Dna Based Bio Sensors

Biotechnology Advances, Vol. 15. No. 1. pp. 43-58.1997 Cotwieht 8 1997 BLwier Science Inc. Pin-teih the USA. All rights resaved 0734-mom $32.00 + .oo ELSEVIER

PII s0734-9750(97)00003-7

DNA BASED BIOSENSORS ZHAI IUNI-IUI, CUI HONG AND YANG RUIFU Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology. 20 Dongdajie. Fengtai District Beijing 100071, PA. China

ABSTRACT Compared to advances in enzyme sensors, immunosensors, and microbial biosensors, relatively little work exists on DNA based biosensors. Here we review the DNA based biosensors that rely on nucleic acid hybridization. Major types DNA biosensors-electrochemical, optical, acoustic, and piezoelectric-are introduced and compared. The specificity and response characteristics of DNA biosensors are discussed. Overall, a promising future is foreseen for the DNA based sensor technology. 0 1997 Ekvier Scie,,ce Inc. KEY WORDS DNA biosensor,

biosensors,

nucleic acid hybridization.

INTRODUCTION Since

the first

technology

enzyme

has advanced

been matched monographs

was

exponentially

by a burgeoning

sensing

by definition element

analyte concentration.

Recently,

increase

through

as current,

with a transducer

general

of chemical

biosensor

has certainly

reviews

and biological

device that combines

to produce

or oxygen,

[3,4] and sensors

the specificity

a signal proportional

light emission,

etc. The signal is converted potential,

electrochemical,

be further amplified, combined

a handbook

ago [l],

This signal can result from a change in proton concentration,

mass change,

such

decades

effort in biosensors

with many excellent

is an analytical

or uptake of gases such as ammonia heat emission,

over three

[9].

A biosensor

response

reported

[2]. The research

literature,

[5-81 now available.

has also appeared biological

electrode

processed,

temperature

thermal,

absorption

by a transducer

change,

to produce an operational 43

release

or reflectance,

of light,

or mass

means. The signal may

or stored for later analysis. In principle,

with any suitable transducer

to target

into a measurable

absorption

optical, or piezoelectric

of a

any receptor may be

biosensor

[4].

44

2. JUNHUI, C. HONG and Y. RUIFL

Work on biosensors [13-l 51, and microbial recent reviews, biological

Mulchandani

recognition

technology

has focused mostly on enzyme sensors [ 1O-l 21, tmmunosensors

sensors [ 16,171. Studies of DNA biosensors and Bassi [4] and Vadgama

element

and Grump [3] noted DNA as a

but the accomplishments

of DNA biosensor

were not mentioned.

Deoxyribonucleic

acids (DNA) are arguably the most important

The unique complementary cytosine/guanine

structure

of DNA between

has been the basis for genetic

ability of a single complementary

stranded

DNA (ssDNA)

market for simple,

Areas of application

include

molecule

to ‘seek out’, or hybridize

of DNA-based

veterinary,

and

over the last few decades. detection

cheap, rapid, and quantitative

clinical,

of all biomolecules

the base pairs adenine/thymine

analysis

strand in a sample is the foundation

is a great potential genes.

for biosensors,

are relatively rare [2]. In

to, it’s

systems. There

detection

medico-legal,

The

of specific

environmental,

and

the food industry. PRINCIPLES The DNA techniques,

including

OF THE DNA BIOSENSOR hybridization,

amplification,

and recombmation,

based on the double helix structure of the DNA. Nucleic acid hybridization principle

of DNA biosensors

In 1953, Watson

and the role of the DNA molecule function

[ 181. DNA is composed

bases or simply bases): adenine, double helix (double-stranded hydrogen

and Crick described

in holding

the information

of four repeating guanine,

nucleotides

cytosine,

DNA, or dsDNA)

the structure

(sometimes

DNA is coiled to form a

of two strands held together

is relatively stable, but on removal of the heat source or pH extreme, (reanneal)

into

ssDNAs

from different

possible

because

the

double

sources

nucleotide

stranded

configuration.

is called hybridization. bases

will

re-form

the DNA molecule

Reannealing

The reannealing

hydrogen

bonds

only

with

base uracil replaces

hybridization

depends

on the nucleotide

of nucleotides

produces

mismatches

impart increasing

same

principles

basic

reproduction.

RNA-RNA

hence,

hybridization

instabihty

apply to RNAs, and RNA-DNA

Like other biosensors, crystals;

hybridization

sequences

very

stable

of both strands. dsDNA,

one

that can lead to weak hybridization the transcriptional hybridizations

products

is more rapid than hybridtzation

surface

specific of the

match in the

or more

base

of strands. The

of cell growth

and

can occur.

DNA sensors are usually in the form of electrodes, on a sensory

is

In RNA,

The stability

A perfect

whereas

the

of the dsDNA

the nucleotide

and pairs with adenine.

will

between

bases: adenine pairs with thymine, and cytosine pairs with guanine.

sequence

by

DNA (ssDNA)

complementary

thymine

and

called nucleotide

bonds that can be broken by heat or high pH. The single stranded

re-form

of DNA

for cell reproduction

and thymine.

composed

are all

is the underlying

is a solid-phase

on solid-supports,

reaction.

chips, and Solution

but unless the assay is a

DNA BASED BIOSENSORS

homogeneous

assay, a separation

or filter hybridization The kinetics measurement

step is required before final detection

is the longest established because

at a solid substrate-solution

there is a dearth of suitable

of the hybridization

process,

The process

methods

considerations,

partly because the exact concentration

acid

its availability

for hybridization

mechanism

of strand association

The kinetics

are unknown

in solid-support

and mechanism

solution

is believed

process.

to be a two-step

is the rate-limiting

process

remains obscure.

approximate

involving

reaction

closely to that of hybridization

in solution.

is only about a tenth to a hundredth

systematically

examined,

to solid

supports

immobilized

it has been suggested

can be impeded

DNA molecules

However,

related

Lack biosensors

of a mechanistic

are now available

discussed

knowledge for research

in depth in the following

kinds

transducers

of optical

include

Raman spectroscope

not

For

example,

the

points along the DNA

a variety

[25].

of DNA

based

as noted in Table 1. Some of the main types are

sections,

DNA BIOSENSORS Several

to

to DNA attached

for hybridization

notwithstanding,

the

[24]. Although

phenomena.

chain, hence some of the attached DNA may not be accessible

up.

can describe

the rate of solid-phase

hybridization

may link to solid surface at several

in

has been assumed

of that in solution

that efficient

by several

and zippering

equation

on solid surfaces

hybridization

have been

[23]. Hybridization

nucleation

step, and a second order reaction

The nature of the hybridization

from

nucleic

the actual

acid single strand hybridization

widely studied only in cases where both strands are in free solution Nucleation

are

to predict

of the immobilized

[22]. Furthermore,

hybridization

of nucleic

interface

for the continuous

is also difficult

theoretical and

[ 19,201. Solid phase

and the most often used [21].

of nucleic acid hybridization

still not well understood

45

BASED

transducers

fluorescence

ON OPTICAL

can form

[26-281,

[32] as discussed

TRANSDUCTION

the basis

surface

of a DNA

plasmon

resonance

biosensor.

Such

[29-3 1,401, and

separately below.

Fiber Optics The fluorescent of DNA anthridium)

solution, visible

The fluorescent

strongly

and, in some absorption

DNA stain ethidium bromide (EB) is a commonly

[4143]. cases,

maximum washing

spectrometry.

EB-intercalated

associates

ethidium

with dsDNA

the major groove

The fluorescence

DNA. Biosensors

of dsDNA

EB, and measuring intensity

can be designed

used dye for the detection

(3,8-diamino-6-phenyl-5-ethyl-phen-

by intercalation

of the double

of 510 nm; detection

off the unbound

cation

helical

into the base stacking structure

is achieved

by exposing

the fluorescence

is directly proportional to use this principle.

region

[41]. EB has an it to an EB

intensity

by UV-

to the amount

of

46

Z. JUNHUI, C. HONG and Y. RUIFU

Table 1. Types of DNA biosensors. Transducer

Biological

Type

Reference

Element Optical

DNA

Fiber optics

Piunno et al. [26]

Optical fiber

Piunno et al. [27] Hirschfeld Surface plasmon resonance Biomolecular

Resonant

[28]

Watts et al. [29]

mirror

interaction

analysis

Nilsson et al. [30]

BIAcore

Wood [3 l] Raman spectroscopy

Vo-Dinh et al. [32]

SERG probes

Electrochemical

DNA

Carbon paste Millan et al. [33-351

electrodes

Piezoelectric

DNA

Frequency

et al. [36]

Campbell

Crystals

Okahata et al. [37] Acoustics

One of the first biosensors optical fiber was developed icosanucleotides

for direct analysis

bis-succinate

(dT2g) were grown terminated

The synthetic

phosphoramidite hybridize fluorescent fiber,

methodology.

(APTES)

The

complementary

EB stain. The sampling

resulting

in an intrinsic

onto which

covalently

a spacer

ssDNA

immobilized (cDNA)

The hybridization configuration

mode

assay techniques

of 83 % fluorescence

acid

onto optical fibers. The fibers were first derivatized arm of l,lO-decanediol

5’-0-dimethoxytrityl-2’-deoxythymidine

to form dsDNA.

standard hybridization sensitivity

with

by use of an

ssDNA thymidylic

was

route used to grow the ssDNA was the well established

with available

local environment

of DNA hybridization

by Piunno et al. [26]. Single stranded

with y-aminopropyltriethoxysilane attached.

Su et al. [25,38,39]

Crystals

optical

which

were

The non-optimized

increase

to

into the

by the use of the

utilized total internal reflection

sensor.

able

was introduced

event was detected

to provide a detection

intensity

oligomers

covalently solid-phase

within the

procedure

used

limit of 86 ngmL_’ cDNA, a

per 100 ngmL_’

of cDNA

initially

DNA BASED BIOSENSORS

present,

and a hybridization

prolonged

analysis

41

time of 46 min. The sensor

storage (3 months) and severe cleaning conditions

Future work is likely to use fluorescent immobilized

ssDNA

when intercalated the presence

via 5’ derivatization. ssDNA.

The tethered

probe

portability

because of the reduced demand for external solution treatment.

surface of the fiber. Chaotropic the regenerability pathogenic

salts decrease

of the biosensor.

a sensitivity

This work

is now being

(PCR)

harmful.

or nucleic

are under investigation.

Resonant

Mirror

methods,

with hot

strands

from the

should improve

extended

to detection

such as those usin g surface

high compared

assays.

replacement

wave guides, have been extensively

is an evanescent

of

for EB is available,

plasmon

resonance

developed

wave sensor which has been designed

(SPR)

time,

and monomode

in recent years. The resonant mirror to combine

the simple construction

sensitivity of wave guiding devices. Detection [44], and protein-cell

mirror device has been reported. rapid detection immobilized

of DNA-DNA

hybridization

on the sensor’s

(40-mer)

surface

to

was

shown

be

[29]. Biotinylated

was monitored sequence

position

of complementary

response

obtained.

was investigated. dependence

sequence

The potential

under

to direct and

oligonucleotide

probes were

conditions

A comparison and the length

of

allowing

of probe

affected

of the sensor’s

response

low

on the concentration

the assay as an end-point

stringency.

reuse without

a

that the relative the hybridization

data, the lowest amount of hybridized

Utilizing

at the sensory

of a hybridized

directly was 19.9 fmol~mm-2 (263 pg.mm-‘)

was established.

of a complementary

of probes indicated

of the sensor for quantitation

From radiolabellmg

which could be determined oligonucleotide

activity

been applied

and hybridization

probe was possible,

of enzyme-

[29] by the resonant

in real time. The interaction

specific

of the surface-immobilized loss of hybridization

interactions

has recently

surface, via streptavidin,

target oligonucleotide Regeneration

This technology

EB is

but promising

of SPR devices with the enhanced [44], antibody-antigen

it has

with polymerase

At the same

substrate

The

a

Washing

cDNA

of DNA, under ideal conditions

acid hybridization

So far no effective

substances

significant

provide

and offer greater

duplex stability and, hence,

of 5 to 50 ng DNA which is not particularly

notoriously

dielectric

for removing

EB is often used for visible detection

reaction

Optical

should

absorption,

bacteria [26, 271.

Although chain

by non-specific

is also being investigated

yields

and near zero quantum yields in

fluorescent

in the response salt solutions

after

directly onto

have high quantum

reduction chaotropic

time, be unaffected

immobilized

would

into the base stacking region of dsDNA

of immobilized

active

(sonication).

probes covalently

Such probes

remained

DNA target

target sequence

of sensor’s of probe

determination

surface.

and target method,

Z. JLJNHUI,C. HONG and Y. RUIFU

48

the lowest detectable compared

concentration

of target oligonucleotide

favorably with methods described

(40 mer) was 9.2 nM which

previously.

Raman Spectroscopy Raman spectroscopy for chemical

is a useful tool for chemical

group identification,

low sensitivity;

hence,

sources for excitation. recent observation when

Vo-Dinh

[32] reported

was added

Negative

immobilized

detection.

surfaces (SERS)

while

spectroscopy

were placed in sihconized

1.5 mL microfuge

a great

consisted

for the

tubes. Distilled

by washing

three

times

with

SSPE-20X

solution

at 40°C in hybridization containing

water

by gentle

of labeled DNA that was not complimentary overnight

on

potential

to boil on a water bath. The water was then removed

controls

based

filters containing

2 ng.mL-’ of the labeled probe [32]. DNA which did not hybridize

temperature.

In 1994,

probe

Raman gene (SERG)

having

[32], mtrocellulose

because of the

[45]. This modified

These surface-enhanced labels,

laser

by factors of up to 1OS

of a new type of DNA

DNA. The filters were incubated

containing

metal

is its

and costly

attention

In the work reported

and brought

aspiration.

powerful

can be enhanced

Raman scattering

the development

the use of radioactive

DNA to be hybridized

to the solutions

was removed

0 1 % SDS

at room

Results showed that the SERG probe could have a wide variety of applications acid identification

SERS probes. The resulting and viral

components.

biological

detection

Biomolecular

Interaction

biosensor

often

resonance

(SPR)

used,

is also feasible.

requires expensive

for

However,

this

instrumentation

biomolecular

have made real-time BIAcore

monitoring

(Pharmacia of changes

are proportional

are shown in a ‘sensorgram’

can be labeled

to

hybrid

chemical-

and it is slow. Its use

Analysis

for detection

surface. These changes

of DNA fragments

is unlikely

in instrumentation

technology

stoichiometric

in PCR

methodology

contiguration

Developments

Thus, single strands

SERG probes may be used to identify genes or detect bacterial

Use

in a biosensor

biosensor

efficiency

on or near special

Raman scattering

and selectivity.

require

capability

Raman spectroscopy

this method has attracted renewed

is adsorbed

do not require

sensitivity

in nucleic

often

is known as surface-enhanced et al.

surface-enhanced probes

measurements

that Raman scattering

a compound

technique

of conventional

effective However,

analysis because of its excellent

One limitation

as resonance

Biosensor), in refractive

(BIA)

is based

using

[30]. The

on surface

plasmon

index

over time at the sensory bound to the surface, and

units (RU) plotted against time. From the results,

interactions,

a lesser extent to study DNA-protein

analysis

events possible

to the mass of molecules

and kinetic data for the interaction

primarily to study protein-protein

interaction biological

can be determined.

e.g., antibody-antigen

interactions

and DNA-DNA

BIA has been used

recognition

[ 151, and to

hybridizations

[30,3 11. In

DNA BASED BIOSENSORS

Wood’s

work [31] a reaction

ligand to the derivatized

surface was prepared

in BIAcore

proceeded

Although

in a liquid

mechanically difference internal

software.

brought

Monochromatic

reflectance

recorded Response

interface

surface,

monitored

by the

injected.

occurred.

avidin

Control

as the reaction

detection

of specific

system comprising

enzymes

routinely

DNA manipulations hybridization, hybridization maintained

total

Concomitant

to and

reaction was carried out at biotinylated

prior to injection. commensurate

that identically

Hybrid with

the

sized, but dissimilar

base probe.

Nonspecific

This was the first

within a fluid flow system in less

further, not only for DNA hybridization

and enzymatic

unit operations

modification.

and enzymatic

solid-phase

and manipulation

mutations

of RU

was

about

approach

and the performance

was

of different

of DNA. In addition,

a concept

in DNA samples was described.

All these

15,100

onto the sensor’s

this value for at least 500 s.

A model

could be assembled

Using this system, the biosensor gene assembly

system

biology, e.g., DNA

modifications.

were linked to value changes of RU. For example, was injected

DNA fragments

streptavidin-biotin

in molecular

was used; the oligonucleotides

DNA fragment.

of single-point

the baseline solution

of the

as RU, of 100 roughly

surface was not observed.

kinetics,

used for the synthesis

for the determination

results

surface using the high-affinity

six oligonucleotides

to analyze multistep

showed

this technology

hybridization

into a 69-bp double-stranded employed

as a function

[31].

onto a biosensor DNA

giving

hybridization

used to monitor different

separation,

system.

(mol wt lOO,OOO-120,000 daltons).

with the biotinylated

but also for DNA strand separation

and subsequently

optical

occurred.

expressed

were prehybridized

surface

did not hybridize

et al. [30] boosted

were immobilized

the

by were

within the metal surface. This change

antibody

experiments

than 10 min at room temperature kinetics,

of

was reflected

A response,

of DNA directly to the reaction

of real-time

reaction

delivered

using a separate diode array for each of the four channels

DNA oligonucleotides

captured

Nilsson

matrix,

were

fed by

bound to a SO-nm gold surface,

glass

at the reaction

of reactants

and positive signals were obtained within 7 min. In addition,

oligonucleotides

attachment

strand

the

to 1 % per mm2 monoclonal

concentrations

account

to the dextran

may vary with the protein used [31]. The hybridization

were

of a

of the glass and liquid layer. A part of the resulting

as reactions

and complementary

DNA

bound amounts

wave energy was generated

electronically

room temperature

coupling

Each chamber was individually

surfaces,

with

of light was

graphically

were

Microliter

contact

indices

evanescent

corresponded

ligands

Reaction

light, deflected

was monitored

pairs

in

in refractive

reflectance,

primary

environment.

operator-programmed

by covalent

dextran matrix located on a sensor chip surface. Four areas of the

chip surface were used as unique reaction chambers. a fluid channel.

49

for oligonucleotide

(no hybridization);

140 s after

surface, the RU rose to 17,400 and

Z. JUNHUI, C. HONG and Y. RUIFU

There exists the possibility with BIAcore.

Already,

using

and monoclonal

probes

of using ‘real’ samples for DNA hybridization

the ability to target portions of DNA responsible antibodies

procedures

as tools,

variations

in hybridization

presented

by Nilsson et al. [30]. Nevertheless,

sized but dissimilar capture

oligos

specific hybridization

interaction

However,

BIA can also be used to determine

and the simplicity

of the technique

its dissolved

detected

using

reversibly caused

complement

redox-active

are reversibly

binding specificity advantages

even for applications

produced

an immobilized

metal/polypyridine DNA.

complexes

The presence

DNA.

(III) perchlorate

reducible

The

that associate

peak currents

than are observed

studied

complexes

the

and tris(2,2’-bipyridyl)cobalt

paste electrodes

modified

immobilized

and N-hydroxysuccinimide

voltammetry

of

solutions

vs

V

coupling

reagents

bound.

acid and

residues [34].

of either octadecylamine

containing

SCE over

have shown

onto carboxylic

through deoxyguanosine

by inclusion

which

of 0.317 V and

of +1.2 V to -0.9

acid were used as solid phases to which DNA was covalently by

potentials

for

tris(l,lO-

(III) perchlorate,

glassy carbon electrodes

can be covalently

carbodiimide

be and

strand

authors

that this reaction is selective for immobilization

that could selectively

of the

to their cobalt (II) forms with formal

that oligo- and polydeoxynucleotides

probe sequence

strand

double

Studies with oxidized

groups using water-soluble

double

employing

bound to the surface

of the immobilized

which DNA is electroinactive.

detected

where

in the DNA layer near the surface

in much larger voltammetric

single-stranded

biosensor

of the immobilized

well within the window

was

for

TRANSDUCTION

was covalently

Hybridization

0.085 V vs SCE, respectively,

Carbon

surface, with no

and analyte concentration,

of a DNA sequence-selective

of the metal complex

and it resulted

phenanthroline)cobalt

from the ability to

at the sensor’s

ON ELECTROCHEMICAL

[33-351.

with double-stranded

immobilized

responses

difficult to analyze with other methods.

A DNA probe sequence

electrode

preconcentration

electrode,

that derives its versatility

can provide

development

transduction.

of an amperometric with

BASED

[33] attempted

electrochemical

gave

are well established.

DNA BIOSENSORS Millan e/al.

of DNA

[30].

kinetics which are frequently

methods

as

of an identically

in real time, making BIA an ideal technique

measuring

conventional

of specificity,

the validity of the method. In addition,

in mass concentration

is followed

many as those

occurred in less than 10

evidence

concentrations

technique

through changes

analyte labeling. The interaction

reinforced

concentrations

BIA is a powerful

monitor interactions

The supporting

at differing

with the respective

Real-time

Although

binding to the avidin layer, and no interaction

DNA oligonucleotide,

of prehybridized

commensurate

evident.

exist, none are as simple and straightforward

min within a flow stream at room temperature. shown by lack of nonspecific

is patently

reactions

for defined factors

or stearic

Immobilized

submillimolar

quantities

DNA of

DNA BASED BIOSENSORS

Co(bpy)3(C104)3,

Co(phen)3(C104)3,

l,lO-phenanthroline),

all of which

and Os(bpy)3-Cl2 associate

increased

peak currents at DNA-modified

modified

electrodes

concentrations

in the

immobilization carbodiimide

was performed surface.

reaction

Optimization

for

surface, yielded

following

stearic

These

poly(dA)4000

optimal

mM NaCI), and by voltammetry poly(dA)4000

in a separate

NaCl). Results indicated

was obtained,

chain reaction

product.

fibrosis AF508 sequence Apparently needing

such constructs

groups on the

was immobilized

with dG residues

analyte

at low ionic strength

exposure

(20

of the electrode

at high ionic strength

At high ionic strength,

to

(0.5 M

a detection

limit of 2.5 ng of

to 250 pg of a typical 400-bp polymerase to the selective

transduction-based

and a voltammeter;

with

at the

at low ionic strength and fast (110 min)

in an 18-base oligodeoxynucleotide

detection

of the cystic

sample.

DNA sensors

however,

are easy to construct,

the sensitivity

and specificity

of

is poor.

DNA BIOSENSORS Piezoelectric

following

step conducted

which corresponded

electrochemical

selective

water-soluble

were used to study hybridization

The results were applied

only two electrodes

(dG-)

using

elongation

of 60 pM Co(bpy)3(ClO4)3

hybridization

poly(dA)4000

electrodes,

length (poly (dT)4000)

slow (~1 h) hybridization

at high ionic strength.

deoxyguanosine-

enzymatic

of same complex,

hybridization

and at high DNA

4.5 % (w/w) stearic acid and 10 pgmL_’

average

electrodes

in situ voitammetry

DNA and yield

reagents to activate carboxylate

following

phen =

onto octadecylarnine-

carbodiimide,

of the

proportions:

electrodes

DNA-modified by

with immobilized Immobilization

acid-modified

acid of 4,000-base

at stearic acid-modified

(bpy = 2,2’-bipyridine;

using a water-soluble

and N-hydroxysulfosuccinimide

DNA. Polythymidylic 3’-end.

reversibly

electrodes.

51

materials

BASED

ON PIEZOELECTRIC

TRANSDUCERS

have been used in a variety of configurations

as microgravimetric

detectors,

and their general theory and use has been well reviewed

[3,4,46]. They offer an

attractive,

near-universal

event,

changes

in detector

of mass

changes

molecular using

of transducing

mass that accompany to
mass substances,

piezoelectric

compared

mode

the biorecognition

analyte binding are sufficiently

IS possible

in liquid

media

this provides for a viable transduction

crystals

have

been

developed

more

but only if the large. Resolution

and, at least for high

strategy. DNA biosensors

extensively

[25,36-39,47-511

to other types of transducers.

Piezoelectric

transducers

and ultimately

the advantages

Attention

to date has been mainly on AT-cut quartz crystals as the piezoelectric in a ‘microbalance’

the possibility

of a solid-state

inertness,

can function

durability,

also offer

chemical

construction,

of low cost mass production.

mode. In order to carry out a measurement,

material that an external

voltage is used to deform the quartz crystal plate so that there is relative motion between the two parallel

crystal

surfaces

(thickness

shear),

crystal

relaxation

and oscillation

at the

Z. JUNHUI, C. HONG and Y. RUWU

resonant

frequency

then being maintained

change in frequency by the Sauerbrey

by means of an appropriate

external circuit, The

(Afj resulting from any added mass (Am) to the device can be described

equation

[52]. Thus, at least to a first approximation,

the change

per unit area of the crystal is directly proportional

to the change in frequency.

basic assumptions

and various modifying

proposed

DNA weights.

underlie this relation, however,

to account for deviations sequences

in both gas- and liquid-phase

of even a few hundred

It seems likely, therefore,

might be detectable immobilizing Nucleic

acid

strands

were

crystal.

When

covalently these

devices.

with complementary

form duplexes

resulted

attached

probe

frequency

complementary

Those encouraging

may be useful as a non-radioactive

strands association

means of identifying

measurements

as a decrease

were performed

generates

electrode

local deformations

array [46]. Interaction

alters SAW speed and amplitude,

al. [25,38,39]

described

Single-strand

DNA labeled

surface of palladium membranes

was quantified

of acoustic

of thickness

solution

conditions.

by scintillation

correlate

with the values obtained

single-strand

species

obtained

irz situ from acoustic

value predicted interfacial unoptimized

with real-time network

by the Sauerbrey

viscosity technique

originating

analysis.

expression. from

duplex

was 2 ng of on-surface

to DNA biosensors was adsorbed

obtained

to these

in the gas phase did not of cDNA to the

by the 32P technique.

in the series resonant

The frequency

This behavior formation.

to the

and nylon

acid attached

labeling. Hybridization changes

to a

material

image analysis. Measurement

on the sensor surface was also determined

added mass could be correlated

in

mass. Su el

wave sensors

The mass of nucleic

by radiochemical

waves

of the deposited

acoustic

count and phosphor

of the mass on sensors by acoustic wave sensor response

in

using the principle

as mechanical

primer method

shear-mode

the

Similar

array of electrodes

wave with any surface

wave techniques

with 32P by the random

electrodes

under various

substrates

that are transmitted of the generated

that the method

assays were performed

can also be achieved

hence enabling quantification

the application

of several

in the dry state.

of the surface acoustic wave (SAW). In such devices, an mterdigitated the material

then

of probe and target to

as well as qualitative.

in another study [36] The hybridization

receiver

of a

and

DNA and RNA. Furthermore,

solution, but the frequency

material

surface melted

results suggest

and the results are quantitative

with piezoelectric

this by

relative to control crystals on which non-

results were also achieved Mass detection

were

in mass that was detectable

hundred hertz in the crystal’s resonance

crystals used are inexpensive,

with DNA hybridization

the mass change after hybridization.

target strands m solution,

strands were attached.

molecular

Fawcett et al. accomplished

to the polymer-modified

immobilized

in an increase

[46].

base pairs have considerable

ssDNA onto quartz crystals and detecting

piezoelectric incubated

piezoelectric

theories have been

operation

that the mass change associated

by employing

in mass

A number of

The

was altered

was ascribed limit

18 times the to changes

of detection

added nucleic acid. In addition

The

frequency in

of the

to the series

DNA BASED BIOSENSORS

resonant frequency,

other parameters

have been measured

on a real-time

[25]. Nucleic

the concentration

acid was attached

devices

to produce

a biosensor

frequency

for interactions

nucleic acid binding decreases

approximately conveyed

information

for some conditions measured determining

resistance

and particularly

shear-mode

(TSM) devices

to examine

nucleic acid hybridization

hybridization

changes

as surface

[37,38].

process

free

at the sensor-solution frequency

has centered

examined.

The process as measured

theoretical

second order reaction in solution and one-step

calculated

on thickness-shear-mode

interface change

Mark-Houwink

constant, conditions.

hybrids were observed

on the role

rate constants

has been employed in attempts to build a

viscosity

to the DNA change

in the

of pPT-2 cDNA probe wave sensors

mechanism were

in

of the thickness-

was related

(TSM) acoustic

of the

morphology

by this device did not conform to the generally

order effective

under the hybridization

and

frequency,

the DNA concentration-dependent

immobilized

also

devices remains uncertain

energy

the series resonant

to ssDNA

interactions

is reduced due to dampening

acoustic wave decay length region [38]. The kinetics of hybridization

filter. The pseudo-first

of

in terms of

at the interface.

of piezoelectric

in the liquid phase [54-561. This technique

through

in series

for the drugs was

for nucleic acid-drug

viscosity,

The series resonant

wave

of the two drugs. Concentration-dependent

normal to the surface. Recent research such

has

were indicative

showed that the limit of detection

[53]. In the liquid phase, sensitivity

the response,

DNA biosensor

products

frequency

of liquid phase operation

parameters

The decreases

of DNA with both cis- and transplatin

about the chemistry of the macromolecules

wave component

of interfacial

drugs.

acoustic

The results of a kinetic analysis were interpreted

lo-’ M. Motional

The mechanism

This technique

drug binding to DNA

of thickness-shear-mode

for the platinum-based

of the hydrolysis

of series resonant

hybridization.

of an anticancer

to the electrodes

resonant

two distinct kinetic processes.

from network analysis, such as the motional resistance, basis during interfacial

been applied to the determination

53

have been assumed

on a typical membrane

(8.0 * 0.5) x lo-’ s-l. The

a, was 1.8, and the intrinsic viscosity was 9 x lo4 (M-l) Inflection

during continuous

points due to the formation

measurements

of series resonant

of intermediate frequency

with

time.

CONCLUDING As indicated research. analysis,

above, over the last ten years, there has been a great surge in DNA biosensor

Much of this work has focused

transducers.

Optical

based

transducer-based

on surface

reliable and desirable

plasmon

on fiber optic, electrochemical,

biosensors resonance

tool for DNA biosensor

A pretreatment because

REMARKS

single-stranded

process

acid

increasing

(SPR) technique,

perhaps

and piezoelectric attention.

BIA

offers the most

configuration.

is often needed

oligonucleic

are receiving

to detect a sample with a DNA biosensor probes

can

only

hybridized

to

their

Z. JUNHUI, C. HONG and Y. RUIFU

complementary from

sequence:

samples

(enzyme)

single-stranded

is required

methods.

by mechanical

Initially,

[57], thermal,

Then nucleic acids must be denatured

When only very low concentrations technique,

target DNAs.

of target nucleic

(SDS),

acid

or biological

using thermal or other measures.

acids is available,

a well-developed

detection,

With the recent advent of DNA probe technology, interact with the DNA of important

have been used to provide selective,

stable,

chemically

biological

a new type of selective

biorecognition

elements,

for biosensor

DNA based biosensor antibodies

is highly

as compared

to other

antibodies.

or other selective

of a truly rapid, sensitive,

proteins,

easy-to-use

procedure

It usually [Zl], thus,

many DNA biosensors

we remain optimistic

will now

a simple, fast, and inexpensive

to other recognition

and disposable

As a result,

development.

suited to routine use still remains to be developed.

stability of DNA relative

These

which

great effort has gone into reducing

As noted in this review,

results within an hour [27,29-3 1,331. Nevertheless,

high chemical

element

filter hybridization

is often thought of as slow. However,

oligomers

have been identified.

such as catalytic

takes about 20 hours or more to finish a traditional DNA biosensing

species

in the laboratory

DNA probes may now be exploited

the time of DNA hybridization.

a number of selective

biorecognition

and can be easily synthesized

synthesized

species-specific

produce

chemical

of nucleic

the PCR might be used to amplify the target DNA to a level that is suitable for

biosensor which

release

elements

Considering

the

such as enzymes,

about the near-term

possibility

DNA biosensor.

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