Dagg Transnational Civil Society Riker Gg Workingpaper1

Advancing Theory and Informing Practice in Transnational Civil Society: Toward Meaningful North-South Research Collaborations By James V. Riker August 2003 Global Governance Working Paper No. 1 The Democracy Collaborative University of Maryland-College Park www.democracycollaborative.org

Advancing Theory and Informing Practice in Transnational Civil Society: Toward Meaningful North-South Research Collaborations James V. Riker,1 ABSTRACT: With the growing importance of non-state and civil society actors engaged in advocacy beyond the state, there is a critical need for systematic theorization of transnational civil society that synthesizes the ongoing scholarly research and goes beyond to take fuller account of the theoretical perspectives and practical experiences of researchers and practitioners around the world. This study provides an initial survey of research, educational, training, and practitioner-scholar engagement initiatives about transnational civil society in the North and South. The study explores possible models for fostering mutually supportive and meaningful North-South research collaborations that advance theory and inform practice in transnational civil society. KEY WORDS: global civil society, transnational civil society; transnational networks; transnational coalitions; transnational social movements; North-South research collaborations.

INTRODUCTION In the late-twentieth century, contemporary world politics has seen the increasing importance and vital role of non-state, non-governmental, and civil society actors at the international, transnational, and global levels. A growing body of research is now 1. Correspondence should be directed to James V. Riker, Associate Director, The Democracy Collaborative, 1230 Tawes Hall, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742-7255, USA, e-mail: [email protected]

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emerging on the dimensions of transnational civil society and its relevance for understanding political and social change (Smith et al., 1997; Keck and Sikkink 1998; Florini, 2000; Scholte, 2000a; Iriye, 2002; Edwards and Gaventa, 2001; Anheier et al., 2001, 2002; Khagram et al., 2002a; Batliwala, 2002). There is a need for systematic theorization of transnational civil society that synthesizes the ongoing scholarly research and goes beyond to take fuller account of the theoretical perspectives and practical experiences of researchers and practitioners around the world. This survey highlights the key conceptual issues, leading disciplinary and inter-disciplinary perspectives, and primary actors characterizing and contributing to research on transnational civil society. This paper provides an initial assessment of the research, training, and policy initiatives that broadly support the analysis and development of transnational civil society. The focus of this survey is to assess how to best build on and to expand existing research that contributes to advancing theory and informing practice about transnational civil society. Specifically, this study makes the case for expanding the scope and for improving the quality of research on transnational civil society by identifying priority themes, geographical areas, and activities for collaboration among university academic centers, think tanks and independent research institutes, transnational networks and international non-governmental organizations (INGOs) in both the North and South. The main questions guiding this survey include: what is the present (non-) state of research on transnational civil society? What are the main findings and what are key gaps in the research to date? What are the leading centers of expertise on transnational civil society, in terms of university academic centers, think tanks and independent research institutes, transnational networks and international non-governmental organizations, and professional associations? What are these centers presently doing on transnational civil society in terms of ongoing research, training, practitioner engagement, policy analysis, professional development, and activism? Finally, what are possible models for meaningful North-South research collaborations that advance theory and inform practice about transnational civil society? A useful framework is to distinguish between the leading theoretical approaches, definitions and conceptual issues. International civil society is conceptualized as an extension of domestic politics to the international realm of non-state, voluntary actors

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such as nongovernmental and civil society groups that interact across states (Ghils, 1992; Colás, 2002; Merle, 2002). The emphasis on transnational civil society focuses on interactions of non-state, voluntary actors across multiple national boundaries, but recognizes that the scope and density of civil society varies across space (e.g., geographic regions) and issue area (e.g., sectoral issues). It is conceived as a fragmented and contested space or “arena of struggle” shaped by non-state, voluntary actors interactions and relations with states, corporations, international institutions, and other actors (Keck and Sikkink, 1998, p. 33). Global civil society is the sphere of civic activity characterized by citizen action on global issues, trans-border communication, and solidarity that transcends the nation-state (Scholte, 2000a). By asserting the allencompassing nature of civic activity, it inaccurately implies that the contours of civil society are spread evenly across the globe. The empirical evidence to date suggests that the density and distribution of civil society organizations varies across geographic regions. Research within and across disciplines in the social sciences and beyond have addressed various aspects of transnational civil society. This survey is based on a review of the (mainly English-speaking) scholarly literature. The great majority of the literature on transnational civil society has come from scholars and practitioners with training in the social sciences from the North. The growing literature on transnational phenomena has taken distinctive conceptualizations in different disciplines, ranging from transnational communities in the field of anthropology to global civil society in political theory and sociology (see Table 1 below). Beyond these main academic disciplines, there are also useful multi- and inter-disciplinary perspectives on transnational phenomena. Given that much of the work to date has been within disciplinary boundaries, there is a critical need to compare and juxtapose the various concepts, and to identify promising and productive ways to connect and integrate the analysis of transnational phenomena across disciplines. What are the primary actors in transnational civil society that engage in non-state advocacy at the transnational level? Four different forms of non-state actors – international non-governmental organizations (INGOs), transnational advocacy networks, transnational coalitions, and transnational social movements – are the main actors in

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transnational civil society characterized by different degrees of connection, coordination, and mobilization (Keck and Sikkink 1998; Khagram et al., 2002b). These four actors can be viewed as ascending levels of transnational collective action.2 International non-governmental organizations (INGOs) are defined as voluntary, nonprofit groups that have representation and decision-making structure that draws on multiple countries and that seek to influence issues that are cross-national or international in scope (Keck and Sikkink, 1998; Khagram et al., 2002b). INGOs increasingly play an advocacy role in a wide range of global public policy networks that define and shape global policy and practice from human rights to human development and security (Reinicke, 1999/2000). Transnational advocacy networks (TANs) are the most informal form of non-state, transnational collective action. The networks are sets of actors linked across country boundaries, bound together by shared values, dense exchanges of information and services, and common discourses (Keck and Sikkink, 1998; Khagram et al., 2002). TANs rely on information exchange and shared values as the basis for informal as well as formal network activity. Networks do not involve either sustained coordination of tactics, as with coalitions, or mobilizing large numbers of people in the kind of activity we associate with social movements. Transnational coalitions engage in a greater level of coordinated activity than TANs. Transnational coalitions are sets of actors linked across country boundaries that coordinate shared strategies or sets of tactics to influence social change (Khagram et al., 2002b, p. 7). The shared strategies or sets of tactics are identified as transnational campaigns, which may take the form of boycotts, buycotts, or policy initiatives. This level of coordination of tactics requires a more formal level of contact than a network, because groups usually need to meet to identify and agree upon these shared tactics, to strategize about how to implement the campaign, and to report regularly to each other on campaign progress. Given the various successes in a number of issue areas to date ranging from human rights, to peace, and the anti-dams coalitions, the role of transnational coalitions will likely increase. A key research issue is how adaptable and

2 This section on the four main actors draws directly from Khagram, Riker, & Sikkink, 2002b, p. 7.

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durable will transnational coalitions be in addressing other issue areas (e.g., labor, conflict prevention) as well.

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Table 1: Key Concepts of Transnational Phenomena by Academic Discipline Academic Discipline

Representative Works

Anthropology

Key Concepts of Transnational Phenomena Transnational Communities

Development Studies

Transnational Civil Society

Florini, 2000; Edwards & Gaventa, 2001.

Education

Transnational Civil Society

Mundy & Murphy, 2001.

International Relations

International Civil Society

Ghils, 1992; Peterson, 1992; Merle, 2002.

Transnational Civil Society

Keck & Sikkink, 1998; Florini, 2000; Ghils, 2000; Khagram et al., 2002a.

Transnational Politics and Contention

Appadurai, 1996; Boli & Thomas, 1999; Riles, 2000.

Risse-Kappen, 1995; Tarrow, 2001, 2002. Lipschutz, 1992, 2000; Wapner, 1994, 1996, 2000; Walzer, 1995; Lipschutz with Meyer, 1996; Falk, 1998, 2000; Scholte, 2000a; Norris, 2002.

Political Theory

Global Civil Society

Sociology

Transnational and Global Social Movements

Smith et al.,1997; Cohen & Rai, 2000; O’Brien et al., 2000; Tarrow, 2000; Smith & Johnston, 2002

Sociology

Global Society

Shaw, 1994.

Transnational Public Sphere

Habermas, 1996; Guidry et al., 2000.

Interdisciplinary Perspectives

Global Civil Society

Salamon et al.,1999; Anheier et al., 2001.

Interdisciplinary Perspectives

Civic Globalism

Boulding, 1988; Barber, 2000; Naidoo, 2000; Myers, 2001.

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Transnational social movements are sets of actors with common purposes and solidarities linked across country boundaries that have the capacity to generate coordinated and sustained social mobilization in more than one country to publicly influence social change. A full-fledged, transnational social movement is defined as transnational collective action whereby groups in at least three countries must exercise their capacity to engage in joint and sustained mobilization (Khagram et al., 2002b, p. 7). In contrast to transnational networks and coalitions, transnational social movements mobilize their (transnational) constituencies for collective action, often through the use of protest or disruptive action (Khagram et al., 2002b). Transnational social movements are the most difficult and rare form of transnational collective action (cf., Tarrow, 2000). Transnational social movements have mobilized citizens to advocate for debt relief, democratic governance, human rights, peace, sustainable development, and women’s rights (Smith et al., 1997; Edwards and Gaventa, 2001; O’Brien et al., 2001; Khagram et al., 2002a). Thus, to the extent that they are effective in achieving social change, transnational social movements with their capacity for popular mobilization and disruption offer the possibility for having a greater impact than other forms of transnational advocacy. Due to strong ties of solidarity for coordinated action among its constituencies, transnational social movements will also likely exhibit a higher level of transnational collective identity. What are key resources and bases for transnational collective action? Ultimately, the power of transnational civil society groups to affect political and social change is in the art of persuasion. Through the strategic use and framing of information, and the mobilization of economic resources and political support, transnational civil society groups exert influence on states, businesses, and international institutions. To the extent that they have broad-based, accountable representation with effective performance, these organizations command legitimacy. In what arenas and issue areas has research on transnational civil society advocacy advanced collective understanding about the state of practice? Table 2 below provides an initial summary of leading analyses of key issue areas where transnational civil society advocacy has contributed to advancing theory and informing practice. The issue areas range from democratization and governance, environment and natural resource

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management, global economy trade, human rights, labor rights, peace and conflict prevention, to women and gender justice. There are signs that linkages across issue areas are now being forged. For instance, increasingly transnational civil society groups working on human rights, development, and environment are converging in a rights-based approach to development (Nelson, 2002b). In addition, there are attempts to link and integrate peace-keeping, humanitarian relief, and human security issues as well (Shaw and Mbabazi, 2002). Undergirding this analysis is the importance of understanding how macro institutional and political structures affect the possibilities for agency by transnational actors to foster durable political and social change in any issue area. This survey has identified four distinct areas for key research issues. First, and foremost, further research must address important theoretical issues. This means clarifying key conceptual and definitional issues about transnational vs. global phenomena and processes in civil society beyond the state. Specifically, how do we understand the relationship between social structures and agency in terms of macro-micro linkages? Second, there are important normative issues that also must be addressed. The emphasis is on the norms and values that guide the conduct of transnational civil society actors. What are the factors that affect the legitimacy of transnational civil society actors (e.g., internal vs. external democratic practices)? To what extent do the practices of transnational civil society actors conform to normative theory? When and where do the deviate, and why?

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Table 2: Key Issue Areas of Transnational Civil Society Research Issue Area

Key Research Findings

Key Research Needs And Gaps

Representative Works

Democratization and Governance

•

Transnational • advocacy and social mobilization has contributed to, in certain contexts, democratizing the practices of states and international institutions.

Asymmetries in power relations require the development of effective democratic mechanisms for representation, deliberation and decision-making among transnational actors, states, and international institutions.

Schwartzman, 1998; Barber, 2000; Falk, 2000; Kumar, 2000; Holden, 2000; Anderson, 2002; Baker, 2002; Etzioni-Halevy, 2002; Mbabazi et al., 2002; Riker, 2002; Rikkila & Sehm Patomaki 2002.

Environment and Natural Resource Management

•

Transnational advocacy can strengthen environmental governance and practices of states and international institutions.

•

How can transnational civil society actors, states, business and international institutions create effective governance mechanisms and forms for environmental protection?

Lipschutz with Mayer, 1996; Wapner, 1996; Khagram, 2002; Rootes, 2002; Ford, 2003.

Global Economy and Trade

•

Transnational advocacy and mobilization has targeted the economic policies and practices of states and international institutions.

•

What are the main organizational bases for transnational advocacy to affect the forms and trajectory of economic globalization?

Gills, 2000; Broad, 2002; Scholte & Schnabel, 2002; Smith & Johnston, 2002.

Human Rights

•

Effective transnational advocacy has led to the creation and promotion of norms for human rights.

•

Under what conditions does transnational advocacy leads states and international institutions to adopt and to enforce human rights norms?

Keck & Sikkink, 1998; Risse et al., 1999; Brysk, 2002; Frost, 2002; Khagram et al., 2002.

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Issue Area

Key Research Findings

Key Research Needs And Gaps

Representative Works

Labor Rights

•

Transnational labor activism has, in particular contexts, contributed to enhancing labor rights by targeting and monitoring the policies and practices of corporations and states.

•

What are the political and economic conditions for effective organizing, solidarity, and advocacy by transnational labor networks?

Waterman, 1998; Kidder, 2002; Munck, 2002.

Peace and Conflict Resolution

•

Transnational civil society actors can play critical roles in resolving conflicts, promoting human security, and supporting peacebuilding initiatives.

•

Further research is needed on effective mechanisms and roles of transnational civil society actors in promoting conflict prevention and peacebuilding.

Smith et al., 1997; Shaw & Mbabazi, 2002.

Women and Gender Justice

•

Transnational civil society actors engaged in gender justice are promoting a distinctive genderbased perspective and identity with new norms for ensuring and protecting women’s rights.

•

What are effective mechanisms and forms for promoting gender justice that enable broad representation and are accountable?

Keck & Sikkink, 1998; Riles, 2000; True & Mintrom, 2001.

A third area for research is to assess the impact that transnational civil society groups have on fostering political and social change. How do we understand and analyze the forms of power and influence that these groups have in different contexts? For example, differences in domestic structures help account for variations in the policy impact of transnational actors (Risse-Kappen, 1995:25). In the process of gauging the impact of

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transnational non-state actors in influencing political and social change, it is important to review and strengthen various methodological approaches for the analysis of transnational phenomena. Several key research questions emerge: How to gauge and measure the influence of transnational civil society organizations in influencing norms, expectations, and policies? How does the political environment shape the possibilities for transnational civil society advocacy? For instance, as states or international institutions seek either to mobilize or to demobilize transnational civil society actors, what are the implications for democracy, participation, and collective action? Are the efforts of transnational civil society actors promoting democratization or not? How, and to what extent, are transnational social movements fostering durable systemic change in power structures at the transnational and national levels? Finally, further research is needed to address the institutional and policy issues that affect the possibilities for strengthening transnational civil society. What mechanisms (e.g., codes of conducts) and infrastructure can strengthen transnational civil society as a whole? What are the lessons for building effective coalitions, campaigns, and social movements? What are the institutional possibilities for fostering effective relations (i.e., collaboration) among governments, businesses, and transnational civil society actors? A SURVEY OF LEADING CENTERS ON TRANATIONAL CIVIL SOCIETY What are the leading research centers with expertise on transnational civil society in the North and South? What are key areas that each center is engaged, in terms of research, training, teaching, practitioner-scholar engagement, and policy development? This survey represents an initial review of the leading academic centers, think tanks and research institutes, transnational networks and INGOs, and professional associations that have a demonstrated substantive focus on transnational civil society. Please note that this list does not include the many individual scholars, independent researchers and practitioners who work on transnational civil society, but are not affiliated with a leading center, think tank or organization. The leading academic centers presently engaged in research and training on transnational civil society are predominantly located at universities in the North, principally in Europe and the United States, but also including Australia, Israel, and

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Japan (see Table 3). These 18 academic centers represent a wide range of conceptual approaches, disciplines, and varied research and educational agendas. Recognizing the importance of linking research to practice, the majority of academic centers have explicitly developed activities to foster some form of practitioner-researcher engagement (Brown, 2001). Several academic centers have developed special Masters and Ph.D. level degree programs to meet the particular professional needs of prospective students and practitioners. Further analysis is required to ascertain the specific composition (e.g., gender, nationality) and profile of students (e.g., previous educational and professional experience) in these graduate level programs and how they are applying their professional skills and knowledge of transnational civil society upon graduation in academic centers, think-tanks, and transnational networks and international organizations. For a list of leading of northern academic centers see Table 3. In the developing world or South, a number of academic centers address domestic dimensions of civil society in their respective countries, but just a few academic centers have ongoing research and training that explicitly address the transnational dimensions of civil society. Significant asymmetries exist among the research capacities of Northern and Southern academic centers in terms of funding, trained scholars and researchers, and supportive institutional infrastructure (Fowler, 2002). While individual scholars in the South are engaged in research on various aspects of transnational civil society, few are affiliated with academic centers that support their research. These dynamics have important implications for building institutional capacity in each of the developing regions. The key issue is what opportunities are available to promising scholars, researchers and practitioners to pursue high-quality graduate education and training on transnational civil society at academic centers in the South. Concerted effort is needed to encourage the development and training of a new generation of scholars, researchers and practitioners from the South who provide valuable theoretical perspectives and insights derived from their experiences in engaging in transnational civil society. For a list of four leading southern academic centers see Table 4. Around the world, several leading think-tanks and independent research institutes have ongoing research initiatives focused on various aspects of transnational civil society. Think tanks and research institutes can play vital roles in undertaking research and

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engaging in public policy advocacy in a number of issue areas (Stone et al., 1998; Stone, 2002; Struyk, 2002). In addition to research, several of these organizations are involved in transnational advocacy and campaigns focused on addressing economic globalization, human rights, and the role of multilateral institutions such as the IMF, World Bank and WTO. Table 5 provides a list of leading think tanks and research institutes engaged in research on transnational civil society. Several leading transnational networks and international non-governmental organizations (INGOs) have also established ongoing research and programmatic initiatives focused on analyzing power relations, mobilizing the resources, and strengthening the strategies and practices of groups in transnational civil society to foster political and social change. These organizations all have extensive formal and informal links to other networks and organizations around the world engaged in transnational advocacy on a wide range of issues from democratic governance, food security, human rights, reforming economic globalization and trade, global governance, poverty eradication, and social welfare policies. Table 6 presents a list of leading transnational networks and international non-governmental organizations engaged in research on transnational civil society. Beyond existing disciplinary professional associations, several interdisciplinary professional associations offer scholars and, to a lesser degree, practitioners venues to come together regularly to address and to support research about various aspects of transnational civil society. More should be done by leading academic centers to strengthen the quality and to increase the visibility and profile of research on transnational civil society in these professional associations. In addition, more concerted efforts are required to bring scholars, graduate students, practitioners and activists, especially from the South, to these professional associations to help shape and inform the research agenda on transnational civil society. The most promising professional associations for interdisciplinary, cross-regional analysis on transnational civil society include: The Association for Research on Nonprofit Organizations and Voluntary Action (ARNOVA) is the leading interdisciplinary professional association in North America for research on civil society. ARNOVA organizes an annual meeting and sponsors the

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journal Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly. A special issue of the journal in 1999 focused on how Northern NGOs are adapting to the challenges of globalization in providing humanitarian relief and promoting development initiatives around the world. There is a critical need to increase the level of international and transnational research from the South at its annual conference. Concerted efforts are needed to recruit and to support the participation of international graduate students and scholars to affirm and validate the importance of transnational civil society research. One proposal would be to organize a special section on international and transnational civil society so that panels, keynote, and award sessions are specifically devoted to this important field of study (Web site: <www.arnova.org>). The International Society for Third Sector Research (ISTR) is the leading international, interdisciplinary professional association on Third Sector and civil society research that organizes bi-annual conferences and periodic regional meetings, and sponsors the journal Voluntas. Participation by international scholars and researchers has been generally good (especially with fellowship and travel support), but more concerted efforts are required to increase the participation of practitioners, especially from the South. In May 2002, ISTR, Voluntas, and the Centre for Development Studies at the University of Bergen in Norway jointly convened a research workshop on global civil society that led to the December 2002 issue of Voluntas (Web site: <www.istr.org>). The International Studies Association (ISA) has over 3,000 members principally from North America and Europe, with mainly scholarly representation from over 65 countries. ISA organizes an annual convention and publishes two journals. The main sections that have regularly organized and supported research on transnational civil society include Environmental Studies, Global Development, and International Organization. More efforts are required to enable scholars, graduate students, and practitioners from the South to participate in the annual and relevant international and regional meetings (Web site: <www.isanet.org>). The Society for International Development (SID) is an international nongovernmental network consisting of 65 local chapters, 55 institutional and 3,000 individual members in 125 countries. SID organizes a major world congress every three years and publishes the journal Development: Seeds of Change, which has featured

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perspectives on transnational civil society from Southern scholars and practitioners as well as dialogues about North-South collaboration. This association deliberately draws on development professionals and practitioners from both the South and North in terms of governance and participation (Web site: <www.sidint.org>). The Union of International Associations (UIA) facilitates understanding about new forms of international association and transnational cooperation by conducting research on nonprofit international organizations and international non-governmental networks. UIA publishes the interdisciplinary journal Transnational Associations, which focuses on the major issues affecting international nongovernmental organizations, and the Yearbook of International Organizations, which provides an annual review and database of over 31,000 nonprofit international organizations and serves as a comprehensive “guide to global civil society networks” (Web site: <www.uia.org>). TOWARD NORTH-SOUTH RESEARCH COLLABORATIONS What are the possibilities for fostering the development of multi-institutional collaboration among leading academic centers, think tanks and research centers, transnational networks and INGOs, and professional associations that are engaged in transnational civil society and are committed to address this theme through research, teaching, practitioner engagement, and/or activism? A key priority is to develop meaningful forms of collaboration that enable scholars, researchers, and practitioners from academic centers and practitioner organizations in both the South and North to participate as equals in the formulation, design, implementation and evaluation of transnational civil society research. Special attention should be given to the specific objectives, forms, and themes of collaboration and how they build and enhance the capacity of centers in the South to engage in research, teaching, training, advocacy, policy analysis, and professional development. Accordingly, the research perspectives and insights of Southern participants should be addressed upfront in defining the elements for successful collaboration. Three possible models are presented to initiate ideas and to facilitate discussion about the specific objectives, forms, and thematic areas for fostering meaningful North-South research collaborations focused on transnational civil society.

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A first possible model is to create a transnational civil society research network comprised of academic centers and practitioner organizations in both the North and South. A deliberate effort should be made to connect and to expand the growing number of scholars, researchers, and practitioners engaged in transnational civil society research. This means building on the ongoing research initiatives of academic centers, think tanks, and transnational networks and international nongovernmental organizations engaged in transnational civil society. Given the diversity of existing research approaches and initiatives already underway around the world, the emphasis would be to build on the complementary strengths of each center and organization to support joint research, development of methodological approaches, a research exchange and information network, practitioner-scholar engagement, and professional development. Specifically, the main components include: developing collaborative research initiatives across centers on shared themes from diverse perspectives that advance theory and inform practice on transnational civil society; testing and documenting innovative methodological techniques for analysis of transnational civil society (e.g., participatory action research, process tracing); facilitating joint exchange, discussion and dissemination of research findings by developing a coordinated, web-based capacity with links to multiple sites (both academic and practitioner focused) around the world to enable broad usage; enhancing practitioner-scholar engagement through knowledge generation, reflection, and practice that links practitioner organizations with academic centers; and supporting high-quality training and networking of scholars and researchers by providing professional development opportunities through exchanges, fellowships, and participation in professional associations and networks. A second possible model is to create a capacity-building network for research and training on transnational civil society. A concerted long-term effort is needed to develop and to strengthen the research and training capacities of academic centers, transnational networks, and international nongovernmental organizations engaged in transnational civil society research. In addition to building the research and training capacities of existing centers and organizations on transnational civil society, it will mean developing new potential academic centers and practitioner organizations in under-represented areas of the world (e.g., Africa, Asia, Eastern Europe, Middle East, Latin America). Specifically,

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the main components include: building and strengthening the research capacity of existing and new academic centers and transnational civil society actors, especially in the South. Academic centers and practitioner organizations should jointly formulate in shared research initiatives (with applied components, see below); developing the teaching and training program for the next generation of scholars and practitioners with an emphasis on inter-generational mentoring and learning; designing, testing, and exchanging curricular and research training materials; focusing on exchanges of both practitioners and scholars to facilitate effective and innovative practice; and strengthening the capacity for policy and political analysis of the possibilities and obstacles for fostering durable political and social change. Another promising model for collaboration would be to create scholar-practitioner research networks that directly inform and strengthen advocacy strategies and effective practice in transnational civil society. First, these research networks could collectively engage in either regional groupings that link academic centers with practitioner organizations based on relevant regional or sub-regional interests (i.e., Africa, Asia, Eastern Europe, Latin America), or in sectoral and thematic groupings that link academic centers with practitioner organizations based on relevant sectoral or thematic interests (e.g., democratization, environment, globalization, human rights, sustainable development, trade, etc.). Second, practitioners and scholars in both the North and South can be productively engaged in creating ongoing research networks that directly support practitioner initiatives focused on issue-based action such as campaigns. For example, the transnational advocacy campaigns of practitioner-based organizations can be enhanced by linking to other practitioner organizations and academic centers with expertise on the particular issue area (e.g., environmental protection, human rights). The emphasis would be on how to improve the effectiveness of transnational campaigns by stimulating analysis and reflection about strategies and lessons from previous and ongoing efforts. Third, practitioner-based organizations are experimenting with a number of participatory action research methodologies in the field. Academic centers can learn from the ongoing experiences of practitioner-based organizations and can provide additional support in the forms of curricula and training materials on participatory methodologies, and assist in testing various techniques in the field working

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collaboratively with practitioner-based organizations. Finally, there is a critical need to strengthen the political and policy analysis capacities of practitioner-based organizations to evaluate and to reflect critically on the impact of their transnational advocacy in terms of influencing policy and contributing to political and social change. Scholars and researchers from academic centers can work with practitioner-based organizations to enhance analysis and strategic thinking about the obstacles to, effective interventions for, and appropriate indicators for broader social change. Together these models offer possible steps toward creating meaningful North-South research collaborations for advancing theory and informing practice in transnational civil society.

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TABLE 3: Leading Academic Centers in the North Center for Civil Society Studies, Johns Hopkins University, MD, USA

Transnational Civil Society Themes • Global Civil Society

www.jhu.edu/~ccss

Main Research Areas • Comparative Nonprofit Law • Dimensions of the International Third Sector

Practitioner-Scholar Engagement

Education, Teaching, & Training

Key Publications

•

•

Certificate in Nonprofit Management International Fellows Program Partnering for Results Institutes M.A. in Policy Studies

•

Concentration in Leadership and Management in Nonprofit and Community-Based Organizations Developing Executive Education Program

•

Master of Science in Voluntary Sector Organization Master of Science in Management of Nongovernmental Organizations Ph. D. in Social Policy Ph.D. Dissertation Network

•

•

Comparative Dimensions of Nonprofit Sector Global Nonprofit Information System Project

• • •

Center for Civil Society, School of Public Policy and Social Research, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA)

•

Global Civil Society

www.sppsr.ucla.edu/ccs /default.cfm Centre for Civil Society, London School of Economics, UK www.lse.ac.uk/collectio ns/CCS/

• • •

• •

Global Civil Society

• • •

• •

•

Measuring Global Civil Society Globalization Governance & Organization of Transnational Civil Society International Philanthropy Measuring Global Civil Society (yearbook) NGOs and Development Governance & Organization of Transnational Civil Society European Union & the Third Sector Accountability & Ethics of International Civil Society Organizations

•

•

Governance & Organization of Transnational Civil Society

• •

• •

•

•

• •

Global Civil Society: Dimensions of the Nonprofit Sector (1999) Working Paper Series

Global Civil Society (2002) Working Paper Series

Global Civil Society Report (2001) In Search of Civil Society (2001) Working Paper Series

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Centre for Democratic Institutions, Research School of Social Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra, AUSTRALIA

•

International Civil Society

• • • • •

www.cdi.anu.edu.au/

Centre for Development Studies, University of Bergen, Bergen, NORWAY

•

Transnational Civil Society

• • •

www.svf.uib.no/sfu/wel come.htm Centre for the Study of Globalization & Regionalization, University of Warwick, UK

• •

• • •

Global Civil Society

• • •

www.warwick.ac.uk/csg r/

• • •

Center for the Study of Voluntary Organizations & Service (CSVOS),

•

International Civil Society

•

Accountability Civil Society Advocacy Governance Human Rights Judicial Process & Law Media Parliamentary Processes

•

Civil Society Building Development Aid Dimensions of Transnational Civil Society Human Rights Poverty Alleviation

•

Civil Society Building Global Economic Institutions Measuring Globalization and Its Impacts Globalization & Social Exclusion Global Civil Society Transnational Social Movements

•

International Dimensions of Nonprofit Sector

•

•

•

Democracy Learning Circles NGO Leadership, Management Training NGO Policy & Advocacy Training

•

Leadership Training Seminars

•

•

NGO Leadership Courses Degree programs in existing academic departments

•

M.A. and Ph.D. degrees in academic departments

•

•

•

Civil Society Promotion of Democracy in the Global Economy

•

Masters of Public Administration

•

•

•

Working Paper Series

• •

•

Master of Public Policy – Public Management &

Angels of Mercy or Development Diplomats: NGOs & Foreign Aid (1998) Working Papers

Civil Society and Global Finance (2002) Contesting Global Governance (2000) Global Social Movements (2000) Non-State Actors & Authority in the Global System (1999) Working Paper Series

•

Practitioner Training: Executive

Bringing Democracy into International Law Newsletter

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•

Georgetown University, DC, USA

Education Program

World Values Survey

www.georgetown.edu/g rad/gppi/scholarship/fa culty/csvos.html

The Democracy Collaborative, University of Maryland, MD, USA

• • •

Transnational Civil Society Global Civil Society

• • •

www.democracycollabo rative.org • • • • • •

Graduate School of Public & International Affairs (GSPIA), University of Pittsburgh, PA, USA www.gspia.pitt.edu/

•

•

Transnational Civil Society

• • • •

Civic Globalism Civil Society Building Comparative Research on Performance of Democratic States Democratic Governance & Empowerment Global Civic Infrastructure Human Rights Minorities at Risk Transnational Social Movements Transnational Dimensions of Terrorism

•

Accountability of International NGOs Global Governance Human Rights Transnational Civil Society Advocacy

•

•

•

PractitionerScholar Reflection focused on Systemic Change (in collaboration with The Advocacy Institute) Democratic Empowerment Learning Network International Roundtables on Civic Globalism

•

Specialized Masters concentration in nonprofit management

•

Nonprofit Studies Track Executive Certificate in Nonprofit Management Executive Masters of Policy Management •

M.A. and Ph.D. degree programs in Democracy Studies under development

•

• •

•

Master of International Development Masters & Ph.D. Degrees in Public and International Affairs

• •

The Theory and Practice of Civic Globalism (2001) Learning from Reflective Practitioners and Engaged Academics (2002) Globalization, Terror, and Democracy (forthcoming) Working Paper Series

Newsletter Working Paper Series

22

The Hauser Center for Nonprofit Organizations, Harvard University, MA, USA

•

Transnational Civil Society

www.ksg.harvard.edu/h auser/

• • • •

• • Institute for Development Studies (IDS), University of Sussex, UK

•

Global Civil Society

• •

www.ids.ac.uk/ids/civso c/index.html

• • •

Institute of Social Studies (ISS), the Hague, NETHERLANDS www.iss.nl/index.html

•

Global Civil Society

• • • •

Accountability of International NGOs Building Transnational Civil Society Human Rights International Alliances & Transnational Coalitions Transnational Social Movements Women and the Informal Economy Analyzing Nature & Functions of Civil Society Civil Society and Governance Globalization Institutional Learning & Change Participation in Politics and Governance

•

Global Governance Democratization Regionalization Transnational Social Movements (Anti-globalization, Labor, Women)

•

•

• •

Fostering PracticeResearch Engagement Women in Informal Employment Globalizing and Organizing (WIEGO)

•

Participatory Research & Action (PRA) Networking and Capacitybuilding

•

•

• •

• •

Diploma program for practitioners

Master in Public Administration – Nonprofit Management

• • •

Masters of Philosophy in Development Studies M.A. in Governance & Development M.A. in Gender Studies

•

M.A. in Development Studies Ph.D. in Development Studies Diploma program for practitioners

•

•

• •

The Struggle for Accountability: The World Bank, NGOs, and Grassroots Movements (1998) Practice-Research Engagement (2001) Working Paper Series

Global Citizen Action (2001) Working Paper Series

Globalization, Social Movements, and the New Internationalism (1998) Global Futures: Shaping Globalization (2001) Working Paper Series

23

Institute of Commonwealth Studies (ICS), University of London, UK

•

Global Civil Society

•

International Civil Society

• •

www.bgu.ac.il/ICTR/

Network Institute for Global Democratization, Faculty of Humanities, The Nottingham Trent University, UK

• • • • •

www.sas.ac.uk/common wealthstudies/

Israeli Center for Third Sector Research, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, ISRAEL

•

• •

Global Civil Society

• • • •

www.nigd.org

•

The Dante B. Fascell North-South Center, University of Miami, FL, USA

•

Transnational Civil Society

• • •

Civil Society Building Democratic Governance Globalization Human Rights Regionalization Transnational Social Movements

•

Civil Society Development Dimensions of the Third Sector (Israel) Peace-Building & Conflict Resolution Building Global Civil Society Democratization and Global Governance Globalization Global Taxation and Redistribution (Tobin Tax Research & Campaign) World Social Forum Democratic Governance Government-NGO Collaboration Sustainable

Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative (CHRI) & Network

•

•

Association of Third Sector and Civil Society Researchers in Israel

•

• •

•

M.A. in Human Rights Masters of Science in Globalization & Regionalization

•

Working Paper Series

•

M.A. and Ph.D. degrees in academic departments

•

Mobilizing for Peace: Peace/Conflict Resolution in South Africa, Northern Ireland and Israel/Palestine, (2002)

North-South Dialogues on Democratizing Globalization Network offices in Finland, Peru, and UK. Founding member, International Council of the World Social Forum

•

M.A. and Ph.D. degrees in academic departments

•

We, the Peoples of the World Social Forum (2002) Global Democracy Initiatives: The Art of the Possible (2002) Democracy and Globalization: Promoting a North-South Dialogue (2002) Democratising Globalisation: The Leverage of the Tobin Tax (2001)

Seminars and Incountry training for practitioners

•

•

• •

•

M.A. and Ph.D. degrees in academic departments

•

Health Care Reform in Central America: NGO-Government Collaboration in Guatemala and El

24

www.miami.edu/nsc/in dex.html

• • •

School for International Training (SIT), Vermont, USA

•

Transnational Civil Society

• •

www.sit.edu/civil_societ y.html • • • •

Development Trade & Regional Integration Transnational Civil Society (Latin America) Transnational Crime & Terrorism Civil Society Building & NGOs Civil Society, Business and Government Collaboration Learning and Organizational Change Peace & Conflict Transformation Sustainable Development Transnational Civil Society Advocacy

•

Diploma program for practitioners

• •

•

Social Science Research Institute, International Christian University, JAPAN subsite.icu.ac.jp/ssri/

•

Transnational Civil Society

• • • •

Civil Society Building Democratic Governance Peace and Security Sustainable Development

•

International Symposiums cosponsored with the Institute for the Study of Social Justice, Sophia University

•

•

Salvador (2003) Working Papers

Master degree in NGO Leadership & Management M.A. degrees in Conflict Transformation; International Education; Social Justice in International Relations; Sustainable Development; Intercultural Service Leadership & Management Masters of Science in Organizational Management

•

Working Paper Series

M.A. and Ph.D. degrees in academic departments

•

The Journal of Social Science Monograph Series

•

25

TABLE 4: Leading Academic Centers in the South Centre for Civil Society, University of Natal, SOUTH AFRICA

Transnational Civil Society Themes • Transnational Civil Society

www.und.ac.za/und/c adds/ccs.htm Centre for Applied Legal Studies (CALS), University of Witwatersrand, SOUTH AFRICA

•

Transnational Civil Society

• •

Transnational Civil Society

www.upd.edu.ph/~tw sc/

• • • •

www.ippur.ufrj.br/ht m/home.htm

Third World Studies Center, University of the Philippines, THE PHILIPPINES

•

•

www.law.wits.ac.za/c als/ Institute for Urban & Regional Research & Planning, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, BRAZIL

Main Research Areas • Civil Society Capacity-building • Democratic Governance • Globalization • Transnational Social Movements

• • •

Global Civil Society Transnational Civil Society

• • • • •

Practitioner-Scholar Engagement

Education, Teaching, & Training

Key Publications

•

•

M.A. and Ph.D. Degrees in academic departments Doctoral and Postdoctoral Fellowships

•

Newsletter

Degree programs in the Law School

• •

South African Journal on Human Rights Bulletin

Online forum for African civil society issues

•

Civil Society & Legal Advocacy (AIDS, gender, labor, land rights) Democratization & Legal Reform Human Rights

•

Civil Society Capacity-building Democratic Governance Global Economic Governance Transnational Social Movements Urban Poverty & Development

•

Civil Society & the Globalization Discourse Democratization Peace & Security People’s Power Governance &

•

•

•

• •

Human Rights Training Seminars Public Interest Litigation

•

Anti-dams movement Civil Society Seminars for World Social Forum

•

M.A. and Ph.D. degrees in Urban and Regional Planning

•

Working Paper Series

Asian Peace Alliance Democracy Agenda Training Policy Dialogues and Seminar Series

•

International Certificate Course on Globalization Studies M.A. and Ph.D. degrees in academic

•

Civil Society Making Civil Society (1997) Democracy & Citizenship State-Civil Society Relations in Policy Making (1998)

•

• •

26

•

Organization of Transnational Social Movements Transnational Corporations

departments

27

TABLE 5: Leading Think Tanks & Research Institutes

Transnational Civil Society Themes

Main Research Areas

Program Areas and Activities

Arias Foundation for Peace and Human Progress, San Jose, COSTA RICA

•

•

Civil Society Advocacy for Social Change Conflict Prevention Demilitarization & Human Security Democratic Governance & Development Gender & Development Human Rights & Law

•

Civil Society Advocacy Democratic Governance Globalization Human Rights Peace & Security Sustainable Development & Eco-Tourism Trade & Transnational Corporations Transnational Social Movements

•

Transnational Civil Society

• •

www.arias.or.cr/Eind ice.htm

• • •

Institute for Policy Studies (IPS), DC, USA www.ips-dc.org/

•

Transnational Civil Society

• • • • • • • •

• • •

• •

Data Base of Central American NGOs Formation of a Democratic Culture in Central America Gender and Development Initiatives International Code of Conduct on Arms Transfers

Campaign for Migrant Domestic Workers Rights Global Economy Project focuses on trade & corporations Sustainable Energy & Economy Network

Leadership Development & Training Initiatives • Training Sessions on NGO Advocacy Strategies

Key Publications

•

•

Social Action & Leadership School for Activists (SALSA)

• •

• •

Directory of Civil Society Organizations in Central America (1998) Reports & Working Papers

Alternatives to Economic Globalization (2002) Field Guide to the Global Economy (2000) Reports & Newsletters

28

Japan Center for International Exchange (JCIE), Tokyo, JAPAN

• •

Global Civil Society Transnational Civil Society

www.jcie.org

• • • • • •

Civil Society Capacity-Building & Advocacy Civil Society Watch Democratization Global Governance Human Rights Transnational Social Movements

•

•

• •

Lokayan, Delhi, INDIA

•

Transnational Civil Society

www.lokayan.org

North-South Institute, Ottawa, CANADA www.nsi-ins.ca

• • • • •

•

Transnational Civil Society

• • •

Civil Society Democratic Governance Globalization Human Rights Transnational Social Movements

•

Civil Society & Multilateral Institutions Enhancing Gender Equality Global Development Cooperation

•

• •

• •

Global ThinkNet, an international collaborative network of independent policy research institutions focused on global and regional policy studies and forums CivilNet focuses on Civil Society Development in the Asia Pacific Civil Society Monitor (Japan) International Partnership at the Grass-roots Level

•

Anti-Dams Movement Anti-Nuclear Movement Civil Society Advocacy targeted toward Multilateral Institutions (IMF, World Bank, World Commission on Dams, WTO)

•

Dialogue Meetings

•

Lokayan Bulletin (journal)

The Rise of Nongovernmental Voices in Multilateral Organizations Gender & Economic Reform in Africa New International Architecture:

•

Conferences, seminars, and workshops

•

Canadian Development Report (Annual) Civil Society Voices & the IMF (2002) Civil Society & Global Change (1999) We the Peoples: A Call to Action for the UN

Political Exchange Programs among government and civil society leaders

• • • • •

• • •

Corporate-NGO Partnership in Asia-Pacific (1999) Globalization, Governance, and Civil Society (1998) Governance and Civil Society in a Global Age (2001) The Role of Non-State Actors in International Affairs The Third Force: The Rise of Transnational Civil Society (2000)

29

• • • Transnational Institute, Geneva, SWITZERLAND

•

Transnational Civil Society

www.tni.org

• • •

• • • • •

• Third World Network, Penang, MALAYSIA www.twnside.org.sg

•

Transnational Civil Society

• • • • • •

Reforming the Global Economic System

Global Governance Sustainable Development Transnational Civil Society Advocacy Civil Society Advocacy Democratization Energy, Food , Agriculture, Forestry & Water Policies Globalization Global Economic Governance Human Rights Trade & Global Development Transnational Corporations & International Financial Institutions Transnational Social Movements Civil Society Advocacy Democratic Governance Global Economic Governance Global Environmental Change Human Rights Sustainable Development

• •

• • • • •

• • • • • •

•

Alternative Regionalisms Asia-Europe Relations: Democratization and Human Rights Drugs and Conflict Energy & Development GATSWatch Migrant Workers Rights Advocacy targeted toward Multilateral Institutions (IMF, World Bank, WTO)

•

Biotechnology & Biodiversity Environment Global Financial and Economic Crisis Trade Rules and WTO Transnational Corporations Women’s Rights and Empowerment

•

•

Conferences, seminars, and workshops On-line network newsletter

• •

• •

• •

Seminars & Workshops Action Alerts & Statements Position Papers

• • • • •

Millennium Declaration (2002) Review (newsletter)

Notes Toward a New Politics:New Strategies for People Power (2002) The Politics of Civil Society Building: European Private Aid Agencies and Democratic Transitions in Central America (1999) Transnational Alternativ@s (Online journal) TNI Briefing Series

Globalisation and the Crisis of Sustainable Development (2001) Globalisation and the South (2000) Third World Economics (journal) Third World Resurgence (journal) The WTO, the Post-Doha Agenda and the Future of the Trade System (2002)

30

• • Social Watch, Montevideo, URUGUAY www.socialwatch.org

•

Transnational Civil Society

• • •

Trade & Global Development Women’s Empowerment Civil Society Advocacy & Monitoring Globalization Poverty Eradication

• • • •

Gender Equity Monitoring of Health & Social Indicators Poverty Eradication Social Welfare Policies

• •

Advocacy & monitoring strategies Strategies for organizational development & networking

• •

The Social Impact of Globalisation in the World (2002) Social Indicators Database & Country Reports

31

TABLE 6: Leading Transnational Networks & INGOs The Advocacy Institute, Washington, DC, USA

Transnational Civil Society Themes • Transnational Civil Society

www.advocacy.org

Asian NGO Coalition for Agrarian Reform and Rural Development (ANGOC), THE PHILIPPINES

•

Transnational Civil Society

Main Research Areas • Civil Society Capacity-building • Democratic Governance • Human Rights • Tobacco Control and Public Health • Transnational Social Movement Advocacy

Membership & Networks

•

Civil Society Capacity-building Democratic Governance Globalization Food Security and Agrarian Reform Rural & Sustainable Development Transnational Social Movements

•

Civil Society Capacity-Building & Advocacy Civil Society Watch Democratization

•

• • •

www.angoc.ngo.ph

• •

CIVICUS: World Alliance for Citizen Participation, Southdale, SOUTH AFRICA www.Civicus.org

•

Global Civil Society

• • •

•

•

•

Leadership Development & Training Initiatives • Advocacy Strategies and Training • Leadership for Social Justice through Fellows Program • Reflective Practitioner and Engaged Academics Program with the Democracy Collaborative.

Key Publications

Regional association of 20 national and regional networks of NGOs in 10 Asian countries. Its member networks reach an estimated 3,000 NGOs in the Asian region.

•

Advocacy Strategies for Agrarian Reform Participatory Processes for Social Change

•

An international alliance of 507 citizen organizations, 36 donor organizations, and 61 individual associates that convenes the

•

Civil Society Index Civil Society Watch Strategies for Successful

•

An international NGO that works to make social justice leadership strategic, effective, and sustainable in It works with partner NGOs and networks in Africa, Asia, Eastern Europe, and Latin America.

•

• •

• •

• •

• •

Advocacy for Social Justice: A Global Action and Reflection Guide (2001) Become a Leader for Social Justice (2001)

NGO Strategic Management in Asia (1991) The NGO Campaign on the Asian Development Bank (1995) Lok Niti (newsletter)

Practice-Research Engagement & Civil Society (2001) Civil Society at the Millennium (2000) Promoting Corporate

32

Focus on the Global South, Bangkok, THAILAND

•

Transnational Civil Society

• • •

Global Governance Human Rights Transnational Social Movements

•

Civil Society Capacity-building Democratic Governance Global Economic Governance & Globalization Regional & Human Security Sustainable Development Trade & Regional Development Transnational Social Movements Civil Society Advocacy Democratization Food , Agriculture, Forestry & Water Policies Globalization Global Economic Governance Trade & Global Development Transnational Corporations & International Financial Institutions Transnational Social Movements

•

www.focusweb.org

• • • • •

International Forum on Globalization, San Francisco, CA, USA www.ifg.org

•

Global Civil Society

• • • • • • •

•

CIVICUS World Assembly every two years.

Communications •

•

•

• •

A research network of advocacy organizations, researchers, and scholars in the South

•

An alliance of 60 leading activists, scholars, economists, researchers and writers formed to stimulate new thinking, joint activity, and public education in response to economic globalization. IFG represents over 60 organizations in 25 countries IFG has established 9 research projects and committees on various aspects of globalization

•

•

Civil society organizing & agenda-setting for the World Social Forum

•

Public Forums on Alternative Policy Agenda to Economic Globalization Advocacy Campaigns focused on the International Financial Institutions

•

• •

•

Citizenship: Opportunities for Business & Civil Society Engagement CITIZENS: Strengthening Global Civil Society (1994) The Future in the Balance: Essay on Globalization and Resistance (2001) Research and Policy Papers Bulletin

Alternatives to Globalization (2002) VIEWS FROM THE SOUTH: The Effects of Globalization and the WTO on Third World Countries

33

Society for Participatory Research in Asia (PRIA), New Delhi, INDIA

•

Transnational Civil Society

• • •

www.pria.org

• •

Social Watch, Montevideo, URUGUAY www.socialwatch.org

•

Transnational Civil Society

• • • •

Civil Society Capacity-Building Democratic Governance Participatory Action Research Rural & Sustainable Development Women’s Empowerment

•

Civil Society Advocacy & Monitoring Globalization Poverty Eradication Social Policies

•

•

An international center & network for participatory and democratic empowerment PRIA has formed a network of regional support organizations called the Network of Collaborating Regional Support Organizations

•

An international network of 200 leading citizens organizations dedicated to eradicating poverty

•

• •

•

Participatory training programs for strengthening civil society leadership Citizen advocacy & monitoring Women’s empowerment

• •

Advocacy & monitoring strategies Strategies for organizational development & networking

•

• •

•

Civil Society & Governance Participatory Research: Revisiting the Roots Reviving Democracy (2002) PRIA News (Newsletter)

The Social Impact of Globalisation in the World (2002) Social Indicators Database & Country Reports

34

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research was supported by the Democracy Collaborative at the University of Maryland. A previous version of this study was presented at the Workshop on “Research without (Southern) Borders: New Directions for South-North Research Collaborations,” Institute for Commonwealth Studies, School of Advanced Studies, University of London, February 7-8, 2003. I am grateful to Professor Timothy Shaw and workshop participants for helpful comments. REFERENCES Anheier, H., Glasius, M., and Kaldor, M. (eds.) (2001). Global Civil Society 2001, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Anderson, J. (ed.) (2002). Transnational Democracy: Political Spaces and Border Crossings, Routledge, New York. Appadurai, A. (1996). Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN. Appadurai, A. (2000). Grassroots Globalization and the Research Imagination. Public Culture 12 (1), 1-19. Baker, G. (2002a). Civil Society and Democratic Theory: Alternative Voices, Routledge, New York. Baker, G. (2002b). Problems in the Theorisation of Global Civil Society. Political Studies 50, 928-943. Barber, B. R. (2000). Globalizing Democracy. The American Prospect 11 (20), September 11. Batliwala, S. (2002). Grassroots Movements as Transnational Actors: Implications for Global Civil Society. Voluntas 13 (4), 392-409. Boli, J., and Thomas, G. M. (eds.) (1999). Constructing World Culture: International Nongovernmental Organizations since 1875, Stanford University Press, Stanford. Boulding, E. (1988). Building a Global Civic Culture: Education for an Interdependent World, Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, NY. Brecher, J., Costello, T., and Smith, B. (2000). Globalization from Below: The Power of Solidarity, South End Press, Cambridge, MA. Broad, R. (ed.) (2002). Global Backlash: Citizen Initiatives for a Just World Economy, Rowan & Littlefield Publishers, Lanham, MD Brooks, D., and Fox, J. (eds.) (2002). Cross-Border Dialogues: U.S.-Mexico Social Movement Networking, Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California, San Diego.

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