fluxes, thus contributing to leaf turgor. Deficiency symptoms: Chlorosis in younger leaves and an overall wilting of the plants are the two most common symptoms of Cl- deficiency. In some species necrosis, leaf bronzing and reduction in root growth may also be seen. Young leaves may be blue green and shiny in appearance. Under severe deficiency conditions plants are spindly and stunted.

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Rural Development Programmes in India Jatesh Kathpalia Department of Sociology College of Basic Sciences & Humanities CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125 004 Rural Development Rural development, accounting for about three-fourths of the total population have for long lagged much behind the overall progress of the country. To overcome this undesirable trend, special programmes for rural development began to be designed as supplement to the provisions of the FiveYear Plans of the country. So, rural development has always been an important issue in all discussions pertaining to economic development, especially of developing countries, throughout the world. Rural development is a process that aims at improving the standard of living of the people living in the rural areas. Rural development may be defined as overall development of rural areas to improve the quality of life of rural people. It is an integrated process, which includes social, economical, political and spiritual development of the poorer sections of the society. Rural development is a process, which aims at improving the well being and self realization of people living outside the urbanized areas through collective process. The United Nations defines rural development as: “Rural development is a process of change, by which the efforts of the people themselves are united, those of government authorities to improve their economic, social and cultural conditions of communities into the life of the nation and to enable them to contribute fully to national programme.” Scope and Importance of Rural Development People living in the rural areas are up against many problems like utter backwardness of the rural economy; widespread unemployment and massive poverty. Rural development is a dynamic process, which is mainly concerned with the rural areas. These include agricultural growth, putting up of economic and social infrastructure, fair wages as also housing and house sites for the landless, village planning, public health, education and functional literacy, communication etc. Rural development is a national necessity and has considerable importance in India because of the following reasons: 1. About three-fourth of India’s population live in rural areas, thus rural development is needed to develop nation as whole. 2. Nearly half of the country’s national income is derived from agriculture, which is major occupation of rural India. 3. Around seventy per cent of Indian population gets employment through agriculture. 4. Bulks of raw materials for industries come from agriculture and rural sector. 5. Increase in industrial population can be justified only in rural population’s motivation and increasing the purchasing power to buy industrial goods. 6. Growing disparity between the urban elite and the rural poor can lead to political instability. 111

The main objective of the rural development programme is to raise the economic and social level of the rural people. The specific objectives are:     

To develop farm, public service and village community. To bring improvement in producing of crops and animals living condition. To improve health and education condition etc. improvement of the rural people. To improve villagers with their own efforts. To improve village communication.

Need and Importance of Rural Development Rural development is a national necessity and has considerable importance in India because of the following reasons: 1.

To develop rural area as whole in terms of culture, society, economy, technology and health. 2. To develop living slandered of rural mass. 3. To develop rural youths, children and women. 4. To develop and empower human resource of rural area in terms of their psychology, skill, knowledge, attitude and other abilities. 5. To develop infrastructure facility of rural area. 6. To provide minimum facility to rural mass in terms of drinking water, education, transport, electricity and communication. 7. To develop rural institutions like panchayat, cooperatives, post, banking and credit. 8. To provide financial assist to develop the artisans in the rural areas, farmers and agrarian unskilled labour, small and big rural entrepreneurs to improve their economy. 9. To develop rural industries through the development of handicrafts, small scaled industries, village industries, rural crafts, cottage industries and other related economic operations in the rural sector. 10. To develop agriculture, animal husbandry and other agricultural related areas. 11. To restore uncultivated land, provide irrigation facilities and motive farmers to adopt improved seed, fertilizers, package of practices of crop cultivation and soil conservation methods. 12. To develop entertainment and recreational facility for rural mass. 13. To develop leadership quality of rural area. 14. To improve rural marketing facility. 15. To minimize gap between the urban and rural in terms of facilities availed. 16. To improve rural people’s participation in the development of state and nation as whole. 17. To improve scopes of employment for rural mass for the sustainable development of rural area. 18. To eliminate rural poverty. 19. To solve the problems faced by the rural mass for their development. Rural Development Programmes (Pre-Independence): 1. 2. 3. 4.

Sriniketan Project – Rabindra Nath Tagore (1908) Sriniketan Project – Shri Rabindra Nath Tagore (1914) Gandhian Approach in Rural Development in Champaran, Bihar (1917) Gandhian Experiment in Rural Deconstruction (1920) 112

5. Gurgaon Project – F.L. Brayne (1920) 6. Sevagram – Mahatma Gandhi (1926) 7. Marthamdom Project – Spencer Hatch of YMCA (1928) 8. Rural Reconstruction Movement – V.T. Krishnmachari (1932) 9. Grow More Food Campaigns – Government of India (1942) 10. Indian Village Upliftment Service Scheme (1945) – W.H. Wiser 11. Firika Development Project – Government of Madras (1946) Post-Early Independence: 1.

Nilokheri Project – S.K. Dey (1947)

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Firika Development Project – Madras Government (1948) Etawah Pilot Project – Albert Mayer (1948) Nilokheri Experiments – S.K. Dey (1948) Grow More Food Campaign (GMFC) (1948) Sarvodaya Programme – Vinoba Bhave (1950) Japanese Method of Paddy Cultivation (1950) Training-cum-Development Programme – Govt. of India (1952) Community Development Programme –Chester Bowel (1952) National Extensive Service – NES (1953) Community Development Block or Intensive Development Block – Govt. of India (1954) Panchayati Raj System – Govt. of India (1959)

Intensive Agriculture (1960 to till date): 1.

Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP – 1960)

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP – 1961) Applied Nutrition Programme (ANP – 1963) Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP – 1964) Integrated Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP – 1964-65) National Demonstration Project (NDP – 1965) Farmers’ Training and Education Programme (FTEP – 1966) Farmers’ Training Centre (FTC – 1966) Multiple Crop Programme (MCP – 1966) High Yielding Variety Programme (HYVP – 1966-67) Training and Visit (T&V – 1967) – Daniel and Benour Draught Prone Area Programme (DPAP -1 970) Dry Farming Area Programme (DFAP – 1970) Small Farmers’ Development Agency (1970-71) Marginal Farmers’ Development Agency (1970-71) Drought Prone Area Programme (1970-71) Integrated Cotton Development Programme (ICDP – 1971) Whole Village Development Programme (WVDP – 1971) Small Farmers’ Development Agency (SFDA – 1971) Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labour Agency (MFAL – 1971) Tribal Area Development Programme (TADP 1971-72) Minimum Need Programme (1974) Training and Visit System (T&V – 1974) 113

Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK – 1974) Integrated Tribal Development Programme (IRDP – 1974) Integrated Child Development Service Scheme (ICDSS – 1974-75) Tribal Development Block (TDP – 1974) Command Area Development Programme (CADP – 1975) Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP – 1976) Social Forestry (SF – 1976) Food for Work Programme (FWP – 1977) National Agricultural Research Project (NARP – 1978) Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP – 1978-79) Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM – 1979) National Rural Employment Programme (NREP – 1980) District Rural Development Agency (DRDA – 1980) National Rural Employment Programme (NREP – 1980) Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP – 1981) Development of Women & Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA – 1982) National Agricultural Extension Project (NAEP 1984-85) Rural Sanitation Programme (RSP – 1986) National Watershed Development Project (NWDP – 1986-87) Jawahar Rojgar Yojana (JRY – 1989) Million Well Scheme (MWS – 1989) Swaran Jayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SJGSY – 1989) National Water Development Project for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA – 1990-91) Sarva Siksha Abhiyan (SSA – 1990) National Maternity Benefit Scheme (NMBS – 1995) National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS – 1995) Mid-day Meal Scheme (MDMS – 1995) National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP – 1998) Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA – 1998) Annapurna Yojana (AY – 2000) Pradhan Mantri Gramin Sadak Yojana (PGMSY – 2000) Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY – 2000) Sampoorna Gramin Rojgar Yojana (SGRY – 2001-02) Kissan Call Centres (KCC – 2004) National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP – 2005) Bharat Nirman (BN – 2005) National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA – 2005) (From 2009, the Act is known as MNREGA) 61. National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture (ICAR – 2011) 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60.

Some of the main Rural Development Programmes in India Integrated Rural Development Programme Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP), which was launched in 1978-79, is a major instrument of the government strategy to alleviate rural poverty. The main objectives of IRDP are to raise families of the identified target group above poverty line and create substantial additional opportunities of self-employment in the rural sector. This programme is centrally-sponsored with funds shared on 50:50 basis between the Centre and the States. In the case of Union Territories, cent 114

per cent funds are provided by the Central Government. The programme is being implemented through District Rural Development Agency (DRDA) and block level functionaries at the grassroots. At the state level, a Coordination Committee headed by Chief Secretary monitors its overall implementation. In the Ministry of Rural Development, a Central Committee on IRDP and allied programmes of Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM) and Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) is headed by a Secretary. Its main functions include framing and revision of guidelines ensuring their effective implementations. Target Group: IRDP’s target group consists of the poorest of the rural poor – small and marginal farmers, agricultural and non-agricultural labourers, rural artisans and craftsmen, Scheduled Caste (SC) and Scheduled Tribe (ST) families who live below the poverty line. National Rural Employment Programme (NREP): This was also launched as a centrally sponsored programme from October 1980. Its expenditure was shared by the centre and the states on 50:50 basis. Objectives: 1. To provide additional opportunities of gainful employment. 2. Formation of permanent community assets. 3. To increase nutrients in the food of poor people living in villages. Jawahar Rojgar Yojana: This programme for rural employment was launched from 1st April, 1989 by unifying the NREP and RLEGP. Its objectives were divided into two parts: 1. Primary Objective: Generation of additional gainful employment for unemployed and semi-unemployed persons in rural areas. 2. Secondary Objectives: (a) Creation of productive community assets through which poor persons were benefited directly and continuously, and strengthening rural socio-economic infrastructure so that village economy could develop rapidly and level of income of the rural poor is increased continually; (b) Bringing qualitative improvement in the life of rural people. Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS – 1993): This programme was started from 2nd October 1993 for providing relief to the poor persons in rural areas. Jawahar Gram Samriddhi Yojana (JGSY – 1999): Jawahar Rojgar Yojana (JRY) had been restructured and streamlined with effect from April 1999 and had been renamed as (JGSY). The primary objective of JGSY was creation of demand driven village infrastructure including durable assets at the village level to enable the rural poor to increase the opportunities for sustained employment. The secondary objective was generation of supplementary employment for the unemployed poor in the rural areas. The wage employment under the programme was given to BPL families. National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS – 1995): This was one of the three schemes under the National Social Assistance Programme (NASP) introduced by the Government of India as a Central Sector Programme on 15 August 1995. The main objective of the scheme was to provide social assistance and security through old age pension to the poorest of the poor of the rural and urban population. Persons aged 65 years or above who belonged to a family falling in ‘A’ category of the BPL list were eligible for assistance under the scheme. Annapurna Yojana (2000): The scheme was 100 per cent centrally sponsored had been launched from April 2000. The main objective of the scheme was to provide food security to those senior 115

citizens who were eligible under the National Old Age Pension Scheme but had remained uncovered by it. This scheme was applicable to both urban and rural areas; provision of 10 kg of food free of cost to each beneficiary, and distribution of entitlement cards to the beneficiaries were the main features. Pradhan Mantri Gramin Sadak Yojana (PMGSY – 2000): This scheme of 100 per cent centrally sponsored scheme was launched in 2000 to connect every village with a population of exceeding 1000 by all weather roads and maintenance of rural roads constructed under this scheme by the local panchayats with the help of state government fund. Sampoorna Gramin Rozgar Yojana (SGRY – 2001-02): SGRY was a centrally sponsored scheme into which two schemes namely EAS and JGSY administered by the Panchayats and Rural Development Department had been merged with effect from 2001-02. Bharat Nirman: With an objective to change the face of rural India, this programme was launched by the Union Government on May 16, 2005. Six key areas identified under this plan were as follows: (1)

Irrigation: To bring an additional 10 million hectare under irrigation.

(2)

Roads: To connect all the villages that had a population of 1000 or 500 in hilly areas with a metalled road.

(3)

Drinking Water: To provide drinking water to the remaining 74000 villages by 2009.

(4)

Housing: To construct 60 lakh additional houses for poor, free of cost.

(5)

Electricity: To provide electricity connection to 1,25,000 villages and 2-3 crore households.

(6)

Telephones: To provide telephone connections into 66822 villages which were having no telephone till then.

National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) 2005: The Parliament passed the NREGA in 2005. This Act became operative in notified districts from 2nd February 2006 in the first phase and within five years, it has covered the whole country. This Act guarantees 100 days of wage employment in a year to every rural household adult members who are willing to do unskilled manual work. From 2009, the Act is known as MNREGA with outlay for scheme is 40.100 crores in the year 2010-11. 644 number of districts and 778131 number of villages have been benefited during 2013-14. Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY): The Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India has launched a new programme known as ‘Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) in 1999 by restructuring the following existing schemes: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM) Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) Supply of Improved Toolkits to Rural Artisans (SITRA) Ganga Kalyan Yojana (GKY) Million Wells Scheme (MWS)

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Objectives: 1. The objective of the scheme is to provide credit for the promotion of agriculture, allied activities, SSI, including cottage industries/village industries, handicrafts and other rural crafts and allied activities in rural areas with a view to promote the integrated rural development and securing prosperity in rural areas. 2. NABARD (then ARDC) provides refinance facility for the same since 1978-79. 3. The new scheme will cover 30% of the poor in each block in next 5 years. 4. Every assisted family is to be brought above the poverty line in 3 years. References: Agarwal, A.N. (2008). Indian Economy – Problems of Development and Planning. New Age International Pvt. Ltd. Publishers, New Delhi. Dahama, O.P. and O.P. Bhatnagar (1985). Education and Communication for Development. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Garg, Chandra, Lakshmi and Sadhna Jindal (1989). Rural Development: A Critical Appraisal. Nitasha Publications, Sonepat (India). Lal, Ramji and H.C. Purohit (2007). Rural Development and NGP. Shree Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi. Mohan, Madan (2007). Rural Development in India: Problems and Prospects, Omega Publications, New Delhi. Mondal, Sargar and G.L. Ray (2007). Rural Development. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. Pillai, P. Gopinadhen (2008). Rural Development in India. Pointers Publishers, Jaipur. Swami, H.R. and R.P. Gupta (2006). Rural Development and Cooperation in India. Indus Valley Publications, New Delhi. www.nrega.nic.in/netnrega/homestciti.aspx?state_code=20 www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Rural_Development_Program http://www.rural.nic.in/PMGSY.htm

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Mendelian Genetics Mukesh Kumar Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125004 In 1909, when the Davenports speculated about the inheritance of red hair, the basic principles of heredity were just becoming widely known among biologists. Surprisingly, these principles had been discovered some 44 years earlier by Johann Gregor Mendel (1822–1884). Mendel was born in what is now part of the Czech Republic. Although his parents were simple farmers with little money, he was able to achieve a sound education and was admitted to the Augustinian monastery in Brno in September 1843. After graduating from seminary, Mendel was ordained a priest and appointed to a teaching position in a local school. He excelled at teaching, and the abbot of the monastery recommended him for further study at the University of Vienna, which he attended from 1851 to 1853. There, Mendel enrolled in the newly opened Physics Institute and took courses in mathematics, chemistry, entomology, paleontology, botany, and plant physiology. After 2 years of study in Vienna, Mendel returned to Brno, where he taught school and began his experimental work with pea plants. He conducted breeding experiments from 1856 to 1863 and presented his results publicly at meetings of the Brno Natural Science Society in 1865. Mendel’s paper from these lectures was published in 1866. At the time, no one seemed to have noticed that Mendel had discovered the basic principles of inheritance. In 1868, Mendel was elected abbot of his monastery, and increasing administrative duties brought an end to his teaching and eventually to his genetics experiments. He died at the age of 61 on January 6, 1884, unrecognized for his contribution to genetics. The significance of Mendel’s discovery was unappreciated until 1900, when three botanists—Hugo de Vries, Erich von Tschermak, and Karl Correns—began independently conducting similar experiments with plants and arrived at conclusions similar to those of Mendel. Coming across Mendel’s paper, they interpreted their results in accord with his principles and drew attention to his pioneering work.

Reasons for Mendel’s Success Mendel’s approach to the study of heredity was effective for several reasons. 1. His choice of experimental subject, the pea plant Pisum sativum (Figure 1), which offered clear advantages for genetic investigation. 2. The plant is easy to cultivate, and Mendel had the monastery garden and greenhouse at his disposal. 3. Compared with some other plants, peas grow relatively rapidly, completing an entire generation in a single growing season. 4. Pea plants also produce many offspring—their seeds—which allowed Mendel to detect meaningful mathematical ratios in the traits that he observed in the progeny. 5. The large number of varieties of peas that were available to Mendel also was crucial, because these varieties differed in various traits and were genetically pure. 6. Much of Mendel’s success can be attributed to the seven characteristics that he chose for study (see Figure 1). He avoided characteristics that display a range of variation; instead, he focused his 118

attention on those that exist in two easily differentiated forms, such as white versus gray seed coats, round versus wrinkled seeds, and inflated versus constricted pods.

Fig.1 Mendel used the pea plant Pisum sativum in his studies of heredity 7. Finally, Mendel was successful because he adopted an experimental approach and interpreted his results by using mathematics. Mendel formulated hypotheses based on his initial observations and then conducted additional crosses to test his hypotheses.

Monohybrid Crosses Reveal the Principle Segregation and the Concept of Dominance

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Mendel started with 34 varieties of peas and spent 2 years selecting those varieties that he would use in his experiments. He verified that each variety was genetically pure (homozygous for each of the traits that he chose to study) by growing the plants for two generations and confirming that all offspring were the same as their parents. He then carried out a number of crosses between the different varieties. Mendel began by studying monohybrid crosses—those between parents that differed in a single characteristic. In one experiment, Mendel crossed a pea plant homozygous for round seeds with one that was homozygous for wrinkled seeds (see Figure 2). This first generation of a cross is the P (parental) generation. 119

After crossing the two varieties in the P generation, Mendel observed the offspring that resulted from the cross. The offspring from the parents in the P generation are the F1 (filial 1) generation. When Mendel examined the F1 generation of this cross, he found that they expressed only one of the phenotypes present in the parental generation: all the F1 seeds were round. Mendel carried out 60 such crosses and always obtained this result. He also conducted reciprocal crosses: in one cross, pollen (the male gamete) was taken from a plant with round seeds and, in its reciprocal cross; pollen was taken from a plant with wrinkled seeds. Reciprocal crosses gave the same result: all the F1 were round. Mendel wasn’t content with examining only the seeds arising from these monohybrid crosses. The following spring, he planted the F1 seeds, cultivated the plants that germinated from them, and allowed the plants to self-fertilize, producing a second generation—the F2 (filial 2) generation. Both of the traits from the P generation emerged in the F2 generation; Mendel counted 5474 round seeds and 1850 wrinkled seeds in the F2 (see Figure 2). He noticed that the number of the round and wrinkled seeds constituted approximately a 3 to 1 ratio; that is, about of the F2 seeds were round and were wrinkled. Mendel conducted monohybrid crosses for all seven of the characteristics that he studied in pea plants and, in all of the crosses, he obtained the same result: all of the F1 resembled only one of the two parents, but both parental traits emerged in the F2 in an approximate ratio of 3:1.

What Monohybrid Crosses Reveal Mendel drew several important conclusions from the results of his monohybrid crosses. First, he reasoned that, although the F1 plants display the phenotype of only one parent, they must inherit genetic factors from Fig.2: Mendel’s Monohybrid cross both parents because they transmit both phenotypes to the F2 generation. The presence of both round and wrinkled seeds in the F2 could be explained only if the F1 plants possessed both round and 120

wrinkled genetic factors that they had inherited from the P generation. He concluded that each plant must therefore possess two genetic factors encoding a character. The genetic factors (now called alleles) that Mendel discovered are, by convention, designated with letters; the allele for round seeds is usually represented by R, and the allele for wrinkled seeds by r. The plants in the P generation of Mendel’s cross possessed two identical alleles: RR in the round-seeded parent and rr in the wrinkledseeded parent (Figure 3a). The second conclusion that Mendel drew from his monohybrid crosses was that the two alleles in each plant separate when gametes are formed, and one allele goes into each gamete. When two gametes (one from each parent) fuse to produce a zygote, the allele from the male parent unites with the allele from the female parent to produce the genotype of the offspring. Thus, Mendel’s F1 plants inherited an R allele from the round-seeded plant and an r allele from the wrinkled-seeded plant (Figure 3.b). However, only the trait encoded by round allele (R) was observed in the F1—all the F1 progeny had round seeds. Those traits that appeared unchanged in the F1 heterozygous offspring Mendel called dominant, and those traits that disappeared in the F1 heterozygous offspring he called recessive. When dominant and recessive alleles are present together, the recessive allele is masked, or suppressed. The concept of dominance was the third important conclusion that Mendel derived from his monohybrid crosses. Mendel’s fourth conclusion was that the two alleles of an individual plant separate with equal probability into the gametes. When plants of the F1 (with genotype Rr) produced gametes, half of the gametes received the R allele for round seeds and half received the r allele for wrinkled seeds. The gametes then paired randomly to produce the following genotypes in equal proportions among the F2: RR, Rr, rR, rr (Figure 3c). Because round (R) is dominant Fig.3: The concept of dominance over wrinkled (r), there were three round progeny in the F2 (RR, Rr, rR) for every one wrinkled progeny (rr) in the F2. This 3 : 1 ratio of round to wrinkled progeny that Mendel observed in the F2 could occur only if the two alleles of a genotype separated into the gametes with equal probability. The conclusions that Mendel developed about inheritance from his monohybrid crosses have been further developed and formalized into the principle of segregation and the concept of dominance. The principle of segregation (Mendel’s first law) states that each individual diploid organism possesses two alleles for any particular characteristic. These two alleles segregate (separate) when gametes are formed, and one allele goes into each gamete. Furthermore, the two alleles segregate into gametes in equal proportions. The concept of dominance states that, when two different alleles are present in a genotype, only the trait encoded by one of them––the “dominant” allele––is observed in the phenotype. Mendel confirmed these principles by allowing his F2 plants to self-fertilize and produce an F3 generation. He found that the F2 plants grown from the wrinkled seeds— those displaying the recessive trait (rr)— produced an F3 in which all plants produced wrinkled seeds. Because his wrinkled-seeded plants were homozygous for wrinkled alleles (rr), they could pass on only wrinkled alleles to their progeny (Figure 3 d).

Predicting the Outcomes of Genetic Crosses One of Mendel’s goals in conducting his experiments on pea plants was to develop a way to predict the outcome of crosses between plants with different phenotypes. 121

The Punnett square The Punnett square was developed by English geneticist Reginald C. Punnett in 1917. To illustrate the Punnett square, let’s examine another cross that Mendel carried out. By crossing two varieties of peas that differed in height, Mendel established that tall (T) was dominant over short (t). He tested his theory concerning the inheritance of dominant traits by crossing an F1 tall plant that was heterozygous (Tt) with the short homozygous parental variety (tt). This type of cross, between an F1 genotype and either of the parental genotypes, is called a backcross. To predict the types of offspring that result from this backcross, we first determine which gametes will be produced by each parent (Figure 4a). The principle of segregation tells us that the two alleles in each parent separate, and one allele passes to each gamete. All gametes from the homozygous tt short plant will receive a single short (t) allele. The tall plant in this cross is heterozygous (Tt); so 50% of its gametes will receive a tall allele (T) and the other 50% will receive a short allele (t). A Punnett square is constructed by drawing a grid, putting the gametes produced by one parent along the upper edge and the gametes produced by the other parent down the left side (Figure 4b). Each cell (a block within the Punnett square) contains an allele from each of the corresponding gametes, generating the genotype of the progeny produced by fusion of those gametes. In the upper left-hand cell of the Punnett square in Figure 4b, a gamete containing T from the tall plant unites with a gamete containing t from the short plant, giving the genotype of the progeny (Tt). It is useful to write the phenotype expressed by each genotype; here the progeny will be tall, because the tall allele is dominant over the short allele. This process is repeated for all the cells in the Punnett square. By simply counting, we can determine the types of progeny produced and their ratios. In Figure 4b, two cells contain tall (Tt) progeny and two cells contain short (tt) progeny; so the genotypic ratio expected for this cross is 2 Tt to 2 tt (a 1 : 1 ratio). Another way to express this result is to say that we expect ½ of the progeny to have genotype Tt (and phenotype tall) and ½ of the progeny to have genotype tt (and phenotype short). In this cross, the genotypic ratio and the phenotypic ratio are the same, but this outcome need not be the case.

The Testcross A useful tool for analyzing genetic crosses is the testcross, in which one individual of unknown genotype is crossed with another individual with a homozygous recessive genotype for the trait in question. Figure 4 illustrates a testcross (as well as a backcross). A testcross tests, or reveals, the genotype of the first individual. Suppose you were given a tall pea plant with no information about its parents. Because tallness is a dominant trait in peas, your plant could be either homozygous (TT) or heterozygous (Tt), but you would not know which. You could determine its genotype by performing a testcross. If the plant were homozygous (TT), a testcross would produce all tall progeny (TT x tt →all Tt); if the 122

plant were heterozygous (Tt), the testcross would produce half tall progeny and half short progeny (Tt x tt → ½ Tt and ½ tt).When a testcross is performed, any recessive allele in the unknown genotype is expressed in the progeny, because it will be paired with a Fig.4: Punnett Square recessive allele from the homozygous recessive parent.

Dihybrid Crosses Reveal the Principle of Independent Assortment In addition to his work on monohybrid crosses, Mendel crossed varieties of peas that differed in two characteristics (a dihybrid cross). For example, he had one homozygous variety of pea with seeds that were round and yellow; another homozygous variety with seeds that were wrinkled and green. When he crossed the two varieties, the seeds of all the F1 progeny were round and yellow. He then self-fertilized the F1 and obtained the following progeny in the F2: 315 round, yellow seeds; 101 wrinkled, yellow seeds; 108 round, green seeds; and 32 wrinkled, green seeds. Mendel recognized that these traits appeared approximately in a 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 ratio; that is, 9/16 of the progeny were round and yellow, 3/16 were wrinkled and yellow, 3/16 were round and green, and 1/16 were wrinkled and green.

The Principle of Independent Assortment Mendel carried out a number of dihybrid crosses for pairs of characteristics and always obtained a 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 ratio in the F2. This ratio makes perfect sense in regard to segregation and dominance if we add a third principle, which Mendel recognized in his dihybrid crosses: the principle of independent assortment (Mendel’s second law). This principle states that alleles at different loci separate independently of one another. The principle of independent assortment is really an extension of the principle of segregation. The principle of segregation states that the two alleles of a locus separate when gametes are formed; the 123

principle of independent assortment states that, when these two alleles separate, their separation is independent of the separation of alleles at other loci. Let’s see how the principle of independent assortment explains the results that Mendel obtained in his dihybrid cross. Each plant possesses two alleles encoding each characteristic, and so the parental plants must have had genotypes RR YY and rr yy (Figure 5a). The principle of segregation indicates that the alleles for each locus separate, and one allele for each locus passes to each gamete. The gametes produced by the round, yellow parent therefore contain alleles RY, whereas the gametes produced by the wrinkled, green parent contain alleles ry. These two types of gametes unite to produce the F1, all with genotype Rr Yy. Because round is dominant over wrinkled and yellow is dominant over green, the phenotype of the F1 will be round and yellow. When Mendel self-fertilized the F1 plants to produce the F2, the alleles for each locus separated, with one allele going into each gamete. This event is where the principle of independent assortment becomes important. Each pair of alleles can separate in two ways: (1) R Fig.5: Principle of independent assortment separates with Y and r separates with y to produce gametes RY and ry or (2) R separates with y and r separates with Y to produce gametes Ry and rY. The principle of independent assortment tells us that the alleles at each locus separate independently; thus, both kinds of separation occur equally and all four type of gametes (RY, ry, Ry, and rY) are produced in equal proportions (Figure 5b). When these four types of gametes are combined to produce the F2 generation, the progeny consist of 9/16 round and yellow, 3/16 wrinkled and yellow, 3/16 round and green, and 1/16 wrinkled and green, resulting in a 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 phenotypic ratio (Figure 5c).

The Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance In 1879, two cytologists, Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri, independently published papers linking their discoveries of the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis to the Mendelian principles of segregation and independent assortment. They pointed out that the separation of chromosomes during meiosis could serve as the cytological basis of these two postulates. Although they thought that 124

Mendel’s unit factors were probably chromosomes rather than genes on chromosomes, their findings reestablished the importance Fig.6: chromosomal theory of inheritance of Mendel’s work and led to many ensuing genetic investigations. Sutton and Boveri are credited with initiating the chromosomal theory of inheritance, the idea that the genetic material in living organisms is contained in chromosomes, which was developed during the next two decades. Unit Factors, Genes, and Homologous Chromosomes Because the correlation between Sutton’s and Boveri’s observations and Mendelian principles serves as the foundation for the modern description of transmission genetics, As we know, each species possesses a specific number of chromosomes in each somatic cell nucleus. For diploid organisms, this number is called the diploid number (2n) and is characteristic of that species. During the formation of gametes (meiosis), the number is precisely halved (n), and when two gametes combine during fertilization, the diploid number is reestablished. The gametes contain one member of each pair—thus the chromosome complement of a gamete is quite specific, and the number of chromosomes in each gamete is equal to the haploid number. With this basic information, we can see the correlation between the behavior of unit factors and chromosomes and genes. Figure 6 shows three of Mendel’s postulates and the chromosomal explanation of each. Unit factors are really genes located on homologous pairs of chromosomes (Figure 6a). Members of each pair of homologs separate, or segregate, during gamete formation (Figure 6b). To illustrate the principle of independent assortment, it is important to distinguish between members of any given homologous pair of chromosomes. One member of each pair is derived from the maternal parent, whereas the other comes from the paternal parent. (We represent the different parental origins with different colors.) As shown in Figure 6c, following independent segregation of each pair of homologs, each gamete receives one member from each pair of chromosomes. All possible combinations are formed with equal probability. If we add the symbols used in Mendel’s dihybrid cross (G, g and W, w) to the diagram, we can see why equal numbers of the four types of gametes are formed. The independent behavior of Mendel’s pairs of unit factors (G and W in this example) is due to their presence on separate pairs of homologous chromosomes. Mendel’s paired unit factors (which determine tall or dwarf stems, for example) actually constitute a pair of genes located on one pair of homologous chromosomes. The location on a given chromosome where any particular gene occurs is called its locus (pl. loci). The different alleles of a given gene (for example, G and g) contain slightly different genetic information (green or yellow) that determines the same character (seed color in this case). Although we have examined only genes with two alternative alleles, most genes have more than two allelic forms. We conclude this section by reviewing the criteria necessary to classify two chromosomes as a homologous pair: 1. During mitosis and meiosis, when chromosomes are visible in their characteristic shapes, both members of a homologous pair are the same size and exhibit identical centromere locations. The sex chromosomes (e.g., the X and the Y chromosomes in mammals) are an exception. 2. During early stages of meiosis, homologous chromosomes form pairs, or synapse. 3. Although it is not generally visible under the microscope, homologs contain the identical linear order of gene loci.

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General Structure and Function of Cell Organelles Mukesh Kumar Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125004 All living cells fall into one of two broad categories—prokaryotic and eukaryotic. The distinction is based on whether or not the cell has a nucleus. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms that lack nuclei and other organelles; the word is derived from pro meaning “prior to” and karyote meaning “nucleus.” In conventional biological classification schemes, prokaryotes are grouped together as members of the kingdom Monera, represented by bacteria and cyanobacteria (formerly called blue-green algae). The other four living kingdoms are all eukaryotes—the single-celled Protists, such as amoebae, and all multicellular life forms, including the Fungi, Plant, and Animal kingdoms. Eukaryotic cells have true nuclei and other organelles such as mitochondria, with the prefix eu meaning “true.”

Fig 1. Cell Structure Structural Organization of Prokaryotic Cells Among prokaryotes (the simplest cells), most known species are eubacteria and they form a widely spread group. Certain of them are pathogenic to humans. The archaea are remarkable because they can be found in unusual environments where other cells cannot survive. Archaea include the thermoacidophiles (heat- and acid-loving bacteria) of hot springs, the halophiles (salt-loving bacteria) of salt lakes and ponds, and the methanogens (bacteria that generate methane from CO2 and H2). Prokaryotes are typically very small, on the order of several microns in length, and are usually surrounded by a rigid cell wall that protects the cell and gives it its shape. The characteristic structural organization of a prokaryotic cell is depicted in Figure 1. 127

Prokaryotic cells have only a single membrane, the plasma membrane or cell membrane. Because they have no other membranes, prokaryotic cells contain no nucleus or organelles. Nevertheless, they possess a distinct nuclear area where a single circular chromosome is localized, and some have an internal membranous structure called a mesosome that is derived from and continuous with the cell membrane. Reactions of cellular respiration are localized on these membranes. In photosynthetic prokaryotes such as the cyanobacteria, flat, sheetlike membranous structures called lamellae are formed from cell membrane infoldings. These lamellae are the sites of photosynthetic activity, but in prokaryotes, they are not contained within plastids, the organelles of photosynthesis found in higher plant cells. Prokaryotic cells also lack a cytoskeleton; the cell wall maintains their structure. Some bacteria have flagella, single, long filaments used for motility. Prokaryotes largely reproduce by asexual division, although sexual exchanges can occur. Table 1 lists the major features of prokaryotic cells.

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Structural Organization of Eukaryotic Cells In comparison to prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells are much greater in size, typically having cell volumes 103 to 104 times larger. Also, they are much more complex. These two features require that eukaryotic cells partition their diverse metabolic processes into organized compartments, with each compartment dedicated to a particular function. A system of internal membranes accomplishes this partitioning. A typical animal and plant cell are shown in Figure 2. Tables 2 and 3 list the major features of a typical animal cell and a higher plant cell, respectively. Eukaryotic cells possess a discrete, membrane-bounded nucleus, the repository of the cell’s genetic material, which is distributed among a few or many chromosomes. During cell division, equivalent copies of this genetic material must be passed to both daughter cells through duplication and orderly partitioning of the chromosomes by the process known as mitosis. Like prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane. Unlike prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells are rich in internal membranes that are differentiated into specialized structures such as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the Golgi apparatus. Membranes also surround certain organelles (mitochondria and chloroplasts, for example) and various vesicles, including vacuoles, lysosomes, and peroxisomes. The common purpose of these membranous partitioning is the creation of cellular compartments that have specific, organized metabolic functions, such as the mitochondrion’s role as the principal site of cellular energy production. Eukaryotic cells also have a cytoskeleton composed of arrays of filaments that give the cell its shape and its capacity to move. Some eukaryotic cells also have long projections on their surface—cilia or flagella— which provide propulsion.

Fig 2: Structure of typical Animal and Plant cell

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Table 2: Major features of Animal

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Table 3: Major features of Plant cell

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Mitosis and Meiosis Mukesh Kumar Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125004 The Cell Cycle and Mitosis The cell cycle consists of two major phases. The first is interphase, the period between cell divisions, in which the cell grows, develops, and prepares for cell division. The second is the M phase (mitotic phase), the period of active cell division. The M phase includes mitosis, the process of nuclear division, and cytokinesis or cytoplasmic division. Let’s take a closer look at the details of interphase and the M phase. Interphase: Interphase is the extended period of growth and development between cell divisions. Interphase includes several checkpoints, which regulate the cell cycle (Fig.1) Fig. 1: Cell cycle by allowing or prohibiting the cell’s division. These checkpoints, like the checkpoints in the M phase, ensure that all cellular components are present and in good working order before the cell proceeds to the next stage. Checkpoints are necessary to prevent cells with damaged or missing chromosomes from proliferating. Defects in checkpoints can lead to unregulated cell growth, as is seen in some cancers. By convention, interphase is divided into three phases: G1, S, and G2. Interphase begins with G1 (for gap 1). In G1, the cell grows, and proteins necessary for cell division are synthesized; this phase typically lasts several hours. There is a critical point termed the G1/S checkpoint near the end of G1. The G1/S checkpoint holds the cell in G1 until the cell has all of the enzymes necessary for the replication of DNA. After this checkpoint has been passed, the cell is committed to divide. Before reaching the G1/S checkpoint, cells may exit from the active cell cycle in response to regulatory signals and pass into a nondividing phase called G0, which is a stable state during which cells usually maintain a constant size. They can remain in G0 for an extended period of time, even indefinitely, or they can reenter G1 and the active cell cycle. Many cells never enter G0; rather, they cycle continuously. After G1, the cell enters the S phase (for DNA synthesis), in which each chromosome duplicates. Although the cell is committed to divide after the G1/S checkpoint has been passed, DNA synthesis 132

must take place before the cell can proceed to mitosis. If DNA synthesis is blocked (by drugs or by a mutation), the cell will not be able to undergo mitosis. Before the S phase, each chromosome is composed of one chromatid; after the S phase, each chromosome is composed of two chromatids. After the S phase, the cell enters G2 (gap 2). In this phase, several additional biochemical events necessary for cell division take place. The important G2/M checkpoint is reached near the end of G2. This checkpoint is passed only if the cell’s DNA is undamaged. Damaged DNA can inhibit the activation of some proteins that are necessary for mitosis to take place. After the G2/M checkpoint has been passed, the cell is ready to divide and enters the M phase. Although the length of interphase varies from cell type to cell type, a typical dividing mammalian cell spends about 10 hours in G1, 9 hours in S, and 4 hours in G2. Throughout interphase, the chromosomes are in a relaxed, but by no means uncoiled, state, and individual chromosomes cannot be seen with the use of a microscope. This condition changes dramatically when interphase draws to a close and the cell enters the M phase. M phase: The M phase is the part of the cell cycle in which the copies of the cell’s chromosomes (sister chromatids) separate and the cell undergoes division. The separation of sister chromatids in the M phase is a critical process that results in a complete set of genetic information for each of the resulting cells. Biologists usually divide the M phase into six stages: the five stages of mitosis (prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase), illustrated in Fig 2, and cytokinesis. It’s important to keep in mind that the M phase is a continuous process, and its separation into these six stages is somewhat arbitrary. During interphase, the chromosomes are relaxed and are visible only as diffuse chromatin, but they condense during prophase, becoming visible under a light microscope. Each chromosome possesses two chromatids because the chromosome was duplicated in the preceding S phase. The mitotic spindle, an organized array of microtubules that move the chromosomes in mitosis, forms. In animal cells, the spindle grows out from a pair of centrosomes that migrates to opposite sides of the cell. Within each centrosome is a special organelle, the centriole, which also is composed of microtubules. Some plant cells do not have centrosomes or centrioles, but they do have mitotic spindles. Disintegration of the nuclear membrane marks the start of prometaphase. Spindle microtubules, which until now have been outside the nucleus, enter the nuclear region. The ends of certain microtubules make contact with the chromosomes. For each chromosome, a microtubule from one of the centrosomes anchors to the kinetochore of one of the sister chromatids; a microtubule from the opposite centrosome then attaches to the other sister chromatid, and so the chromosome is anchored to both of the centrosomes. The microtubules lengthen and shorten, pushing and pulling the chromosomes about. Some microtubules extend from each centrosome toward the center of the spindle but do not attach to a chromosome. During metaphase, the chromosomes become arranged in a single plane, the metaphase plate, between the two centrosomes. The centrosomes, now at opposite ends of the cell with microtubules radiating outward and meeting in the middle of the cell, center at the spindle poles. A spindle- assembly checkpoint ensures that each chromosome is aligned on the metaphase plate and attached to spindle fibers from opposite poles. 133

Anaphase begins when the sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite spindle poles. After the chromatids have separated, each is considered a separate chromosome. Telophase is marked by the arrival of the chromosomes at the spindle poles. The nuclear membrane reforms around each set of chromosomes, producing two separate nuclei within the cell. The chromosomes relax and lengthen, once again disappearing from view. In many cells, division of the cytoplasm (cytokinesis) is simultaneous with telophase.

Fig.2: Stages of Mitosis

Meiosis The events of meiosis I are unique among nuclear divisions (Fig.3). The process begins with the replication of chromosomes, after which each one consists of two sister chromatids. A key to understanding meiosis I is the observation that the centromeres joining these chromatids remain intact 134

throughout the entire division, rather than splitting as in mitosis. As the division proceeds, homologous chromosomes align across the cellular equator to form a coupling that ensures proper chromosome segregation to separate nuclei. Moreover, during the time homologous chromosomes face each other across the equator, the maternal and paternal chromosomes of each homologous pair exchange parts, creating new combinations of alleles at different genes along the chromosomes. Afterward, the two homologous chromosomes, each consisting of two sister chromatids connected at a single, unsplit centromere, are pulled to opposite poles of the spindle. As a result, it is homologous chromosomes (rather than sister chromatids as in mitosis) that segregate into different daughter cells at the conclusion of the first meiotic division. Prophase I: During This Longest, Most Complex Phase of Meiosis, Crossing-Over Occurs Among the critical events of prophase I are the condensation of chromatin, the pairing of homologous chromosomes, and the reciprocal exchange of genetic information between these paired homologs (Fig3., meiosis I). These complicated events can take many days, months, or even years to complete. For example, in the female germ cells of several species, including our own, meiosis is suspended at prophase I until ovulation. This may sound surprising, but it will become clear when we discuss the details of egg formation later in this chapter. Leptotene (from the Greek for “thin” and “delicate”) is the first definable substage of prophase I, the time when the long, thin chromosomes begin to thicken. Each chromosome has already duplicated prior to prophase I (as in mitosis) and thus consists of two sister chromatids affixed at a centromere. At this point, however, these sister chromatids are so tightly bound together that they are not yet visible as separate entities. Zygotene (from the Greek for “conjugation”) begins as each chromosome seeks out its homologous partner and the matching chromosomes become zipped together in a process known as synapsis. The “zipper” itself is an elaborate protein structure called the synaptonemal complex that aligns the homologs with remarkable precision, just opposing the corresponding genetic regions of the chromosome pair. Pachytene (from the Greek for “thick” or “fat”) begins at the completion of synapsis when homologous chromosomes are united along their length. Each synapsed chromosome pair is known as a bivalent (because it encompasses two chromosomes), or a tetrad (because it contains four chromatids, which, as meiosis proceeds, will be parcelled out, one to each of the four products of meiosis). On one side of the bivalent is a maternally derived chromosome, on the other side a paternally derived one. Because X and Y chromosomes are not identical, they do not synapse completely; there is, however, a small region of similarity (or “homology”) between the X and the Y chromosomes that allows for a limited amount of pairing. During pachytene, structures called recombination nodules begin to appear along the synaptonemal complex, and an exchange of parts between nonsister (that is, between maternal and paternal) chromatids occurs at these nodules. Such an exchange is known as crossing-over; it results in the 135

Fig. 3: Different Stages of Meiosis recombination of genetic material. Diplotene ( “twofold” or “double”) is signaled by the gradual dissolution of the synaptonemal zipper complex and a slight separation of regions of the homologous chromosomes. The aligned homologous chromosomes of each bivalent nonetheless remain very tightly merged at intervals along their length called chiasmata (singular, chiasma), which represent sites where crossing-over occurred. Diakinesis (from the Greek for “double movement”) is accompanied by further condensation of the chromatids. Because of this chromatid thickening and shortening, it can now clearly be seen that each tetrad consists of four separate chromatids, or viewed in another way, that the two homologous 136

chromosomes of a bivalent are each composed of two sister chromatids held together at a centromere. Nonsister chromatids that have undergone crossing-over remain closely associated at chiasmata. The end of diakinesis is analogous to the prometaphase of mitosis: The nuclear envelope breaks down, and the microtubules of the spindle apparatus begin to form. Metaphase I: There is an essential difference between the spindle formed during meiosis I and that formed during mitosis. As we have seen, during mitosis, each sister chromatid has a kinetochore that becomes attached to microtubules emanating from opposite spindle poles. In contrast, during meiosis I, the kinetochores of sister chromatids fuse so that each chromosome contains only a single functional kinetochore; there are thus no oppositely directed forces that could later pull the sister chromatids apart during the anaphase of meiosis I. Instead, during metaphase I, it is the kinetochores of homologous chromosomes that attach to microtubules from opposite spindle poles. As a result, in chromosomes aligned at the metaphase plate, the kinetochores of maternally and paternally derived chromosomes face opposite spindle poles, positioning the homologous chromosomes to which they are connected to move in opposite directions. Because the alignment and hookup of each bivalent is independent of every other bivalent’s, the chromosomes facing each pole are a random mix of maternal and paternal origin. Anaphase I: At the onset of anaphase I, the chiasmata joining homologous chromosomes dissolve, which allows the maternal and paternal homologs to begin to move toward opposite spindle poles. Note that in the first meiotic division, the centromeres do not divide as they do in mitosis. Thus, from each homologous pair, one chromosome consisting of two sister chromatids joined at their centromere segregates to each spindle pole. Recombination through crossing-over plays an important role in the proper segregation of homologous chromosomes during the first meiotic division. This is because chiasmata, in holding homologous chromosomes together, ensure that their kinetochores remain attached to opposite spindle poles throughout metaphase. When recombination does not occur within a bivalent, mistakes in hookup and conveyance may cause homologous chromosomes to move to the same pole instead of segregating to opposite poles. In some organisms, however, proper segregation of non recombinant chromosomes nonetheless occurs through other pairing processes. Investigators do not yet completely understand the nature of these processes and are currently evaluating several models to explain them. Telophase I: The telophase of the first meiotic division, or telophase I, takes place when nuclear membranes begin to form around chromosomes that have moved to poles. Each of incipient daughter nuclei contains one-half number of chromosomes in the original parent nucleus, but each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids joined at the centromere. Because the number of chromosomes is reduced to one-half the normal diploid number, meiosis I is often called a reductional division. In most species, cytokinesis follows telophase I, with daughter nuclei becoming enclosed in separate daughter cells. A short interphase then ensues. During this time, the chromosomes usually decondense, in which case they must recondense during the prophase of the subsequent second meiotic division. In some cases, however, the chromosomes simply stay condensed. Most importantly, there is no S phase during the interphase between meiosis I and meiosis II; that is, the chromosomes do not replicate during meiotic interphase. The relatively brief interphase between meiosis I and meiosis II is known as interkinesis. Meiosis II The second meiotic division (meiosis II) proceeds in a fashion very similar to that of mitosis, but since the number of chromosomes in each dividing nucleus has already been reduced by half, the resulting daughter cells are haploid. The same process occurs in each of the two daughter cells generated by meiosis I, producing four haploid cells at the end of this second meiotic. 137

Prophase II: If the chromosomes decondensed during the preceding interphase, they recondense during prophase II. At the end of prophase II, the nuclear envelope breaks down, and the spindle apparatus reforms. Metaphase II: The kinetochores of sister chromatids attach to microtubule fibers emanating from opposite poles of the spindle apparatus, just as in mitotic metaphase. There are nonetheless two significant features of metaphase II that distinguish it from mitosis. First, the number of chromosomes is one-half that in mitotic metaphase of the same species. Second, in most chromosomes, the two sister chromatids are no longer strictly identical because of the recombination through crossing-over that occurred during meiosis I. The sister chromatids still contain the same genes, but they may carry different combinations of alleles. Anaphase II: Just as in mitosis, severing of the centromeric connection between sisters chromatids allows them to move toward opposite spindle poles during anaphase II. Telophase II: Membranes form around each of four daughter nuclei in telophase II, and cytokinesis places each nucleus in a separate cell. The result is four haploid gametes. Note that at the end of meiosis II, each daughter cell (that is, each gamete) has the same number of chromosomes as the parental cell present at the beginning of this division. For this reason, meiosis II is termed an equational division. Differences between mitosis and meiosis Sr. No. 1 2

5 6

Mitosis Consists of one nuclear division One cell cycle results in production of two daughter cells The chromosome number of daughter cells is the same as that of mother cell (2n) Daughter cells are identical with mother cell in structure and chromosome composition It occurs in somatic cells Total DNA of nucleus replicates during S phase

7

The prophase is not divided into sub stages

8

There is no pairing between homologous chromosomes Segregation and recombination do not occur Chromosomes are in the form of dyad at metaphase The centromeres of all the chromosomes lie on the equatorial plate (auto orientation) during metaphase At metaphase, centromere of each bivalent divides longitudinally One member of sister chromatids moves to opposite pole during anaphase Maintains purity due to lack of segregation and recombination

3 4

9 10 11

12 13 14

138

Meiosis Consists of two nuclear divisions One cell cycle results in production of four daughter cells Daughter cells contain half the chromosome number of mother cell (n) Daughter cells are different from mother cell in chromosome number and composition It occurs in reproductive cells About 0.3% of the DNA is not replicated during S phase and it occurs during the zygotene stage The prophase I is divided into five sub Stages Homologous chromosomes pair during Pachytene Crossing over takes place during pachytene Chromosomes are in the form of tetrad at metaphase The centromeres of all the chromosomes lie on either side of the equatorial plate (co-orientation) during metaphase I The centromere does not divide at metaphase I One member of homologous chromosomes moves to opposite poles during the anaphase I Generates variability due to segregation and recombination

Foundation Course Manual on ICAR-JRF (PGS) in Agriculture – General Topics Eds KS Bangarwa, Surender S Dhankhar and RK Pannu CCS HAU, Hisar 2014, pp 132-138.

Elementary Knowledge of Growth and Development KD Sharma Crop Physiology Lab, Department of Agronomy, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125004 Growth - definition: Growth and Development are the most fundamental and conspicuous characteristics of all living organisms. According to dictionary, growth is the advancement towards maturity and development is a gradual increase in size. The plant physiological definition of growth is ‘an irreversible increase in mass, weight or volume of a living organism, organ or cell. Growth Curve: Typical growth pattern of an annual plant is represented in figure.1. This can be divided into three phases. 1. Lag period of growth: During this period the growth rate is quite slow because it is the initial stage of growth. 2. Log period of Growth: During this period, the growth rate is maximum and reaches the top because at this stage the cell division and physiological processes are quite fast. 3. “Senescence period or steady state period: During this period the growth is almost complete and become static. Thus the growth rate becomes zero.

FIG.1 A TYPICAL ‘S’ SHAPED GRO→TH CUR↑E If the growth rate is plotted against time, an ‘S’ shaped curve is obtained which is called sigmoid curve or grand period curve. The growth curve described above is seen in most cases, although there is a considerable difference due to variations in plant species as well as environmental factors. It is also apparent that growth in all parts of a multi cellular plant is not uniform. In higher plants, it is restricted only to the meristematic zones which are found near the root and the shoot tips, in the vascular cambium and in certain parts of young leaves. 139

Growth pattern of annual crops: Here the first phase relates to the seed germination and seedling growth. Seeds germinating below ground are dependent on stored material in the cotyledons until the seedling emerges in to light and start photosynthesis. Hence, initial increase in weight is negligible. (LAG PHASE) The second phase of growth is characterized by a rapid and often linear increase in dry matter production and terminates with flowering (anthesis). (LOG PHASE) It is associated with tillering, stem elongation and leaf expansion in cereals. In case of indeterminate crops such as Cotton, Pigeon pea etc. it is characterized by formation of branches with large number of leaves. Initiation of flower buds signifies end of rapid growth phase growth) and indicates onset of flowering. The third phase of growth is marked by a reduction in growth rate until growth ceases at maturity. Assimilates stored in leaves and stems are translocated to partially sustain seed growth. At the end of this growth period, water is lost and DEATH). TYPES OF GROWTH: a) Determinate Organs: Those organs that grow to certain size and then stop growing are called determinate organs. After their growth is completed they eventually senesce and die. Examples of such organs are leaves, flowers and fruits etc. Determinate Growth: If, reproductive growth starts only after completion of vegetative growth it is called as determinate growth habit. Eg. Maize. From (grand period of aerial plant parts, photosynthesis stops and crop ripens (Stationary phase) Indeterminate Organs: Those organs which grow continuously with the activity of meristems are indeterminate organs. Examples are roots and vegetative stems of perennials. These structures always remain youthful, because of the meristematic activity. Indeterminate Growth: Here, vegetative and reproductive growth overlaps. This is shown in plants that have a capacity for both vegetative growth and flowering over an extended period. Eg. Redgram, Soybean etc. Monocarpic and polycarpic species: Monocorpic species flower only once and then die. Thus, in a sense mononcarpic species are determinate as for as the entire plant is concerned. Ex.Rice, Maize,Sunflower,Sugarcane,sorghum etc. Polycarpic species flower more than once in life cycle. Here, the vegetative and reproductive periods overlap each other. This is seen in most of the tree species. Most monocrapic species are annuals. However, some of them are biennials and perennials also. Many varieties of bamboos may grow and live for over 50 years and then they flower and die. Thus bamboos are perennial but monocarpic. All polycarpic plants are perennials. Development: Growth leads to the development. Development is defined as ordered change or progress often (but not always) towards a higher, more ordered or more complex state. However, these two processes are often linked together and occur in sequence. Growth is a quantitative change in contrast to development which is more of a qualitative change. Root growth: Radicle is the embryonic root. During the seed germination and seedling formation, it grows to form primary root of the seedlings. A growing root usually has 4 distinct regions, 140

1. Root cap 2. Meristematic region 3. The region of cell elongation and 4. The region of differentiation and maturation. The root cap protects the root tip. The meristematic region in young root is situated just below the root tip. The cells in this region are responsible for growth in the root. The meristematic region consists of numerous small, compactly arranged thin walled cells almost completely filled with cytoplasm. They have very small vacuoles and comparatively large nuclei. Inter cellular spaces are absent. Only a few cells in the meristem may actually be involved in the longitudinal growth of the root. The region of cell elongation is made up of column of newly derived cells. It is the elongation of these cells, which causes the root tip to project forward and push through. Most cells in this region elongate at least 15 folds and increase in diameter which results in the development of considerable pressure by the elongation of root. The region of differentiation and maturation: The cells in the region of differentiation and maturation differentiate into various tissues, characteristic to the mature root; the epidermis, cortex and stele. In roots xylem and phloem differentiate only acropetally and as continuation of the older xylem and phloem in the more basal part of the root. During differentiation most cells increase in size and vacuolation. Stem growth: The life of stem starts as a plumule. It grows to form the shoot of the seedling. The longitudinal growth of stem and formation of various organs like branches, leaves, flowers is the function of stem meristem. Tunica Corpus Theory: To explain the cellular organizations of stem meristem, A.Schmidt (1924) first proposed a tunica corpus theory. Accordingly, most apical meristems contain two zones, an outer tunica and an inner Corpus. Tunica consists of one to several layers of cells at the surface of the merisem while corpus cells are beneath the tunica layer. The cells in tunica divide by anticlinal division i.e in a plane perpendicular to the surface of the stem, whereas the corpus cells divide in many different ways. The formation of branches leaves or outer appendages on the stem are initiated in the formation of a primordium or out growth at the surface of the meristem, just below the tip. In the formation of aerial organs both tunica as well as corpus layers are involved. The tunica normally forms the epidermis of the organ derived from the meristem, while corpus cells produce majority of the internal tissues of the new organ. Auxins normally promote the elongation of stem. They induce the elongation of cells. Gibberellins also promote stem elongation and they do this by promoting cell division as well as cell elongation. Leaf initiation and Growth: Elevations appear on the periphery of the meristem in a regular pattern. Leaf primordia appear as dome shaped on the periphery of the stem. They appear at nodal positions of the stem, which have an intercalary meristem when the leaves are to be produced in pairs; each pair usually appears to right angle to the preceding pair, the two leaves in a pair generally opposite to each other. The growth of individual leaf also follows the typical sigmoidal pattern, just like the growth of the entire plant. In most plants, the shape and form of leaves are fixed and little variation found among them. However, many plants have leaves of different shape. The phenomenon is termed as heterophylly, which is quite common in aquatic plants. 141

Initiation and Development of Flower: Once the biochemical requirements for evocation of flowering are completed and the meristem has reached the point of no return, it develops either into an inflorescence (a cluster of flowers) or solitary flowers. In most plants, the pattern of flower initiation and development is almost similar. As an example of flower initiation in Capsicum annum (Green pepper) the first microscopically visible change in the shoot apex is the change in its shape. The apex almost becomes flat from conical, due to the inhibition of growth in the central portion of the meristem. Some protuberances develop from this meristem in a whorled manner. Floral parts (sepals, petals etc) are formed due to the development of the protuberances. The outermost whorl of the protuberances forms the sepal and next to it forms petals and so on. Most plants produce bisexual flowers containing functional male (stamens) and female (pistils) parts. Other species contain staminate (male) and pistillate (female) flowers only on different individual plants. Auxins and Ethylene stimulates the formation of female flowers, where as gibberellins increase the ratio of male to female flowers in the cucumber. Initially, the floral parts are tightly enclosed with in the outer most part, the sepals, constituting a floral bud. Subsequently expansion of the flower bud in to an open flower occurs. The cause of the flower opening is usually due to the differential growth of the inner and outer sides of the sepals and petals. Fruit and Seed Development: The first stage in fruit and seed development is rapid cell division without much enlargement due to cytokinin production by the endosperm which is growing at this stage. Various tissues of the parent plant viz, the ovary, receptacle and sometimes parts of the floral tube may be involved in the formation of fruits. Following the cell division stage cell enlargement phase of growth proceeds and this is by auxins produced in the seeds. If the seeds are removed from a developing fruit, development stops, however it can be restarted again by the application of auxins. It was observed that fruit development in cucumber is dependent on auxins which originate from the ovule, while some fruits respond rather to gibberellins than to auxin treatment. At this stage in the development of fruits the concentration of organic acids and sugars begin to increase followed by decrease in osmotic potential. This is related to the increasing absorption of water and growth by enlargement of cells. Measurement of Growth: Growth can be measured by a variety of parameters as follows A. Fresh Weight: Determination of Fresh weight is an easy and convenient method of measuring growth. For measuring fresh weight, the entire plant is harvested, cleaned for dirt particles if any and then weighed. B. Dry Weight: The dry weight of the plant organs is usually obtained by drying the materials for 21 to 48 h at 70 to 80oC and then weighing it. The measurements of dry weight may give a more valid and meaningful estimation of growth than fresh weight. However, in measuring the growth of dark grown seedling it is desirable to take fresh weight. C. Length: Measurement of length is a suitable indication of growth for those organs which grow in one direction with almost uniform diameter such as roots and shoots. The length can be measured by a scale. The advantage of measuring length is that it can be done on the same organ over a period of time without destroying it. D. Area: It is used for measuring growth of plant organs like leaf. The area can be measured by a graph paper or by a suitable mechanical device. Nowadays modern laboratories use a photoelectric 142

device (digital leaf area meter) which reads leaf area directly as the individual leaves is fed into it. Growth Analysis: Growth analysis is a mathematical expression of environmental effects on growth and development of crop plants. This is a useful tool in studying the complex interactions between the plant growth and the environment. Growth analysis in crop plants was first studied by British Scientists (Blackman 1919, Briggs, Kidd and west 1920, William 1964, Watson 1952 and Blackman, (1968). This analysis depends mainly on primary values (Dry weights) and they can be easily obtained without great demand on modern laboratory equipment. The basic principle that underlie in growth analysis depends on two values (1) total dry weight of whole plant material per unit area of ground (w) and (2) the total leaf area of the plant per unit area of ground (A). The total dry weight (w) is usually measured as the dry weight of various plant parts Viz, leaves, stems and reproductive structures. The measure of leaf area (A) includes the area of other organs viz, stem petioles, flower bracts, awns and pods that contain chlorophyll and contribute substantially to the over all photosynthesis of the plants According to the purpose of the data, leaf area and dry weights of component plant parts have to be collected at weekly, fortnightly or monthly intervals. This data are to be used to calculate various indices and characteristics that describe the growth of plants and of their parts grown in different environments and the relationship between assimilatory apparatus and dry matter production. These indices and characteristics are together called as growth parameters. Some of the parameters that are usually calculated in growth analysis are crop growth rate (CGR), relative growth rate (RGR), net assimilation rate (NAR), Leaf area ratio (LAR), Leaf weight ratio (LWR). Specific Leaf Area (SLA), Leaf area index (LAI) and Leaf area duration (LAD). Accuracy in calculations of these parameters and their correct interpretation are essential aspect in growth analysis. Growth can be defined in two ways:  Absolute growth rate (AGR): Increase in total biomass through time. This definition of growth rate is important because it describes the pattern of biomass accumulation through time.  Relative growth rate (RGR): Increase in biomass through time divided by the mass or size of the plant. This definition describes the rate at which a given unit of biomass contributes to growth. It is measure of efficiency with which each unit of biomass contributes to growth. It is very useful in describing the physiological basis for the rate of biomass increase because it can be broken down into several additional components of growth. Absolute and Relative Growth Rate: AGR is a plain and simple measure of rate of increase in weight. The sample is taken at time t1 and then at time t2 and after drying in oven the dry weight of plant is measured, and the difference is absolute growth. W2 – W1 AGR = ------------------(g day-1) t1 – t2 Where, W1 is the dry weight at time t1. W2 is the dry weight at time t2. RGR is defined as the rate of increase in plant dry matter expressed per unit weight at previous sampling. 1 dw (Logn W2 – Logn W1) Relative growth rate (RGR) = ------ x ------ or --------------------------(wt. wt-1 t-1) W dt (t2 – t1) Where, Logn is the natural logarithms. W1 and W2 are the dry weight at time t1 and t2, respectively. 143

Relative growth rate is a fundamental measure of dry matter production, and it can be safely used to compare the performance of species and treatment under specific conditions. Errors due to initial weight of any plant organ are taken care. Relative growth rate at whole plant level does not tell the casual processes, which contribute to plant’s gross performance, therefore, calculation of each component of plant, i.e., leaves, stem and root is suggested. Relative growth rate can be broken into two useful components. Leaf area ratio (LAR) and net assimilation rate (NAR). Leaf Area Ratio (LAR): It is defined as the ratio of total leaf area to total plant dry weight. For instantaneous value, it can be calculated as: Leaf Area Ratio (LAR) =

LA -----W

(cm2 g-1)

Where, LA is the total leaf area. W is total plant dry weight. In broad sense, leaf area ratio indicates the ratio of photosynthesizing portion to respiratory portion of the plant. Over the time interval, it is calculated as: [(LA1 / W1) + (LA2 / W2)] Leaf Area Ratio (LAR) = -------------------------------2 Where, LA1 and LA2 are the leaf area at time t1 and t2, respectively. W1 and W2 is the total plant dry weight at initial and final time, respectively. Net Assimilation Rate (NAR): It is the rate of accumulation of dry matter per unit leaf area. (dW/dt) Net Assimilation Rate (NAR) = -------------A Where, dW/dt is the rate of change in dry weight. A is the total leaf area. or (w2 – w1) (Loge LA2 – Loge LA1) Net Assimilation Rate (NAR) = -------------- x ---------------------------(t2 – t1) (LA2 – LA1)

(g cm-2 day-1)

Where, LA1 and LA2 are the leaf area (cm2) at time t1 and t2, respectively. W1 and W2 are the total plant dry weight (g) at initial and final time, respectively. Loge is natural logarithm or neparian log. This term means that if one cm square area is taken out of a leaf and photosynthesis is measured, the species with highest rate of carbon dioxide assimilation (net assimilation A) has the highest net assimilation rate, thus, it takes into account of a plant photosynthesis and respiration. When net assimilation rate is zero, the photosynthesis and respiration are balanced, i.e., food synthesized by the plant is equal to food consumed by the plant. The overall growth index (RGR) is, thus, split into two, i.e., NAR x LAR. Leaf area ratio (LAR) is a morphological index of plant form. Net assimilation rate is a physiological index, which is closely 144

connected with photosynthetic activity of leaves. Both of these indices have their own ontogenetic drift. Leaf area ratio can be further partitioned into two terms, i.e., leaf weight ratio and specific leaf area. Leaf Weight Ratio (LWR): It is the ratio between leaf weight and total plant dry weight meaning a dimension less index of the plant on weight basis. LW

[(LW1/W1) x (LW2/W2)] ------- or -------------------------------W 2 Where, LW is the leaf weight. W is the plant weight. LW1 and LW2 are the leaf weight at initial and final time, respectively. LA1 and LA2 are the leaf area at time t1 and t2, respectively. Leaf Weight Ratio (LWR) =

Specific Leaf Area (SLA): It is mean area of leaf displayed per unit of leaf dry weight. Plants with high specific leaf area have large thin leaves, whereas, with low specific leaf area have smaller and/or thick leaves. LA (LA1/LW1) (LA2/LW2) Specific Leaf Area (SLA) = -------or ------------------------------LW 2 Where, LA is the leaf area. LW is the leaf weight. LA1 and LA2 are the leaf area at time t1 and t2, respectively. LW1 and LW2 are the leaf weight at initial and final time, respectively. The inverse of this term is called specific leaf weight. LW (LW1/LA1) (LW2/LA2) Specific Leaf Weight (SLW) = ------- or -------------------------------LA 2 Where, LW is the leaf weight. LA is the leaf area.

(area wt.-1)

(wt. area -1)

LW1 and LW2 are the leaf weight at initial and final time, respectively. LA1 and LA2 are the leaf area at time t1 and t2, respectively. The specific leaf weight deceases as the leaf area index increases, which reduces respiration per unit of leaf area. This term is related to the relative thickness or leaf density. Plant growth efficiency is associated with leaf area and its weight that mostly reflect leaf thickness. It is now an important character in relation to the boundary layer resistances. These parameters are equally involved in adaptation of a species to the abiotic stresses. Leaf Area Ratio (LAR) = SLA x LWR Substituting leaf area ratio from above equation into earlier equation yields a more detailed definition of relative growth rate: Relative Growth Rate (RGR) = NAR x SLA x LWR Leaf Area Index (LAI): The crop yield is based on the land area. Therefore, the crop growth analysis should be expressed on land area rather than on individual plant basis. Leaf area index is defined as leaf area per unit land area. For instantaneous value the leaf area index is: LA Leaf Area Index (LAI) = ---P Where, LA is the leaf area in m2 at any time. P is the land area in m2 occupied by the crop. While over the time-period it may be: 145

LA2 – LA1 Leaf Area Index (LAI) = --------------P Where, LA1 and LA2 are the leaf area in m2 at time t1 and t2, respectively. P is the land area in m2 occupied by the crop. Leaf area index is functional size of the crop standing on land area. If dimension of both leaf area and land area are same, leaf area index has no units. In freshly germinated crop, leaf area index remains below one and reaches maximum value (2 to 10) as the crop develops. An early high value of leaf area index is more desirable so that incident radiation can be fully utilized. Crop Growth Rate (CGR): Relative growth rate gives rate of dry matter increase per gram of dry matter per unit time. This shows potential of a plant to grow but assessment of crop productivity per unit land is not possible, thus, crop growth become more reliable to ascertain productivity in terms of land and time. Crop growth rate is the rate of accumulation of dry matter, which is expressed as per unit land area. 1 (W2 – W1) Crop Growth Rate (CGR) = ---- x --------------(weight area-1 time -1) P t2 – t1 Where, W1 and W2 are the dry weight of crop harvested from equal area of ground (P) at times t1 and t2, respectively. If W1 and W2 are each expressed per unit quantity of P then, (W2 – W1) CGR = --------------t2 – t1 Thus, the mean CGR in this form becomes an AGR. Since crop growth rate is the product of net assimilation rate and leaf are index, the direction and extent of its own drift with time depends on relative magnitude of these trends. Indirectly, the crop growth rate is coefficient of solar energy utilization. Higher crop growth rate is one of the desirable characters of good productive crop stand. Crop growth rate increases as the leaf are index increased because of greater light interception, i.e., more photosynthesis. CGR = NAR x LAI Leaf Area Duration (LAD): It is just like the biomass duration and can be calculated either on leaf area or leaf area index basis. The leaf area duration can define as a measure of the ability of plant to produce and maintain leaf area and its whole opportunity for assimilation during growing season. [(LA1 + LA2) x (t2 – t1)] Leaf Area Duration (LAD) on LA basis = ----------------------------(area time) 2 [(LAI1 + LAI2) x (t2 – t1)] Leaf Area Duration (LAD) on LAI basis = ------------------------------2 Leaf area duration is more important factor in determining final yield than mean net assimilation rate. If leaf area duration of crop and its mean net assimilation rate are known then its final yield may be predicted. If yield is already known then it may be split into these components: Generally, yield = LAD × NAR

146

Advantages of growth analysis a) We can study the growth of the population or plant community in a precise way with the availability of raw data on different growth parameters. b) These studies involve an assessment of the primary production of vegetation in the field i.e. at the ecosystem level (at crop level) of organization. c) The primary production plays an important role in the energetics of the whole ecosystem. d) The studies also provide precise information on the nature of the plant and environment interaction in a particular habitat. e) It provides accurate measurements of whole plant growth performance in an integrated manner at different intervals of time. Drawbacks of Growth Analysis In classical growth analysis sampling for primary values consist of harvesting (destructively) representative sets of plants or plots and it is impossible to follow the same plants or plots through out whole experiment.

147

Foundation Course Manual on ICAR-JRF (PGS) in Agriculture – General Topics Eds KS Bangarwa, Surender S Dhankhar and RK Pannu CCS HAU, Hisar 2014, pp 148-161.

Elementary Knowledge of Photosynthesis, Respiration and Transpiration

KD Sharma Crop Physiology Lab, Department of Agronomy, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125004 Photosynthesis is the conversion of light energy into chemical energy by living organisms. The raw materials are carbon dioxide and water; the energy source is sunlight; and the end-products are oxygen and (energy rich) carbohydrates, for example sucrose and starch. This process is arguably the most important biochemical pathway, since nearly all life depends on it. It is a complex process occurring in higher plants, phytoplankton, algae, as well as bacteria such as cyanobacteria. Photosynthetic organisms are also referred to as photoautotrophs. The word comes from the Greek photo-, light, and synthesis, putting together.

Photosynthesis splits water to liberate O2 and fixes CO2 into sugar Overview Photosynthesis uses light energy and carbon dioxide to make triose phospates (G3P). G3P is generally considered the prime end-product of photosynthesis. It can be used as an immediate food nutrient, or combined and rearranged to form disaccharide sugars, such as sucrose and fructose, which can be transported to other cells, or packaged for storage as insoluble polysaccharides such as starch. A commonly used but slightly simplified equation for photosynthesis is: 6 CO2(gas) + 12 H2O(liquid) + photons C6H12O6(aqueous) + 6 O2(gas) + 6 H2O(liquid) carbon dioxide + water + light energy glucose + oxygen + water When written as a word equation the light energy appears above the arrow as it is required for photosynthesis but it is not actually a reactant. Here the monosaccharide glucose is shown as a product, although the actual processes in plants produce disaccarides. 148

The equation is often presented in introductory chemistry texts in an even more simplified form as: 6 CO2(gas) + 6 H2O(liquid) + photons C6H12O6(aqueous) + 6 O2(gas) Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. In the first phase, light-dependent reactions or photosynthetic reactions (also called the Light reactions) capture the energy of light and use it to make high-energy molecules. During the second phase, the light-independent reactions (also called the Calvin-Benson Cycle, and formerly known as the Dark Reactions) use the high-energy molecules to capture carbon dioxide (CO2) and make the precursors of carbohydrates. In the light reactions, one molecule of the pigment chlorophyll absorbs one photon and loses one electron. This electron is passed to a modified form of chlorophyll called pheophytin, which passes the electron to a quinone molecule, allowing the start of a flow of electrons down an electron transport chain that leads to the ultimate reduction of NADP into NADPH. In addition, it serves to create a proton gradient across the chloroplast membrane; its dissipation is used by ATP Synthase for the concomitant synthesis of ATP. The chlorophyll molecule regains the lost electron by taking one from a water molecule through a process called photolysis, that releases oxygen gas. In the Light-independent or dark reactions the enzyme RuBisCO captures CO2 from the atmosphere and in a process that requires the newly-formed NADPH, called the Calvin-Benson cycle releases three-carbon sugars, which are later combined to form sucrose and starch. Photosynthesis may simply be defined as the conversion of light energy into chemical energy by living organisms. It is affected by its surroundings and the rate of photosynthesis is affected by the concentration of carbon dioxide, the intensity of light, and the temperature. In plants Most plants are photoautotrophs, which mean that they are able to synthesize food directly from inorganic compounds using light energy - for example from the sun, instead of eating other organisms or relying on nutrients derived from them. This is distinct from chemoautotrophs that do not depend on light energy, but use energy from inorganic compounds. 6 CO2 + 12 H2O

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O

The energy for photosynthesis ultimately comes from absorbed photons and involves a reducing agent, which is water in the case of plants, releasing oxygen as a waste product. The light energy is converted to chemical energy (known as light-dependent reactions), in the form of ATP and NADPH, which are used for synthetic reactions in photoautotrophs. The overall equation for the lightdependent reactions under the conditions of non-cyclic electron flow in green plants is: 2 H2O + 2 NADP+ + 2 ADP + 2 Pi + light

2 NADPH + 2 H+ + 2 ATP + O2

Most notably, plants use the chemical energy to fix carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and other organic compounds through light-independent reactions. The overall equation for carbon fixation (sometimes referred to as carbon reduction) in green plants is: 3 CO2 + 9 ATP + 6 NADPH + 6 H+

C3H6O3-phosphate + 9 ADP + 8 Pi + 6 NADP+ + 3 H2O

To be more specific, carbon fixation produces an intermediate product, which is then converted to the final carbohydrate products. The carbon skeletons produced by photosynthesis are then variously used to form other organic compounds, such as the building material cellulose, as precursors for lipid and amino acid biosynthesis, or as a fuel in cellular respiration. The latter occurs not only in plants but also in animals when the energy from plants gets passed through a food chain. Organisms dependent on photosynthetic and chemosynthetic organisms are called heterotrophs. In general outline, cellular respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis: Glucose and other compounds are oxidised to produce 149

carbon dioxide, water, and chemical energy. However, both processes take place through a different sequence of chemical reactions and in different cellular compartments. Photosynthetic pigments: Plants absorb light primarily using the pigment chlorophyll, which is the reason that most plants have a green color. The function of chlorophyll is often supported by other accessory pigments such as carotenes and xanthophylls. Both chlorophyll and accessory pigments are contained in organelles (compartments within the cell) called Chloroplasts. Although all cells in the green parts of a plant have chloroplasts, most of the energy is captured in the leaves. The cells in the interior tissues of a leaf, called the mesophyll, can contain between 450,000 and 800,000 chloroplasts for every square millimeter of leaf. Plants use up to 90% of the light that strikes them, whereas commercial solar panels use less than 30%. This is achieved by groups of chlorophyll molecules spending a long time in a superposition of states. Structure of chloroplast: Chloroplast are ellipsoidal in shape with size varies from 5-10 µ. They appear to consist of small green discoid bodies, the dark granna which are embedded in lighter coloured stroma. The whole is being surrounded by a double membrane.

Structure of chloroplast Chlorophyll: Chl a and b are most abundentpigments. Chl a is usually appear blue green and chl b yellow green. Chl c, d and e are found only in algae in combination with chl a. Chl a molecule has a cyclic tetrapyrrolic structure (porphyrin head) with a Mg atom at the centre. The phytol tail is extends from one of the pyrrol ring. Carotenoids: These are lipid compounds and are derivatives of lycopene, a red pigment found in tomato. Major pigment is β carotene which is yellow orange in colourwith small amount of α carotene. Xanthophyll are oxygenated carotenoidsand are more abundent in nature than carotene. Phycobilins: the red and blue biliproteins are present in algae and photosynthetic bacteria. These alongwith carotenoids are reffered as accessary pigments.

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Light reactions: Photo phosphorylation Light to chemical energy The light energy is converted to chemical energy using the light-dependent reactions. This chemical energy production is more than 90% efficient with only 5-8% of the energy transferred thermally. The products of the light-dependent reactions are ATP from photophosphorylation and NADPH from photoreduction. Both are then utilized as an energy source for the light-independent reactions. Not all wavelengths of light can support photosynthesis. The photosynthetic action spectrum depends on the type of accessory pigments present. For example, in green plants, the action spectrum resembles the absorption spectrum for chlorophylls and carotenoids with peaks for violet-blue and red light. In red algae, the action spectrum overlaps with the absorption spectrum of phycobilins for bluegreen light, which allows these algae to grow in deeper waters that filter out the longer wavelengths used by green plants. The non-absorbed part of the light spectrum is what gives photosynthetic organisms their color (e.g., green plants, red algae, purple bacteria) and is the least effective for photosynthesis in the respective organisms. Z scheme Electron transport and Photo phosphorylation

A light-harvesting cluster of photosynthetic pigments present in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts. In plants, light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts and use light energy to synthesize ATP and NADPH. The light-dependent reaction has two forms; cyclic and non-cyclic reaction. In the non-cyclic reaction, the photons are captured in the light-harvesting antenna complexes of photosystem II by chlorophyll and other accessory pigments (see diagram above). When a chlorophyll molecule at the core of the photosystem II reaction center obtains sufficient excitation energy from the adjacent antenna pigments, an electron is transferred to the primary electron-acceptor molecule, Pheophytin, through a process called Photoinduced charge separation. These electrons are shuttled through an electron transport chain, the so called Z-scheme shown in the diagram, that initially functions to generate a chemiosmotic potential across the membrane. An ATP synthase enzyme uses the chemiosmotic potential to make ATP during photophosphorylation, whereas NADPH is a product of the terminal redox reaction in the Z-scheme. 151

The electron enters the Photosystem I molecule. The electron is excited due to the light absorbed by the photosystem. A second electron carrier accepts the electron, which again is passed down lowering energies of electron acceptors. The energy created by the electron acceptors is used to move hydrogen ions across the thylakoid membrane into the lumen. The electron is used to reduce the co-enzyme NADP, which has functions in the light-independent reaction. The cyclic reaction is similar to that of the non-cyclic, but differs in the form that it generates only ATP, and no reduced NADP (NADPH) is created. The cyclic reaction takes place only at photosystem I. Once the electron is displaced from the photosystem, the electron is passed down the electron acceptor molecules and returns back to photosystem I, from where it was emitted, hence the name cyclic reaction. Water photolysis The NADPH is the main reducing agent in chloroplasts, providing a source of energetic electrons to other reactions. Its production leaves chlorophyll with a deficit of electrons (oxidized), which must be obtained from some other reducing agent. The excited electrons lost from chlorophyll in photosystem I are replaced from the electron transport chain by plastocyanin. However, since photosystem II includes the first steps of the Z-scheme, an external source of electrons is required to reduce its oxidized chlorophyll a molecules. The source of electrons in green-plant and cyanobacterial photosynthesis is water. Two water molecules are oxidized by four successive charge-separation reactions by photosystem II to yield a molecule of diatomic oxygen and four hydrogen ions; the electron yielded in each step is transferred to a redox-active tyrosine residue that then reduces the photoxidized paired-chlorophyll a species called P680 that serves as the primary (light-driven) electron donor in the photosystem II reaction center. The oxidation of water is catalyzed in photosystem II by a redox-active structure that contains four manganese ions; this oxygen-evolving complex binds two water molecules and stores the four oxidizing equivalents that are required to drive the water-oxidizing reaction. Photosystem II is the only known biological enzyme that carries out this oxidation of water. The hydrogen ions contribute to the transmembrane chemiosmotic potential that leads to ATP synthesis. Oxygen is a waste product of light-independent reactions, but the majority of organisms on Earth use oxygen for cellular respiration, including photosynthetic organisms. Quantum mechanical effects Through photosynthesis, sunlight energy is transferred to molecular reaction centers for conversion into chemical energy with nearly 100-percent efficiency. The transfer of the solar energy takes place almost instantaneously, so little energy is wasted as heat. However, only 43% of the total solar incident radiation can be used (only light in the range 400-700 nm), 20% of light is blocked by canopy, and plant respiration requires about 33% of the stored energy, which brings down the actual efficiency of photosynthesis to about 6.6%. Carbon fixation or Dark reaction: The Calvin cycle or C3 Cycle: The fixation or reduction of carbon dioxide is a light-independent process in which carbon dioxide combines with a five-carbon sugar, ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP), to yield two molecules of a three-carbon compound, glycerate 3-phosphate (GP), also known as 3-phosphoglycerate (PGA). GP, in the presence of ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent stages, is reduced to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P). This product is also referred to as 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) or even as triose phosphate. Triose is a 3-carbon sugar. Most (5 out of 6 molecules) of the G3P produced is used to regenerate RuBP so the process can continue (see Calvin-Benson cycle). The 1 out of 6 molecules of the triose phosphates not "recycled" often condense to form hexose phosphates, which ultimately 152

yield sucrose, starch and cellulose. The sugars produced during carbon metabolism yield carbon skeletons that can be used for other metabolic reactions like the production of amino acids and lipids

Summary Light reaction (in grana): 18 ATP, 12 NADPH2, 12 H2O and 6 O2 are released Dark reaction (in stroma): 6 CO2 + 18 ATP + 12 NADPH2 C6H12O6 + 6 HO2 + 18 ADP+ Pi +12 NADP C4 carbon fixation pathway: In hot and dry conditions, plants will close their stomata to prevent loss of water. Under these conditions, oxygen gas, produced by the light reactions of photosynthesis, will concentrate in the leaves causing photorespiration to occur. Some plants have evolved mechanisms to increase the CO2 concentration in the leaves under these conditions. C4 plants capture carbon dioxide using an enzyme called PEP Carboxylase that adds carbon dioxide to the three carbon molecule Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) creating the 4-carbon molecule oxaloacetic acid. Plants without this enzyme are called C3 plants because the primary carboxylation reaction produces the three-carbon sugar 3-phosphoglycerate directly in the Calvin-Benson Cycle. When oxygen levels rise in the leaf, C4 plants reverse the reaction to release carbon dioxide thus preventing photorespiration. By preventing photorespiration, C4 plants can produce more sugar than C3 plants in 153

conditions of strong light and high temperature. Many important crop plants are C4 plants including maize, sorghum, sugarcane, and millet.

Xerophytes such as cacti and most succulents also can use PEP Carboxylase to capture carbon dioxide in a process called Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM). They store the CO2 in different molecules than the C4 plants (mostly they store it in the form of malic acid via carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate to oxaloacetate, which is then reduced to malate). Nevertheless, C4 plants capture the CO2 in one type of cell tissue (mesophyll) and then transfer it to another type of tissue (bundle sheath cells) so that carbon fixation may occur via the Calvin cycle. They also have a different leaf anatomy than C4 plants. They grab the CO2 at night, when their stomata are open, and they release it into the leaves during the day to increase their photosynthetic rate. C4 metabolism physically separates CO2 fixation from the Calvin cycle, while CAM metabolism temporally separates CO2 fixation from the Calvin cycle. CAM plants A group of mostly desert plants called "CAM" plants (Crassulacean acid metabolism, after the family Crassulaceae, which includes the species in which the CAM process was first discovered) open their stomata at night (when water evaporates more slowly from leaves for a given degree of stomatal opening), use PEPcarboxylase to fix carbon dioxide and store the products in large vacuoles. The following day, they close their stomata and release the carbon dioxide fixed the previous night into the presence of Rubisco. This saturates Rubisco with carbon dioxide, allowing minimal photorespiration. This approach, however, is severely limited by the capacity to store fixed carbon in the vacuoles, so it is preferable only when water is severely limiting. Cellular respiration Cellular respiration describes the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in a cell or across the cell membrane to obtain biochemical energy from fuel molecules and the release of the cells' waste products. Energy is released by the oxidation of fuel molecules and is stored as "high-energy" carriers. The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions in metabolism. Fuel molecules commonly used by cells in respiration include glucose, amino acids and fatty acids, and a common oxidizing agent (electron acceptor) is molecular oxygen (O2). There are organisms, however, that can respire using other organic molecules as electron acceptors instead of 154

oxygen. Organisms that use oxygen as a final electron acceptor in respiration are described as aerobic, while those that do not are referred to as anaerobic. The energy released in respiration is used to synthesize molecules that act as a chemical storage of this energy. One of the most widely used compounds in a cell is adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and its stored chemical energy can be used for many processes requiring energy, including biosynthesis, locomotion or transportation of molecules across cell membranes. Because of its ubiquitous nature, ATP is also known as the "universal energy currency", since the amount of it in a cell indicates how much energy is available for energy-consuming processes. Aerobic respiration Aerobic respiration requires oxygen in order to generate energy (ATP). It is the preferred method of pyruvate breakdown from glycolysis and requires that pyruvate enter the mitochondrion to be fully oxidized by the Krebs cycle. The product of this process is energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate), by substrate-level phosphorylation, NADH and FADH2. Simplified Reaction: C6H12O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g)

6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l) ΔHc -2880 kJ

The reducing potential of NADH and FADH2 is converted to more ATP through an electron transport chain with oxygen as the "terminal electron acceptor". Most of the ATP produced by aerobic cellular respiration is made by oxidative phosphorylation. This works by the energy released in the consumption of pyruvate being used to create a chemiosmotic potential by pumping protons across a membrane. This potential is then used to drive ATP synthase and produce ATP from ADP. Biology textbooks often state that between 36-38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidised glucose molecule during cellular respiration (2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Krebs cycle, and about 32-34 from the electron transport system). Generally, 38 ATP molecules are formed from aerobic respiration. However, this maximum yield is never quite reached due to losses (leaky membranes) as well as the cost of moving pyruvate and ADP into the mitochondrial matrix. Aerobic metabolism is 19 times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism (which yields 2 mol ATP per 1 mol glucose). They share the initial pathway of glycolysis but aerobic metabolism continues with the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. The post glycolytic reactions take place in the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells, and in the cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells. Glycolysis Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that is found in the cytoplasm of cells in all living organisms and does not require oxygen. The process converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, and makes energy in the form of two net molecules of ATP. Four molecules of ATP per glucose are actually produced; however, two are consumed for the preparatory phase. The initial phosphorylation of glucose is required to destabilize the molecule for cleavage into two triose sugars. During the pay-off phase of glycolysis, four phosphate groups are transferred to ADP by substratelevel phosphorylation to make four ATP, and two NADH are produced when the triose sugars are oxidized. Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell. The overall reaction can be expressed this way: Glucose + 2 NAD+ + 2 Pi + 2 ADP

2 Pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 ATP + 2 H2O

Glycolysis is the sequence of reactions that converts glucose into pyruvate with the concomitant production of a relatively small amount of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

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It is the initial process of most carbohydrate catabolism, and it serves three principal functions: 1. The generation of high-energy molecules (ATP and NADH) as cellular energy sources as part of aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration; that is, in the former process, oxygen is present, and, in the latter, oxygen is not present 2. Production of pyruvate for the citric acid cycle as part of aerobic respiration 3. The production of a variety of six- and three-carbon intermediate compounds, which may be removed at various steps in the process for other cellular purposes. As the foundation of both aerobic and anaerobic respiration, glycolysis is the archetype of universal metabolic processes known and occurring (with variations) in many types of cells in nearly all organisms. Glycolysis, through anaerobic respiration, is the main energy source in many prokaryotes, eukaryotic cells devoid of mitochondria (e.g., mature erythrocytes) and eukaryotic cells under low-oxygen conditions (e.g., heavily-exercising muscle or fermenting yeast). In eukaryotes and prokaryotes, glycolysis takes place within the cytosol of the cell. In plant cells, some of the glycolytic reactions are also found in the Calvin-Benson cycle, which functions inside the chloroplasts. The wide conservation includes the most phylogenetically deep-rooted extant organisms, and thus it is considered to be one of the most ancient metabolic pathways. The most common and well-known type of glycolysis is the Embden-Meyerhof pathway, initially explained by Gustav Embden and Otto Meyerhof. The term can be taken to include alternative pathways, such as the Entner-Doudoroff Pathway. However, glycolysis will be used here as a synonym for the Embden-Meyerhof pathway. Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate Pyruvate + Co A + NAD

Acetyle Co A + NADH2 + CO2

The pyruvate decarboxylation reaction links the metabolic pathways glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. This reaction is the conversion of pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis, into acetyl CoA. The pyruvate decarboxylation reaction may be simply referred to as "the transition reaction", "the link reaction", or "the oxidative decarboxylation reaction". This reaction is catalyzed by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. The reaction is part of the aerobic respiration pathway. Although it is not part of either glycolysis or the citric acid cycle, it is often portrayed as part of one or the other for simplicity. The pyruvate produced in glycolysis is transported across the mitochondrial membranes by a membrane transport protein called the pyruvate carrier.[1] The pyruvate decarboxylase then produces acetyl-CoA from pyruvate inside the mitochondrial matrix. This oxidation reaction also releases carbon dioxide as a product. In the process one molecule of NADH is formed per pyruvate oxidized. This reaction is a complex multistep process that involves two cofactors. First the pyruvate is broken down into carbon dioxide and acetaldehyde with a thiamine pyrophosphate (cocarboxylase) cofactor. Then, the acetaldehyde binds to the sulfur molecule on Coenzyme A, forming Acetyl CoA. This step uses an α-lipoate cofactor. The reaction is coupled to the reduction of NAD+ to NADH. Coenzyme A is later released from acetyl CoA, during the citric acid cycle. This recycling of the coenzyme allows pyruvate decarboxylation to recur indefinitely under aerobic respiration. Citric Acid cycle This is also called the Krebs cycle or also the tricarboxylic acid cycle. When oxygen is present, acetyl-CoA is produced from pyruvate. If oxygen is not present the cell undergoes fermentation of the pyruvate molecule. If acetyl-CoA is produced the molecule then enters the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) inside the mitochondrial matrix, and gets oxidized to CO2 while at the same time reducing 156

NAD to NADH. NADH can be used by the electron transport chain to create further ATP as part of oxidative phosphorylation. To fully oxidize the equivalent of one glucose molecule, two acetyl-CoA must be metabolized by the Krebs cycle. Two waste products, H2O and CO2, are created during this cycle.

Oxidative phosphorylation Oxidative phosphorylation is a metabolic pathway that uses energy released by the oxidation of nutrients to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP). During oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are transferred from electron donors to electron acceptors such as oxygen, in a redox reaction. These redox reactions release energy, which is used to form ATP. In eukaryotes, these redox reactions are carried out by a series of protein complexes within mitochondria, whereas, in prokaryotes, these proteins are located in the cells' inner membranes. These linked sets of enzymes are called electron transport chains. In eukaryotes, five main protein complexes are involved, whereas in prokaryotes many different enzymes are present, using a variety of electron donors and acceptors.

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The energy released as electrons flow through this electron transport chain is used to transport protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, in a process called chemiosmosis. This generates potential energy in the form of a pH gradient and an electrical potential across this membrane. This store of energy is tapped by allowing protons to flow back across the membrane and down this gradient, through a large enzyme called ATP synthase. This enzyme uses this energy to generate ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP), in a phosphorylation reaction. Unusually, the ATP synthase is driven by the proton flow which forces the rotation of a part of the enzyme—it is a rotary mechanical motor. Although oxidative phosphorylation is a vital part of metabolism, it produces reactive oxygen species such as superoxide and hydrogen peroxide that lead to propagation of free-radicals, damaging cells and contributing to aging and disease. The enzymes carrying out this metabolic pathway are also the target of many drugs and poisons that inhibit their activities. An electron transport chain associates electron carriers (such as NADH and FADH2) and mediating biochemical reactions that produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the energy currency of life. Only two sources of energy are available to living organisms: oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions and sunlight (used for photosynthesis). Organisms that use redox reactions to produce ATP are called chemotrophs. Organisms that use sunlight are called phototrophs. Both chemotrophs and phototrophs use electron transport chains to convert energy into ATP. This is achieved through a three-step process: Gradually sap energy from high-energy electrons in a series of individual steps Use that energy to forcibly unbalance the proton concentration across the membrane, creating an electrochemical gradient 3. Use the energy released by the drive to rebalance the proton distribution as a means of producing ATP. 1. 2.

Theoretical yields Although there is a theoretical yield of 36-38 ATP molecules per glucose during cellular respiration, such conditions are generally not realized due to losses such as the cost of moving pyruvate (from glycolysis), phosphate, and ADP (substrates for ATP synthesis) into the mitochondria. TRANSPIRATION Transpiration is the evaporation of water from plants. It occurs chiefly at the leaves while their stomata are open for the passage of CO2 and O2 during photosynthesis. But air that is not fully saturated with water vapor (100% relative humidity) will dry the surfaces of cells with which it comes 158

in contact. So the photosynthesizing leaf loses substantial amount of water by evaporation. This transpired water must be replaced by the transport of more water from the soil to the leaves through the xylem of the roots and stem. Transpiration is of 3 types: 1. 2. 3.

Stomatal transpiration: 80-90 percent of total water lost Cuticular transpiration: 5-10 percent of total water lost Lenticular transpiration: 0.1 percent of total water lost

Importance Transpiration is not simply a hazard of plant life. It is the “engine” that pulls water up from the roots to: 1. 2. 3. 4.

supply photosynthesis (1%-2% of the total) bring minerals from the roots for biosynthesis within the leaf cool the leaf extensive root system

Structure of stomata Stoma in Greek means "mouth". A "stoma" (also stomate; plural stomata) is a tiny opening or pore, found mostly on the underside of a plant leaf and used for gas exchange. The pore is formed by a pair of specialized sclerenchyma cells known as guard cells which are responsible for regulating the size of the opening and are bordered by one or more modified epidermal cells – subsidiary cells or accessory cells. Air containing carbon dioxide enters the plant through these openings where it gets used in photosynthesis and respiration. Oxygen produced by photosynthesis in the parenchyma cells (parenchyma cells with pectin) of the leaf interior exits through these same openings. Also, water vapor is released into the atmosphere through these pores in a process called transpiration.

Distribution of stomata Apple type: present only on the lower surface of leaf called hypostomatic e.g. apple, mulberry 2. Potato type: present more on upper surface as compared to lower surface called amphistomatic e.g. potato, tomato, brinjal 3. Barley type: equally distributed on both surfaces of leaf called amphistomatic e.g. wheat, rice grasses 4. Water lily type: present only on the upper surface of floating leaves called epistomatic e.g. water lily 1.

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Mechanism of stomatal movement: Normally stomata open when the light strikes the leaf in the morning and close during the night. The immediate cause is a change in the turgor of the guard cells. The inner wall of each guard cell is thick and elastic. When turgor develops within the two guard cells flanking each stoma, the thin outer walls bulge out and force the inner walls into a crescent shape. This opens the stoma. When the guard cells lose turgor, the elastic inner walls regain their original shape and the stoma closes.

Opening Stomata The increase in osmotic pressure in the guard cells is caused by an uptake of potassium ions (K+). The concentration of K+ in open guard cells far exceeds that in the surrounding cells. This is how it accumulates: 1. Blue light is absorbed by phototropin which activates + 2. a proton pump (an H -ATPase) in the plasma membrane of the guard cell. 3. ATP, generated by the light reactions of photosynthesis, drives the pump. + 4. As protons (H ) are pumped out of the cell, its interior becomes increasingly negative. 5. This attracts additional potassium ions into the cell, raising its osmotic pressure. Closing Stomata Although open stomata are essential for photosynthesis, they also expose the plant to the risk of losing water through transpiration. Some 90% of the water taken up by a plant is lost in transpiration. Abscisic acid (ABA) is the hormone that triggers closing of the stomata when soil water is insufficient to keep up with transpiration (which often occurs around mid-day). 1. ABA binds to receptors at the surface of the plasma membrane of the guard cells. 2. The receptors activate several interconnecting pathways which converge to produce 3. a rise in pH in the cytosol 2+ 4. transfer of Ca from the vacuole to the cytosol 2+ + 5. The increased Ca in the cytosol blocks the uptake of K into the guard cell while 26. the increased pH stimulates the loss of Cl and organic ions (e.g., malate ) from the cell. 7. The loss of these solutes in the cytosol reduces the osmotic pressure of the cell and thus turgor. The stomata close. CAM plants A group of mostly desert plants called "CAM" plants (Crassulacean acid metabolism, after the family Crassulaceae, which includes the species in which the CAM process was first discovered) open their stomata at night (when water evaporates more slowly from leaves for a given degree of stomatal opening), use PEPcarboxylase to fix carbon dioxide and store the products in large vacuoles. The following day, they close their stomata and release the carbon dioxide fixed the previous night into the 160

presence of Rubisco. This saturates Rubisco with carbon dioxide, allowing minimal photorespiration. This approach, however, is severely limited by the capacity to store fixed carbon in the vacuoles, so it is preferable only when water is severely limiting.This type stomatal opening is termed as scotoactive opening. Daily movement of stomata 1. Alfalfa type: open throughout day time and close at night e.g. pea, bean radish, mustard, grapes. 2. Potato type: remain open throughout day and night except few hours following sunset e.g. potato, onion, cabbage, banana 3. Barley type: open only for few hours during day and remain close for rest of the period e.g. wheat, barley, maize and other cereals Stomata as pathogenic pathways: Stomata are an obvious hole in the leaf by which, as was presumed for a while, pathogens can enter unchallenged. However, it has been recently shown that stomata do in fact sense the presence of some, if not all, pathogens. However, with the virulent bacteria applied to Arabidopsis plant leaves in the experiment, the bacteria released the chemical coronatine, which forced the stomata open again within a few hours. Antitranspirants: these are chemicals which reduce transpiration or to check the excessive transpiration. These are of two types:Film forming type: they form thin film on transpiring surface. They are permeable to CO2 and O2 but prevent water vapour through them. e.g. silicon emulsion, colourless plastic resins, low viscosity waxes. 2. Metabolic inhibitor: these reduce transpiration by reducing the stomatal opening for 1-2 weeks without affecting metabolism of the plant. e.g. phenyle mercuric acetate, ABA 1.

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Foundation Course Manual on ICAR-JRF (PGS) in Agriculture – General Topics Eds KS Bangarwa, Surender S Dhankhar and RK Pannu CCS HAU, Hisar 2014, pp 162-174.

Structure and Function of Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nucleic Acids, Enzymes and Vitamins

Shiwani Mandhania Assistant Biochemist, Cotton Section CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125004 Most different biomolecule types (carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids) can be distinguished by their monomeric units. The exceptions are the lipids. These are not as large and complex as the other macromolecules, and can be distinguished from the others based on their high ratio of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) to oxygen (O). Differences within general types of macromolecules (i.e., between proteins, carbohydrates, fats and nucleic acids) result from variation in the identity, sequence, and bonding of their monomeric units. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are the polyhydroxy organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in which the ratio of hydrogen and oxygen hydrogen is 2:1 exactly as H2O (2:1). Structure of Carbohydrates

Fig. 1: Structure of glucose molecule. 

Chemically, they are aldehyde or ketone derivatives of higher polyhydric alcohol (having more than one "OH" group). They may be identified by the type and number of monosaccharide residues (glucose/ fructose molecule) in their molecules. The general formula of carbohydrate is Cn (H2O)n where n=3-9. 162



Each sugar molecule consists of a backbone of carbon atoms linked together in a linear array by single bonds. Each carbon atom is linked to a single hydroxyl group except for one that bears a carbonyl (C=O) group. If the carbonyl group is located at an internal position, the sugar is a ketose (e.g., fructose). If the carbonyl is located at one end of the sugar, it forms an aldehyde group or aldose (e.g., glucose). Classification of Carbohydrates Carbohydrates may be classified into the following four major groups 1. Monosaccharides: Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates. All carbohydrates are reduced to this state before absorption and utilization. They contain three to six carbon atoms. General formula is Cn(H2O)n. 2. Disaccharide: Disaccharides consist of two covalently joined monosaccharide units. They are produced as two molecules of the same or different monosaccharides on hydrolysis. General formula is Cn (H2O) n-1, e.g., lactose, sucrose, maltose etc. 3. Oligosaccaharides: Oligosaccaharides consist of few number (2-6) of monosaccharide units e.g., glycoproteins. 4. Polysaccharides: Polysaccharides are composed of many molecules of monosaccharides linked together. General formula is (C6 H10 O5)x. e.g., Starch, cellulose Functions of Carbohydrates 1. Glucose act as energy yielding compounds, the major fuel of the tissue, constitutes the structural material of the organism, converted to other carbohydrates having highly specific functions. 2. Glycogen acts as important storage of food material of the organism. 3. Play a key role in the metabolism of aminoacids and fatty acids. 4. Act as protective function-mucosubstance. 5. Act as intermediates in respiration and carbohydrates metabolism e.g., (trioses). 6. Participate in lipid synthesis. Proteins: Proteins are complex organic compounds. They are macromolecules or bio molecules composed of amino acids linked by peptide bond. The constituent elements of proteins are carbon (54%), hydrogen (7%), nitrogen (16%), oxygen (22%) and some may contain sulpher (1%) or phosphorus (0.6%). They are macromolecules of high MW and consisting of chains of amino acids e.g., hemoglobin, albumin, globulin, enzymes, etc. Sources of Proteins: Peas, beans, poultry, cereals, lentils, milk, cheese, eggs, meat, wet and dry fishes, pulses, and nuts Structure of Protein: The basic unit of the protein molecule is amino acids .The protein molecules are composed of the union of a large number of amino acids. There are over 10,000 proteins in the human body. They all composed of different arrangements of the main 20 fundamental amino acids. The sequence of amino acids in each protein is specific and is genetically controlled by the DNA of the cell. Chemical Structure: The synthesis of protein molecule takes place by the union of the-NH2 group of one amino acid with the-COOH group of another. Elimination of water is known as condensation and the linkage (bond) formed is a covalent carbon-nitrogen bond, called a peptide bond. The remaining part of amino acid is known as R group or side chain. In this way dipeptide or polypeptide is formed. According to the modern views, the structure of protein is considered by several level of organization. 163

1. Primary Structure - peptide bond is formed by the amino acids. –amion They are linked by carboxyl group of one amino acid with the group of another amino acid through disulphide bonds and other covalent modification. 2. Secondary Structure - peptide bonds are folded which indicates a coiled structure (e.g., globular proteins). In this folding the carboxyl and amino groups of the peptide chains are linked by hydrogen and disulfided bonds. Such folding is known as the secondary structure of the protein. 4. Tertiary structure - when the globular protein consists of a series of single helix. These models will have elongated structures with a larger axial ratio (length: breadth). The structure in their dimensions is maintained by covalent or other bonds and described as tertiary structure. 5. Quaternary structure - In this structure, there are several monomer units, each with appropriate primary, secondary and tertiary structures may combine through non-covalent interactions e.g., hemoglobin contains four subunits identical in pairs. Classification of Proteins Proteins may be classified in the following ways According to Structure 1. Fibrous type with elongate molecule e.g., keratin 2. Pounded type with globular molecule 3. Intermediate type. According to Composition 1. Simple proteins -e.g., albumins, globulins, histones etc. 2. Conjugated proteins - e.g., nucleoproteins, lipoproteins, chromoprotiens, flavoproteins. 3. Derived protein e.g., metproteins, peptones. According to function 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

keratin ,mucoproteins.Structural type - eg., collagen, Enzymes type - eg. trypsinase, carbonylase, glutaminase. Hormones type-e.g., insulin, glucagon. Transplant type - e.g., hemoglobin, serum albumin. Protective type - e.g., antibodies, thrombin, fibrinogen. Contractile type - e.g., myosin, actin. Storage type - e.g., casein, ovalbumin. Toxins type - e.g., diphtheria toxin, snake venom.

Function of Proteins 1. 2. 3. 4.

Proteins as enzymes - accelerate the rate of metabolic reactions. As structural cables - provide mechanical support both within cells and outside. As hormones, growth factors - perform regulatory functions and gene activators. As hormone receptors and transporters-determine what a cell reacts to and what types of substance enter or leave the cell. 5. As contract element -form the machinery for biological movements. 6. Others - act as the defense against infections by protein antibodies, service as toxins, form blood clots through thrombin, fibrinogen and other protein factors, absorb or refract light and transport substances from one part of the body to another. 164

7. Constitute about half of the dry weight of most organisms and maintain growth. 8. Maintain colloidal osmotic pressure of blood. 9. Act as acid base balance. 10. They perform hereditary transmission by nucleoproteins of the cell nucleus. 11. Most fibrous protein plays structural roles in skin, connective tissue of fibers such as hair, silk or wool. Lipids: Lipids are compounds consisting almost entirely of carbon and hydrogen. As a result they are highly non-polar; likewise they are highly reduced. Even in their most complex forms, they are not as large as some of the compounds that we will consider later and so perhaps we should not really consider them as "macromolecules". Lipids perform a variety of functions in organisms. For example: a. b. c. d.

They are major constituents of cellular membranes They are the most important form of long-term energy storage Some types of lipids are used as hormones In larger organisms they can be used to help waterproof the integument, provide thermal insulation, or act as cushions (amusing as this is to us!). The first two of these directly trace to their chemical properties.

We will divide lipids into two sub-groups: • •

Fats -- compounds primarily based on the presence of fatty acids. Sterols -- four ring compounds built up from groups called isoprenes.

Fats: The fundamental constituents of fats are fatty acids. These typically are a chain of 16 to 18 carbons with a carboxylic acid group at one terminal (where the "acid" term arises). Fatty acids come in two types; Saturated and unsaturated. A saturated fatty acid contains no double bonds between carbon atoms. Here is a typical structure:

by contrast an unsaturated fatty acid contains one or more double bonds between carbon atoms. At the location of each double bond, the molecule has a bend or kink. The presence of double bonds lowers the melting point of fats with unsaturated fatty acids (as compared to saturated ones) and makes the fats more likely to be liquid at a given temperature. Thus, oils for cooking etc. are usually highly unsaturated.

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The lower melting point is essentially due to the fact that these molecules cannot be packed as closely together as saturated fatty acids. Thus, there is lower chance for Van der Waals type interactions and perhaps more importantly, there is actually more space through which a molecule can twist and move. In most animals there are relatively few free fatty acids present at any given time. They are actually toxic in high concentrations. Fatty acids are typically combined with a molecule of glycerol. Glycerol has the following structure Note that a fatty acid could combine with the glycerol at each of the glycerol's hydroxyl (OH) groups. When this happens water is released and so we refer to the reaction as a dehydration reaction. Here is a synopsis showing only the top carbon of the glycerol above and part of a fatty acid.

When one fatty acid is attached to glycerol, the resulting compound is a monoglyceride; if two fatty acids attach it is a diglyceride, and three makes (surprise) a triglyceride. Fatty tissue (energy stores) is typically made up of di- and tri-glycerides. On the other hand, if the fat consists of a mono- or di-glyceride with a phosphate group attached to the glycerol in the same place where a fatty acid could have been attached, the resulting compound is termed a phospholipid. Such compounds are the central constituents of cell membranes.

166

Phospholipid Sterols: Do take a look at the general formula for a sterol (cholesterol in this case). The main thing you should remember about them for the moment is that: • •

They are important constituents of the membranes of animals Many hormones are sterols. Examples are: estrogen, progesterone, testosterone (all sex hormones); aldosterone (important in regulating blood volume and blood pressure), and cortisol (generally important for all of metabolism)

Most of us consume more cholesterol than is good for us. Although we need these compounds, we are more than capable of constructing all we need from compounds found in food such as carrots! Note that there is considerable variation in individuals in terms of the amount of cholesterol that they normally synthesize. In some rare cases, the individuals normally make so much cholesterol that it puts them at very high risk of cardiovascular disease, even early in life and even if they pursue a low cholesterol diet. Recently a number of very effective drugs have been developed to help control cholesterol levels when diet fails. Nucleic Acids As you know, nucleic acids are the molecules of heredity. In most organisms, one type of nucleic acid, DNA, is used to store the hereditary information that codes for every protein in the body. This information is present in regions referred to as structural genes. Moreover, information that helps to determine when proteins will be synthesized is present in other areas (so called regulatory sequences). In some organisms (certain types of viruses, if indeed they are organisms) DNA is replaced by RNA. However, more commonly RNA functions in transferring information from DNA out of the nucleus to guide the formation of proteins. Moreover, RNA also helps in more direct ways to synthesize proteins. Both types of nucleic acid are polymers of nucleotides. Nucleotides are therefore used to synthesize DNA and RNA. However, nucleotides also have other functions, primarily in energy transfer (ATP is a nucleotide) and as signal molecules (cyclic AMP is a nucleotide). 1. a 5-carbon (pentose) sugar. The sugar will either be ribose (C5H10O5) or deoxyribose (C5H10O4) 2. a nitrogenous base. Nitrogenous bases are ring compounds formed principally of C and N. They either have one or two rings. • If a single ring, they are termed pyrimidines of which there are three types:  cytosine (C), thymine (T) or uracil (U). Adenine and thymine will attach to deoxyribose and adenine and uracil will attach to ribose. • If a double ring structure, they are called purines and they go by the name of either adenine (A) or guanine (G). • The nitrogenous bases differ from each other due to differences in the atoms attached to them

167

4. One to three phosphate groups attached to the sugar. These are attached in series with each other -- one directly attaches to the pentose and the other one or two (when present) attach to the first phosphate group. When there are two or three phosphate groups present, the outer two are very reactive and are termed high-energy phosphates. Functions of nucleotides 1. They play a major role in energy metabolism. Eg:ATP 2. They are the building blocks of nucleic acids. 3. They play a role as physiological mediators. AMP plays an important role as secondary messenger 4. The nucleotides also serve as carrier of activated intermediates. Eg: UDP glucose, CDP choline 5. Many of the regulated steps of metabolic pathways are controlled by the intracellular concentration of nucleotides. Hence they behave as allosteric effectors. As mentioned previously, there are two types of nucleic acids that are distinguished in name by the sugar in their nucleotides. These are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic material confined largely to the nucleus that contains the sugar deoxyribose, and ribonucleic acid (RNA), found both in the nucleus and the cytoplasm. DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID -- DNA: DNA is the substance of genes and along with protein forms the chromosomes located in the nucleus. It is a double- stranded nucleic acid. This means that it consists of two chains wrapped around each other to form a double helix. The two strands or chains are held together by chemical bonds between the nitrogenous bases in the respective strands. DNA contains four different nitrogenous bases. These fall under two headings or classes: • Purines, which have a double ring structure, and • Pyrimidines, which consist of a single ring. Diversity among genes is related not to between-strand bases, but to variation in the base sequence which makes up a single strand. Thus, molecules of DNA vary because the base sequences within their strands vary. 168

RIBONUCLEIC ACID – RNA: RNA exists in a number of different forms which we will discuss later and it differs from DNA in three ways: • • •

It is a single stranded molecule, and as mentioned previously: It contains the pentose sugar ribose instead of deoxyribose, and It lacks the base thymine but contains the base uracil.

Enzymes and Vitamins: Enzymes are large biological molecules responsible for the thousands of metabolic processes that sustain life. They are highly selective catalysts, greatly accelerating both the rate and specificity of metabolic reactions, from the digestion of food to the synthesis of DNA. Most enzymes are proteins, although some catalytic RNA molecules have been identified. Enzymes adopt a specific three-dimensional structure, and may employ organic (e.g. biotin) and inorganic (e.g.magnesium ion) cofactors to assist in catalysis. Characteristics of Enzyme 1. Solubility:Enzymes as proteins are soluble in water or dilute salt solution 2. Molecular weight:Enzymes have Mw (varying from 10000 -several thousands 3. Enzymes are charged molecules:Due to the presences of amino acids, each enzyme has a charge. The charge depends on the pH of the solution. 4. Enzymes have buffering capacity (acid-base).They are amphoteric molecules i.e behave both as acids and bases. (due to presence of both free amino group and free carboxyl group) -they act as buffer. 5. Each enzyme has a specific Isoelectric pH: (PI) 6. It is the pH at which the net charge on protein equal to zero so they do not move in an electric field. 7. Catalytic power, (g) Regulatory power, (h) Milder reaction condition, (i) Reversibility 8. Denaturation, (k) Specificity Classes of Enzyme Specificity 1. Absolute: enzyme reacts with only one substrate. Urease 2. Group: enzyme catalyzes reaction involving any molecules with the same functional group.ADH 3. Linkage: enzyme catalyzes the formation or break up of only certain category or type of bond.Glycosidase 4. Stereochemical: enzyme recognizes only one of two enantiomers. Fumarase Enzyme Activity: The International Unit (IU) is defined as the amount of enzyme that can convert one μmole of substrate into product per minute at 25°C.(1 μmole = 1 x 10-6moles) Katal: It is defined as the number of moles of substrate transformed into product per second at 25°C. 1 Katal=6*107 Specific Activity: It is defined as the number of enzyme units per milligram of protein (μmole/min/mg of protein) (μmole.min-1.mg of protein) Classification 1. Oxidoreductase: Oxidoreductases catalyze reactions in which at least one substrate gains electrons, becoming reduced, and another loses electrons, becoming oxidized. Eg. Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH) 2. Transferase: This class of enzymes catalyzes the transfer of a specific functional group between molecules. Eg hexokinase and glucokinase 169

3.

Hydrolase: Hydrolysis reactions refer to the cleavage of bonds by the addition of a water molecule. Very important classes of hydrolases are the proteases involved in cleaving peptide bonds. 4. Lyase: This class refers to those enzymes involved in cleaving bonds by means other than hydrolysis or oxidation. Examples include aldolases (such as fructose diphosphate aldolase, which is involved in glycolysis) 5. Isomerase: Enzymes generally catalyzing the rearrangement of the bond structure are called isomerases, while those specifically catalyzing the movement of a phosphate from one group to another are known as mutases. For example, triose phosphate isomerase (right) 6. Ligase: : Ligases are involved in synthesizing bonds between carbon atoms and carbon, nitrogen, oxygen or sulfur atoms in reactions that are coupled to the cleavage of the high energy phosphate of ATP or another nucleotide. Eg. Pyruvate carboxylase, Mechanism of Action: An enzyme speeds a reaction by lowering the activation energy, changing the reaction pathway and this provides a lower energy route for conversion of substrate to product

Factors affecting enzyme activity •

Enzyme concentration, Substrate concentration, Temperature, pH and Enzyme inhibitors Vitamins: Vitamins may be defined as organic compounds occurring in small quantities in different natural foods and necessary for the growth and maintenance of good health in human beings. They cannot be synthesized in the body but supplied by the diet to the human body. Plants produce all vitamins but animal (human) stores them. Some are produced in the body e.g. Provitamin carotene is converted into vit. A in the body and vitamin D is produced in the body in presence of ultraviolet radiation. Classification of Vitamins Vitamins are classified into two groups. 1. Fat - soluble vitamins: Fat-soluble vitamins are soluble in fats and fat solvents. They are insoluble in water. So these are utilized only if there is enough fat in the body e.g., vitamin A, D, E and K. 170

2. Water -soluble vitamins: Water-soluble vitamins are (heterogeneous group) soluble in water and so they cannot be stored in the body. 11 types of vitamins are included in this class e.g., thiamine, riboflavin, pyridoxine, cyanoccobalamine, niacin, pantothenic acid, biotin, folic acid and ascorbic acid, para-amino benzoic acid, and choline. Vitamin A (Ratinol) Properties    

Soluble in fat solvents and insoluble in water Viscous, colorless oil or pale yellowish substance Heat stable in absence of air Destroyed on exposure to air or ultra-violet rays.

Source of Vitamin A Liver, heart, kidney, milk, codliver oils, fishliver-oils, butter, eggs, carrots, cabbage, vegetables, green leaves, mangoes, potatoes tomatoes, spinach, papaya etc. Functions i.

Effect on reproductive processes, differentiation, and immune system

ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii.

Essential for growth and night vision Helps in the preservations of structural and normal permeability of membranes, cell, astrointestinal tract etc. Required for bone and teeth formation, influence genetic expression, reproduction to manufacture R.B.C etc. Maintain the health and activity of epithelial tissues, and glands prevent infection, maintains nutrition and function of the nervous tissue. Controls the action of bone cells and formation, helps in normal fertility and glucose synthesis. Acts as antioxidant. Helps in RNA and protein metabolism.

Vitamin A Deficiency Diseases 

Night-blindness, Xerophthalmia, Keratinisation of skin and mucous membrane.

 

Retardation of growth in children, defective growth of bone and teeth, skin lesions, Bitot's, sports etc. Abnormalities in respiratory and GI epithelium, Diarrhoea, Kidney stone, bladder disorders, infections of vagina, depression of immune reactions, anaemia, injury to brain and nerve causes paralysis, stunted skull and spine.

Vitamins D (Cholecalciferol) Properties    

Soluble in fat solvents but insoluble in water Heat stable White crystalline material Ordinary boiling does not destroy it. 171

Source Fish liver oils e.g., cod liver oil, halibut - liver oil etc. Butter, milk, eggs, liver. In sub coetaneous tissue, 7 dihydrocholesterol is conveted to vitamin D by UV light. Functions  

Control calcium and phosphorus absorption from the small intestine, concerned with calcium metabolism, helps in the bone and teeth formation. Minimize the losses of calcium and increases phoshate excretion by the kidneys, affects insulin secretion in pancreases.

Deficiency Disease Causes Rickets (directive bone growth) in children, osteomalacia in adults, disturbs calcium and phosphorous absorption. Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) Properties  White crystals, soluble in water, heat lavish  Good reducing agents  Cannot stand cooking or canning Sources Guava, amla, green chilli, amaranth leaves, citrus fruits, green vegetables, potatoes, tomatoes, cheese, milk etc. Functions         

Acts as antioxidant. Essential for formation of collagen present between cells. Necessary for the formation of osteoblasts and red blood cells. Helps to reduce the ferric iron (Fe3+) to ferrous iron (Fe2+) and is absorbed only in this form. Essential for the utilization of folic acid Takes part in oxidation and reduction reactions in the tissues. Helps in bone formation. Helps in wound healing. Prevents formation of free radical in the body.

Deficiency Diseases  Scurvy, a disease characterized by sore, spongy gums, loose teeth, fragile blood vessels, swollen joints, and anemia.  Delay in wound healing.  Pain in bones.  Skin becomes rough and dry.  Pyrexia, rapid pulse and susceptibility to infection. Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Properties 

White, crystalline substance 172

    

Water-soluble Heat labile Unstable at high temperature and in alkaline medium Stable in acid medium On oxidation it gives a yellowish dye called thiochrome.

Sources Rice polishing, dried yeast and wheat germ are rich sources of vit. B1. Whole cereals like wheat, oats, legumes, oil seeds and nuts are good sources. Milled cereals, vegetables, fruits, meat and fish are poor sources. On milling, Vit. B1 is lost from cereals. Functions  Acts as a co-enzyme in carbohydrate metabolism  Require for the synthesis of glycine  It has a specific action on nerve tissue  Requires for the maintenance of normal gastro-intestinal tone and motility  Maintains normal appetite. Deficiency Diseases  Beriberi - nervous, system affected, muscles become weak and painful paralysis can occur.  Heart failure, wet beriberi, dry beriberi, infantile beriberi, oedemia, children's growth is impaired, keto acids accumulate in the blood, wernicke’s-korsakoff’s syndrome etc.  Loss of appetite, fatigue, irritability, depression and constipation occur. VitaminB2 (Riboflavin) Properties    

Yellow crystals Soluble in water Heat soluble in neutral and acid media Destroy by light.

Sources Milk, liver, kidney, muscle, butter, chicken, fish, yeast, cheese, raw egg, white grains, green vegetable such as spinach, peanuts, fruits such as apple, orange etc. Functions    

Precursor of coenzymes (FMN and FAD) in oxidation-reduction reactions of electron transport chain, fatty acid synthesis etc. Essential for growth, essential for tissue oxidation related to carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism. Maintain mucosal, epithelial and ocular tissues. Essential for normal vision.

Deficiency Diseases Symptoms   

Tongue sore at the corner of the mouth. Loss of hair, skin becomes dry and scaly. Arrest of growth. 173

  

Dermatitis around nose and lips, inflammation of tongue, angular stomatitis and cheilosis, photophobia, cataract etc. Scrotal or vulval dermatitis, intense itching etc. Disturb carbohydrate metabolism.

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Foundation Course Manual on ICAR-JRF (PGS) in Agriculture – General Topics Eds KS Bangarwa, Surender S Dhankhar and RK Pannu CCS HAU, Hisar 2014, pp 175-184.

Major Pests of Rice, Wheat, Cotton, Chickpea, Sugarcane and their Management Sunita Yadav and SS Yadav Department of Entomology CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125004 INSECT-PESTS OF RICE S No. Insect-pest Stem borer 1. Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas Pyralidae: Lepidoptera

2.

Gall Midge Orseolia oryzae Cecidomyiidae:Diptera

Nature of Damage It is monophagous pest of rice. Female lays eggs in masses on the upper surface of leaf tips. Larva feeds inside the stem causing drying of the central shoot known as dead heart in young plant or drying of the panicle known as white ear in older plants. Pupation takes place inside the stem near base. Hibernate as full grown larvae in rice stubbles from Nov. to March. The maggot bores into the growing point of the tiller and causes abnormal growth of the leaf sheath, which becomes whitish tubular and ends bluntly called as onion leaf, or silver shoot. Cecidogen chemical is responsible for gall formation. Pupation takes place at the base of the gall and pupa wriggles its way up (mobile pupa) with the help of abdominal spines and cuts a hole at the tip of gall for the fly to emerge.

Leaf feeders 3. Leaf folder Cnaphalocrocis medinalis Pyralidae: Lepidoptera

4.

Rice Caseworm Nymphula depunctalis Pyralidae: Lepidoptera

5.

Spiny beetle/Rice hispa Dicladispa armigera Chyrsomelidae: Coleoptera

6.

Rice skipper Pelopidas mathias

The larva folds leaves marginally and feed inside the folded leaves by scraping chlorophyll. Longitudinal white lines develop on the leaves and entire rice field show scorching symptom. Pupation takes place inside the leaf fold. The larvae feed by scraping the undersurface of the leaf blade leaving the upper surface intact, resulting in white patches on leaf blades, Leaf cases hanging from rice leaf and floating in water are characteristic symptoms. Adult lay eggs embedded in leaf tissue towards leaf tip. Adults feed by scraping chlorophyll and cause white parallel streaks (look like ladder). Grub mines between the epidermal layers of leaf and pupates in leaf mines. Edges of the leaves are fastened with webbing and there is backward rolling of leaves. Caterpillar feeds 175

Hesperiidae: Lepidoptera 7.

Whorl maggot Hydrellia sasakii Ephydridae: Diptera

8.

Climbing cutworm/rice ear cutting caterpillar Mythimna separata Noctuidae: Lepidoptera Swarming caterpillar Spodoptera mauritiana Noctuidae: Lepidoptera

9.

10. Rice blue beetle Altica cyanea Alticidae: Coleoptera 11. Rice Grasshopper Hieroglyphus banian Acrididae: Orthoptera Sap suckers 12. Green Leafhopper Nephotettix nigropictus N. virescens N. cincticeps Cicadellidae: Hemiptera

13. Brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens Delphacidae: Hemiptera

14. White backed plant hopper Sogatella furcifera Delphacidae: Hemiptera 15. Rice thrips Stenchaetothrips biformis Thripidae: Thysanoptera 16. Paddy earhead bug /Rice Gundhy Bug

on leaf tissues from margin to inwards. Sugarcane is the alternate host of rice skipper. Maggot feeds on the tender tissue inside the whorl. There is yellowish white longitudinal marginal blotching with hole on leaves. Leaves become shriveled and plant remains stunted with delay maturity. It appears in swarms at earhead stage in Nov-Dec. Late instars have the characteristic habit of climbing and cutting earheads in addition to defoliation. It is a sporadic pest. Larvae cut the seedlings in large scale and incase of severe infestation entire field appear as if grazed by cattle by its nocturnal feeding. They feed gregariously and march from field to field. Both adults and grubs scrap the leaf surface irregularly. Both nymphs and adults feed on the leaves causing defoliation leaving only midrib and also nibble the rice earhead. Adult lays eggs under the epidermis of leaf sheath. Both nymphs and adults desap the leaves and cause “hopper burn” due to heavy infestation. Yellowing of leaves from tip downwards is the typical symptom caused by this pest. N. virescens is most important as a vector for rice tungro virus, rice yellow dwarf, rice grassy stunt and transitory yellowing diseases. Adult lays eggs on either side of midrib of leaf sheath by lacerating the parenchymal tissues. Both nymphs and adults congregate at the base of the plant above the water level and suck the sap, affected plant dries up and gives a scorched appearance called “hopper burn”. Circular patches of drying and lodging of matured plants are typical symptoms caused by this pest. It is the vector of grassy stunt, ragged stunt and wilted stunt diseases. Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from leaf sheath by congregating at leaf base and cause stunted growth and “hopper burn” in irregular patches. Both nymphs and adults lacerate the leaf tissue and in severe infestation seedlings die. They cause terminal/marginal rolling and drying of leaves from tip to base in both rice nursery and mainfield. Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from individual grains at milky stage. Affected grains become white 176

Leptocorisa acuta Alydidae: Hemiptera 17. Panicle mite Steneotarsonemus spinki Tarsonemidae: Acari

and chaffy with black spots at the site of feeding puncture. Obnoxious/buggy odour emanates on disturbing the bugs in the field. At vegetative phase, both nymphs and adults mite colonise midribs of leaves and lacerate tissues up to maximum tillering stage causing brown necrotic patches on midribs. At panicle initiation stage mites move to leaf sheath to feed causing brown necrotic lesions on leaf sheath. Maximum incidence occurs at boot leaf stage. At panicle emergence, mites enter florets, feed on ovaries and stamens causing sterile and discoloured grains in the panicle. Later these grains turn black invaded by saprophytic fungus.

Root Feeder root weevil Grubs feed on the rootlets of transplanted rice, 18. Rice Echinocnemus oryzae infested crop remains stunted and large number of Curculionidae: Coleoptera plants are killed. Management 1. Install pheromone traps @ 5/ha for monitoring and @ 20/ha for mass trapping of Yellow Stem Borer (YSB). Install light traps for leaf hoppers and other phytotrophic insects. 2. Grow pest resistant or moderately resistant varieties 3. Use healthy seeds and raise healthy nursery 4. Apply fertilizer judiciousiy to manage rice leaf folder. Regulate 'N' applications to avoid nutritional resurgence of plant and leaf hoppers 5. Clip the seedling tips before transplanting to eliminate egg masses of stem borer and rice hispa. 6. Careful plan timing of transplanting. 7. Harvest the crop at ground level to reduce the chances of YSB and gall midge build up and uproot stubbles with deep ploughing soon after harvest. 8. Avoid closer spacing for management of brown plant hopper 9. Alternate wetting and drying of paddy fields for management of brown plant hopper 10. Adopt planting with formation of alleys of 25 cm at intervals of 2 m to provide good aeration and sunlight against brown plant hopper 11. Trimming of bunds is recommended for the control of rice grasshopper. 12. Adopt rope running to dislodge case worm and leaf folder larvae and draining the field. 13. Release egg parasitoids, Trichogramma japonicum @ 50,000 / ha and Trichogramma chilonis @ 100,000 / ha at weekly intervals against yellow stem borer and leaf folder respectively. 14. Release larval parasitoid, Platygaster oryzae against gall midge of rice. 15. Release wolf spider, Lycosa pseudoannulata and green mirid bug Cyrtorrhinus lividipennis against brown plant hopper 16. Root dip treatment for 12-14 hrs before transplanting in 0.02% chlorpyriphos. 17. Need based judicious and safe application of pesticides at recommended dose.

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INSECT- PESTS OF WHEAT Wheat is comparatively less susceptible to insect pests in the field. However in recent years about half a dozen pests have become quite serious. S No. 1.

Insect-pest Pink borer Sesamia inferens Noctuidae: Lepidoptera

Nature of Damage Caterpillars bore into the stem and kill the central shoot causing dead hearts and chaffy ear heads later.

2.

Wheat Aphid Macrosiphum miscanthi Aphididae: Hemiptera

3.

Green plant bug Nezara virdula Pentatomidae: Hemiptera Climbing cutworm/armyworm Mythimna separata Noctuidae:Lepidoptera

Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from tender leaves and developing ears. They secrete honey dew on which black sooty mould develops which gives blackish appearance to the crop. The damage is particularly severe in years of cold and cloudy weather. Winged forms of wheat aphid migrate to Cynodon dactylon (doob) for breeding. Nymphs and adults suck the sap from tender grains and cause chaffyness in individual grains.

4.

5.

Ghujhia Weevil Tanymecus indicus Curculionidae: Coleoptera

6.

Termites Odontotermes obesus Microtermes obesi Termitidae: Isoptera

Freshly emerged larvae spin threads from which they suspend themselves in the air and then with the help of air currents reach from one plant to another. They feed on leaves and skeletonize them totally. In case of severe attack field looks as if grazed by cattle. It may also eat away ears, including the awns and immature grains. It is a sporadic pest. The pest is active from June to December and undergoes larval or pupal diapause during rest of the year in the soil. Weevils emerging in June mature sexually in October. They lay eggs in the soil under clods or in crevices in the ground. Young grubs remain in the soil feeding on soil humus and pupate in earthen chambers at a depth of 15-60 cm. The adults emerge next year in June or July. Only adults cause damage by feeding on leaves, tender shoots and cutting the seedlings at the ground level. The damage is particularly serious during October-November when the rabi crops are germinating. The pest has only one generation in a year. Termite workers feed in semicircular fashion on wheat leaf margin and roots partially eaten. As a result of damage, there is wilting and drying at all stages of wheat crop.

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Management 1. Use well decomposed FYM and preferably uses neem leaf manure or neem seed manure at the time of sowing. Destroy crop residues. 2. For permanent remedy of termite locate termitarium, dig out queen and destroy it. 3. Treat seeds with chlorpyriphos. Soil application of chlorpyriphos as soil drench at sowing time in termite prone soils. 4. Deep ploughing during April-May to destroy pupae of Ghujhia weevil 5. Dusting the soil with carbaryl @ 10-12 kg/ac and raking it into the soil at the time of sowing is effective against ghujhia weevil. INSECT-PESTS OF SUGARCANE S No. Insect-pest Borers Early shoot borer 1. Chilo infuscatellus Pyralidae: Lepidoptera

Nature of Damage

Eggs are laid on underside of leaf sheath. Larvae cut the growing shoot resulting into dead heart formation in 1-3 month old crop which can be pulled out easily and emits an offensive odour. Bore holes are at the base just above the ground level. Top borer First two broods attack the young plants resulting into 2. Scirpophaga formation of dead heart which cannot be pulled out easily. excerptalis There are parallel rows of shot holes in the emerging Crambidae: leaves and red tunnels in the midribs of leaves. Lepidoptera Subsequent broods attack the terminal portion of the grown up canes resulting into formation of side shoots called as bunchy top. It passes winter as full grown larva in cane tops. Stalk /tarai borer Insect first appear on ratoon crop. Larva bore into the cane 3. C. auricilius and feed on internal content by boring into one internode Crambidae: after another and by moving from plant to plant. Soft Lepidoptera varieties, heavily manured and waterlogged fields suffer more. Internode borer Attack the crop at late stage. There is presence of borer 4. C. sacchariphagus holes with fresh excreta in the nodal region and reddening indicus of affected tissues. Crambidae: Lepidoptera Root borer Caterpillars eat inside the lower stem. Damage is 5. Emmalocera characterized by dried-up central shoot known as dead depresella heart, which cannot be pulled out easily. Crambidae: Lepidoptera Gurdaspur borer The young larvae feed gregariously in the top portion of 6. Acigona steniella the canes by making spiral galleries and later by boring Crambidae: into the cane. Dried cane tops are seen in the field. Lepidoptera Sucking pests Black bug Both nymphs and adults suck cell sap from the central 7. 179

Cavelerius excavatus Lygaeidae: Hemiptera Whitefly 8. Aleurolobus barodensis Aleurodidae: Homoptera Scale insect 9. Melanaspis glomerata Diaspididae: Homoptera 10. Mealy bug Saccharicocus sacchari Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera 11. Leaf hopper Pyrilla perpusilla Lophopidae: Hemiptera 12. White wooly aphid Ceratovacuna lanigera Aphididae: Homoptera Subterranean pests 13. Termite Microtermes obesi Odontotermes obesus Termitidae: Isoptera 14. White grub Holotrichia consanguinea Melolonthidae: Coleoptera

whorl in young plant and within leaf sheath on grown up plants. Attacked leaves become paler and show holes.

Only nymphs cause damage by sucking sap from the leaves, thus causing characteristic yellow streaks. Leaves become dry and plants become stunted in severe infestation. Honeydew secretion leads to development of sooty mould. Insect feed on the stem parenchyma, thus prevent the accumulation of sucrose in the cane. Infested crop loses its vigour, canes shrivel, growth is stunted and the internodal length is reduced very much. Nymphs and adults suck sap from the cane by sticking to the nodes under leaf sheath and befoul them by mealy secretions and honeydew. Sooty moulds develops giving blackish appearance to the canes, vigor of the plant is reduced. Nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves, infested plants loose vigor and become shrunken. Honeydew secretion leads to development of sooty mould. The cane juice become high in glucose and turns insipid. Cornicles are atrophied. Nymphs and adults congregate in groups and suck the sap from leaves. Sooty mould develops due to honey dew secretion. There is white chalk powder coating on the ground and leaves.

Poor germination of setts. Characteristics semicircular feeding marks on the leaves in the standing crop. Entire shoot dries up and can be pulled out easily. Setts hollow inside and may be filled with soil. Cane collapses if disturbed and rind filled with mud. Become active with onset of summer showers and grubs feed on live roots as a result the cane dries up. Complete one generation in a year.

Management 1. Monitoring of borers by the installation of pheromone traps @ 10/ha and white grub by installation of light traps. 2. Adopting cultural practices like deep summer ploughing, proper crop rotation, growing resistant or tolerant varieties, planting healthy setts, timely sowing in deep furrows (20 cm depth), using well rotten FYM. 180

3. Avoiding application of high nitrogen fertilizers to minimize pyrilla, wooly aphid and stalk borer attack. 4. Irrigation at close intervals to minimize termites and early shoot borer incidence. 5. Detrashing of canes to reduce scale insects, mealy bug, wooly aphid and stalk bore attack. 6. Rouging of infested plants 7. Propping the canes to prevent lodging and to reduce the damage by stalk borer and rodents. 8. Clipping of leaves bearing eggs masses of top borer, Gurdaspur borer and pyrilla 9. Removal of dead hearts of early shoot borer and top borer. Removal and destruction of infested canes. 10. Intercropping with cow pea and black gram to conserve natural enemies 11. Soil incorporation of Metarrhizium anisopliae 2.5 x 1010 spores / m3 for the management of white grub 12. Spray granulosis virus (GV) @ 250 LE/ha against shoot borer 13. Release of egg parasitoids, Trichogramma chilonis and Dipteran parasitoid, Sturmiopsis inferens against borers, pre-pupal parasitoid, Isotima javensis against top borer, Epiricania melanoleuca against pyrilla, Dipha aphidvora against wooly aphid and Pharoscynmus horni against sugarcane scale insect. 14. Need based judicious and safe application of insecticides. INSECT-PESTS OF COTTON S No. Insect-pest Boll worm Complex Spotted 1. bollworm Earias vittella Noctuidae: Lepidoptera Spiny bollworm Earias insulana Noctuidae: Lepidoptera American 2. bollworm Helicoverpa armigera Noctuidae: Lepidoptera Pink bollworm 3. Pectinophora gossypiella Gelechiidae: Lepidoptera

Nature of Damage Adult of E. vitella has pale whitish fore wings with a broad greenish band in the middle while E. insulana has completely green forewings. The caterpillar damage by boring into the growing shoot, flower buds, squares and bolls. There is drying and drooping of terminal shoots during pre–flowering stage and flaring up of bracts during square and young boll formation stage. Heavy shedding of squares and young bolls, premature opening of bolls. Larvae feed voraciously on leaves and flowers initially. Later on they bore in to the square/bolls and seeds and start feeding by thrusting their heads alone inside and leaving the rest of the body outside. Bolls show regular, circular bore holes. Freshly emerged larvae bore into flower buds, flowers and bolls. The holes of entry close down by excreta of larvae but larvae continue feeding inside the seed kernels. They cut window holes (interlocular burrowing) in the two adjoining seeds thereby forming "double seeds". The flowers do not open and give rosette appearance. The attacked buds and immature bolls drop off. Lint is destroyed; ginning percentage and oil content are impaired. Hibernate as full grown larvae in double seed. 181

Tobacco caterpillar Spodoptera litura Noctuidae: Lepidoptera Sucking pests 5. Leafhoppers/Jassid s Amrasca devastans Cicadellidae: Hemiptera 4.

Whitefly Bemisia tabaci Aleyrodidae: Hemiptera 7. Cotton aphid Aphis gossypii Aphididae: Hemiptera 8. Cotton thrips Thrips tabaci Scirtothrips dorsalis Thripida: Thysanoptera 9. Red cotton bug/ cotton stainer Dysdercus cingulatus Pyrrhocoridae: Hemiptera 10. Dusky cotton bug Oxycarenus hyalinipennis Lygaeidae: Hemiptera 11. Mealy bug Phenococcus solenopsis Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera 6.

First instar larvae feed gregariously on the leaf by scrapping the epidermal layer, leaving the skeleton of veins. Grown up larvae move to other leaves and feed by making small holes thus completely skeltonizing the plant.

Insect lay eggs inside leaf veins. Both adults and nymphs suck sap from the underside of the leaves and inject toxins due to which leaves turn pale and then rust red. There is marginal downward rolling, cupping, yellowing, browning, bronzing and drying of cotton leaves thus giving hopper burn like symptoms Nymphs and adults suck plant sap resulting into loss in plant vitality and premature defoliation. Sooty mould develops due to honeydew secretion. The insects transmit leaf curl virus (CLCV) disease. Both adults and nymphs suck sap from the tender leaves, twigs and buds. There is leaf crumbling and curling. They excrete honeydew which encourages development of sooty mold. Both nymph and adult lacerate the tissue and suck the oozing out sap from the upper and lower surface of leaves and in cases of severe infestation they curl up and become crumbled. Silvery sheen on the lower surface can be seen in early stages of attack. Adult lay eggs in the soil. Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from developing green bolls and stain the lint. They stain the lint with excreta and body juices as they get crushed in ginning factory. The bugs are gregarious in habit. Attacked seeds loose viability and fiber stained due to bacterial (Nematospora gossypii) growth. Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from developing seeds in open bolls and stain the lint black. Seeds become discoloured and shrunken.

Both nymphs and adults suck large amount of sap from leaves and stems depriving plants of essential nutrients showing the symptoms like retarded growth, late opening of bolls and total drying of the plant. They secrete honey dew on which black sooty mould develops, giving blackish appearance to the crop.

Foliage feeders and Other Caterpillars feed on the cotton leaves and skeletonize them. 12. Green semilooper In years of heavy infestation, the plants may be completely Anomis flava denuded of leaves. 182

13.

14.

15.

Cotton semilooper Tarache notabilis Noctuidae: Lepidoptera Cotton leaf roller Sylepta derogate Pyralidae: Lepidoptera Cotton stem weevil Pempherulus affinis Curculionidae: Coleoptera Cotton grey weevil Myllocerus undecimpustulat us Curculionidae: Coleoptera

Larvae roll the cotton leaves like a trumphet i.e. it rolls leaves in a funnel like shape and feeds by staying inside the funnel. In severe cases, defoliation occurs.

Grub tunnels into the stem resulting into gall like swelling near the collar region of cotton stem. Young plants break at swelling older plants lose vigour.

Grubs feed on the roots of cotton seedlings and destroy them. Adults feed on leaves, buds, flowers and young bolls by cutingt prominent round holes.

Management: 1. Use pheromone traps for monitoring of bollworms at a distance of 50 m @ 5 traps/ha and yellow sticky traps or yellow sheet with greese for monitoring & mass trapping of whitefly adults. 2. Trap cropping with castor against tobacco caterpillar, marigold against gram pod borer and okra against spotted bollworm. 3. Inter-cropping with mung bean, soybean, groundnut, ragi, maize, cowpea and onion reduces the infestation of boll worms. Intercropping with wild brinjal reduces the whitefly incidence. 4. Follow cultural practices like deep ploughing during April-May, removal and destruction of crop stubbles and roots, growing of early maturing & short duration varieties/hybrids, growing at recommended spacing, balanced use of fertilizers on soil test basis, frequent hoeings and weeding. 5. Conservation and augmentation of predators like Coccinellids, Chrysoperla carnea, Syrphus sp, Scymnus sp. which predate upon different stages of leafhopper, whitefly, aphids, thrips and eggs of bollworms and parasitoids like Bracon brevicornis, Chelonus blackburni, Apanteles spp. against Spotted boll worm and Aenasius bamawalei against mealy bug. Trichograma spp. is effective egg parasitoids of bollworm pests. 6. Spray SLNPV against tobacco caterpillar and HaNPV against gram pod borer @ 250 LE/ha. Use B.t. @ 1.5 kg/ha and neem based formulations. 7. Border crop with jowar, maize in 2 or 3 rows not only serves as a barrier for migration of insect pests but their pollen helps in attraction of beneficial Chrysoperla to the field. 183

8. Destroy pink boll worm larvae in rosette flowers and also through periodical removal of dropped squares, dried flowers and pre-matured bolls, to suppress pest population in the initial stage. 9. Seed treatment with Imidacloprid for the management of sucking insect. 10. Spray the crop with systemic insecticides viz. monocrotophos, dimethoate, imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, acetamiprid etc. 11. Avoid excess use of synthetic pyrethroids due to problem of whitefly resurgence. 12. Use of insecticides like methomyl, profenophos, indoxacarb, novaluron etc against other bollworm attack. INSECT-PESTS OF CHICKPEA American bollworm is the only major insect-pest of chickpea. The young caterpillars feed on the tender foliage and as they grow they bore into the pods and destroy the seeds, while feeding it thrusts its head inside the pod leaving the rest of its body hanging outside. Management:  Grow marigold as trap crop.  Set sex pheromone traps @ 5 traps/acre for monitoring.  Spray HaNPV @ 500 LE/ha mixed with 0.1 % UV retardant (Tinopal)+ 0.5% jiggery  Use B.t. @ 0.5 kg/ac and 5% NSKE to kill early stages larvae.  Spray with new insecticide molecules, viz., Indoxacarb 14.5% SC, novaluron 10% EC, spinosad 45% SC or flubendamide or chlorantraniliprole 18.5% SC.

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Major Diseases of Rice, Wheat, Cotton, Chickpea, Sugarcane and their Management Rakesh Sangwan Assistant Scientist (Plant Pathology) CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125004 Plants not only provide us food but also fiber for clothing, timber for house building, furniture and sources for medicine etc. Shortage of food is the most important challenge in the present day civilization. Although food production has been increasing throughout the world but the production and availability of food has not kept pace with the rate of population increase. There is not much scope in increasing the land area under crop production. On global basis about 34 per cent of crop is lost annually due to diseases (12%), nematodes (11%) insect-pest (7%) and weeds (3%). Identification of diseases, disease cycle and management of diseases can help us in decreasing the losses caused by plant diseases. The major diseases of rice, wheat, cotton, chickpea and sugarcane along with their management are mentioned as under: Rice 1. Blast : Causal Organism (C.O.) : Pyricularia grisea or Pyricularia oryzae The disease occurs throughout the world where rice is grown. The disease appears on all the plant parts. One or more spindle shaped spots with brown to reddish brown margins and grey or whitish centers are formed on the leaves. Lesion may coalesce to kill the entire leaf. In later stages the infection may reach to the nodes, base of the panicle and on the glumes as brown to black lesions. Lesions on neck cause neck blast. Perhaps the fungus survives in seed and infected plant debris. Management: Use of resistant variety, healthy seed, early sowing and transplanting help in reducing the disease. On initiation of disease spray the crop with 0.2% Bavistin on Hinosan @ 0.1%. 2. Bakanae Disease or Foot Rot : C.O. Fusarium moniliforme Affected plants become yellow, abnormally taller and thinner than healthy plants. Sometime roots arise from the nodes. The fungus is seed as well as soil borne. Management: Removal and destruction of infected straw, crop rotation, deep ploughing in summer and seed treatment with Bavistin @ 2.5 g/kg seed helps in managing the disease. 3. False Smut : Ustilaginoidea virens Affected grains become quite big and swollen than healthy grains. The color is orange yellow which later on turns blackish. The disease is soil borne. Management: Disease free seed, crop rotation and seed treatment with Emisan 6 @ 0.25% are important. Spray the crop with Blitox -50@ 0.25% at 50% flowering and repeat after 10 – 11 days. 4. Brown leaf spot : C.O. : Drechslera oryzae Small circular brown spots with grey or whitish centre appear on leaves, leaf sheath, penicle and branches. The pathogen, survives on seed as well as on disease debris. Secondary infection takes place by wind borne conidia. 185

Management : Proper fertilization, field sanitation, seed deeping for 24 h in Emisan -6 @ 5g/10 l/10kg seed and spray with Dithane M-45 @ 0.2% help in management of disease. 5. Sheath blight :C.O. : Rhizoctonia solani Lesions with greyish white centre with brownish or red or purplish red margin are formed during flowering and tillering. Leaves may be blighted and sheath may rot. The disease is soil as well as seed borne. Management: Deep ploughing, burning of crop residue, crop rotation, seed treatment and spray with Luster @ 400 ml/acre help in disease management. 6. Bacteria leaf blight: C.O.: Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae Straw coloured lesions starts from leaf tip on either side of mid rib and progress downward. This leads to wilting of plants. The pathogen survives in disease plant debris and the seed. Management: Crop rotation, burning of disease debris, resistant varieties (IR-20, Ratna) and seed treatment with streplocycline @ 200 ppm helps in reducing the disease. 7. Bacterial leaf streak : C.O. : Xanthomonas oryzae oryzicola Fine water soaked interveinal streaks appears on the leaves. The bacterium is seed borne in nature. Management: Resistant varieties (IR-20, Krishna) and seed treatment with 0.025% Streptocycline help in reducing the disease. 8. Stem Rot : C.O. : Helminthosporium sigmoideum var. sigmoideum At the earing stage lower portion of the plant become yellow, brown and rot leading to collapse and lodging of the plant. Small black sclerotia are visible inside the stem. This pathogen is soil borne. Management: Deep summer ploughing and burning of disease debris help in management of the disease. Wheat 1. Yellow rust: C.O.: Puccinia striiformis Small yellow pustules appear in rows forming stripe on the leaves later on turn black when teleutospore are formed. Sometimes these pustules also appear on leaf sheaths and glumes. 2. Brown rust: C.O.: Puccinia recondita Small round and orange pustules are formed on the leaves and sometimes on the leaf sheaths. These pustules are bigger than those of yellow rust and not formed in line but irregularly scattered on the leaves. Later on these pustules turn black. 3. Black or stem rust : C.O. : Puccinia graminis tritici Dark reddish brown elongated pultules are formed on leaves, leaf sheaths, stems and later on turn black Management: Resistant varieties like WH-283, WH-542, WH-896, Raj-3765 etc. and foliar spray with Dithane M-45 @ 0.2% at the time of disease appearance helps in the management of these rusts. 4. Loose smut : C.O. : Ustilago segatum var. tritici The ears are transformed into black powdery mass initially covered by a silvery membrane which raptures and exposes the spores. This disease is internally seed borne and seed transmitted. 186

Management: Use of resistant varieties, seed treatment with Vitavax or Bavistin @ 2 gm/kg seed or with Raxil @ 1 gm/kg seed or Solar heat treatment helps in the management of the disease. 5. Flag smut : C.O. : Urocystis agropyri Leaf and leaf sheaths are most commonly affected. Grey or black streaks running parallel to veins are formed on the leaves. These streaks rapture and expose black mass of spores. There may be no grain or shriveled grain formation. The pathogen is soil as well as seed borne. Management : Burning of diseased plant debris, shallow sowing, crop rotation, resistant varieties and seed treatment with Vitavax or Bavistin @ 2 gm/kg seed helps in the management of disease. 6. Karnal bunt : C.O. : Neovossia indica The grains are bunted. In a stool all the ears are not infected and in an ear all the grains are not bunted. Production of volatile chemical trimethylamine results in foul smell. The pathogen survives in soil and seed. Management: For its management use resistant varieties, disease free seeds, follow crop rotation, treat the seed with Bavistin @ 2 mg/kg seed. 7. Powdery Mildew : C.O. : Erysiphe graminis tritici In this disease all the plant parts are covered with white or grayish brown powdery mass. The pathogen survives in the soil or in the disease debris. Management: Burning of crop debris, deep summer ploughing, crop rotation and foliar spray with Sulfex @ 0.2% helps in the management of disease. Cotton 1. Angular leaf spot of Cotton : Xanthomonas axanopodis pv.. malvacearum Initially water soaked lesions occur on cotyledons resulting into seedling wither & death. Water soaked lesions on leaves turn dark brown to black and are bound by the veins. Large patches may be formed and leaves get dry. Elongated grayish to black lesion appears on the stem and petioles. The phase is called black arm. Later on water soaked dark brown to black and sunken lesions are also formed on the bolls leading to boll rot. The pathogen is internally and externally seed borne. 2. Root rot : C.O. : Rhizoctonia bataticola The plants wilt suddenly and completely in patches. The entire root system shows rotting and decaying. The pathogen can survive for many years on dead organic matter in soil. 3. Wilt: C.O.: Furarium oxysporum fsp. vasinfectum The older leaves starts yellowing from the margin and entire leaf becomes yellow and dried and then entire branch is dried Xylem vessels are plugged and interrupt the transport of water and nutrients. When we split open the stem blackening will be there. The fungus can survive for many years in soil. 4. Leaf curl : C.O. : Cotton leaf curl virus Upward cupping and curling of the leaves take place. The veins get thickened. Plants become stunted. Leaves and fruiting bodies become small. Plants looks bunchy and sometimes enation also takes place on the lower surface of leaves. Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) acts as vector for this virus. 187

Integrated Disease Management 

Seed treatment with Emison-6 (5 gm), Streptocycline (1 gm) and Succinic acid (1 gm) in 10 litre water is sufficient for 5-8 kg seeds. For control of root rot treat the seed with Bavistin 2 gm/kg seed just before sowing.  Spray the crop with streptocycline (6 – 8 gm/acre) + Copperoxychloride (600 – 800 gm/acre) in 200 – 250 lit. water from last week of June or beginning of July at 15 days interval.  To manage CLCV destroy the diseased plants and control white fly with insecticides.  Crop rotation and alternate row of moth help in reducing the disease.  Deep ploughing in summer, destruction of disease debris also help in the management of diseases. Chickpea 1. Wilt: C.O.: Fusarium oxysporum fsp. ciceri The seedling show drooping of the leaves and dull green in colour. Petioles and leaves turn yellow and become straw coloured. When we split open the roots black discoloration of xylem vessels can be seen. The pathogen is both soil and seed borne. Management: Deep ploughing in summer, crops rotation, sowing before 10th October and use of resistant variety reduces the disease. Seed treatment with Bavistin @ 2.5 gm/kg seed or with Trichoderma viride @ 4 gm/kg seed + Vitavax 1 gm/kg seed is also effective. 2. Root rot or collar rot : C.O. : Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium solani, Sclerotium rolfssi Dark brown or yellow spot appear around the stem near the soil level and there is sudden and complete wilting of the plants. The disease is soil borne. Management: Deep summer ploughing and seed treatment with Bavistin @ 2.5 gm/kg seed are important component of disease management. 3. Ascochyta Blight : C.O. : Ascochyta rabiei Circular spots are formed on leaves and pods. Elongated spots are formed on petioles and stems. Usually circular lesions are formed on the green pods are surrounded by dark margin. These lesions may griddle the affected portion. Above the gridled portion the branches are killed. In wet weather the spread of disease is rapid. The disease is both externally and internally seed borne and the pathogen also survives in disease debris. Management: Destruction of disease debris, deep summer ploughing, crop rotation, resistant variety and seed treatment with Bavistin or Captan @ 2.5 gm/kg seed reduce disease development. Sugarcane 1. Red rot : C.O. : Colletrotrichum falcatum First of all lower leaves start drying at the tip and margin and the cane shrinks. When we split open the cane it gives alcoholic smell and shows red tissue with white cross band. The pathogen survives through infected setts and resting propagules in the soil. 2. Whip smut : C.O. : Ustilago scitaminea In this disease the growing shoots turn into long whip like black growth cowred by black powdery spores and white silvery membrane. On rapture of membrane millions of black spores are 188

exposed. Smutted shoots do not produce millable canes. The pathogen is internally and externally sett borne. 3. Wilt : C.O. : Fusarium moniliforme The cane becomes light and hollow. When we split these canes we find red conical patch at each node and sour smell other then alcoholic smell. The pathogen can survive for three years in soil. While infected setts are the chief means of transmission. 4. Grassy shoot disease : C.O. : Phytoplasma Profuse tillering, grassy appearance of the stools, narrow and small leaves are the main symptoms of this disease. The disease perpetuates through diseased setts and transmitted by insects (aphids). Management  

Use of healthy seed setts, destruction of diseased debris and infected plants, crop rotation, avoiding ratooning of diseased crops, early harvesting, effective drainage and resistant varieties can help in the management of disease. Treatment of setts with 0.25% Emisan -6 and moist hot air treatment (54ºC for two hour at R.H. 95%) also helps in reducing the seed borne diseases.

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Elements of Statistics BK Hooda Professor & Head Department of Mathematics and Statistics CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125004 Introduction The word ‘Statistics’ is probably derived from the Latin word ‘status’ (means a political state) or the Italian word ‘statista’ or the German word ‘statistik’, each of which means a ‘political state’. It is used in singular as well as in plural sense. In singular sense, statistics is used as a subject that deals with the principles and methods employed in collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of data. In plural sense, statistics is considered as numerical description of quantitative information. Statistics (Definition), Scope and Limitations: Different persons defined Statistics in different ways. Some of the popular definitions of Statistics are given below. According to Croxton and Cowden, “Statistics may be defined as the collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of numerical data”. According to Sir R.A. Fisher “The science of Statistics is essentially a branch of applied mathematics and may be regarded as mathematics applied to observational data”. Fisher’s definition is most exact in the sense that it covers all aspects and fields of Statistics. On the basis of above ideas, Statistics can be defined as a science which deals with collection, presentation, analysis of data and interpretation of results. Scope of Statistics: i) Statistics has great significance in the field of physical and natural sciences. Statistics is often used in agricultural and biological research for efficient planning of experiments and for interpreting experimental data. ii) Statistics is of vital importance in economic planning. Priorities of planning are determined on the basis of the statistics related to the resource base of the country and the short-term and long-term needs of the country. iii) Statistical techniques are used to study the various economic phenomena such as wages, price analysis, demand analysis etc. iv) Successful business executives make use of statistical techniques for studying the needs and future prospects of their products. Limitations of Statistics: i) ii) iii) iv) v)

Statistical methods are best applicable to quantitative data. Statistical decisions are subject to certain degree of error. Statistical laws do not deal with individual observations. Statistical conclusions are true on an average. Statistics is liable to be misused. The misuse of statistics may arise because of the use of statistical tools by inexperienced and untrained persons. 190

vi) Statistical results may lead to fallacious conclusions if quoted out of context or manipulated. Some Basic Concepts: Variable: A quantity that varies from individual to individual is called a variable. Height, weight, number of students in a college, number of petals in a flower, number of tillers in a plant etc. are a few examples of variables. Discrete and Continuous Variables: A variable that takes only specific or distinguished values in a given range is known as discrete variable whereas a variable which can theoretically assume any value between two given values is called a continuous variable. For example, the number of students in a college, number of petals in a flower, number of tillers in a plant etc. are discrete variables. A continuous variable can take any value within a certain range, for example, yield of a crop, height of plants and birth rates etc. are continuous variables. Primary and Secondary Data: The data collected directly from the original source are called the primary data. Such data may be collected by sample surveys or through designed experiments. The data, which have already been collected by some agency and have been processed or used at least once, are called secondary data. Secondary data may be collected from organizations or private agencies, government records, journals etc. Frequency Distributions and Their Construction: The number of observations lying in any class interval is known as the frequency of that class interval. Also the number of times an individual item is repeated in a series is called its frequency. The way in which the observations are classified and distributed in the proper class intervals is known as frequency distribution. 1. Relative Frequency: It is the proportion of the number of observations belonging to a class and is obtained by dividing the frequency of that class by the total frequency. 2. Cumulative Frequency: The cumulative frequency corresponding to any value or class is the number of observations less than or equal to that value or upper limit of that class. It may also be defined as the total of all frequencies up to the value or the class. 3. Cumulative Frequency Distribution: It is an arrangement of data in class intervals together with their cumulative frequencies. In less than cumulative frequency distribution, the frequency of each class is added successively from the top to bottom but in more than type, the frequencies of each class are added successively from bottom to top. Rules for Construction of Frequency Distribution: i) The number of classes should preferably be between 5 and 15, however, there is no rigidity about it and it depends upon total frequency and the range of the data. The following formula suggested by H.A. Sturges may be used for finding approximate number of class intervals and their width. LS h K where N = total frequency ; K = 1 + log103.322 log N is the number of classes. L and S are the largest and smallest observation in the data and h = class width. ii) The class limits should be well defined so that one can place an observation in a class without any confusion. iii) As far as possible, the class intervals should be of equal size. 191

Discrete (ungrouped) Frequency Distribution: When the number of observations in the data are small, then the listing of the frequency of occurrence against the values of variable is called as discrete frequency distribution. Example: The number of seeds per pod in 50 pods of a crop variety is given below: Prepare a discrete frequency distribution. 9, 2, 3, 1, 4, 5, 2, 6, 2, 3, 8, 9, 7, 6, 5, 4, 1, 3, 2, 7, 5, 4, 5, 4, 3, 8, 7, 5, 4, 3, 6, 5, 3, 4, 8, 6, 8, 5, 4, 7, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 8, 5, 1, 4, 5 Solution: The number of seeds can be considered as a variable (X) and the number of pods as the frequency (f). No. of Seeds (X) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Total:

Tally Marks III IIII IIII II IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII III N

No. of Pods (f) 3 4 7 9 10 5 4 5 3 50

Grouped (Continuous) Frequency Distribution: When the data set is very large it becomes necessary to condense the data into a suitable number of class intervals of the variable along with the corresponding frequencies. Example: The marks obtained by 30 students are given below. Classify the data using Sturge’s rule 30, 32, 45, 52, 47, 52, 58, 63, 59, 75, 49, 55, 77, 28, 26, 33, 47, 45, 59, 73, 75, 65, 55, 68, 67, 79, 35, 39, 68, 75 Let us find the suitable number of class intervals with the help of Sturges rule No. of classes (K) = 1. 3.322 log10 N = 1 + 3.322 log10 30 = 1 + (3.322 x 1.477) = 1 + 4.91 = 5.91 ~ 6 L  S 79  26 53 Class width (h)     8.8 ~ 9 K 6 6 Thus number of classes will be 5.91 (=6) and size of class interval will be 9. We take 10 as the size of the class interval. Since the minimum value is 26, therefore, the first class interval is taken as 25-35. Marks Obtained (Class Interval) Tally Marks No. of Students (f) 25-35 IIII 5 35-45 II 2 45-55 IIII II 7 55-65 IIII I 6 65-75 IIII 5 75-85 IIII 5 N 30 192

Typical Forms of Frequency Distribution: I. Bell Shaped or symmetrical frequency Distributions: A frequency distribution in which the class frequencies decrease symmetrically on either side of a central maximum, i.e., observations equidistant from the central maximum have the same frequency. Class 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80

Frequency 4 10 16 20 20 16 10 4

II. i)

Moderately Asymmetrical (Skewed) Frequency Distribution Positively Skewed Distribution: Daily earnings No. of Workers 0-100 71 100-200 303 200-300 379 300-400 212 400-500 18 500-600 9 600-700 4 700-800 3 800-900 1

ii)

Negatively Skewed Distribution: Age No. of Persons using spectacles 0-10 4 10-20 12 20-30 41 30-40 75 40-50 90 50-60 120 60-70 125 70-80 113 Total 580 Extremely Asymmetrical Distributions:

III

J-shaped: Class frequencies lowest at the class of lower values and increase gradually to the highest at the class of highest values. Frequency curve resembles the letter J. 193

Age 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80

No of Persons dying in a month 2 3 5 8 14 30 50 80

Reverse J-shaped: Class frequencies highest at the lowest values of the variable and diminish gradually as move towards the higher values of the variable with the lowest at the highest value. Years of No. of Marriage divorces 0-5 3164 5-10 1515 10-15 743 15-20 348 20-25 191 25-30 70 30-35 25 35-40 15 40-45 4 Characteristics of Frequency Distributions: A frequency distribution is characterized by its location, scale and shape. Thus, for comparing different sets of data or frequency distributions we need to compare the followings characteristics: i) Location (Central or average values) ii) Scatter (Dispersion or variation or spread) iii) Shape (Skewness and Kurtosis) 3. Measures of Location: Any quantity, which provides central value or average value of a data/distribution, is called measure of central tendency or measure of location. Arithmetic Mean (AM), Geometric Mean (GM), Harmonic Mean (HM) median and mode are the commonly used measures of location. When the number of observations is small then there is no need of grouping and data is called ungrouped data. However, if the number of observations is large, i.e. in hundreds or thousands then a grouped frequency distribution should be prepared. If x1, x2……,xn are n values (or class marks) with frequencies f1, f2,…..,fn respectively then mathematical measures of location are given by. A.M . 

f 1x 1 f 2x 2 ........ f nx n

 fi

1  N

n

 fi xi i 1

194

GM

= (xifi x2f2 …xnfn)1/N or 1 GM = N

n

 fi i 1

log x

i

log

f f  1 1 f   1  2 ....  n  HM N  x x x  2 n   1 i.e. reciprocal of harmonic mean is equal to AM of the reciprocals of variate values.

Median: It is the variate value, which divides the data into two equal parts i.e. No. of observations below median = Number of observations above median. When arranged in increasing order, middle observation is the median when number of observations is odd. While mean of the two middle observations is median when number of observations is even. h N For grouped data: Median = L  [  C] f 2 L = lower limit of median class C = C.F. of median class f = Frequency of median class h = Size of the class interval Median Class: The class whose cumulative just exceeds N/2 is the median class. Mode: It is the variate value with maximum frequency. f m  f1 For grouped data: Mode = L  h 2fm  f  f 1 2 L = lower limit of modal class fm = Frequency of modal class f1 and f2 are frequencies of classes preceding and following the modal class respectively. The class with maximum frequency is called modal class. Weighted Mean: When different values have unequal weightage or importance or contributions then instead of simple mean the weighted mean is used: Let x1, x2,….,xk be k values with weights w1, w2,…wk respectively then weighted mean is  w i xi xw   wi Example: Find over all grade point in semester forms the following: Course Cr. Hrs. (wi) Grade point (xi) Stat-101 2+1 6.3 Comp-101 1+1 7.0 Math-101

3+1 OGPA is  xw 

w x w i

7.5 i

= 6.99

i

4.

Measures of Dispersion/Scatter or Spread:

For comparing two sets of data or distributions, comparison of average values may not give complete picture as it may be possible that two sets of data distributions may have the same mean but 195

they may differ in dispersion or scatter or spread. Hence we must compare scatter/disperse/on in addition to comparison of locations or means. The degree to which numerical data tends to scatter or spread around the central value is called dispersion or variation. Further, any quantity that measures the degree of spread or scatter around the central value is called measure of dispersion. The various measures of dispersion are: i) Range ii) Mean deviation iii) Variance iv) Standard deviation v) Coefficient of variation Range is the difference between largest and smallest observations in a data. Larger is the range higher is the dispersion in a data. Range is very easy to calculate but is not a good measure of dispersion as it is based on only two extreme observations and completely ignores the heterogeneity of the remaining observations. Mean Deviation: It is the mean of the absolute deviations of variate values from a central value. Larger is the mean deviation higher is the dispersion in the data. For grouped data x1, x2,……,xn as variate values with frequencies f1, f2,……,fn respectively . 1 n M.D. =  fi xi  A N 11 Variance: It is the mean of the squares of the deviations of variate values from their mean. For grouped data or a frequency distribution 1 N V ( x)   f i x i  x 2 N 11 Like mean deviation variance is a good measure of dispersion as it is based on all the observations but is not a perfect measure of dispersion as it is not free from the units of measurements. Positive square root of variance is called Standard Deviation.





Coefficient of variation: It is the ratio of standard deviation to the mean and is expressed in %. S .D.  100 C.V. = Mean Remarks: Larger is the value of C.V. higher is the dispersion in the data. CV is free from the units of measurements and can be used to compare the dispersion in the set of data with same or different units of measurements where as all other measurers of dispersion discussed earlier are not free from units of measurements and can be used to compare dispersion in the sets of data having the same units only. 5. Measures of Shape: Skewness (Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Distributions): If the variate values equidistant from the mean have equal frequencies then the distribution is called symmetrical otherwise it is Nonsymmetrical or Asymmetrical. The departure from symmetry of a curve is called skewness and is Mean  Mode measured by Karl Pearson’s coefficient of skewness SK, and 1 as given by SK = SD 2 3 r and 1 = 3 /2 , where with 1 has same as sign of 3 and r = (1/ N) fi (xi – x) is rth order central moment of the variable X. 196

Remarks: (i) For a symmetrical distribution mean, mode and median all are equal. (ii)

Like coefficient of variation coefficient of skewness is also a pure number and have no units of measurements and thus can be used to compare the skewness in sets of data with same or different units of measurements.

Kurtosis: In addition to comparison of mean, dispersion, skewness, we also need to compare kurtosis. The flatness or peakedness of top of the curve called kurtosis, which is also an important characteristic of a distribution kurtosis is measured in terms of moments and is given by 2 = 4/22 For normal distribution curve 2 = 3 and peakedness and flatness of the curve are compared in relation to normal curve. The distributions have been classified as Leptokurtic, Mesokurtic and Platykurtic according as 2 > 3, 2 =3 and 2 < 3 respectively. Like coefficient of variation and coefficient of skewness, kurtosis (2 ) is also pure number having no units of measurements and thus can be used to compare the flatness of the top of curves for frequency distributions with same or different units. Various shapes of frequency curves are shown below.

6. Commonly Used Probability Distributions in Scientific Research: Binomial, Poisson distribution and Normal distributions are the most commonly used probability distributions often used by research scientists for interpretation of their data. Binomial Distribution: Bernoulli random variables are frequently used with experiments where there could be two distinct outcomes, such as success or failure. It is the simplest discrete random variables one can imagine. A random variable ‘X’ is said to follow binomial distribution if it assumes only nonnegative values and its probability mass function is given by P(X = x) = p(x) = nCx px qn-x x = 0, 1, 2, … n 197

The independent constants ‘n’ and ‘p’ are known as parameters of the distribution, where n is the number of independent trials and p is the probabilities of success, which is same for each trial. Assumptions for Binomial Distribution: i) Each trial results in two mutually disjoint outcomes called success and failure. ii) The trials are independent of each other and the number of trials ‘n’ is finite. iii) The probability of success ‘p’ is constant for each trial. The characteristics constants of the binomial distribution are: Mean = np Variance = npq q p Coefficient of Skewness, 1 = 1 = npq 1  6 pq 1  6 pq Coefficient of Kurtosis (2) = 3  , 2 = npq npq The shape and location of binomial distribution changes as ‘p’ changes for a given ‘n’. The distribution is symmetrical when p = ½ = q. For p < ½, the distribution is positively skewed and if p > ½, it is negatively skewed. The curve is leptokurtic if 1-6pq >0 (i.e. pq <1/6), mesokurtic if 1-6pq = 0 or pq = 1/6 and platykurtic 1-6pq < 0 or pq < 1/6. Expected frequencies of various outcomes in N sets of n trials each then expected number or frequency for r successes is given by N P(X = r) = N ncr pr qn-r r = 0, 1,2….,n Remarks: i) ii)

Mean of the binomial distribution is always greater than its variance. If ‘n’ is quite large and neither ‘p’ nor ‘q’ is too small, the binomial distribution tends to normal with mean = np and variance = npq.

Poisson distribution: A random variable X is said to follow a Poisson distribution with mean ‘’ if it assumes only non-negative values and its probability mass function is given by e  x ; x = 0, 1, 2 …… P X  x   p ( x)  x! Poisson distribution was initially developed by a French mathematician, Simeon Denis Poisson (1781-1840) and can be obtained as a limiting case of Binomial distribution under the following conditions i) number of trials ‘n’ is large enough i.e. n   ii) constant probability of success for each trial is very small i.e. p 0. iii) np =  (say) is finite. Necessary Assumptions for Poisson Distribution: i) ii) iii)

The occurrence or non-occurrence of an event does not affect the occurrence and nonoccurrence of any other event. Probability of happening of more than one event in a quite small interval/region is very small. The probability of success for a short interval or a small region is proportional to the length of the interval or space. 198

Practical Situations: Poisson distribution is widely used as a possible model in biological sciences. For example:i) Number of deaths from a rare disease such as heart attack, cancer or due to snake bite in a city per year. ii) Number of suicides reported in a particular city per month. iii) Distributions of insects per leaf or plot. iv) Number of cars passing through a certain street in time t. Characteristics of Poisson distribution: Mean = Variance =  ; Coefficient Skewness, 1 =1 =1/ and Coefficient of Kurtosis 2 = 3 + 1/ and 2 = 1/ Remarks: i) Poisson distribution is a positively skewed distribution and tends to bell shaped distribution as its mean m increases. ii) If X1, X2, ….,Xn have independent Poisson distributions with parameters m1, m2, …, mn then Y = X1 + X2 + …+ Xn is also a Poisson variate with parameter m1 + m2 +….+ mn . Normal Distribution: The normal distribution is one of most useful theoretical distribution for interpretation of research data. Gauss discovered this distribution in 1809. A continuous random variable ‘X’ is said to 2 (variance) if its probability density function is given by  1 (x  μ) 2  1 f(x)  exp   2 2π 2   2 σ Standard Normal Variate: If a random variable ‘X’ is normally distribu 2 ’ then the variable X μ Z is distributed as normal with mean 0 and variance 1 and Z is called standard normal σ variate. Probability density function of SNV is given by 1  (z)  exp (-z2/2) – 2π Important Properties of Normal Distribution: 1. Mean, median and mode of the distribution coincide. 2. Areas covered by the various ranges of the normal random variable are given by: a. – = 0.6826 b. – = 0.9544 c. – = 0.9973 3. The sum as well as difference of normal variates is also a normal variate. 4. All odd order moments of about the mean are zero.

199

Foundation Course Manual on ICAR-JRF (PGS) in Agriculture – General Topics Eds KS Bangarwa, Surender S Dhankhar and RK Pannu CCS HAU, Hisar 2014, pp 200-207.

Career Avenues in Agriculture and Councelling Surender S Dhankhar Assoc Director (C&P) Directorate of Students’ Welfare CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125004 The science and art of agriculture has many references in the Vedic literature and the ancient history of the mankind. Agriculture provides livelihood to majority of Indian population and thus remains linchpin of Indian economy. Though agriculture sector’s contribution to national GDP has declined to 13.9% in 2011-12 due to relatively higher growth experienced in industries and services sectors, agriculture remains the principal source of livelihood for more than 58% of country’s population. Indian economy is growing and to sustain this growth agriculture sector has to perform well. Trained human resource has been the key factor behind the Green Revolution, White Revolution, Yellow Revolution, that has led India to become self reliant in food and becoming a fast developing economy. Knowledge based, input-use efficient, eco-friendly, high tech precision agriculture and rainbow revolution has been the next stage for which efforts have been directed by Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) in planning, designing and executing the national agricultural educational programmes. Considering the importance of Agricultural Education, University Education Commission under the Chairmanship of Dr S Radhakrishnan, recommended the establishment of independent State/Rural Universities in the country in the year 1948. As a result of this recommendation, first State Agricultural University (SAU) was established in 1960 at Pantnagar (Nainital) on the pattern of the Land Grant Colleges of the United States. The University Grants Commission accorded the status of Deemed-to-be-University (DU) to Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi in 1958 which became the first ICAR Institute as Deemed University conducting postgraduate teaching and research. I. Agricultural Education in India  ICAR-Agricultural University System Today, the country has a large ICAR-AU system with a total of 65 Agricultural Universities (AUs) comprising of 55 State Agricultural, Veterinary, Horticulture, and Fisheries Universities, 1 Central Agricultural University, Imphal, 4 ICAR-DUs (IARI, IVRI, NDRI and CIFE), 4 Central Universities having agricultural faculty (BHU, AMU, Viswa Bharati and Nagaland University) and 1 Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology & Sciences (SHIATS), Allahabad (formerly Allahabad Agricultural Institute) awarding various kinds of degrees in different disciplines of agricultural, veterinary and allied sciences (Fig 1). Agricultural education is also imparted in some traditional universities of the country. Agricultural education system is producing invaluable human resource and every year about 15,000 graduates, 11,000 Masters and 2,500 PhDs are admitted. The Under Graduate degree in 11 subjects of agriculture and allied sciences and Master’s degree in about 93 subjects, awarded by the Universities associated with the ICAR are well recognized and accepted for higher education globally.

200

Fig 1. Locations of Universities/Institutes in Agriculture and Allied Science The growth achieved in agricultural sector has been attributed to the concerted efforts of skilled human resource developed through AES. After independence, from the state of deficiency, country has reached to the stage of self-sufficiency in food grain production. It has enabled the country to increase production of food grains by 4-fold, horticultural crops by 6-fold, fish by 9-fold (marine 5-fold and inland 17-fold), milk by 6-fold, and eggs by 27-fold since 1950-51; thus making a visible impact on the national food and nutritional security. The interest of girl candidates towards agricultural education is rising and during 2012 about 38% female candidates were admitted through AIEEA-UG. Presently, efforts are being directed by the ICAR and Agricultural Universities to impart necessary skills and confidence among agricultural graduates to start and operate their own business units through firsthand experience of running Model Farms and Pilot-Plants during the course of study. Experiential learning, Rural Awareness Work Experience are some special features of agricultural education in the country. ICAR provides annual grants to AUs for infrastructural development, scholarships/fellowship schemes and monitoring system through Accreditation norms for quality assurance. Besides, the 201

teaching quality is also stressed through continuous national and international training programmes for the faculty. In summary, Agricultural Education could be termed as one of the most relevant education in the country for growth and sustainable development. Higher Study abroad Studying abroad in agriculture and allied discipline in a reputed institution is a dream of numerous Indian students'. In the present scenario where the world is aptly called a 'global village', this dream is not very hard to achieve. Some of the foreign countries offer scholarships under cultural exchange programmes to eligible candidates who are interested to study in those countries. These scholarships are channelized in India via the Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development. Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India administers only those scholarships/fellowships, which are being offered by the foreign countries under Cultural Exchange Programmes and other Programmes. The subject fields are generally chosen on the basis of facilities that are available in the donor for that subject field and also keeping in view the national needs. The updated relevant information is available through their web portals: International Scholarships and Scholarships for Study Overseas Indian Missions Abroad and Foreign Embassies in India Some of the prestigious institutes/universities abroad for the purpose are listed here: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Royal Agricultural University University of Wyoming James Cook University Texas A&M University-Commerce University of Aberdeen Ball State University University of East Anglia UEA University of Western Australia (UWA) 9. Michigan State University

10. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem 11. Hirosaki University 12. Tokyo University of Agriculture 13. Georg-August-Universität Göttingen 14. Moscow Agricultural Academy 15. Swedish Univ of Agricultural Sciences 16. Alabama Agril and Mechanical University 17. Stephen F. Austin State University

Career in Agricultural Universities Different agricultural universities recruit agricultural postgraduates for various posts in Assistant Professor/ Assistant Scientist/ District Extension Specialists for teaching, research and extension/outreach activities for concerned field of specialisation in agriculture. Qualification for all above posts is Master’s/Doctor degree in concerned specialization/discipline. However for some posts experience in concerned field is required and for Assistant professor and other teaching post, candidate should be NET qualified (conducted by UGC/ CSIR/ICAR/Other). For senior level post PhD in concerned field is compulsory requirement Career in ICAR through ASRB Well trained and qualified technical human resource is being mainly recruited through various state/national level agencies like Agricultural Scientists Recruitment Board (ASRB) of ICAR. The ASRB was established on 1st November 1973 as an independent recruitment agency in pursuance of 202

the recommendations of the Gajendragadkar Committee with underlying mandate of recruitment of entry level scientific positions of the ARS through an All-India Competitive Examination and to conduct National Eligibility Test (NET), which is a prerequisite for the initial recruitment as Assistant Professor/Lecturer in the State Agricultural Universities. As scientific career with MSc/PhD in a specific branch of agriculture, one can opt to start through ASRB/AUs which currently sufficient openings. Presently ASRB conduct ARS/NET (Preliminary and Main) examination. Only those candidates who qualify the preliminary examination will be called for Main examination. Candidate for ARS interview will be selected on the basis of performance in main examination. Also ICAR has better option for agricultural graduates, postgraduates and for doctorate degree holders. Bachelor degree holder can apply for some technical post in concerned discipline. Also some technical post of level of T-5 (Technical Officer) is better option for postgraduate and above Technical(T-5) post as T-6 etc and Subject Matter Specialist in Krishi Vigyan Kendras with PhD degree. Jobs in State Agricultural Departments One can join State Agricultural Department as an Agriculture Development Officers (ADO) and other specialists. Recruitment to these posts is made on the basis of an examination conducted by state public service commission/concerned department depending upon the situation/policy. Career in Private Sector Some of the graduates also start their own business units including the Agri Clinics and Agro Service Centres. Following are some of the sectors providing placement to the agricultural graduates: Development Departments of Central and State Governments  Commercial Banks and Insurance Sector  Area development/ watershed development agencies including NGOs  Industry dealing with fertilizers and plant nutrients  Plant protection chemicals, insecticides and pesticides manufacturing and marketing companies  Organizations dealing in seeds and planting materials  Industries dealing with Agri Machinery, Sericulture, Horticulture, Fisheries, Dairy, etc.  Manufacturers and suppliers of irrigation systems  Agricultural products processing industry  Multi-nationals dealing with production, field evaluation, and marketing of agricultural inputs including export marketing and consultancy services. Research & Development and Outreach avenues Various agricultural giants/MNCs such as ITC, Monsanto and Cargill and many more have began to establish their presence in commercial farming as well as small farmer-led production initiatives through they are on the lookout for young executives to handle R&D and extension/outreach services. Since agriculture is a priority area in achieving financial inclusion, many insurance companies and banks also recruit agriculture graduates. Agro - industry provides jobs to scientists, engineers, technologists, sales and marketing people, besides the production people. These areas of work relate to production, food processing, grain and seed processing, meat and poultry packing, dairy processing, fats and oils, textiles, fibres, machinery and equipment, fertiliser and lime, pesticides, herbicide, feed manufacturing, constructions, etc. for which people with adequate knowledge, in the respective fields are required. Job opportunities 203

also exist in this relatively new areas. Agriculture related Job opportunities are also available in estates and tea gardens. Agribusiness is a big, business. People with a business background are needed and employed as: marketing and merchandising specialists; sales representatives; agricultural economists; accountants; finance managers, and; commodity traders, just to name a few. Other career possibilities exist in the areas of communications & education, social services, and agricultural production. With MBA in rural management and agri-business management, one could work in agricultural finance, insurance, transportation, storage, grading and sales. To work with wholesale and retail marketing of agricultural products as well as managing private and/or cooperative businesses that sell or consume products of farmers; a specialised knowledge of the agricultural field is a mandatory requirement. India has enormous potential as an exporter of agricultural commodities ranging from mushrooms to flowers, spices, cereals, oilseeds and vegetables. The spurt in government support for export of agriproducts has evoked considerable interest among the large business houses which have worked out agreements for technology transfer, marketing tie-ups, and management and trading contacts with leading foreign counterparts. Horticulture with its offshoot floriculture has become a focus of export activity. India’s exports of roses, carnations, gladioli, chrysanthemums, jasmine and other tropical plants and flowers are touching new heights. With the commercialisation of agriculture and horticulture there are varied opportunities for salaried jobs as well as entrepreneurship. While salaried jobs with various government and private concerns provide a regular income, entrepreneurship can generate handsome profits. Landscapers and horticulturists are hired by hotels, health farms, and holiday resorts to beautify their surroundings. Florists and nurseries are doing lucrative business especially in the metropolitan cities. Suburban farmhouses have become important suppliers for the domestic market. Jobs in Financial/Banking Sector After doing your B.Sc. you are eligible to apply for jobs offered by banks, finance sector seed companies, breeding farms, poultry farms and insurance companies etc. Reserve Bank of India, State Bank of India and the nationalised banks offer openings for postgraduates in agriculture and allied areas as Field Officers, Rural Development Officers and Agricultural and Probationary Officers. Career in Seed Industry Another job opportunity is to join seed companies as Seed Officer, Scientist (Breeding, plant protection etc.), and technical and other field jobs. Besides these, job opportunities also exist in the areas of farm management, land appraisal, grading, packaging and labelling. Both in the public and private sectors jobs are also offered in the field of marketing and sales, transportation, farm utilities, storage and warehousing etc. Avenues in Service Sector In order to regulate the functions of adequate and timely supply of seeds, chemicals, fertilizers, etc. at genuine price, as also to regulate quality of the food products supplied for consumption by people, there is requirement for people to inspect, grade, quality control chemicals, plants and animal quarantine, agricultural technicians, agricultural consultants, agricultural statisticians, veterinarians, foreign agricultural service, inspection and regulation, food and feed, seed and fertiliser. There are several Government agencies at centre, state and district levels, which appoint of agricultural employees. In addition, at the international level the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nation and some other agencies related to the development of agriculture also appoints consultants. 204

Career in Corporations etc Various corporations providing job opportunities to agriculturists include National Seed Corporation, State Farm Corporation, Warehousing Corporation and Food Corporation. II. Counselling & Placement Activities The Students’ Counselling & Placement Cell in the Directorate of Students Welfare serves as a hub of students' guidance, counselling and placement activities for all its constituent colleges. The Students’ C&P Cell helps CCS HAU graduates to get suitable placement in various nationalized banks, agrobased companies/industries/MNCs/NGO's etc. It facilitates students to pursue their higher education in India and abroad by conducting coaching classes, motivation lectures, mock group discussions, and interview simulations etc. The Students’ C&P Cell has been associated with multifaceted development of the Students in an effort to make available to them the possibility of developing their personalities and face the challenges of future with greater confidence. Realizing the present day need to further strengthen these efforts, the directorate has initiated an ambitious programme to ameliorate the managerial, administrative, communicative, technical and self-employment oriented skills of the students. The Students’ C&P Cell has been assigned four mandates viz., imparting trainings, placements, liaison with leading industries and guidance to university students. 1. Training: a) Skill Improvement & Personality Development Trainings b) Job-Oriented / Technical Trainings c) Competitive Exams Trainings 2. Placements (Off/On Campus) 3. University-Industry Linkages 4. Guidance to Students a) Career related information through Career Bulletin- A Fortnightly Publication b) Library, Computer lab and other logistics ICT Based Initiatives: The students Councelling, placement and skill integrated learning has long been supported by paper based systems. The use of ICT based technologies viz., Internet and the World Wide Web have revolutionized the provision of information and the facility for the user to take action on the information obtained. In today’s fast moving world most of the placement/recruitment agencies, private sector’s concerns and other stake holders require relevant information of students online, their databases through spreadsheets and Email communications. Therefore, for effective and result oriented functioning of Students C&P Cell, following ICT based initiates has been undertaken: a.

Web portal of Students C&P Cell Dedicated and dynamic web portal www.hau.ernet.in/clink/dccp.htm containing all information/notices/activities pertaining to students’ jobs/scholarships/fellowships/ conferences/ trainings etc in India and abroad embedded in University Server has been launched for real time outreach among students and other stake holders.

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http://www.hau.ernet.in/clink/dccp.htm

b. Career Bulletin To deliver relevant information for effective dissemination on real time basis about jobs/scholarships/fellowships/ conferences/ trainings etc in India and abroad for students community and all other stake holders, soft copy of the entirely new look ‘Career Bulletin’ published fortnightly is being made available ONLINE @ www.hau.ernet.in/carbull.pdf. 206

Career Bulletin b. Placement Brochures Placement Brochures containing all information on university, college, faculty, academic programs, co-curricular activities and brief academic information of final year students of streams of agriculture, agricultural engineering, home science and MBA/Agri-Business have been published and made available online @ www.hau.ernet.in/clink/dccp.htm to probable recruiters from public/private sector domain to offer jobs/scholarships and placement of university graduates.

Placement Brochures of various study programs The ultimate objective of Students’ C&P Cell in the directorate is to groom the students through knowledge based initiatives so as to make them good citizens of country by skill and personality development for significant contribution in nation’s economy development and their better living.

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