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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH [Course sub-title]
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Acknowledgements Mufulira College of Education wishes to acknowledge the contribut contribution ion of the following members of staff for making the production of this module possible. Mr .D. Nkumbwa Mr.R. Mbewe Mr. K. Moono ( Editor)
CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
Contents About this [DOCUMENT TYPE]
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How this [DOCUMENT TYPE] is structured .................................................................. 1 Course overview
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Welcome to [Add course title here] [Course sub-title] ..................................................... 3 [Add course title here] [Course sub-title]—is this course for you? .................................. 3 Course outcomes ............................................................................................................... 3 Timeframe ......................................................................................................................... 3 Study skills ........................................................................................................................ 4 Need help? ........................................................................................................................ 5 Assignments ...................................................................................................................... 5 Assessments ...................................................................................................................... 6 Getting around this [DOCUMENT TYPE]
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Margin icons ..................................................................................................................... 7 Unit 1
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EXPLANATION OF CURRICULUM ...................................................................................... 9 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 9 Theoretical and functional definitions of education and curriculum ....................................... 10 Further definations of curriculum ............................................................................................ 13 Curriculum determinants………………………………………………………………………………14 Importance of curriculum……………………………………………………………….......................15 Types of curriculum……………………………………………………………………………………17 Aims / objectives of curriculum………………………………………………………………………..18 Principles for curriculum development………………………………………………………………..19 Theories of curricula…………………………………………………………………………………..19 Explanation of curriculum studies……………………………………………………………………..20 Approaches to curriculum studies……………………………………………………………………..21
Unit summary ........................................................................................................................... 22 Assignment ............................................................................................................................... 23 Assessment ............................................................................................................................... 23
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CURRICULUM DESIGN........................................................................................................ 27 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………...27 Pattern of curriculum…………………………………………………………………………28 Currciulum elements / components .......................................................................................... 28 Instructional designs…………………………………………………………………………………...29 Forms of models……………………………………………………………………………………….30
Unit summary ........................................................................................................................... 30 Assignment ............................................................................................................................... 31 Assessment ............................................................................................................................... 31 Unit 3
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CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT ........................................................................................ 34 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 34 Factors affecting curriculum development ............................................................................... 35 The process of curriculum development .................................................................................. 37 Unit summary ........................................................................................................................... 38 Assignment ............................................................................................................................... 38 Assessment ............................................................................................................................... 38 Unit 4
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ADAPTING CURRICULUM .................................................................................................. 39 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 39 The junior secondary school curriculum .................................................................................. 43 Adapting to special education .................................................................................................. 44 Unit summary ........................................................................................................................... 44 Assignment ............................................................................................................................... 44 Assessment ............................................................................................................................... 44 Unit 5
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___________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH...........................................................45 Research for the truth…………………………………………………………………………46 Definitions of research………………………………………………………………………..49 Characteristics of research……………………………………………………………………51 Types of research……………………………………………………………………………..52 Research theories……………………………………………………………………………..55 Importance of theoretical frameworks………………………………………………………..59 Stages of the research process………………………………………………………………...62 Research area / topic………………………………………………………………………….64 Title selection…………………………………………………………………………………68
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Unit 6
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VARIABLE…………………………………………………………………………………………..72 Unit 7
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LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………………………………………..73 Importance of Literature review in research…………………………………………………………..74 Qualities of an effective literature review……………………………………………………………..75 Guidelines in formulating an effective literature review……………………………………………...76 Challenges faced in the formulation…………………………………………………………………..77 Unit 8
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RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………….79 Research design………………………………………………………………………………………..79 Steps to follow in selecting a research / design………………………………………………………..82 Qualities of an effective research design………………………………………………………………82 Guidelines in selecting a research design……………………………………………………………...83 Sampling techniques…………………………………………………………………………………...85 Probability sampling…………………………………………………………………………………...85 Non – Probability sampling……………………………………………………………………………88 Bias and error in sampling……………………………………………………………………………..90 Respondents……………………………………………………………………………………………91 Research instruments…………………………………………………………………………………..92 Unit 9
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DATA COLLECTION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION……………………………………..103 Data collection………………………………………………………………………………………..103 Steps in data collection……………………………………………………………………………….105 Importance of data analysis…………………………………………………………………………..109 Ethical issues in data collection………………………………………………………………………109 Challenges faced in data collection…………………………………………………………………..111 Unit 10
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DATA ORGANISATION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION………………………………….113 Data organisation……………………………………………………………………………………..113 Data analysis………………………………………………………………………………………….119 Data analysis in qualitative research………………………………………………………………….120 Data analysis in quantitative research………………………………………………………………...123 Data presentation……………………………………………………………………………………..126 Graphical representation……………………………………………………………………………...132
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SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS……………………………………135 Unit 12
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REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………………….138 References in the body of the text …………………………………………………………………...139 The number system…………………………………………………………………………………...140 The name – year system………………………………………………………………………………141 Listing of references………………………………………………………………………………….142 Numbering……………………………………………………………………………………………147 Figures and diagrams…………………………………………………………………………………149 Tables and lists………………………………………………………………………………………..149 References…………………………………………………………………………………………….151
CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
About this [DOCUMENT TYPE] CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH[Course sub-title] has been produced by [Add institute name here]. All [DOCUMENT TYPE]s produced by [Add institute name here]are structured in the same way, as outlined below.
How this [DOCUMENT TYPE] is structured The course overview The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course. Information contained in the course overview will help you determine: If the course is suitable for you. What you will already need to know. What you can expect from the course. How much time you will need to invest to complete the course. The overview also provides guidance on: Study skills. Where to get help. Course assignments and assessments. Activity icons. Units. We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before starting your study. The course content The course is broken down into units. Each unit comprises: An introduction to the unit content. Unit outcomes. New terminology. Core content of the unit witha variety of learning activities. A unit summary. Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.
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About this [DOCUMENT TYPE]
Resources For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with a list of additional resources at the end of this [DOCUMENT TYPE] TYPE]; these hese may be books, articles or websites. Your comments After completing completin CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH we would appreciate it if you would take a few moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this th course. Your feedback might include comments on: Course ccontent and structure. Cours Course reading materials and resources. Course aassignments. Course aassessments. C Course duration. Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.) Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this course course.
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
Course overview
Welcome toCURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH[Course sub-title] [Add a general description of the course here]
CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH[Course sub-title]—is this course for you? This course is intended for people who [Add a set of course aims here]. [Add any prerequisites or skills required here].
Course outcomes Upon completion ofCURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH[Course sub-title]you will be able to: Demonstrate knowledge of the terms, concepts, processes and principles relating to Curriculum studies and Educational Research. Outcomes
Acquire and develop Knowledge, skills and positive attitudes in undertaking applied Educational Research.
including
Timeframe [What is the expected duration of this course?] [How much formal study time is required?] [How much self-study time is expected/recommended?] How long?
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Course overview
Study skills As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that from your school days days: you will choose what you want to study study,, you will have professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or domestic responsib responsibilities. ilities. Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a consequence, you ou will need to consider performance issues related to time management, goals goalsetting,stress management, etc. Perhaps you will also need to reacquaint yourself inn areas such as essay planning, coping with exams and using the web as a learning resource. Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage in that learning learning. We recommend that you take time now—before before starting your selfself study study—to to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links are: http://www.how http://www.how-to-study.com/ The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resource resources. You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a good study place), taking notes, strategies for reading text books, using reference sources, test anxiety. http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs. You will find links to time scheduling (including a “where does time go?” link), a stud studyy skill checklist, basic concentration techniques, control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays for analysis, memory skills (“ (“remembering”). http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills, getting the most out of doing (“hands (“hands-on” on” learning) learning), memory building, tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan. The he above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time of writing these web links were active. If you want to look for more go to www.google.com and type “self-study study basics”,“selfbasics”
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
study tips”, “self-study skills” or similar.
Need help? Is there a course web site address?
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What is the course instructor's name? Where can s/he be located (office location and hours, telephone/fax number, e-mail address)? Is there a teaching assistant for routine enquiries? Where can s/he be located (office location and hours, telephone/fax number, e-mail address)? Is there a librarian/research assistant available? Where can s/he be located (office location and hours, telephone/fax number, e-mail address)? Is there a learners' resource centre? Where is it located? What are the opening hours, telephone number, who is the resource centre manager, what is the manager's e-mail address)? Who do learners contact for technical issues (computer problems, website access, etc.)
Assignments [How many assignments are there for this course?] [How are the assignments are to be submitted?] [To whom should the assignments be submitted?] Assignments
[What is the schedule for submitting assignments? End of each unit? Specific dates?] [What is the order of the assignments? Must they be completed in the order in which they are set?]
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Course overview
Assessments How many assessments will there be in this course? Are they self self-assessments or teacher-marked marked assessments? Assessments
When will the assessments take place? How long will the assessments be? How long will learners be allowed to complete the assessment(s)? How long will it take a teacher to mark the assessment(s)?
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
Getting around this [DOCUMENT TYPE]
Margin icons While working through this [DOCUMENT TYPE] you will notice the frequent use of margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text, a new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you to find your way around this[DOCUMENT TYPE]. A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
Unit 1
EXPLANATION OF CURRICULUM Introduction Welcome to unit 1 of this relatively new course in colleges of education in Zambia. This course will expose students to the acquisition of knowledge, skills, processes, values and principles relating to curriculum studies and educational research. Unit 1 however will endeavour to explain the concepts of curriculum, with emphasis on the relationship between education and curriculum, and how the curriculum assists in achieving educational goals. Prospecting teachers you will definitely find this unit interesting because it will also look at acceptable and unacceptable definitions of curriculum, thereby correcting the misconceptions we have had all along on the definitions of curriculum.Colleagues you will agree with me that this is a loaded unit, because it will go further by looking at the importance of curriculum, types of curricula, theories of curricula, detailed explanation of curriculum studies and approaches to curriculum studies. Upon completion of this unit you will be able to: Define education and curriculum Outcomes
Discuss the relationship between education and curriculum
State the curriculum determinants Explain the importance of curriculum Describe the types of curricula Discuss the theories of curricula Explain curriculum studies Describe approaches to curriculum studies.
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Unit 1 EXPLANATION OF CURRICULUM
1.1THEORETICAL THEORETICAL AND FUNCTIONAL DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATION AND CURRICULUM Ladies and gentlemen it is essential for you to know from the onset that curriculum is an area of vital importance to the professional teacher and anyone who is involved in an educational programme especially in a school. Over the past decades the study of curriculum has become an established part of teacher education and all other programmes that are followed by all educationists. Similarly, most educationists have been exposed to the concepts associated with curriculum. However, the understanding of curriculum curriculum would be incomplete without having a clear understanding of education. After all curriculum is the means for achievingeducational goals goals. It is for this reason that in this study you will have to start by understanding what education is. 1.2 WHAT IS EDUCATION EDUCATION?
What is education? May ay be this is not the first time that you have engaged in answering this question. However revisiting your answers to this very important question will be of help to you. If you have no definite answer, the following parag paragraphs phs will help you understand this concept called education. Am sure we are all agreeable that this is hardly a new argument. In ancient Greece, Socrates argued that education was about drawing out what was already with the student (as you may know, the word education comes from the Latin word educere meaning ‘to lead out’). There is a dangerous tendency to assume that when people talk about education they mean the same thing.It is for this reason that a definition for education is important mportant to explore. No single definition or meaning however can be assigned to the term education. Similarly to be educated is a complex process, which cannot be explained sufficiently as an event. Prospecting teachers it is therefore important to be cle clear ar form the onset that without understanding the meaning of the term ‘education’ you can be in no position to explain , assess or evaluate what our institutions of education are doing. Similarly without the conception of what education is, empirical resear research ch into educational effectiveness of programmes and strategies cannot begin. Thus, the understanding of education is key to the study of curriculum since curriculum is the means of achieving educational goals.
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Farrant(1980) education is the total process of human learning by which knowledge is acquired, faculties trained and skills developed. Mbiti (1981) defines education as a deliberate attempt to acquire and to transmit the accumulated, worthwhile skills, attitudes, knowledge and understanding from one generation to the next. Education is therefore a process of acquiring, developing and transmitting desirable accumulated and new knowledge, wisdom, values, attitudes and skills as a result of growth, maturation and learning which can be best utilised for life in a changing society. 1.3 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? Some think it is just a list of things the learner is expected to learn. Many curricula are long lists of topics for individuals to know about; but the curriculum is more than this. Prospecting teachers’ am sure some of us are thinking as stated above. Ladies and gentlemen let us now critically look at the following argument; ‘curriculum has different interfaces because dominant groups of society exert their influences at different levels and these influences are reflected in the curriculum. Are we agreeable that our Zambian curriculum is determined by these influential groups? For instance the new 2015 curriculum in Zambian primary, secondary and tertiary institutions was influenced by both local and foreign factors. Another good example is the secondary school Geography which has changed over the years, with topics on American glaciation and the prairies removed. In this instance it’s the localfactors that exerted pressure on curriculum change. The knowledge that gets into the curriculum is selected and organised around sets of principles and values that come from somewhere, that represent particular views of normality and deviance (Apple, 1990; 63) . Educators define curriculum in different ways in part because they bring to task different perceptions of what curriculum should be. Curriculum was considered by writers on education such as Plato, Aristotle, J.A Comenius and Friedrich Froebel, although the usage of the term has not been popularised until this century. Consider the following selected definitions of curriculum: Curriculum is what is taught in school. To define curriculum as ‘what is taught in schools’ is of course, very vague. Persons often talk about school curriculum in this general way and they tend to mean by this the range of subjects taught and the amount of instruction time given each in terms of hours or minutes. Curriculum is a set of subjects. Curriculum is content. Curriculum defined as ‘content’ is an interesting emphasis and brings into question another term, namely the ‘syllabus’. A ‘syllabus’ is usually a summary statement about the content to be taught in a course or unit, often linked to an external
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examination. It is typically a list of content areas. A syllabus is clearly a subsection of the curriculum. Curriculum is a set of materials. Curriculum is that which is taught both inside and outside of school and directed by the school. To define curriculum as ‘‘that that which is taught both inside and outside school’ school’, directed by the school indicates that all kkinds inds of activities that occur in the classroom, playground and community, comprise the curriculum. This emphasis has merit in that it demonstrates that school learning is not just confined to the classroom. However, you will realise that it seems to indicate that the only important learning experiences are those which are directed by school personnel. Curriculum urriculum is everything that is planned by school personnel. The definition which refers to curriculum as ‘‘everything everything that is planned by school personnel’ is yet another orientation which emphasizes the planning aspect of curriculum. Few would deny that cclassroom lassroom learning experiences for students need to be planned although some unplanned activities will always occur (and these can have positive or negative effects). Educators and Scholars define curriculum in different ways, in part because they bring to that task different perceptions of what curriculum should be. As seen in the previous paragraphs some educators see the curriculum as a list of subjects to be studied, while others see it as an entire course content. Still others perceive curriculum as a set of planned learning experiences offered by teachers. Another group state that curriculum is a written plan of action. My fellow academicians’ am sure we now have assimilated the several misconceptions on curriculum definitions that we have been harbouring in our cognitive structures for years. Let us now try to clean our cognitive structures by inserting the following renowned definitions: The term curriculum is derived from the Latin word currere, which means to run or to run the course. ‘Curriculum may be regarded as a course of study to be followed in the process of acquiring education,’ (Brennan (Brennan, 1986) ‘Curriculum is the planned composite effort of any school to guide pupil learning toward predetermined learning outcomes ((In low, 1966: 7) ‘Curriculum is defined as both content and process, as what is taught in schools and as the process of deciding what to teach.’(Sharpes, 1988:10)
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
‘Curriculum is defined as all learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups or individually or outside the outside the school,’ (Kerr, 1988) Tyler.R (1949), ‘All activities planned and directed by the school to attain educational goals.’ Wheeler D.K. (1967), planned experiences offered to the learner under the guidance of the school.’ According to Sten house (1975) a curriculum is ‘an attempt to communicate the essential principles and features of an educational proposal in such a form that it is open to critical scrutiny and capable of effective translation into practice.’ It is a system of planned activities intended to bring about specific learning outcomes. A curriculum is not just a list of topics. It must itself be an integral part of the educational system and should be the product of a deliberate process of design and development which has included: a) Entry criteria and duration of learning b) Identification of learning needs c) Input from consultation and review d) Planning of the component parts of the training programme and the respective learning outcomes e) Planning for appropriate delivery, resources, assessment and recording f) Planning for evaluation of the learning programme. What can we say so far on the definitions of curriculum? By now each one of us should have a working definition formulated in our own words. Let us all practice and come up with a working definition beforelooking at further definitions of curriculum. 1.4 FURTHER DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM The word ‘curriculum’ was first used by the universities of Leiden and Glasgow to describe the whole programme of studies offered in the universities. Definitions of ‘curriculum’ other than those stated above include: a) The formal curriculum (ideal or recommended curriculum): is what the institution sets out to teach. This is what is proposed by scholars, researchers and evaluators as a solution to meet a need or needs and consequently perceived as the most appropriate curriculum for learners. It is what a nation aspires to achieve. b) The informal curriculum: what the students learn from a variety of sources and interactions while taking part in the activities at the institution: c) The hidden curriculum: is what the students learn but the institution definitely does not intend to teach. According to ( Urevbu, 1990) Hidden curriculum refers to the non-academic but educationally significant consequences of school, e.g. school life teaches obedience to authority, punctuality, neatness, techniques for passing examinations.
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Unit 1 EXPLANATION OF CURRICULUM
d) The entitlement Curriculum: it refers to what society believes, elieves, learners should expect to be exposed to as part of their learning to become effective member of that society. e) The Intended Curriculum: this is what organisations develop for the learners in their educational systems and what should be taught by the th teachers in that system. The term is also used to refer to the knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviours that curriculum developers would like students to learn in school. f) The available or supported curriculum: that curriculum which can be taught in schools through the provision of appropriate resources, both human and material. g) The Implemented or Instructional Curriculum: This is what is actually taught by teachers in their classrooms as they and their learners interact with the intended and availabl availablee curricula. The implemented curriculum is often described in teacher’s scheme of work, lesson plans and student’s notebooks. h) The achieved or experiential curriculum: this is what learners actually learn as a result of their interaction with the implemente implemented d curriculum. It is what the learner experiences through interaction with the teacher and learning resources. The achieved curriculum includes both the intended and unintended experiences of the learner.
Group Activity i.
Discuss five misconceived definitio definitions of curriculum.
ii.
Show the relationship between education and curriculum.
iii.
Choose one definition of curriculum by renowned scholars which you can adopt as your working definition.
1.5 CURRICULUM DETERMINANTS Curriculum development is influenced by a multitude of factors. Social conditions, the efforts of community groups and parents, foundations, professional associations and agencies, colleges and universalities, government through the Ministry of Education all have a stake in what should be included in the curriculum. The list is endless but below is a list of some of the curriculum determinants: a) Political:: Politics is a science of governing people. Politics of a nation does determine the curriculum to be followed and this is usually dependent on th thee political situation in the country at any given time. Such a political influence would affect the education system. b) Ideology: An ideology is a way of thinking which forms a basis for an economic omic or political system system.. The ideology of the nation will determine the curriculum a country will offer and this will change the way people perceive things. For example, in the second republic an introduction of 14
CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
humanism in all schools and colleges inculcated certain values and beliefs and ultimately to cement these ideologies national service for all school leavers was introduced. This was further institutionalised with the introduction of the citizenship college in kabwe, which later become known as the National Management and Development Studies College. c) Society: A society is an organisation of people with particular interest or purpose. The particular interest people have determines a curriculum to follow; for example, the people of southern province emphasize agriculture whilst those in Luapula province emphasize fishing. d) Religion: Religion is the expression of one’s belief to a super – human controlling power. It is also a particular system of faith and worship. A country like Zambia whose religion is mostly Christianity will have a curriculum that will promote Christianity e) Institutions or colleges: Institutions or colleges are learning places where those committed to books will work towards the discovery of new knowledge. A particular institution will follow a curriculum of what it feels should be offered. With liberation even in education and training, institutions choose what they can offer especially at degree level. Diploma courses have now been standardised with a uniform curriculum. f) Values and norms: Values and norms determine the standard of behaviour in a given school. By upholding good morals this inevitably promotes good values and norms not only in the school but the community as well. g) Available resources:The resources can either be human or non- human resources. For curriculum to be implemented in a given institution, the resources both physical and human should be available. Availability of qualified lecturers, suitable classrooms, furniture and fittings are things one has to consider in determining the curriculum. Curriculum is also loaded with a lot of influences. Let us now examine some of the influences on curriculum so that you understand the genesis of curriculum.
DISCUSSION I. II. III.
What is the meaning of the word curriculum? Can you think of other determinants other than the ones listed above? What do you consider are the benefits of a national curriculum?
1.6IMPORTANCE OF CURRICULUM Ladies and gentlemen after critically looking at the definitions of curriculum iam sure we are now ready to state the importance of the curriculum. Before we
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Unit 1 EXPLANATION OF CURRICULUM
lookat at what other scholars have written, le lett us in our respective groups discuss the following:
GROUP ACTIVITY:
In your respective groups discuss the importance of the curriculum. In your discussions come up with about ten points. Well how were the discussions? Let us now compare your points with the following points analysed by different scholars; I.
II.
The curriculum identifies the learning outcomes, standards and core competencies that students must demonstrate before advancing to the next level level.
III.
Teachers play a key role in developing, implementi implementing, ng, assessing and modifying the curriculum; an evidenced evidenced- based curriculum acts a road map for teachers and students to follow on the path to academic success.
IV.
Impact on administrators administrators: administrators follow a detailed curriculum to help students achieve sstate tate and national standards of academic performance. The curriculum ensures that each school is teaching students relevant materials and monitoring progress of students from all types of backgrounds.
V.
Impact on teachers teachers: a school’s curriculum informs teachers teache what skills must be taught at each grade level to ultimately prepare students for post-secondary secondary school education or a job. Understanding the big picture helps teachers align the learning objectives of their own curriculum with the school’s curriculum. In the absence of a curriculum, teachers wouldn’t know whether students are building a solid foundation to support learning at the next level.
VI.
Impact on students students: a curriculum outlines for students a sequence of courses and tasks that must be successfully completed to master a subject and earn a certificate, diploma or degree. Students may be motivated to study if they understand why certain subjects are taught in the curriculum. A curriculum reassures students that they are on the right track to reaching their goals and owning desired skills.
VII.
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An effective curriculum provides teachers, students, administrators and community stakeholders with a measurab measurable le plan and structure for delivering a quality education.
in addition to teaching students academic skills, the curriculum is also intended to tea teach ch students the importance of responsibility, hard work and being responsible citizens.
CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
VIII.
IX.
X.
Teachers in partnership with parents and community members collaborate on the development of a curriculum that will instil character in students and reinforce positive behaviour. Curriculum serves the broad purpose of being educational planning tools. They help teachers and professors outline learning objectives for a course or class, which in turn sets an end goal for learning a specific volume of material. Curricula also help teachers to identify an effective learning style by focusing on the most critical aspects of a projected lesson plan. Additionally, they can help teachers make effective use of classroom time by setting time aside for revisiting complex issues or giving students time to ask questions.
XI.
Curricula ideally serve as time management and organisational tools as well; by setting an agenda ahead of time, teachers and students have the opportunity to prepare for future readings and assignments. This allows for the development of time management skills, and allows students to learn important life skills such as communication, organisation, setting and achieving goals.
XII.
Having a curriculum provides several benefits, such as providing a structure for an educational course and having an end goal that teachers set for their students to reach.
1.7TYPES OF CURRICULA They say a journey starts with one step, indeed in this unit are moving systematically step by step. If you have noticed ladies and gentlemen, one sub unit is preparing us for the next sub unit. A look at the importance of the curriculum has definitely given us hints on the types of curricula. There are mainly three types of curriculum namely: Official curriculum, Hidden curriculum and outcome based curriculum. a) OVERT/ EXPLICIT/ WRITTEN/OFFICIAL / FORMAL CURRICULUM: Sometimes it is called Perennial Curriculum. This type of curriculum is the one proposed by government in power (with the help of scholars and researchers) as a solution to meet the needs of society. It is pre – determined by the government i.e. content is prearranged in terms of subjects in each course of study. It is that which is made up of several subjects that are taught in schools. It is a course for a particular group; for example Basic school curriculum, secondary teachers’ Diploma curriculumetc. Theorists have agreed that it rests on the four important elements which are: aims/ objectives, methods, content and evaluation. In Zambia, all curricula are developed at the Curriculum Development Center(CDC) in Lusaka. b) HIDDEN OR COVERT CURRICULUM / INFORMAL CURRICULUM: This is a type of curriculum that takes place in institutions where learning is done sub – consciously by the learners. It is
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not implicit in any curriculum document. This may produce either positive or negative results, e.g. bad behaviour or good behaviour.
The Hidden Micro –Curriculum:: this is the interaction that takes place at classroom level. At this level the hidden curriculum manifests itself in each lesson due to the relationship between the teacher and each pupil as well as between the learners themselves. This interaction has an impact either positively or negatively.
The Hidden Meso – Curriculum:: this occurs at school level. It refers to the experiences which learners and teachers undergo within a particular school and its immediate environment but outside the classroom.
The Hidden Macro – Curriculum:: this means those secret or hidden experiences which occur at national level, usually as a result of government or political influences e.g. school uniforms; the majority wear but there is no law enforcing this but it has the hidden effect of emphasizing quality and unity. Rural schools; most of them receive poor quality of education. Competition; schools compete with each other unofficially. Competition prepares the pupils for the competitive world of world.
c) OUTCOME BASED CURRICULUM CURRICULUM(LEARNER – CENTRED): CENTRED) This comes as a result of learners performances. The emphasis is on skill development especially in practical subjects. It focuses on the output of the learner and the curriculum can be designed with reference to the learner’s potential. Outcome based curriculum [OBC] grew out of earlier two teaching methods namely masterly learning and competency based teaching. It came out of a belief that the perennial curr curriculum iculum placed emphasis on aims and objectives of teachers and not on the end performance of the learners. ners. The argument was that the learners were taught too much theoretical knowledge that may not be needed for a job market knowledge and which they instantly forget after exams. It was believed that the best was to teach learners worthwhile outcomes of le learning; useful things they are able to do at the end of their schooling. OBC is a result of technological advancement changes of societal needs and goals, new political dispens dispensations etc. since it is based on outcomes; it gives priority to end results of learning, accomplishments of learning and demonstrations of learning. Curriculum is outcome based if it is learner- centred, results results- oriented and founded on the belief that all individuals can learn. AIMS / OBJECTIVES OF CURRICULUM 1. To draw out, cultivate, excite and inspire the full development of each learner. 2. To create an atmosphere where learners will learn to think, seek truth and solve problems, reason and develop the power of thought.
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3. To help learners establish values through acquaintance with the humanities, Arts, natural sciences and religion. 4. To develop the character of students’ integrity, honest, judgement, cooperation, friendliness and goodness. 5. To create a community of scholars. 6. To prepare men and women of citizenship in a democratic society where freedom and liberty go hand in hand with law and justice. 7. To meet needs of students with a variety range of ability, aptitudes and interests. PRINCIPLES FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 1. Curriculum should be child centred, be based on the present needs and circumstances of the child. Must provide rich experiences for proper development. 2. Should provide a fullness of experiences, subjects and co- curricular activities. Studies must contain mental vitamins. 3. Must be flexible and dynamic; must be able to keep pace with the expanding knowledge in science and technology and the changing economic conditions. 4. Must be related to the life needs and aspirations of the people, must enable us understand our people well and must lead us to satisfactory knowledge. 5. Curriculum should be able to develop a rational outlook; it should contain mathematics and science which will give them curiosity to modern knowledge and develop a rational outlook. 1.8THEORIES OF CURRICULA The late soccer commentator would say let us go boys and do it for mother Zambia, geee, yayaya. In academic circles iam also saying let us do it for mother Zambia by understanding the previous sub units before looking at theories of curricula. I presume we have all understood the previous sub units and now ready for theories of curricula. The following are some theories of curricula; I.
II.
Rationalistic Theory: Rationalistic theory may be conceived as being ideological because its underlying principle believes that what is real is the idea of the object which is the conscious level of our mind and not the object that we see which is a mere shadow of the idea. The aim of education according to the rationalist theory is to develop the learners’ moral sense so much so that they can distinguish between the right and the wrong. Empiricism Theory: This theory states that no knowledge comes in mind except through the gates of sense. The experience may in itself be indisputable but the interaction is much more open to the subjective
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perspectives of the interpreter. True knowledge is derived from evidence and authentic knowledge comes through the senses. Empiricists believ believe that education should be according to the nature of the child and activities should determine the curriculum. III.
Existentialist Theory Theory: Existentialist theorists believe that curriculum has to be what is available in the learners’ cultural environment. What is significant here is how the curriculum should be taught. The objective here is the learners’ ability to absorb and assimilate knowledge in making their personal decisions. In this case, a learner is the ultimate chooser who searches for or personal identity and the teacher becomes the facilitator of choices. Learners choose what they want to become. This theory is used for adult learning levels.
IV.
Pragmatism Theory Theory: Pragmatism theory holds that practice in life is meaningful and valuable, practical utility is the only catering standard of judgement by which we can judge theories and the basic principle of pragmatism encourage experimentation. Pragmatism does not believe in imparting knowledge for its own sake but that knowledge should enabl enable the learner to solve some of the day to day problems and lead a better and fuller life by creating new values. The principle of learning by doing or experience is a valuable one here.
REFLECTION In your respective groups critically analyse the above llisted isted theories and choose one theory which is applicable to our new curriculum in secondary schools in Zambia. 1.9.1EXPLANATIONOF LANATIONOF CURRICULUM STUDIES Curriculum innovations of recent decades have been filled with the rhetoric of promise and potential, and while some have materialised and brought beneficial results, many have proven hollow in actually improving students’ learning. The lack of impact is starting to show. Signs indicate that today’s students are more poorly equipped for higher education and en entering tering a career than were their predecessors. The roars of educators who called for changes in schooling during the 1980s 1980s/ 1990s have, at best been softened to mere whispers, and at worst have been converted to political posturing and partisan demagoguery. The majority of Zambians seem convinced that the quality of public education is on the decline, and yet there is no consensus about what should be done. Concern continues to mount over how to improve the performance of learners who attend our institutions institutions.. It is this increasing concern that will give momentum to educational improvement. Educators cannot sit back and wait for some remote external source to provide answers that will blow in through the classroom
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window. Rather, improvement in our schools will be accomplished by active leadership that comes from within those very institutions that are being questioned. A new breed of educators must emerge, who can tap existing human resources as a means for turning institutions around and making them a more effective medium for learning. To confront educational problems in a fundamental way the curriculum should focus on improving connections between the curriculum and environment / learner. 1.9.2APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM STUDIES
ACTIVITY Identify the main approaches to curriculum studies. Explain whether or not these approaches are still applicable in the modern school set up. Welcome to the last sub-unit in unit 1. This is a welcome in style because it starts with an activity. Please ensure that you identify these approaches on your own before looking at what other scholars have written. Well let us now look at the approaches to curriculum studies as illustrated by renowned scholars. INTRODUCTION An approach to curriculum reflects that person’s view of the world: including what that person perceives as reality. An approach to the curriculum may include the person’s philosophy, his view of history, view of psychology, learning theory and his view of social issues. An approach further expresses a view point about the development and design of the curriculum, the role of the teacher, the learner, and curriculum specialists in planning the curriculum: the goals and objectives of the curriculum and the important issues that need to be examined. Allan Ornstein and Francis Hunkins [2004] identifiedfive main approaches to curriculum studies, Behavioural approach, Managerial approach, Systems approach, Academic approach and Humanistic approach / Reconceptualists. An attempt will made to explain each one of them and show if the approach is applicable in the Zambia school set up. 1) THE BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH: This approach to curriculum studies traces its origin in the University of Chicago and it is seen as the oldest and still the major approach to curriculum [Ornstein and Hunkins, 2004: 2]. This approach relies on technical and scientific principles, and it includes paradigms, models, and step by step strategies for formulating curriculum. Basing on the plan; the goals and objectives are specified, content and activities are sequenced to
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coincide with the objectives and learning outcomes are evaluated in relation to the goals and objectives. Plan:44 steps of this approach Goals and objectives Content and activities Organisation of the content activities Evaluation The behavioural approach to curriculum has evolved over the years to address the complexities of human learning and it has allowed for research that investigates the depth of the mind. mind.Researchers have argued ed that students will experience and respond to the curriculum in unique ways, depending on their cultural interpretations and prior life activities. Today, behaviourists’ advocates in Zambia and probably elsewhere still formulate precise objectives and ev evaluate aluate programs according to those objectives.. Behaviourists monitor students’ activities both in class and through home works and exams, then feedback is given to the students. The features of the behavioural approach will continue to be reflected in Zamb Zambian curricula setup because of its dependency on technical means of selecting and organizing curricula. 2) MANAGERIAL APPROACH APPROACH: This approach considers the school as a social system, reminiscent of organisation theory, whereby groups of people such as stud students, teachers, curriculum specialists and administrators interact according to certain norms and behaviours. Educators who rely on this approach plan the curriculum in terms of programs, schedules, space, resources, equipment and personnel. This approach advocates among other things, the need for selecting, organising, communicating with, and supervising people involved in curriculum decisions. The managerial approach an offshoot of the behavioural approach relies on a plan, rational principles and logic steps, but not necessarily those used by behavioural approaches. This approach tends to focus more on supervisory and administrative aspects of the curriculum curriculum, especially the organizational and implementation process. The managerial approach[ managerial school] is rooted in the organisational and administrative school models of the 1900s – a period that combined a host of innovative plans involving curriculum and instruction that centred around individualisation, depar departmentalisation, tmentalisation, nonnon grading, classroom, homeroom and work study activities[ Ornstein and Hunkins: 2004:4] 2004:4].. The approach became the dominant curriculum approach in the 1950s and 60s. During this time the notion of the principals as a curriculum leader and instructional leader was popularised and fused with the idea of a general manager. Some advocates of this approach were Robert Anderson, Leslee Bishop, Gerald Firth Firth,, Arthur Lewis and John McNeil. Among these some became curriculum professors at major universities. rsities.
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The Zambian curricularists just like the managerial approach advocates are also concerned with improving the curriculum in the light of prevailing national policies. Today, many of our new ideas about school reforms and restructuring, which are a common feature in Zambian schools, are rooted in the ideas of change and innovation that characterised the 1950s and 60s. Many current plans related to school based management and empowerment are based on the older career ladder. School based management and empowerment in Zambian schools has taken the concept of decentralization and currently it’s being implemented throughout the country. The features of the managerial approach therefore are still reflected in Zambian schools though to a limited extent. 3) SYSTEMS APPROACH This approach tends to view units and sub- units of the organisation in relation to the whole. This approach is sometimes referred to as curriculum engineering [Ornstein and Hunkins 2004; 5]. The approach includes the processes [i.e. development, design, implementation and evaluation] necessary to plan the curriculum by such engineers as the superintendents, directors, coordinators, principals and the structures [subject, courses, unit plans and lesson plans]. The systems approach was originally developed by social scientists in the 1950s and 1960s. It was widely used by school managers as part of administrative and organisational theory. In this approach, the parts of the school district or school are closely examined in terms of their interrelatedness and influence on each other. One particular application of the systems approach was developed by Rand Corporation and has rapidly spread from government to business agencies. Today, many schools employ a system approach known as Total Quality Management [TQM]. This approach also drawn from industry represents a paradigm shift emphasising client priority, in our case, extensive collection, data analysis, self-monitoring, inspection, collaboration, communication, cooperation and team responsibility. The concept of TQM though still new in the Zambian society is slowly taking root. The planners of the curriculum now have set guidelines that emphasise on client priority and are concerned with the following:
Curriculum issues and questions that relate to the entire school or school system not simply in terms of school subjects or grades.
How the curriculum is related across different program and content areas.
The extent to which the curriculum reflects the hierarchy or organisational arrangements of the school or school system.
Long term planning is infused with short range or incidental planning.
Most of these features above are reflected in the Zambian School Curriculum set- up for example the curriculum will have both long term
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and short term goals. The features of the systems approach will continue to be reflected in the Zambian School curriculu curriculum m because of its emphasis on the client [student / pupil], which is the basis for school’s survival. 4) ACADEMIC APPROACH This approach is sometimes referred to as the traditional, intellectual or knowledge oriented approach approach.. The academic approach tries to analyse an major positions, trends and concepts of the curriculum. This approach tends to be historical or philosophical or to a lesser extent social science in nature. In this approach, the discussion of curriculum making is usually scholarly and theoretic [not practical]. This approach is rooted in the philosophical works of John Dewey, Henry Morrison and Boyd Bode. It became popular in the 1930s and 1950s.The field became all all-encompassing encompassing because the books published accumulated a great deal of curriculum know knowledge ledge and subject matter. However, after the 1950s the academic approach lost some its glamour among curricularists. Of the approaches examined so far, we can argue here that the academic approach is the least used approach in Zambian schools because it’s scholarly nature. Currently planners in Zambia try to use rational approaches roaches and not one that is philosophical and historical in nature. 5) HUMANISTIC APPROACH This approach comes from some curriculum leaders who reflect on the field and content of the pre previous vious approaches and hold that they are too rigid and too technocratic [Ornstein and Hunkins, 2004:8] 2004:8]. They contend that the previous approaches focus more on scientific and rational aspects thereby missing the personal and social aspects of curriculum and instruction; ignore the artistic, physical and cultural aspects of the subject matter, rarely consid consider the need for self- reflectiveness and selfself actualization among learners and finally overlook the socio socio- psychological dynamics of classrooms and schools [Ornstein and Hunkins, 2004; 8]. This humanistic view is rooted in the progressive philosophy and ch childcentred movement of the early 1900s which was first spearheaded by John Dewey, Charles Judd and Francis Parker. The approach gained impetus in the 1940s and 1950s with the growth of child psychology psychology, which deals with the needs and interests of the chi children ldren and humanistic psychology which deals with valuing, ego identity, psychological health, freedom tolearn and personal fulfilment. This approach considers the whole child and not only the cognitive dimension. Both the formal and hidden curriculum are worthwhile orthwhile in this school. This school’s advocates contend that music, art, literature, health, education and humanities are as important as science and maths, and other academic subjects. In the Zambian school curriculum the features of the humanistic approach approach are reflected for example, they favour the inclusion of both the core and science subjects. However However,, unlike the humanistic curricularists there is a tendency in Zambia to put emphasis on science
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subjects and so more time is allocated to science and maths subjects compared to that given to humanities. Another feature advocated by these theorists is that each child has considerable input in the curriculum and shares responsibility with parents, teachers and curriculum specialists in planning classroom instruction. Curriculum committees come from the masses and not from top leaders, and often students are invited to express their views on content and experiences related to curriculum development. In the Zambian context, teachers and students are never invited to have a say on what should be included in the curriculum. This is perhaps one weakness that needs to be addressed when analysing the Zambian curriculum. There is need for teachers, parents and pupils’ representation when planning, constructing and reviewing the curriculum. 6) RECONCEPTUALISTS This is the last approach to curriculum studies according to Ornstein and Hunkins. Though viewed by others as simply an extension of the humanistic school, others recognise it as a separate field with distinct features of its own such as paying attention to ideological issues of education. They tend to take the academic approach to the curriculum because they are more interested in studying the curriculum in the abstract than in the practical application of knowledge to the creation of curriculum. They focus more on understanding than developing a curriculum arguing that the era for curriculum construction is past [Ornstein and Hunkins, 2004:9]. Among the advocates of such views are early reconceptualists such as Counts, Rugg and Benjamin. They basically urged curricularists to rethink, reconsider and reconceptualisethe curriculum. Among the other views that they hold is that the school is not a system set unto itself, apart from the world. The school is in the world, an extension of society; its purpose is not to fit students into the world, into a static society, but rather to enable them to be transformed and to transform society. They hold that the existing order is oppressive and static. The school and its curriculum must exist to change that. The Zambian curricularists do not seem to hold the view that society is static, but they might share a common view that the school and the curriculum must enhance changes in society. The role of the school and the curriculum is to bring about tangible changes in the society in which we live.
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Unit 1 EXPLANATION OF CURRICULUM
Unit summary
Summary
In this unit the curriculum was explained with emphasis on the definitions of both education and curriculum. We discussed several misconceptions oon n the definitions of curriculum and the renowned definitions by various scholars. In trying to understand the concept of curriculum further, we also discussed the determinants of the curriculum and its importance. This unit has also shared the types of curricula, aims/ objectives of curriculum and principles of curriculum development. Four theories of curricula were also analysed and their applicability in our educational system. This unit further explored explanations of curriculum studies in a practica practicall Zambian context. We concluded this unit by vividly looking at the approaches to curriculum studies and the applicability of the approaches in the Zambian school set up system.
Assignment Discuss the six approaches to curriculum studies and clearly show how each approach is applicable in the Zambian school set set-up.
Assignment
Assessment
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i.
Discuss five principles for curriculum development.
ii.
State five objectives of the curriculum.
iii.
Explain five determinants of the curriculum.
iv.
Discuss the three main types of the curricula..
CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
Unit 2
CURRICULUM DESIGN Welcome to unit 2. At this stage you are expected to define and describe different types of curricular. In this unit we will go further by looking at different models that some scholars have tried to put forward. There are so many models so far that have been propounded by different scholars as described below. It is difficult to pin- point which one is the best but depending on the circumstances on the ground at least one of them is applicable to a particular situation. There are several concepts that can guide the development, construction and implementation of curriculum. Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
Discuss types of instructional designs. Formulate instructional strategies. Analyze patterns of curriculum design.
Outcomes
Terminology
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Unit 2 CURRICULUM DESIGN
PATTERN OF CURRICULUM DESIGN
A design in this case may be referred to as a model. This is an approach taken in order to design an appropriate curriculum. Graves (1979) says “a model is a simplified representation of a complex reality which enables the curriculum specialist to understand the pr process ocess of curriculum development better.” In order for a curriculum specialist to design an appropriate curriculum, it is important that they understand the needs of society so as to set appropriate goals and objectives. Curriculum design is concerned abo about ut making choices in order to construct an ideal structural frame work for the intended curriculum. How does a curriculum developer construct a viable curriculum when given a complex array of content in order of preference? How can areas of concern be inte integrated when presented separately? What role do all stake holders play in the curriculum process? CURRICULUM ELEMENTS/ COMPONENTS Curriculum is based on four agreed upon elements from which a specialist should come up with an appropriate design in order to meet the educational needs of society. 1. Curriculum Intent Intent: This is made up of aims, goals and objectives. These are a guide to the selection of content, learning activities and evaluation procedures. Objectives should be very clear and precise. The main aim of designing curriculum is to provide answers to educational needs of a particular group or society. It should be meaningful and acceptable to the intended target. Hence, the needs should determine the formulation of appropriate objectives. 2. Content: These hese comprise the subject matterwhich is intended to be delivered to thelearners thelearners.. It includes facts, concepts, values, skills and principles. Content refers to the body of knowledge suggested to be delivered to a particular group. Dewey advises that curric curriculum ulum planners must justify their content selection in terms of its potential for generating knowledge so as to make it meaningful. Some example of such knowledge may comprise; mathematics, language, science, arts and crafts, music, religion, history, geogr geography aphy and philosophy. A philosophical analysis of knowledge is a pre pre-requisite requisite of an effective curriculum planning.
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3. Learning experiences: This is the interaction between the learner and conditions within the external environment to which the learner should respond. It comprises the activities under which the learner is subjected to. These learning experiences should comprise activities that will help the learner to gain the intended necessary knowledge and skills. 4. Evaluation: It is an assessment of the curriculum which determines its effectiveness. It exposes the weaknesses, strengths and challenges of the curriculum in order to determine way forward. Curriculum should from time to time reviewed in order to ascertain the achievement of goal and objectives.
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGNS There are several patterns of curricular designs as propounded by many philosophers. Curriculum designers must pay particular attention in order that they design a curriculum that will serve the intended purpose. 1. Child- centered curriculum This focuses on the child’s interest. It focuses on the already developed mind of the child in terms of interests, beliefs, thoughts and wishes. Education therefore, should help to fully develop these potentialities by guiding them to select or choose the most interesting and fruitful for them in order to broaden their minds. In this regard, curriculum design is guided by the already existing knowledge of the child. The challenge with this kind of design is that the mind of the child cannot extend beyond their capacity. In addition, Urevbu (1985: 49) argues that “the major argument for the Child- centered curriculum is essentially an ethical one. How do we make children attend school even when they do not want?” This kind of approach may not cater for all children unless they are forced to attend school. 2. Subject- centered curriculum This is centered on academic subjects. It organizes the curriculum into a variable number of subjects each of which represents a specialized body of knowledge. Examples of these are: physics, mathematics, geography etc and practical subjects such as home economics fine arts, typing etc.
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The advantages of this approach are that teachers are trained in specific subject areas which make it easier for them to teach effectively. Secondly, pupils find it easier to choose their areas of interest and thirdly, textbooks and other teaching/ learning materials are generally organized in advance. 3. Core Core- curriculum This simply refers to the main content that all learners should be subjected to (compulsory subjects) and mostly dictated by government policy. However, this may differ from f country to country as governments differ in their education focus and education pr priorities. iorities. The ministry of education will define education al objectives, determine content, plan and authorize programs which should be executed in schools. The challenge with this approach is that it is hard to find materials in place of conventional boo books. 4. Integrated curriculum It is difficult to clearly justify what integration means in this case. Is it putting all curricular together or putting selected curricular? What is that should be integrated? The understanding behind this is that curriculum sp specialists ecialists should look at connections or interrelations of various subjects such as history and geography, technological knowledge and urbanization, science and mathematics. A simple example could be integrated science at junior secondary school. Another ex example ample of integrated curriculum might involve areas of practical thinking such as sex education, violence and war, building a democratic society.
Activity Activity: i) what is curriculum design? ii) From the designs you have learnt above, which one is more applicable to Zambia? Justify your answer. FORMS OF MODELS As previously pointed out, there are many scholars that have tried to suggest some approaches to curriculum designs. Basi Basically there three types of models. We will look at each model in detail as propounded by different scholars.
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1. Academic or Objective Models Tyler (1949) said the development of curriculum should be linear and systematic. He came up with a simple classical model. Tyler’s model Selection of Objectives Selection of learning experiences Organization of learning experiences Evaluation Tyler says that in order for a curriculum developer to design an appropriate curriculum, they should answer four questions based on the stages of the model. a) Selection of Objectives: What education purpose should the school seek to attain? MOE- Focus- On Learning (1996: 27). The curriculum should focus on what the school intends to achieve in order to satisfy the needs of the learner and society. b) What educational experiences are likely to attain these objectives? This looks at the content that will be delivered to the learners. It is important that the suggested content should be that which will enable the learner to fit in society and offer services that are required in that particular society. c) How can these educational experiences be organized effectively?The curriculum designer must clearly state how best these can be effectively delivered to the learners in order that they gain the appropriate knowledge and skills. d) How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? This is an evaluation or assessment of the curriculum. It is a systematic examination in order to find out the successes and challenges in the implementation of the curriculum. Hilda Taba (1962) criticized Tyler’s model. She argued that there is need to obtain more information, hence, the approach should be more scientific. She said that the approach should be based on research and suggested seven stages of a curriculum process.
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Unit 2 CURRICULUM DESIGN
Taba’ Taba’s Model: Step 1. Needs Assessment:: She said there in need to investigate the educational needs of the society. When the needs of the society are known, it becomes easy to plan for them. Step 2. Formulation of objectives: Setting targets basing on the data collec collected Step 3. Selection of content: The objectives es should determine what materials must beselected in order to meet the targets. Step 4. Organization of content: Mobilizing obilizing the selected materials to be used Step 5: Selection of learning activities:Suggesting Suggesting the learning experiences that the learners will undergo during the process of curriculum implementation Step 6. Organization of learning experiences: Prioritizing the activities or arranging them in order of preference. Step 7. Determination of what to evaluate valuate and ways and means of doing it: it:This This is theevaluation and assessment to determine way forward. 2. Cyclic Models These models take situation analysis as an important tool to curriculum design. They contend that when data is collected from a particular society about their educational needs, it becomes easy to make a plan of action in order to solve the problems.
The Wheeler Model D. K. Wheeler (1967) argued that curriculum developers should employ a cyclic process in which elements are related and inter interdependent. dependent. He suggested five stapes based on Tyler’s and Taba”s designs. He says the interrelation of the elements determines the success of the process. If the cycle is complete, it means the curriculum is successful. At a point where elements cannot rela relate te well it means there is a challenge which needs to be corrected before proceeding to the next stage.
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Wheeler’s model
Wheeler says that the curriculum process is cyclic and that the elements are interdependent such that if the cycle is complete then the curriculum is successful. An incomplete cycle means that the curriculum has failed to achieve its intended goals. Audrey and Nicholas (1978) refined the works of Tyler, Taba and Wheeler. They agree with the cyclic model by argue that evaluation is not the last stage but that it should be done at every stage in the process. They add that regular evaluation helps to closely monitor the process which makes it easier to make adjustments or corrections and eliminate errors. A cyclic model is more ideal in countries where there is a decentralized curriculum because monitoring and supervision becomes easy. 3. Interactive Models. Interactive models are flexible and more realistic. For them they start with data collection on about the needs assessment followed by dialogue with all stake holders so as to agree on what should be done. This makes it easier for monitoring because every stake holder is aware of what is expected in the curriculum process and implementation.
Deaker’s and Walker’s Model Deaker and Walker (1970) identified only three stages. Stage 1. Platform: This involves listening, taking down notes and formulation of objectives. Stage 2. Deliberations: A stage where discussions take place to select what is appropriate.
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Unit 3 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Stage 3. Curriculum design: Conclusions made at stage 3 should result in the construction of curriculum. Walker and Deaker defend their model by provi providing a forum of discussion where stake holders deliberate, argue and agree together so that they come up with an appropriate curriculum. They contend that planning in the absence of the end users may leave out important factors that will eventually render the curriculum irrelevant. SUMMARY Curriculum is dynamic. Therefore, curriculum designers should constantly conduct needs assessment in order to find out the educational needs of a particular society. So far we have looked at three types of models namely namely,, Objective models, cyclic models and Interactive models. We have also examined different patterns of curriculum designs. Selection of a particular design depends on the prevailing circumstances of a particular environment and the stake holders involved. Therefore it is important to conduct serious scientific researches before a curriculum could be developed.
Activity: i) Provide a detailed critique about Tyler’s model ii) In your view, which model would be suitable for developing countries?
Unit 3
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Introduction In this chapter we will look at how curriculum is developed. We will further discuss the factors that affect the development of curriculum either positively or negatively. Curriculum developers need to consider these factors in order in order to design curricular that should stand a test of time. By the end of this topic SSBAT:
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Outline factors affecting curriculum development Examine how each factor affects curriculum development
Outcomes
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Discuss how best these factors can be handled in order to produce an effective curriculum
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FACTORS AFFECTING CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
There are several factors that affect the development of curriculum. Some of these are discussed below: 1. Society: Every society has its own values, morals, traditions, beliefs and skills which should be transmitted by schools. A curriculum which is irrelevant to a society is rejected and a curriculum which brings success to a society is welcome. The society is the major stake holder of curriculum development. It is the society that curriculum is intended for hence, it is the beneficially of every curriculum. Curriculum developers need to first look at needs analysis in order to ascertain the educational needs of a particular society. The skills and knowledge that learners gain in schools are to applied in society therefore, there is need to seriously conduct a research on what the society needs. 2. The government: The Government has the duty to draw up curriculum. Through education, the ideology of the country is transmitted. More importantly, the government hires and fires
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Unit 3 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
teachers who are the implementers of curriculum. It has the mandate to dictate what necessary subjects should be offered to its citizens. The political leadership also formulates policies for education activities in the cou country. ntry. Lack of political will on education has negative effects on the education system in the country.
3. The Church: Education in colonial Africa was brought introduced by Missionaries.They were the ones who brought formal education in Africa and Zambia iin n particular. Up to now they are still running a number of Mission schools in the country supplementing government’s efforts. The church needs to be consulted on what content should be included in the curriculum. They have the freedom to make decisions on certain subjects or topics. They can reject certain aspects that they feel can jeopardize their doctrines let alone fueling indiscipline in their schools. 4. Teachers: Teachers are the implementers of curriculum. They determine its success or failure. A cur curriculum riculum for a particular group should determine the teachers’ qualifications because qualifications have a positive or negative impact on the curriculum.
5. Psychology: One of the aims of education is that the learning activities should bring mental develop development ment in the learner. A curriculum that provides ability, aptitude and intelligence of the learners, recommends appropriate rewards and punishment provides growth to learners to much with content. The suggested content should therefore stimulate learners’ thoughts. Subjects should broaden the learner’s thinking. 6. Parents: Parents may decide to send their children to particular schools of their choice for their children. They may also want to know what their children are learning and how they are taught.
7. Examination xamination Boards: ECZ, Colleges and Universities train markers and setters of assessment items. Through the process, they are able to make adjustments in terms of content and teaching strategies.
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
THE PROCESS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Developing a curriculum is not an easy task. There are a lot of things involved and if not carefully handled, the curriculum may not serve its intended purpose to the target group or society. Curriculum developers therefore, need to take a careful analysis of the process so as to make the curriculum relevant. Planning from imagination or thinking for people while in offices if an unprofessional way of designing curriculum. The better way is to get information from the stake holders on the ground. There are several stages involved in the process of curriculum development and implementation. These are discussed below: i)
Situation Analysis: This is a systematic examination of the situation conducted in order to develop an effective curriculum. It can be conducted in broader terms such as at national level, groups of schools, societies, regions and provinces, within the education system. Hilda Taba (1962) says “It is a process of examining the context of which curriculum is to be developed.” Factors to consider are: society, pupils, schools, climate, staff, facilities and equipment. Researchers must identify the needs of the learners, parents and community. These needs must be defined and priorities set and the make recommendations.
ii)
Goal formulation: These are targets that are set basing on the needs assessment. They must aim at equipping learners with relevant skills and knowledge for both formal and informal employment. The aims and objectives should uphold the values, norms, standards and traditions of society.
iii)
Policy Decision Makers The Central Government is the law maker. The recommendations by the Curriculum Development Center experts are taken to Parliament to be debated up on and once enacted, the curriculum becomes law. Policy makers consider the following: Time needed for planning and implementing the curriculum Priorities Qualifications of the personnel involved Responsibilities
iv)
Trials and Tests
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Unit 3 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
At this stage the Governments needs to try out the curriculum in order to see its practical aspect. Pilot schools are identified and selected where the curriculum will be tried out. These are representatively selected selected- both rural and town schools. At the end e of a specified period, a report is given as to whether the curriculum is viable or not. v)
Implementation Once the curriculum is accepted, it is extended to all schools across the country. All stake holders must be informed such as parents, teachers and pupils. However, there is need to retrain facilitators such as teachers, lecturers and instructors.
vi)
Evaluation After some specified period of time, an assessment to determine the successes and challenges is conducted. This determines whether the curricul curriculum um will stand a test of time or it should be abandoned.
Activity: 1. With reference to the factors determining the curriculum development, discuss the challenges curriculum planners face. 2. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of a localized curriculum. 3. Discuss factors affecting curriculum implementation.
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
Unit 4
ADAPTING CURRICULUM Introduction [Add introductory text here] Upon completion of this unit you will be able to: [verb][complete the sentence]. [verb][complete the sentence]. Outcomes
[verb][complete the sentence]. [verb][complete the sentence]. [verb][complete the sentence]. [verb][complete the sentence].
Terminology
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Adapting Curriculum for Special Education Needs (SEN) Not all learners can learn smoothly. Some learners have learning difficulties or disabilities that make it harder for them to learn than their friends of the same age. Due to these challenges their educational needs cannot be met within the traditional classroom set up, and as such, they require special attention. Therefore, it is important to plan a user friendly curriculum which will cater for them so that they feel part of the system. Infact, a disability is not inability. Some of the SEN learners perform much better than the so called normal. Learning disabilities are in many forms such as
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Unit 4 ADAPTING CURRICULUM
visually impaired, hearing impaired, mentally retarded and physically impaired. Types of Special Needs It is important that teachers become familiar with most of thes these types of special needs. The following are some of the impairments. Impairment/ Condition Physical & Physiological
Hearing
Visual
Type of Special Needs
Developmental delay
Intellectual Disability
Specific learning difficulties Neurological Austism
Poor oral communication, poor reading, poor writing, poor spellings and mathematics
Giftedness or high level of intellectual ability
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Difficulties in mobility and balance, interaction with social and none social environment Negative self-image image Poor posture and balance Difficulties in oral communication, socialization, short term memory Poor balance Difficulties in hearing Poor mobility and poor posture Difficult to develop self-help self skills Unable to read print Negative self image Skill development is delayed by 2 years behind in motor, language, cognitive, mental, social, emotional and self-help self skills Development is delayed in more than three areas. The child functions below the age of the classmates
Memory gaps, flabby muscles, irregular tremors Poor social interaction, poor language, poor communication communicati and poor learning skills Unusual behavior like rocking and spinning objects Learns too quickly Challenging behavior Critical thinking Critical of the teacher
CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
Adapting Instructional Strategies and Materials. Teachers need to develop strategies that would help them detect these special needs. They should come up with tools for screening impairments and other conditions. A child observation sheet can be developed by the teacher. It can be for the whole class or for an individual. Child Observation Sheet Class:………………… Date:…………... Compiled By:………………………………….. Specific learning Needs
Names of Pupils
Communication behaviour:
Limited vocabulary Difficulties in understanding questions Inappropriate responses Unclear speech sounds Isolation Difficulties in co-operating with others Needs repeated instructions
Reading behaviour:
Cannot recognize letters by sound Cannot sound out simple words Guesses words when reading Finds reading tiring Cannot remember common words Reads slowly and forgets the beginning easily \Loses pace when reading
Writing and Spelling behaviour:
Holds pencil/ pen awkwardly Writes letters bellow or above the line Leaves big spaces in between letters Confuses word order
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Unit 4 ADAPTING CURRICULUM
Writes slowly Writes letters backwards Writes letters too big or too small
Mathematics:
Difficulties in size relationship- big/ small Un able to comprehend mathematical language Difficulties to understand mathematical sign and symbols Cannot remember mathematical tables Difficulties in multiplying, adding, subtracting and dividing
Mobility Difficulties:
Names of Pupils
Poor gross mobility behaviour:
No active games Limited movements Poor balance Bad sitting, standing posture
Poor fine Motor Mobility Behaviour Behaviour:
Struggles to hold pencil/ pen Poor writing posture Presses pen/pencil too hard or too soft Writes slowly
Giftedness High intellectual abilities behaviour behaviour:
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Uses words accurately Very good memory Solves abstract problems High performance in all subjects
Names of Pupils
CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
Works independently Initiates interaction among peers
The above observation sheet can help teachers to identify different types of disabilities in the learners. Once, learners abilities are identified, it is easy for the teacher to develop means and other strategies for such pupils in order to enhance effective teaching and learning in the classroom. It is important that teachers should also set goals and specific learning outcomes for each child with special learning needs. They also need to specify what each child must learn including the gifted ones. Teachers must also conduct extra lessons in older to provide more time for grasping of concepts, skills and core vocabulary of pupils. THE JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM This is a two year course that covers grades eight and nine of the Zambian Education System. The curriculum at this level equips pupils with necessary knowledge and skills which will be built upon at the senior secondary level. In the past, all subjects taught to learners right from grade eight to grade nine. This time, the curriculum has changed in order to help pupils take a particular path. The curriculum has changed taking two dimensions called Career Pathways, namely: Academic and Vocational. This entails that pupils will have to take one way depending on their capability and passion. The Vocational Career pathway is meant for learners who have ambitions and interest in technical and practical jobs. The emphasis on this path is on developing practical skills which promote manufacturing and production of goods and services in industries. Learners will learn this path from grade eight up to grade 12. Learners will study these subjects and be awarded a Vocational Certificate at the end of their two year program. This certificate can help them to get employed if they decide to stop at grade nine or if they fail to qualify to grade ten. This pathway has five optional subjects from which learners can choose. i). Technology ii). Performing and Creative Arts
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Unit 4 ADAPTING CURRICULUM
iii). Physical Education and Sports iv). Home Economics v). Agriculture The Academic Career Pathway: This pathway comprises subjects that are non non-practical. practical. Compulsory subjects in this pathway are: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii.
English, Business Studies, , Computer Studies, Intergraded science, Mathematics, Religious Education Zambian Languages.
Activity Activity: 1. In your view is the change of the Zambian Secondary school curriculum necessary? 2. Explain in detail why curriculum change is necessary for any education system 3. With reference to inclusive education, what challenges do teaches face in handling learners of divergent vergent learning abilities?
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
Unit 5
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Introduction to Education Research This topic may seem strange to some people and irrelevant to others. However note that it is a very important and relevant topic especially to those who poses critical minds. It will help you become a critical thinker and someone who questions issues. The topic explains the nitty-gritty of writing a research paper. Research is important because it tries to help people who are affected directly or indirectly by the topic under research. Its purpose is to make those people live a better life thereafter (as a result of your research). Research also help improve the educational system for the benefit of all so it is important that you take it seriously like any other topic so far covered. I wish to stress the point that this cause if followed properly will enrich your understanding of the world around you. You will acquire knowledge and skills necessary to make breakthrough in talking issues of educational nature.
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to: Distinguish research from other modes of searching for the truth Define research State characteristics of research
Outcomes
Describe types of research Identify research theories State the importance of theoretical frameworks Stages of the research process Identify research area / topic State Title selection
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Unit 5 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
Terminology
[Term]:
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RESEARCH RESEARCH FOR THE TRUTH
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Man has been in search for truth since time immemorial
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The reasons surrounding this search is that truth is utilized (used) fully in various fields including religion, culture, traditions, economics, justice and evaluation e.t.c
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In practice the overriding principles states that truth is sought (looked for) in order to solve various. Problems confro confronting humility.
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Jesus Christ (J (John ohn 8:32), enclosing the significance of truth once taught his disciples in the following manner; “if you know the truth, the truth will set you free.”
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In searching for truth, Cohen and Manion anion (1985) have identified three mai main sources of truth, namely
(i)
Experience
(ii)
Logic/ reasoning
(iii)
Research
(i)
EXPERIENCE
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Where solutions to problems clearly lie beyond an a individual’s personal knowledge, such a person may make use of the different
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experiences of others, usually older. People: e.g. a child a teacher a parent -
In our efforts to come to terms with the problems of daily life, we are heavily dependent upon experience e.g. a child repairs a puncture in a bicycle’s inner tube speedily and efficiently because he has done it several times before.
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Personal experience however has got limitations; for instance the limitations of personal experience in the form of common – sense knowing can quickly exposed when compared with features of the scientific to solving problems.
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One consideration lies in the area of central distinguishing the lay mans and the scientists attitudes to experience
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The former (lay man) makes no attempt to central any extraneous sources of influence after trying to explain occurred event.
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The latter (scientist) on the other hand being conscious of the multiple (many) causes for a given occurrence resorts to definite techniques and procedures to isolate and test the effect of one or more the alleged causes.
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There is also the difference of attitude to the relationship amongst factors in a problem e.g. effects of illiteracy on academic performance.
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The lay person’s (grandfather in the village) concern with the relationships is loosely unsystematic and uncontrolled: on the other hand the scientist displays a much more serious professional concern with relationships in a problem (independent variable (factor) and dependent variable (factor)).
(ii)
LOGIC / REASONING
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Reasoning consists of three types namely; Deductive, inductive and the combined; inductive- deductive approaches.
(a)
Deductive reasoning is based on the understanding of providing a particular instance and then a conclusion: for instance, all planets orbit the sun; the earth is a planet, therefore the truth orbits the sun
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Unit 5 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
(b)
Inductive reasoning: it means of which the study of a number of individual cases would lead to an hypothesis and later to a generalization.
(c)
Inductive Inductive- deductive approach- this is a combination of deductive and inductive reasoning
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It is acknowledged that this dual approach is the essence of the modern sci scientific entific method and marks the last stage of man’s progress towards empirical science
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It is appreciated that despite deduction and induction having their weakness, they have contributed to the development of science namely the suggestion of hypotheses, the clarification and interpretation of scientific findings.
(iii)
RESEARCH (THE BEST SOURCE)
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The tthird means by which man sets out to discover truth is research.
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Orodh Orodho, and kombo (2002) defined research as “the process of arriving at dependable solution solutions to problems ems through the planned systematic collection analysis and interpretation of data
ACTIVITY 1.
Identify three sources of man’s experience and provide examples in each case.
2.
Why is it argued that the three modes of searching for truth complement each other?
3.
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How does the truth manifest itself?
CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
5.1DEFINITIONS OF RESEARCH INTRODUCTION: In topic one under this unit you were introduced to three modes of seeking truth with a view to solving various problems. These modes are experience, logic / reasoning and then research after your careful study you should by now come to appreciate that of these three channels of truth seeking, research has been considered the most efficient and reliable. However, it must be stressed that the other two modes much also be respected because in their own way they have contributed enormously to human development. In topic two of unit 5 you are supposed to critically state what a research is through definitions. In defining research, you need to read and understand various stands of writers in research. All in all, research is a cornerstone of any science, including for examples, the natural sciences such as chemistry and physics; and the social sciences such as sociology and psychology. -
Tuchman (1978:1) describes research as a systematic attempt to provides answers to questions,
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Orodho and kombo (2002:2) define research as the process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the planned systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data.
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Research is a systematic process of collecting and logically analyzing information (data) for some purpose (James. H. McMillan ) and Sally Schumacher: (1990)
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Kerlinger (1973:11) defines research as a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.
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-
Hurston (2010) referred to research as the organized, structured and purposeful investigation aimed at discovering discovering, interpreting and revising human knowledge on different aspects of the wor world by someone first hand.
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Research can be also be described as an endless quest for knowledge or unending search for truth.
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Research is a way or arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the planned and systematic collection, analys analysis and interp interpretation of data (Cook. P. M)
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Another definition of research may be put as a method of studying problems whose solutions are to be desired partly or wholly from facts. Those facts may be statements of historical facts, those contained in records and reports, the results of tests, test answers to questionnaires and so on (Monroe.W. S)
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Research breeds new knowledge or corrects previous errors and. Misconceptions and adds in an orderly way to the existing body of knowledge.
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Research is an essential and powerf powerful ul tool that leads man towards progress: it shows us the way in our difficulties difficulties, opens new avenues and provides to us better alternatives.
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All research aims at is progress and good life. When we say research adds new knowledge, the knowledge must be verif verified by any interested person.
ACTIVITY i.
Identify the key words frequently appearing in the definitions of research and discuss their relevance.
ii.
Choose three definitions of research from the above stated and critically analyze them.
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5.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH Having defined the concept of research; lets us now turn to the characteristics of research. Ladies and gentlemen I hope we have all understood the definitions of research because it is through this understanding that we will be able to state research characteristics:
Research is systematic: Research attempts to solve problems whether social economic, political, cultural or healthy related in systematic way. It is systematic in that a general system is followed. This involves the identification of the problem review of related literature and data collection. This is followed by data analysis conclusions and recommendations.
Research is objective: Research is a scientific attempt to find an objective or unbiased solution to an educational or social problem. Research involves gathering new data from primary sources (first hand and secondary sources (using existing data).
It is based on observable experience or empirical evidence: we can therefore say that research is empirical in nature.
It employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis.
Research is self-correcting: in this manner firstly this scientific method has built in mechanisms to protect the scientist from error as for as is humanly possible. Secondly procedures and results are open for public scrutiny by fellow professionals.
Research is a combination of both experience and reasoning, and therefore must be regarded as the most successful approach to the discovery of truth.
Research is highly purposive: it deals with significant problems which demand a solution.
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ACTIVITY In your own words and understanding ex explain plain five characteristics of research. 5.3 TYPES OF REASERCH Having seen the characteristics of research we can now shift to the types of research. Prospecting teachers always ensure that you thoroughly understand a sub sub-unit before moving to the next one. on TYPES OF RESEARCH: Research can either be Qualitative or Quantitative (a) QUALITATIVE RESEARCH. This is a form of research that involves description. Qualitative research seeks to describe and analyze the culture and behavior of humans and their groups from the point of view of those being steadied. Qualitative research uses the natural setting, for instance a classroom setting and not a laboratory. This means the scenario is not artificial. Qualitative research relies on research strategy that is flexible aand nd interactive: this includes interviewing, focus groups discussions discussions, observations and Questionnaires. In qualitative research feelings and insights are considered important (Orod (Orodho o and Kombo: 2002). Sometimes qualitative research is called naturalistic in inquiry quiry of field studies. Examples of qualitative research include case studies of communities and institutions. It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research. Qualitative research describes a problem from the point of view of those experiencing it. Qualitative research is non non- statistical, its methodological approach is primarily guided by the concrete material at hand. Qualitative research is typically investigative in nature. Its findings are often
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not conclusive and cannot automatically be used to make generalizations. APPLICABILITY: Qualitative research is appropriate under the following conditions.
When the subject matter is unfamiliar: for examples, when one wants to know the causes and effects of a certain phenomenon (factor) and the answer is unfamiliar to the research: e.g. Effect of free primary education in school accessibility and retention.
When a research wants to relate particular aspects of behavior to the Wider Context: for example when the researcher wants to find at effects of functional illiteracy on the academic performance of college student teachers, a few colleges and students will be sampled the findings however will be applicable to a wider context.
When flexibility of approach is needed to allow for discovery of the unexpected and in depth investigation of particular topics. For example in finding out the effect of abortion on education, the researcher may interview those who have carried out an abortion and are willing to be interviewed. Focus group discussions may be used. The researcher can also change a research instrument depending on the respondents. For example a researcher may have planned to use questionnaire written in English but may discover that the majority of respondents are semi-literate. The researcher may therefore choose to interview and use the language which the respondents are most comfortable in.
This method is used for studying selected issues, cases or events in depth and detail (Orodho and Kombo, 2002) FORMS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Ethnographies; these are observations of groups.
Phenomenological studies: which study subjects over a period of time through developing relationships with them and reporting findings based on research experiences.
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Case studies which use various data investigate the subject over time and by activity. (b)
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH.
Quantitative research relies on the principles of variability: that means confirmation proof, etc etc. knowledge images from what can be proven by direct observation. The researcher’s values interpretation and feelings are not considered. Objectivity is reinforced. This approach is mainly applicable in scientific studies. This research establishes the cause effect relationship. Quantitative research focuses on measurement and numeric figures or numbers. Quantitative research is used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data or data that can be transformed into useable statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors behaviors, and other defined variables. APPLICABILITY Quantitative research is applicable under the following conditions.
When the research incorporates the statistical (how many?) element, designed to quantify the extent to which a target group is aware of thinks this e.t.c.
When control of approach is need to allow for discover of the unexpected and in depth investigation of particular topics. Control of one phenomenon of interest
When the scenario is artificial, for instance in a laboratory is needed. QUALITATIVE ALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Qualitative and quantitative approaches to research are complimentary. Where appropriate, they should be combined to maximize the strengths and minimize the limitations of each: for example, in a study on the effect of abortion on education, a researcher can an first use qualitative research and interview respondent to find out their views on the effect of abortion. The researcher can then segregation group of students who have
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terminated their pregnancies and another group that has not terminated pregnancies and observe them keenly on specific psychological test. The researcher can theretofore make deduction on the effect of abortion on education
Group discussion -
In your respective groups discuss the three types of research with emphasis on their applicability.
5.4 RESEARCH THEORIES Welcome to this sub-unit which appears to be strange and irrelevant to others. Most of us must be wandering why we should be wasting our time and energy studying theories in research. To the contrary theories are very important in research; to appreciate this importance let us look at the format of a research report with focus on chapter one: CHAPTER ONE -
Introduction
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Background to the problem
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Theoretical frame work of the study
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Statement of the problem
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Purpose of the study
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Objectives of the study
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Research questions
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Significance of the study
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Limitations of the study
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Definition of terms used in the study.
The highlighted words in chapter one of the research report format is the reason why we should study theories of research: well thank you for closely following the discussion and appreciating the
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importance of research theories when writing a research report. A research report is of course writing after conducting the actual research. To further appreciate the study of theories ladies and gentlemen let us look at the theoretical framework and the actual theories in research. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK A theoretical framework is a collection of interrelated ideas based on theories. It is a reasoned set of prepositions, which are derived from and supported by data or evidence. Theoretical frameworks accounts for or explain explains phenomena. It attempts to clarify why things are the way they are based on theories. A theoretical framework is a general set of assumptions about the nature of phenomena. To understand theoretical frameworks, an analy analysis of theories has to be made. THEORIES IN RESEARCH A theory is a reasoned statement or groups of statement, which are supported by evid evidence, ence, meant to explain phenomena. They are a systematic explanation of the relationship among phenomena. Theories provide a generalized explanation to an occurrence. There are several kinds of theories in all disciplines. It is impossible for a researcher to know all these theories. Therefore a researcher should be conversant to know all these theories. Therefore a researcher should be conversant with those applicable to ones area of research. When a theory fails to be supported by data, it can be rejected, or is revised. Theories are testable in a practical situation. Theories provide indicators and examples of what is incorporated in the framework. Theories provide tentative theoretical answers to questions, issues and problems before the researcher practi practically confirms through research that the answer is correct. Theories have proponents. Researchers apply theories to guide their work and help interpret finding. They provide a foundation for inquiries. The
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following are some of their theories that can be used to formulate a theoretical framework: a) STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM THEORY (EMILE DURKHEIM, 1858-1917) This theory proposes that human society is like an organism and is made up of structures called social institutions. These institutions are specially structured so that they perform different functions on behalf of society. This theory attempts to provide an explanation on how human society is organized and what each of the various social institutions does in order for society to continue existing. According to his theory, as a result of being interrelated and interdependent, one organ can affect the others and ultimately the whole. The whole can also affect one or all the social institution. A researcher can use this theory to point out why and how some societies operate relatively well compared to others socially. b) SYMBOLIC INTERACTION THEORY (MAX WEBER, 1864-1920) This theory deals with explaining how individuals relate with each other. This is a theoretic orientation, which contains assumptions proposing that the social world is made up of symbols, which human beings use as a means of interaction. According to this theory human beings do not act individually but interact with each other, thus reacting to each other. A researcher can use this theory in an attempt to explain and understand how people relate to each other and what is used in facilitating a relationship between individuals and groups of people in society. A researcher may attempt to show how the behavior expressed by members of groups to which one belongs and by members of one’s personal networks have an influence. The researcher may show how people rely on the opinions of others, especially when a situation is highly uncertain or ambiguous and no objective evidence is readily available.
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c) CONFLICT THEORY (KARL MARX 1818-1883) 1818 This theory emphasizes the existence of opposing forces in the life of individuals group, social structures and society in general. This theory views human society as a collection of competing interest groups and individual, eeach ach with their own motives and expectations. The principles assumption underlying this theory is that all members in society do not have the same values, interest or expectations. These vary according to one’s position, privileges, ability, class and wealt wealth. h. Agreement tends to appear among those who share similar privileges. This is likely to encourage unequal distribution of the scarce but valuable resources and opportunities. This results in divisions in society resulting in hostility and opposition. A re result sult in divisions in society resulting hostility and opposition. A researcher can use this theory in an attempt to explain why conflicts occur in society. d) BASIC NEEDS THEORY (ABRAHAM MASLOW. 1943) According to this theory, there are certain minimum require requirements that are essential to a decent standard of living. These are known as physiology needs. They include food, shelter, health and clothing they are primary needs and have to be centered for before others needs such as security and shelter, sense of belo belonging and affection, love, esteem and finally self –actualization actualization are pursued. A researcher can apply this theory when attempting to prove that lack of basic survival needs may be a contributory factor to the situation of the phenomena under study.
Assessment Discuss the research theories and clearly state situations in which these theories can be used.
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IMPORTANCE OF THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS A theoretical framework plays a major role in research. These include the following: a) It introduces the researcher to a new view of the research problem. This enables the researcher to understand the total realm of the problem. b) It enables the researcher to conceptualize the topic in its entirety as an outgrowth of the larger society. This helps the researcher to acknowledge the problem from a wider perspective and not from a narrow personalized self-interest approach. This enhances the researcher’s objectivity.
QUALITIES
OF
AN
EFFECTIVE
THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK An effective theoretical framework should: a) Account for and explain a phenomenon. b) Be specific and well-articulated. c) Reflect the research problem being addressed. d) Be measured in a practical situation. e) Provide tentative answers to questions, issues and problems addressed in the research problem. f) Should systematically address the various aspects of the problem, particularly the key factors that are assumed to influence or cause the problem. GUIDANCE
IN
FORMULATING
A
THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK In formulating an effective theoretical framework, the researcher should adhere to the following: a) Reflect- on the existing theories for the purpose of identifying a fitting context.
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b) Analyze the research title to identify the independent and dependent variables. The researcher should then reflect on the relationship between these variables. c) Find out which theories best explain the relationship the variables. This can be achieved by using the library and reading books and articles related to the topic selected. The researcher should read through various theories related to one’s research resear topic. The sources include professional publications, journals in education, these, abstracts from doctoral dissertations and master these psychological obstruct. These reading will present various studies related to one’s study area. This will assist in i the formulation of the theoretical framework. d) Formulation- the researcher should then write down the theories applicable, link the ideas and identify the relationship. After this the researcher should formulate the theoretical framework. This will involvee discussing the selected theories in an attempt to answer the research question. e) Evaluation- after formulating the theoretical framework, the researcher should evaluate it to find out it addresses all sections of the research problem
CHALLENGES FACED IN FORMULATING OF THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Lack of differentiation between a theory and theoretical frames work. While a theory simply states what proponents have discovered in relation to a certain issue, a theoretical framework uses this theory to account for a certain issue, a theoretical framework uses this theory to account for and clarify why things are the way they are applicable to the study. Moreover, some researchers quote theories that do not explain the phenomenon under study.
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RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN
CONCEPTUAL
AND
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS Many researchers get confused whether to use conceptual or theoretical frameworks in the studies. Although both these frameworks are tools to assist a researcher make meaningful findings, they vary. A conceptual framework bases on ideals that may be formulated from a researcher’s own perception. This may be from observation or experience. On the other hand, the theoretical framework is based on recognized theories. A conceptual framework cannot be refuted or tested through research. A theoretical framework is testable and can be rejected or revised. Ideas raised in a theoretical framework have proponents while those in a conceptual framework are mainly the researcher’s with a few references to support them. A theoretical framework is a discussion of related theories attempting to predict a phenomenon. A conceptual framework is an idea stated.
Reflection i.
Discuss the relevance of theoretical and conceptual frameworks in research.
ii.
Show the relationship between conceptual and theoretical frameworks.
iii.
State four qualities of an effective theoretical framework.
iv.
Briefly explain how a theoretical framework can be formulated.
v.
List three challenges faced in formulating a theoretical framework.
5.5 STAGES OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS Ladies and gentlemen welcome to this subunit which will help us understand the research process of the research proposed and the
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research thesis (report) respectively. However will look at the research proposal and research thesis (report) in brief so as not to pre--empty empty year two and year three work. According to the Junior Secondary teachers diploma syllabus, curriculum studies and Education Research, Research Proposal will be studied in year two, write the research report in year three. To have an insight of the research process will outline the formats for the research proposal and research report, because these two documents have two different stages of the research process. The first step in the research process of course is to identify the problem and formulate a title.
RESEARCH PROPOSAL FORMAT Chapter 1 –Introduction
Background to the study
Statement of the research problem- purpose of the study
Objectives of the study
Research questions
Significance of the study
Hypothesis
Conceptual or theoretical framework
Chapter2 –Literature Review Chapter 3 –Research Methodology: Research design, Research site, Population, Sampling techniques, Research instruments, Data collect collection, Analysis and Presentation. RESEARCH REPORT (THESIS) FORMAT A research report consists of preliminaries which are numbered in roman numerals. The preliminaries in order of appearance include the approval, acknowledgement, table of contents, lists of tables, list of figures and abstract. Others include declar declaration and dedication before the approval page. A research report consists of
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the first three chapters of the proposal plus the research findings, conclusions and recommendations.
Title
Declaration
Approval
Acknowledgement
Table of contents
List of tables
List of figures
Abstract
CHAPTER ONE –INTRODUCTION
Background to the problem
Theoretical framework of the study
Statement of the problem
Purpose of the study
Objectives of the study
Research questions
Significance of the study
Limitations of the study
Definition of terms used in the study
CHAPTER TWO –LITERACURE REVIEW CHAPTER THREE –METHODOLOGY
Methods used in the study
Design of the study
Population of the study
Sampling procedure
Research instruments
Pre-testing of research instruments
Size of the sample
Data collection
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Data analysis
Data interpretation
Problems encountered in the field
CHAPTER FOUR –PRESENTATIONS PRESENTATIONS OF FINDINGS CHAPTER FIVE –DISUSSION, DISUSSION, CONCLUSION AND ANDRECOMMENDATIONS
5.6 RESEARCH AREA/TOPIC 5.6.1. .1. Topic Selection. The term "topic'' refers to subject, issue or area under discussion. The topic (subject) one selects to research is essential in the success of the research. This is mainly because one's interest in the topic will sustain the research. If a researcher is interested nterested in a particular area, he/she will enjoy reading materials related to that subject, and will put time and effort into the work. The researcher will be keen on collecting the required data, analyzing it and finding out the results.It is imperative that a researcher selects a topic that interests him/her. The followingare some of the stepsthat that should be followed in topic selection. a) Identify what interests. or puzzles one in an area of study There are many issues in life that may puzzle or interest a researcher. These may be social, economic, health, political or cultural issues. However, it is important to identify a puzzling aspect in one's area of study. This not only enables the researcher to go in in-depth depth in one's professional area, but also to defend defe the researched work with authority. For example, in identifying an area of study, a student in the department of Sociology may be puzzled as to why people still consume illicit brews despite the dangers experienced and the warnings given by the governme government. These are fertile grounds in which students can identify research topics.
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b) Identify keywords for the topic The researcher should then zero down to the real aspect puzzling him/her and express it in specific keywords. These keywords can include words representing the issue that has puzzled the researcher. For example if the researcher is puzzled about illicit brews, the keywords may be increase of illicit brews. For the student in education, the keywords may be free primary education, school accessibility, retention and performance. The researcher should think of what to concentrate on based on these words. c) Define the topic After identifying the keywords the researcher wants to concentrate on, he/ she has to define the topic. Defining the topic involves analysing selected keywords keenly. Out of these keywords there are a number of topics that can be studied. For example, on the issue of free primary education, the researcher may decide to concentrate on free primary education and student accessibility, or free primary education and student retention, or free primary education and learners' performance or all of the above, thus analysing free primary education and school accessibility, retention and performance. The researcher has to identify specifically what he/she wants to concentrate on. This enables the study to be focused. d) Formulate the topic After identifying and defining the topic, the researcher should formulate it. For example the prevalence of illicit brews in Kenya. The researcher should search for articles and other materials relevant to the research topic. This information will assist the researcher develop clarity over the topic selected. This will also assist the researcher in the formulation of the research problem later on. The researcher should, take notes, paraphrase and summarize what has been read on relevant materials. This will be 65
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included in the literature review. Relevant information related to the selected topic can be foun found d in a library or the Internet. Qualities of an Effective Research Topic A good research topic has the following qualities: a) It is researchable: That means it is a subject where the research instruments can be easily formulated and the study population sampled. The objectives that will be formulated based on the topic are measurable. b) It captivates the interest of the researcher: The topic selected should be one that the researcher has an interest in. c) It makes a contribution to knowledge: A good research topic is one in which the researcher is aware that the findin findings of the study will contribute to the body of knowledge. d) It is provocative:: It open to varied views and interpretations e) It is clear and focused: The topic is not vague va or alien to the researcher. Challenges Encountered in Topic Selection Selecting a topic in research is essential and requires a lot of care. This is because the topic selected has a lot of influence on the success of the project/study. There are various challenges encountered in topic selection, and some have resulted in researcher aba abandoning ndoning the project half way, or the project taking longer to be completed than anticipated. The following are some of the problems encountered in topic section. a) Choosing a topic that is too wide A researcher may select a research area that is too wide and fail to limit the scope. This occurs due to underestimating the dimension of the topic. For example, a topic such as Truancy in schools may also be problematic unless the scope is clearly specified. This topic
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may be too wide because the causes and effects of truancy on education vary by gender and region. Truancy also has diverse effects
on
school
accessibility,
retention
and
academic
performance. It may be impossible for this researcher to conduct an in-depth study. To avoid selecting a topic that is too wide, the researcher should be very clear and focused on what they want to research. If it is issues related to drought or truancy, then they have to be very certain on what they want to investigate in relation to drought or truancy and make that the focus of the study. b) Choosing a topic that is too complex At times a researcher may choose a topic that is too complex for research at the level of the student. This complexity is based on the fact that some of the research may require large samples. A study on the mushrooming of churches in Zambia is complex in that it requires clear definition of the term "mushrooming. This topic may present the researcher with problems particularly during data collection and analysis. c) Poor timing Most research works have a limited time span for which data should be collected and presented. Failure to adhere to this may lead to disqualifications or penalties. Some topics, for example, Effects offree primary education over a five year period may not be feasible for a master's programme. This is mainly because these programmes usually cover a span of two years. d) Limited accessibility to materials and respondents A particular topic may prove unsuitable simply because there is no ready accessibility to the requisite source materials. It is common for some source materials not to be made available for some years after an event or during the lifetime of an individual. Other materials may not be available in libraries. Some research works have been delayed or changed due to the problem of unavailability 67
Unit 5 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
of subjects. For example, a study based on Ai Aids ds patients at Ndola central Hospital may not be easy as accessibility to respondents may be limited. The patients may also feel an invasion of privacy and refuse to respond.
Activity i.
Explain the steps involved in selecting a topic.
ii.
Formulate your own topic based on educational matters by following the above stated steps.
iii.
List qualities of an effective research topic.
iv.
Scrutinize your research topic by subjecting it to the above mentioned qualities.
v.
Discuss challenges encountered in topic selection.
5.7TITLE TITLE SELECTION. The term "title" refers to heading, label or tag. The title of the proposal or thesis describes what the study is about. The title is a mini abstrac abstract. t. It portrays a quick summary of the key idea(s) in a proposal or thesis. For example the following title by Kombo (2005), Abortion in Kenya: An examination of its causes and effects on female students in secondary schools and colleges indication that the study is on abortion. It also indicates that the study will analyse the causes and effects of abortion. It can be deduced from the title that the respondents will include female students in secondary schools and colleges. The title should be formulated af after the researcher has identified the research topic.
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5.7.1THE FOLLOWING STEPS ARE ESSENTIAL IN TITLE SELECTION: a) Identify keywords for the title Before selecting the title, the researcher should identify key issues in the topic the researcher is interested in. b) Reflect on the key issues The researcher should brainstorm the key issues identified. This includes attempting to find out the independent and dependent variables. For example if the researcher is puzzled over price increase and commodity consumption, questions that the researcher should attempt to answer are: • Does price increase affect consumption? • Does price increase influence consumption? • Does consumption influence price increase? The researcher will attempt to find out how these issues can be linked to form a title. c) Formulate the title After the researcher is clear about the independent and dependent variables, the title can be formulated. The formulation of the title involves trying to link the key variables. This can be formulated by using terms such as The effect of ..., The impact of ..., An assessment of ..., for instance, The effect of price increase on consumption or The effect offree primary education on school accessibility.
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d) Evaluation After formulating the title, the researcher has to ensure that it is clear and specific. This means the independent and dependent variables are easily identified (variables will be discussed later). For example, if the title is on the effect of price incre increase on consumption the researcher may specify it as The effect of price increase on sugar consumptionin Kenya. If the title is on free primary education, the title can be The effect of free primary education
on
student
accessibility,
retention
and andacademic
performance. 5.7.2 5.7.2Qualities of an Effective Title An effective research title should portray the following qualities: • It should be brief.md specific: For example, The impact of drug abuse on education. This brevity makes the title stand out and have a strong impact. It is easier to identify the independent and dependentvariables. The title becomes clear and focused. • It should be in line with the set objectives: The title is a brief summary of what the study is about. It should portray the aims and objectives of the study. The words used in the title should clearly reflect the focus of the study. • It should be clear and unambiguous: The title should not lead to various interpretations of the study. • It should reflect a relationship between the independent and dependent variables, for example, the effect of price increase on food consumption. ' • The title should portray an issue that is researchable. The aspects in question should be measurable. 5.7. 5.7.3CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED IN TITLE SELECTION There are various challenges faced by researchers in title selection.
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These include the following: a) Choosing a title that is not specific A researcher may select title thatis open to varied interpretations. For example, Crime in Zambia wide title that is open to various interpretations. This is because there are also varied forms of crime. For it to be effective, it has to be specific. To avoid this in title selection, the researcher should be very clear and focused on what the independent and dependent variables of the study are. b) Writing a title that is too wordy A brief title is more effective than a long one. This is because variables are easily identified. Some titles have too many words. To avoid this, researchers should ensure that words that are not necessary for understanding the title are omitted. For example, the title; the effect of free primary education on the academic performanceof boys and girls in boarding and day schools in Zambia can be summarized as The effect of freeprimary education on academic performance. When all else fails, a two part title can be used with the parts separated by a colon. c) Poorly formulated titles Some titles are difficultto comprehend for example, Understanding drug abuse in Zambia. It is difficult to comprehend what the term"understanding" means. d) Lack of consistency Some study titles neither tally with the research objectives, nor with the problem statement or methodology applied. For example a 'researcher who in a study on the effect of price increase on sugar consumption In Zambia, concentrateson finding out about student indiscipline in schools is not addressing the title selected.
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Activity I.
Explain the difference between a topic and a title.
II.
Mention the key steps in research title selection.
III.
List qualities of an effective title.
IV.
Formulate your research title and subject it to the qualities of an effective title.
V.
Discuss challenges encountered in title selection.
6.0 VARIABLES. The term "variable" is derived from variations. This refers to differences. Variables are attributes or qualities of the cases that we measure or record. For example, if the cases are persons, the variables could be sex, age, height, weight, level of empow empowerment, ability, and so on. They are referred to as variables because it is assumed that the cases will vary in their scores on these attributes. For example, if the variable is age, we obviously recognize that people can be of different ages. In any parti particular cular study, variables can play different roles. For example the reaction of people towards price increase may vary according to commodity use and availability. There are two major forms of variables: the independent and dependent variables. Independent Va Variable The independent variables are also known as the predictor or explanatory variables. These are the factors that the researcher thinksexplain variation in the dependent variable. In other words, these arethe causes.If a study is on The impact of price increase on beer consumption in Zambia then price increase is the independent
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variable. This is because it canexplain or affect the increase or decrease in beer consumption. Dependent Variable Usually there is only one dependent variable, and it is the outcome variable the researcher is attempting to predict. If theresearcher attempts to predict the effect of the physiotherapy strategy on community-based rehabilitation programmes for the physically impaired. A community-based rehabilitation programme therefore is the dependent variable. Variation in the dependent variable is what the researcher is trying to explain. In other words, the dependent variable" depends" on the independent. For instance, the fluctuation in beer consumption is seen in so far as it is caused by the price increase- independent variable - which is expected to change or alter in some way the dependent variable.
Activity Identify the independent and dependent variables in your research title with scholarly justification.
7.0LITERATURE REVIEW The term "literature" refers to the analysis of textbooks or manuscripts. Although many people rightly associate literature with novels and poetry, in research the term is more specific. In terms of a literature review, "the literature" means the works the researcherconsulted in order to understand and investigate the research problem. A literature review therefore is an account of what has been published ona topic by accredited scholars and researchers. It is a critical look at the existing research that is
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significant to the work that the researcher will be carrying cut. It involves examining documents such as books, magazines, journals and dissertations that have a bearing on the study being conducted. 7.1 .1 Importance of Literature Review in Research Resear Literature review is essential in research. This is due to the following: a) It sharpens and deepens the theoretical foundation of the research. Literature review enables the researcher to study different theories related to the identified topic. By studying study these theories, a researcher gains clarity and better understanding of the theoretical foundations related to the current research. b) It gives the researcher insight into what has already been done in the selected field, pinpointing its strengths and weaknesses. knesses. This information guides the researcher in the formulation of a theory that aims at addressing the identified gaps. c) It enables the researcherto know the kind of additional data needed in the study. This helps avoid duplication of work. d) An understanding of previous works helps the researcher to develop a significant problem which will provide further knowledge in the field of study e) Wide reading exposes the researcher to a variety of approaches of dealing with the research issue. This contributes to a well-designed designed methodology. The researcher can avoid methods indicated in the literature to have failed and adopt new approaches. This will result in a significant study. f) It helps in developing an analytic framework or a basis for analysing and interpreting data. 7.2 .2 Qualities of an Effective Literature review
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The following are qualities expected from an effective literature review. a) It is critical, organized and analytical in orientation - In an effective study the literature review is used to analyse issues such as: whether the hypotheses in the studies reviewed were logically formulated. The methodology used in the studies and the quality of interpretation of the findings are also analysed. Other issues addressed by the researcher while reviewing literature relate to the sampling procedures adopted and their appropriateness for the study. The interpretation of data particularly on whether it is based on logical deduction of findings is also examined. An investigation is also made on research findings and their statistical significance. The applicability of the research findings to a wide population is discussed. b) It justifies the need for the study- An effective literature review identifies the gaps in the studies quoted. By identifying these gaps and highlighting the identified controversies, it helps to indicate that further research needs to be carried out on the identified topic. It also points out how the current study will contribute positively towards filling the identified gaps. c) It highlights the relationship between the past and the current study – An effective literature review links the current study with past studies. It evaluates and shows the relationships between the work already done by other scholars and the researcher's work. This link brings consistency and continuity in relation to the identified topic. d) It puts the research problem into perspective. - By quoting and analysing various studies related to the selected topic, the literature review helps define the research problem. It also acts as a guideline in assessment of the research questions. 7.3 Guidelines in Formulating an Effective Literature Review 75
Unit 5 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
The following techniques are ess essential ential in reviewing literature: a) Identify key issues to be addressed by the literature reviewBefore the researcher begin:; to search for articles and materials relevant to the research topic, he/she should identify the key issues that will guide the literature search. These key issues can be formulated by the researcher clearly identifying the research topic, title and the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. The objectives of the study should also be identified. The researcher should also be certain of the specific problem the literature review will help address. b) Formulate a preliminary statement of the problem. -The researcher should formulate a preliminary statement. This will assist the researcher to be focused in material selection. For example, what are thecauses and effects of abortion on the education of female ale students in secondaryschools and colleges? What has been done and can be done to assist thesestudents?
After the
preliminary statement,
the
researcher can now begin to identify sources of information relevant to the research topic. c) Identify sources of information-The The researcher needs to identify books, articles, professionalpapers and other relevant publications that relate to the research title and the research problem. There are a wide variety of sources available for locating articles for the review of literature. Many of these sources are available in the libraries. The Internet can also be used to locate articles. Some of the sources of information include journal articles. These are good especially for up to date information. They are frequently used ed in literature reviews because they offer a relatively concise, up-to-date date format for research, and because all reputable journals are peer reviewed and
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
refereed (that is, editors publish only the most relevant and reliable research). Books offer a good starting point from which
to
find
more
detailed
sources.
Conference
proceedingsare useful in providing current research findings or research that has not been published. Information
can
government/corporate
also
be
reports.
gathered Many
from
government
departments and corporations or commissions carry out research. Their published findings can provide a useful source of information, depending on the researcher's field of study.Newspaperscan also offer useful information about recent trends, discoveries or changes, e.g. announcing changes in government policy. Theses and dissertations can be useful sources of information. d) Analyse critically the articles identified –After identifying the articles to be used, the researcher should critically analyse each book or article selected by reading the article’s abstract or summary. This will enable the researcher to deduce how applicable the article is to the current study. In the selection of articles, the most recent works on a subject area must be identified. This shows or demonstrates how the researcher is conversant with current trends in knowledge in the subject area. 7.4Challenges Faced in the Formulation of a Literature Review There are many challenges researchers encounter while writing the literature review. This includes the following: a) Failure to connect the reviewed studies with the current study– Some literature reviews are simply listings of one piece of literature after the other without any discussion and analysis. The researcher hardly relates the studies to his/her study. These make the studies unrelated to the current study.
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b) Poor presentation-Some Some researchers create too many paragraphs in their work by treating each article in a separate paragraph. This makes the work disjointed particularly if separatee paragraphs are addressing a similar point. The researcher should ensure that similar points are grouped together or combined. Some researchers start each article with the name of the researcher. This repetition can become tiresome for readers. This can bee varied by quoting the author after writing about the article. c) Large quantities of studies to review-Some review researchers attempt to read and review all the materials related to their topic. This is impossible. The idea of the literature review is not to provide ide a summary of all the published work that relates to one's research, but a survey of the most relevant and significant works. The researcher should therefore read abstracts of the selected articles, and select materials that are most relevant to his /her study. d) Lack of documentation- Some researchers read articles without writing until they have "finished" reading. This at times results in forgetting or omitting important points. A researcher should note down important points in the course of reading. e) Lack of referencing- Some researchers rarely note down the references in their work while reading. Researchers should always put references into their writing. f) Lack of critique- Some researchers blindly accepts research findings and interpretation without critically examining all aspects of the research design and analysis. The researcher should critically analyse the work, pointing out contrary findings and alternative interpretations. g) Failure to review current studies- Some researchers bases their reviews on works that were carried out over twenty
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years ago. Though these studies may have valid information and cannot be ignored, the researcher should attemptto base most of the review on current studies. The researcher should make attempts to analyse studies carried out less than five years ago in relation to his/her study. After reviewing 1iterature the researcher should discuss the identified gaps.
Reflection i.
In your own words what does literature review mean?
ii.
Discuss the importance of literature review.
iii.
State qualities of an effective literature review.
iv.
Check your literature review and compare it to the stated qualities.
v.
Explain the guidelines in formulating an effective literature review.
vi.
List challenges faced in formulating an effective literature review.
8.0RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Research Design A research design can be thought of as the structure of research. It is the "glue" that holds all of the elements in a research project together. A design is used to structure the research, to show how all of the major parts of the research project work together to try to address the central research questions. Orodho (2003) defines it as the scheme, outline or plan that is used to generate answers to research problems. 8.1 Types of Research Designs.
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It is important to understand the relationship among various designs. This will assist the researcher in makin making design choices and thinking about the strengths and weaknesses of different desig designs. The designs are as follows: a) DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists. The researcher reports the findings. Kerlinger (1969) points out that descriptive studies are not only restricted to fact findings, ndings, but may often result in the formulation of important principles of knowledge and solution to significant problems. They are more than just a collection
of
data.
They
involve
measurement,
classification, analysis, comparison and interpretation int of data. Descriptive survey is a method of collecting information by interviewing or administering a questionnaire to a sample of individuals (Orodho, 2003). It can ca be used when collecting information about people's attitudes, opinions, habits or any of the variety of education or social issues (Orodho and Kombo, 2002). For example, teachers in schools can carry out a survey to find out students' attitudes towards their heir teaching styles or discipline. When using this design the researcher should ensure the following:
Construct questions that will solicit the desired information.
Identify the individuals that will be surveyed.
Identify the means by which the survey will wil be conducted.
Summarize the data in a way that provides the designed descriptive information.
b) EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
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In this design, subjects are randomly assigned to an experimental group which receives the treatment or to a control group which does not receive treatment. Assuming the two groups were initially equivalent, the researcher can compare their performance. In this design cause and effect can be easily determined. If you decide to use this design, you must be certain of the independent and dependent variables and must guard against the influence of extraneous variables.
c) CORRELATION DESIGN This design enables the researcher to assess the degree of relationshipthat exists between two or more variables. H analyses the correlationbetween two or more variables (Orodho, 2003). For example, if you compare the examination performance of a group of university students who prepare their own meals every day and those who eat at the cafeteria, you will use a correlation design. Suppose the academic performance of students who prepare their own meals is lower than those who eat at the cafeteria, then you may deduce that preparation of meals by students has an impact on their academic performance.
d) CASE STUDY DESIGN A case study seeks to describe a unit in detail, in context and holistically. It is a way of organizing educational data and looking at theobject to be studied as a whole. In a case study, a great deal can belearned from a few examples of the phenomena under study. For example,the impact of pay-as-you-eat on education: A case study of Kenyatta University. A study of Kenyatta University can allow an in-depth investigation of the problem at hand. You should use case study design if you intend to analyse an issue in detail.
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e) CROSS CULTURAL RESEARCH DESIGN ESIGN This is used to compare the behaviour patterns of different cultures. Using this design you can perceive how various -cultures perceive certain educational and social outcomes. For example, you can compare the performance of students in English in ru rural and urban schools and find out to what extent cultural variations influence performance. Steps to Follow in Selecting a Research Design Below are some of the steps a researcher should follow while selecting a research design: a) Identify the kind of research you intend to carry out. Being aware of the purpose and objectives of your study and your theoretical foundations will considerably influence how you design your research: where you go, for how long, with whom you talk, and the kind of questions you y ask. Deciding if you intend to test or elaborate existing theory or are trying to build a new, grand theory, or are using existing theory in a new way, has implications in the kind of information you need to collect. b) Use the library to analyse samples off research designs from books and periodicals. The Internet is another option. c) Discuss with colleagues on the validity and reliability of your research and make a decision on what design will assist in answering your research questions appropriately. Quali Qualities of anEffective Research Design
They are systematic and logical. They effectively address the questions raised in the study. Based on this design the researcher can construct questions that will solicit the desired information.
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They contribute to accurate ate and fair interpretation of results.
CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
They clarify to the researcher the respondents and the means by which the study will be conducted.
They contribute to deeper insights and better understanding of the research topic.
Guidelines in Selecting a Research Design The following are essential points that researchers should adhereto while selecting a research design: a) Identify the research questions to be addressed by the study: The researcher should identify and reflect on the research questions raised in the study. Reflection should include brainstorming on issues such as:
Do the questions raised in the study require collecting information by interviewing or questionnaires? If the response is positive then the researcher will use a survey design.
Do the questions raised in the study require systematic manipulation of independent and dependent variables? If the answer is yes, then the researcher will use an experimental design.
Does the study require the researcher to assess the degree of relationship between two or more variables? If the answer is positive then a correlation design will be used.
Does the study seek to describe a unit in detail? If so then a case study design will be used.
Does the study seek to compare the behaviour patterns of different cultures? If the answer is positive then a crosscultural research design will be applicable.
b) After identifying the research design to be used, read materials related to that design to understand its advantages and disadvantages.
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Indicate the research design ign pointing out its validity and reliability to the current research. Pitfalls in Selection of Research Designs. While selecting a research design, a researcher should be on the lookout for the following pitfalls and avoid them: a) Choosing a design that cannot assist in meeting the research objectives. b) Choosing a design that is too complex for research at the level at which the student is studying. c) Choosing a design that requires extensive study and a lot of time while the time assigned to the resea research rch is limited. d) Lack of clarity about the design. e) A research design that lacks flexibility. From the above, it is clear that in selecting a research design the researcher should ensure that it links concepts and questions with the study and it is spe specific cific and flexible and expansive enough to adapt to various complexities.
Reflection i.
Discuss your own understanding of a research design.
ii.
Discuss types of research design and state situations in which they can be used.
iii.
Explain steps and guidelines to follow low in selecting a research design.
iv.
84
List qualities of an effective research design.
CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
8.2 Sampling Techniques. Sampling is the procedure a researcher uses to gather people, places or things to study. It is a process of selecting a number of individuals orobjects from a population such that the selected group contains elementsrepresentative of the characteristics found in the entire group(Orodho and Kombo, 2002). When dealing with people, it can be defined as a set of respondents (people) selected from a larger population for the purpose of a survey. Research conclusions and generalizations are only as good as the sample they are based on. Samples are always subsets or small parts of the total number that could be studied. Sampling is the act, process or technique of selecting a suitable sample. The way in which a researcher selects subjects for a study will determine how one is able to generalize the results of the study. Sampling Design The term "sampling design" refers to that part of the research plan that indicates how cases are to be selected for observation. Sampling designs are divided into two broad areas: • Probability designs. • Non-probability designs. 8.3PROBABILITY SAMPLING The key component behind all probability sampling approaches is randomization, or random selection. In probability sampling people, places or things are randomly selected. Each unit in the population has an equal chance of being selected. This sampling gives every member of the population equal chances of being included in the study. Probability sampling enables the researcher to generalize to the larger population and make inferences. If the purpose of your research is to draw conclusions or make predictions affecting the population as a whole, then probability
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sampling is appropriate. Various methods have been established accomplish probability sampling. Thes Thesee include the following:
a) Simple random sampling This method referred to as simple random sampling as no complexities are involved. All you need is a relatively small, clearly defined population to use this method. For example in a town of 10,000 residents, the researcher may simply obtain a list of all residents, and then using a sequence of numbers fr from a random numbers table (or draws of a hat, flips of a coin), selects say 10% or 20%, or some portion of names on that list, making sure that he/ she is not drawing from any letter of the alphabet more heavily than others. Advantages of simple random sam sampling pling are that the samples yield research data that can be generalized to a larger population. Disadvantages However this method also has disadvantages. This includes the following:
It is not the most statistically efficient method of sampling. The researcher her may, just because of luck of draw, not get good representation of subgroups in a population.
Bias in selection is common.
Some samples may be over or under represented.
Non response error is high'. Some of the members selected may have moved to other areas.
b) Stratified random sampling
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
Stratified random sampling involves dividing your population into homogeneous subgroups and then taking a simple random sample in each subgroup. The sample is selected in such a way as to ensure that certain subgroups in the population are represented in the sample in proportion to their number in the population. This method is appropriate when the researcher is interested in issues related to gender, race or disparities in the population. The advantages of this method are that you will be able to represent not only the overall population, but also key subgroups of the population, especially small minority groups. Stratified random sampling will generally have more statistical precision than simple random sampling. Disadvantages If not carefully stratified, bias can occur resulting in some groups of the population being unrepresented.
c) Systematic random sampling Suppose a researcher had a large list of people, places or things to select from, such as 100,000 people or more. The appropriate method to use is to select-every 10th, 20th, or 30th person from such a list. This decision to use every l0th, 20th, or 30th person is called the sampling interval, and as it is done systematically and the entire list is used, the researcher is said to be systematically random sampling. Advantages
Large populations can be analysed.
Every member of the populations has an equal chance of inclusion.
Bias is minimized.
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Disadvantages
The response may be low since the respondents' availability is unpredictable.
The selection of the first sample member may result in a bias in the entire sample.
The list used may not be in a systematic order.
d) Cluster random sampling In the event that a population is dispersed across a wide geographic region, one may have to use cluster random sampling. This method allows for the division of the study population into clusters (usually counties, regions, provinces or other boundaries) and random sampling of everyone in those clusters. The units within the sampl sampled clusters should be measured. Some forms of random selection include picking a name out of a hat. These days, you can use a computer and generate random numbers as the basis for random selection. Random sampling is still regarded as one of the best statistic statistical methods ethods as it is free from bias. Disadvantages
There is a risk of missing on important sub-groups. sub
Lack of complete representation of the target population.
8.4 .4 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING This method is mainly applied to find out how a small group, or a representative group, is doing for purposes of illustration or explanation. Various methods have also been established to accompl accomplish non-probabilistic sampling.
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a) Quota sampling This sampling technique begins by dividing the population into relevant strata such as age, gender or geographical region. The total sample is allocated among the strata in direct proportion to their estimated or actual size in the population. Once the researcher identifies the people to be studied, they have to resort to haphazard or accidental sampling because no effort is usually made to contact people who are difficult to reach in the quota. The problem with this method is that bias intrudes on the sampling frame. This is because researchers allowed to self-select respondents are subject to bias such as interviewing their friends in excessive proportions or concentrating in areas where there are large numbers of potential respondents.
b) Convenience sampling This method is based on using people who are a ca19tive audience, people
the
researcher meets
haphazard1y
or
accidentally
Respondents are people who just happen to be walking by, or show a special interest in your research. The use of volunteers is an example of convenience sampling.
c) Purposive sampling. In this sample method, the researcher purposely targets a group of people believed to be reliable for the study. For example, to study the effects of abortion on learning, the researcher may make efforts to contact students who previously had terminated their pregnancies. The researcher never knows if the sample is representative of the population. The power of purposive sampling lies in selecting information rich cases for in-depth analysis related to the central issues being studied.
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Purposive sampling can be used with bo both th quantitative and qualitative studies. Purposive sampling can be carried out in addition to probabil probability sampling.
8.5 .5 Bias and Error in Sampling There are various challenges faced by researchers during sampling. Some of these challenges include the foll following: owing: Sampling error error- Sampling error comprises of the differences between the sample and the population that are due solely to the particular units that happen 'to have been selected. There are two basic causes for sampling error; chance and sampling bias. a) Chance Chance-This This is the error that occurs due to bad luck. This may result in untypical choices. Unusual units in a population do exist and there is always a possibility that an abnormally large number of them will be chosen. The main protection agains against this kind of error is to use a large enough sample. b) Sampling bias- Sampling bias is a tendency to favour the selection of units that have particular characteristics. Sampling bias is usually the result of a poor sampling plan. The most notable is the bias of non-response response when for some reason some units have no chance of appearing in the sample. A mail questionnaire is sent to 100 randomly selected graduate students. Only 52 students respond. The results show that students are not under stress, yet the actual case is that stress levels may be high except among those who are answering the questionnaire.
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Reflection i.
Explain what sampling techniques and sampling designs mean.
ii.
Mention the various methods used in probability sampling, and state the advantages and disadvantages of these methods.
iii.
Discuss the various methods used in non- probability sampling.
iv.
Discuss biasness and error in sampling.
8.6 Respondents In research, the term "respondents" refers to those who will reply to, or respond to the research instruments. The selection of respondents is crucial to the overall usefulness of the information produced. This is because respondents help in the clarification of issues under the study. This contributes to the achievement of set objectives. The selection of respondents will largely depend on the information needed and the data techniques to be used. The researcher should ensure that informants, particularly key informants, possess special knowledge related to the study area. Qualities of Effective Respondent Selection The following should be adhered to by researchers in the selection of respondents: • Respondents should be individuals who possess some knowledge about the topic being studied. • They should be willing to share the information they have in relation to the topic with the researcher. • They should be active participants in the culture or organization under study.
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• They must be willing to give their time to the study. • A large sample of respondents is better than a small one. In general, the larger the sample, the more representative it is likely to be, and the more generalizable the results of the study are likely to be. Challenges Faced in Respondent Selection The selection of reliable informants has various challenges. These include clude the following:
Unwillingness of respondents to share all they know on the issue with the researcher.
Language barrier: the interview or questionnaire may have been written in Kiswahili yet the .respondent can effectively express him/ herself in English sh or, say, Dholuo.
Hostility towards the researcher: some respondents may personalize
the
questions
asked
particularly
during
interviews and become hostile towards the researcher.
Time limitations.
In general, selection of respondents will depend on the nature of the analysis to be performed, the desired precision of the estimates one wishes to achieve, the kind and number of comparisons that will.
8.7 .7 Research Instruments Research instruments include the following: questionnaires, interview schedule schedules, observation and focus group discussions. In formulating research instruments the researcher should ensure the following: a) The objectives of the study are clear. This will assist the researcher to anticipate the type of information needed.
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b) The population sample. The researcher should be aware that some types of instruments are unsuitable to some groups of people due to factors such as the literacy level, profession and culture. A researcher should determine the literacy level of the study population in advance. For the illiterate, interview and focus group discussions should be used. The type of language that will be used (either English or Bemba)will depend on the literacy level of respondents. c) Geographical distribution. The span of the study dictates the type of instrument to be used. A countrywide study may require the use of postal questionnaires and telephone interviews. d) A researcher should be careful about the questions he/she asks. According to Orodho and Kombo (2002), a researcher should do the following:
Begin with a few interesting but non-threatening questions
Avoid vague questions, for instance, "What do you like?"
Keep the language simple.
Limit each question to a single idea. Ensure each item included has a specific purpose.
Only include questions that are directly relevant to the study.
Have a logical sequence.
Do not put the key questions at the end of the questionnaire. It is best to have them in the middle.
Avoid emotionally charged words.
Avoid leading questions, for example, "Do you think students riot because they are unfairly treated?"
Avoid acronyms and abbreviations.
Consider the order of questions related to each topic.
A researcher should vary closed and open ended questions. Closed questions give the respondent a set of choice or
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options. Open-ended ended questions are free response type questions. They allow the respondent to answer in their own words. e) Check the consistency of answers. It may be beneficial to ask the same question again using different wording. This ensures validity.
1) Questionnaires This is a research instrument that gathers data over a large sample. Questionnaires have various advantages including the following:
Information can be collected from a large sample and diverse regions.
Confidentiality is upheld.
Saves on time.
Since they are presented in paper format there is no opportunity for interviewer bias.
However they have their disadvantages in that:
Response rates can be quite low.
There is no direct contact so the researcher cannot deal with any misunderstanding.
There is no opportunity to ask for further information related to answers given.
No clear reason can be given for incomplete responses.
To ensure the effectiveness of questionnaires a pre-test pre should be carried out. Pilot the questionnaire with a small representative sample. This will enable the researcher to find out if: ·
The questions are measuring what they are supposed to measure.
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If all questions are interpreted in the same way by respondents.
What response is provoked?
If there is any research bias.
Steps in Formulating a Questionnaire The following are essential in the formulation of a questionnaire: a) Reflector-Before formulating a questionnaire it is important for the researcher to reflect on the aim and objective of the study. The researcher should reflect on the type of response expected. b) Formulation of questions-The researcher should write down questions related to each stated objective. While constructing the questions the researcher should begin with a few interesting but non-threatening questions. The researcher should only include questions that are relevant to his/her study. The researcher should keep the key questions in the middle. c) Pilot-After
constructing
the
questionnaire,
the
researcher should try it out on a small sample of the population. While piloting the researcher should address the following questions:
Are the questions measuring what they are supposed to measure the researcher should analyse each answer and see if it is supplying the appropriate information.
Is the wording clear? The researcher should analyse the responses to find out if there was any confusion in the way questions were interpreted by all the respondents.
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Do the questions provoke a response? If some questions have been omitted, the researcher re should find out why.
Is there researcher bias? The researcher will analyse whether the questions asked were skewed towards certain issues more than others.
d) Evaluation- After piloting and making the necessary amendments, the researcher should carry out an evaluation of the revised questions. This includes finding out if the questions are clear and specific, where the key questions are placed and if the balance of questions is correct. Qualities of an Effective Questionnaire An effective questionnaire has the following qualities:
It is simple to understand. The language used is clear and straight forward. This helps reduce misinterpretation.
Instructions are clearly given. There are a few words of explanation in each new section.
The questions ions are focused and are limited to a single idea. Sentences are short and precise.
Each item included has a specific purpose, and contributes to the study.
There are no leading questions.
There is a balance of questions per topic. Advantages
Can cover a wide area.
No bias on the side of the researcher and the respondents. Disadvantages Questionnaires have the following disadvantages: disadvantages
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The response rate can be quite low. Since the researcher is not in direct contact with the respondents they may not feel the obligation to complete the questionnaire as soon as possible. This postponement in completion can result in the questionnaire not being answered at all.
There are no direct contacts between the researcher and respondent. The researcher cannot therefore deal with or clarify any misunderstanding.
There is no opportunity for the researcher to ask for further information, or probe deeper into answers given by the respondent.
In case some questions are not answered, the researcher cannot get an explanation from the respondent as to why some questions are incomplete.
The researcher is not able to predict if respondents have answered all the questions until after the collection of the instrument.
The researcher has no control over the order in which questions are answered. Yet in research, the way questions are answered can pre-determine their validity.
INTERVIEWS
These are questions asked orally. There are various forms of interviews as follows: Unstructured interviews In this approach to interviewing, the researcher has some idea in mind of the topics to be covered and may use some sort of topic list as a reminder. There is minimal control over the order in which topics are covered and over respondents' answers. In unstructured interviewing, neither the specific questions to be asked nor the range or type of possible answers are pre-defined. They are informal and conversational.
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The aim is to get the informants to open up, and the researcher should stimulate an informant to produce more information. This approach aallows llows the interviewer to be responsive to individual differences and situational characteristics. This approach builds on observation. It is useful in studying sensitive topics such as sexuality or political topics. To effectively achieve the aims of an open en-ended ended interview, one must ask a whole series of secondary questions such as:
What do I want to get out of these interviews?
With whom am I going to conduct these interviews?
How do I know they will talk to me?
How many interviews must I do?
As much as ppossible, ossible, test your methods in advance. Because there is no set format for conducting these interviews, each interview is unique. This makes it difficult ttoo systematize and analyse data. Advantages Unstructured interviews have the following advantages:
They are flexible. This is because there are no pre-defined pre questions. This allows the respondents to freely respond to an issue. The researcher can therefore gather a lot of information.
The respondent feels part of the team since no rigidity is displayed. He// she can therefore freely participate in the research.
Since it is a free response in a relaxed atmosphere situation, the answer given are more reliable.
It allows the interviewer to be responsive to individual differences and situational characteristics.
This instrument is useful for studying sensitive topics such as sexuality and abortion.
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Disadvantages Unstructured interviews have the following disadvantages: • They are time consuming since a respondent can dwell on one issue. • They are not systematic as a respondent can comment on issues in a haphazard way. A respondent can comment on issues already discussed. • If the researcher is not careful, it can get out of control, with the respondent getting too emotional or personal. • Irrelevancies can be displayed by the respondent. • Since there is no set format for conducting these interviews, it is difficult to systematize and analyse data. Semi-structured interviews These interviews are based on the use of an interview guide. This is a written list of questions or topics that need to be covered by the interview. There are several types of semi-structured interviews. a) Focused interviews -This intensively investigates a particular topic. They aim at gaining a complete and detailed understanding of the topic. b) Case studies-The purpose of case studies is to collect comprehensive, systematic and in-depth information about particular cases of interest. Advantages Semi-structured interviews have the following advantages: • They are flexible. This is because they consist of both open and closed-ended questions. • In-depth information is gathered by closed ended questions.
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• By using both the open and closed closed-ended ended approach, the researcher gets a complete and detailed understanding of the issue under research. Disadvantages advantages Semi Semi-structured structured interviews have the following disadvantages: • They can be time consuming due to the open open-ended ended questions. • Analysis of data may be problematic. • The respondent may be cautious of the answers given in close ended questions. Structured interviews These involve subjecting every informant in a sample to the same stimuli, for instance, asking each informant similar questions, as in the case of a survey. Advantages Structured interviews have the following advantages: • The reliabi reliability lity of the information gathered is high. This is because each informant is subjected to similar questions with the others. • It gives in in-depth depth information about particular cases of interest to the researcher. This is because the researcher seeks informati information on specific issues. • It is systematic. Researchers intensively investigate a particular issue before moving to the next. • It is time time-saving saving since the respondents simply answer what has been asked by the researcher. • The researcher gets a complete and detailed understanding of the issue from the respondent. • It is comprehensive and systematic since questions are formulated before the interview.
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• The data collected is quantifiable. Disadvantages Structured interviews portray the following disadvantages: • The rigidity displayed by the researcher can affect the responses given. The respondent may feel as if he/ she is under investigation and is being probed. This may affect the response. Some of the respondents may become hostile. • It is too formal. Since the researcher does the questioning and the respondent simply answers, the respondent may be too cautious in the answer given. The respondent may give answers he/she thinks are acceptable or will impress the researcher. • The researcher may miss out on some important points that are not included in the questions formulated. 3) Focus Group Discussions This is a special type of group in terms of its purpose, size, composition and procedures. A focus group is usually composed of 6-8 individuals, who share certain characteristics, which are relevant for the study. The discussion is carefully planned and designed to obtain information on the participants' beliefs and perceptions on a defined area of interest. Special predetermined criteria are used in selecting focus group participants. This includes the following: a) The topics to be discussed are decided beforehand. b) There is a predetermined list of open ended questions. c) Focus relies on discussion among participants about the topics presented. This method requires thorough .planning and training of group moderators. Focus groups should usually be composed of homogeneous members of the target population, for instance,
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similar in age, education level, gender, profession. Focus group discussions can produce a lot of information quickly and are good for identifying and exploring beliefs, ideas or opinions in a community. However, the researcher has less control over the flow of the discussion and results are hard to analyse. analyse Focus group discussions are used tto o assess needs, develop intervention, test new ideas or programmes or improve existing programmes. 4) Observation This is a tool that provides information about actual behaviour. Direct observation is useful because some behaviour involves habitual routine routiness of which people are hardly aware. Direct observation allows the researcher to put behaviour in context and thereby understand it better. Observation can be made of actual behaviour patterns. Forms of obs observation ervation include the following: a) Participant obse observation The investigator becomes an active functioning member of the culture under study. An investigator participates in any activity appropriate to the status which is assumed. However, it can be time consuming. b) Unstructured observation The observer takes the position of an onlooker. C)Structured Structured observation The observer is an onlooker. The focus is on a small number of specific behaviour patterns, and only those appearing on a pre predefined observation list are recorded. This requires the researcher to be clear on the behaviour being observed.
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Group Activity i.
List four research instruments and explain guidelines in formulating them.
ii.
State the advantages and disadvantages of the above mentioned research instruments.
9.0
DATA
COLLECTION,
ANALYSIS
AND
PRESENTATION 9.1 DATA COLLECTION Meaning of Data Collection Data is meaningless information, which is made meaningful through analysis. In research, the term “data collection” refers to gathering specific information aimed at proving or refuting some facts. In data collection the researcher must have a clear understanding of what they hope to obtain and how they hope to obtain it. In data collection, the researcher must have a clear vision of the instruments to be used, the respondents and the selected area. Data collection is important in research as it allows for dissemination of accurate information and development of meaningful programmes. Purpose of Collecting Data In research, data is collected for various purposes. This includes the following: a) To stimulate new ideas. This is because data collection helps in identifying areas related to the research topic that need improvement or further evaluation. b) To highlight ~ situation and therefore create awareness and improvement. c) To influence legislative policies and regulations.
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d) To provide justification for an existing programme or illustrate a need for a new programme. e) It is the only reliable way to evaluate the responsiveness and effectiveness of the study. f) It promotes decision decision-making and resource ource allocation that are based on solid evidence rather than on isolated occurrences, assumption, emotion, politics, and so on. Sources of Data There are two major sources of data used by researchers. These are the primary and secondary sources. Primary ssources: Primary data is information gathered directly from respondents. This is through questionnaires, interviews, focused group discussions, observation and experimental studies. It involves creating "new" data. Data is collected from existing sources. IInn an experimental study, the variable of interest is identified. Secondary sources sources: Secondary information sources are data neither collected directly by the user nor specifically for the user. It involves gathering data that already has been collected by someone else. This involves the collection and analysis of published material, and iinformation nformation from internal sources. Secondary data collection may be conducted by collecting information from a diverse source of documents or electronically stored information. This is often referred to as desk research. Advantages The main advantages of us using ing secondary data are as follows: a) It is usually available more cheaply. The collection of secondary data is generally significantly quicker and easier (and hence less costly) than collecting the same data "from scratch."
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b) Existing data are likely to be available in a more convenient form; using secondary data can give the researcher access to otherwise unavailable organizations, individuals or locations. c) Secondary data allows the researcher to extend the "time base" of their study by providing data about the earlier state of the system being studied. d) The fact that secondary data are likely to be pre-processed eliminates the time-consuming (and hence costly) analysis stage. Disadvantages The main disadvantages of using secondary data are as follows: a) The method by which secondary data was collected is often unknown to the user of the data (apart from major sources like the Census). This means that the researcher is forced to rely on the skills and propriety of the collectors- usually, but not always, a safe proposition. b) With secondary data the researcher may have little or no direct knowledge of the processing methods employed, and the researcher may rarely have access to the original raw data to check the validity of the findings. c) The researcher is forced to rely on the skills and integrity of the people who collected and analysed the data. Steps in Data Collection The following are essential steps that a researcher should use in data collection: a) Define the sample: Before gathering data, the researcher should define the target population. This involves identifying the respondents and their accessibility. b) Reflect on the research design: The researcher should be clear of the research design to be used. This is whether it is a survey, a case
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study or an experiment. This is critical as it enables the researcher to be sure of the format in which data will be collected. The objective of the study and the type of questions raised determines the research design. c) Ensure research instrume instruments are ready: the key data collection instruments to be used in the study for example questionnaires, interviews, observations, focus group discussions and experimental treatments should be in order. This includes finding out if they are ready and availab available. d) Define the data to be collected collected:: The researcher should make sure that he/ she and the assistant researchers are clear on the information that is being sought. Researchers should be clear of the sample, for instance, the male/female ratio. e) Request permission to collect data from the relevant authorities: Before collecting any information, the researcher should ensure he/she has been granted permission to carry out the study. The researcher should also send an advance letter to the sample respondent respondents, s, explaining the purpose of the study. After reflecting on all these components, the researcher should carry out a pre pre-test. f) Pre Pre-testing: Before collecting data, the researcher should pre-test pre the research instruments. A pre pre-test test is a pilot study. The researcher should pilot the questionnaire with a small representative sample. The importance of pre pre-testing testing before data collection includes the following:
It enables the researcher to find out if the selected questions are measuring what they are supposed to measure.
It enables the researcher to find out if the wording is clear and all questions will be interpreted in the same way by respondents.
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It helps the researcher to detect what response is provoked and find out if there is any research bias.
It enables the researcher to monitor the context in which the data will be collected and the topic areas addressed. The researcher should not use the pre-test sample in the actual study.
9.2 Collection of Data The procedure used to collect data will be influenced by the research instruments used. For example if questionnaires or interviews are used, the researcher should carry out the following: Use of Questionnaires In questionnaires respondents fill in answers in written form and the researcher collects the forms with the completed information. There are various methods used to collect the questionnaires, such as the following:
The instruments are distributed to the respondents by the researcher and research assistants. Respondents are given time to complete answering questionnaires. All the questionnaires are gathered after the given response time is over.
Questionnaires may be distributed to respondents by the researcher and research assistants. They are later collected on an agreed upon date.
Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents. After they have answered them, they are mailed back. If questionnaires are administered, respondents should be given sufficient time to complete the questionnaire. The questionnaires should then be collected by the researcher or research assistants or mailed to the researcher.
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Use of Interviews Collecting data using the interview method requires the researcher to identify respondents and request them to answer certain questions. The researcher and research assistants note down the answers given. In some interviews the response is recorded. Some interviews are carried out through the telephone and the information received is recorded by the researcher. The main requirement for good interviewers during data collection is the ability to approach identified respondents in person or by telephone and persuade them to participate in the study. Once a respondent's cooperation is acquired, the interviewers must maintain it, while collecting the needed data. This data must be obtained in exac exact accordance with instructions. Focus Group Discussions In focus group discussions, the researcher should have specific topics to be discussed. A focus group discussion consists of six to eight people seated in a group discussing various topics. A recordin recordingg list should be made of the discussion. A tape recorder should also be used to keep the records. Observation: In observations, the researcher should have a checklist to provide information about actual behaviour to be observed. The researcher should note down the observation. In experiments, the observer should also note down what has been observed. In experimental studies, where the researcher wants to obtain information under controlled conditions, subjects may be randomly assigned to various tests and eexperiences xperiences then assessed via observation or standardized scales. Each data collection method has its strengths and weaknesses. When designing a research study it is important for the researcher to decide what outcome (data) the study will produce then sele select the best methodology to produce that desired information.
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9.3Importance of Data Analysis Importance of data analysis includes the following:
Findings/results are clearly shown.
Areas/gaps for further research are pointed out.
Researchers can be able to know the results without wasting time on primary and secondary data.
One can be able to know the statistical methods used for analysing data.
Transforms meaningless data into meaningful information.
9.4 ETHICAL ISSUES IN DATA COLLECTION Researchers whose subjects are people or animals must consider the conduct of their research, and give attention to the ethical issues associated with carrying out their research. Sometimes a research project may involve changing the subjects' behaviours or in some cases, 1 causing the subjects pain or distress for example in experiments where I the researcher analyses blood samples. Most research organizations have complex rules on human and animal experimentation. Some of the rules applicable to data collection are as follows: a) The researcher must justify the research via an analysis of the balance of costs. The researcher's interest alone is not sufficient justification to carry out research and collect data. In order to carry out a survey or experiment, there has to be benefits from the study that outweigh the costs. Researchers are expected to justify beyond any reasonable doubt, the need for data collection. b) The researcher must maintain confidentiality at all times. Only certain people conducting the survey I experiment should know the
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identity of the participants. Any subject should generally not know the identity of other subjects. c) Researchers are responsible for their own work and for their contribution to the whole study. Researchers must accept individual resp responsibility onsibility for the conduct of the research and, as far as foreseeable, the consequences of that research. d) The researcher must obtain informed consent from any subjects used in the study and must ensure that all subjects participate voluntarily. e)) The researcher must be open and honest in dealing with other researchers and research subjects subjects.. The researcher must not exploit subjects by changing agreements made with them. For example, a researcher might discover that his/her survey I experiment show somet something hing that he/she would like to further investigate. If the researcher carries out the investigation secretly but pretends to be still carrying out the previous study that had been agreed to in the first place, this is a form of exploitation, and would brea breach the principles of informed consent and voluntary participation. f) The researcher must take all reasonable measures to protect subjects
physically
and
psychologically.
Even
voluntary
participants can "get carried away" to the 'point where they have to bee protected from themselves and each other. The researcher must be prepared to intervene, even at the cost of the study I experiment itself, to protect the subjects. g) The researcher must fully explain the research in advance and "debrief” subjects afterw afterwards. Whilst full explanations before the survey I experiment are essential to gaining informed consent, it is, unfortunately, a common practice for researchers to complete their research without telling the participants anything about the results. Challen Challenges ges Faced by Researchers in Data Collection
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a) The researcher failing to carry out a pilot study: Failure to pilot the study may contribute to haphazard work in the field. This is mainly because a pre-test helps to identify some of the shortcomings likely to be experienced during the actual study. b) Lack of sufficient follow up on non-respondents: A researcher's failure to follow up non respondents can ruin an otherwise welldesigned study. A low response rate does more damage in rendering a survey's results questionable than a small sample. To deal with this possibility, the researcher may have to return to sample households where no one was home (perhaps at a different time or on a weekend) or attempt to persuade persons who are inclined to refuse to participate. c) Inadequate quality controls: In some field work the researcher allocates all work to research assistants with minimum supervision. This can result in guessing the results. The researcher should during field work, re-examine the sample selection, carry out some of the interviews, assessing the editing and coding of the responses. Without proper checking, errors may go undetected. d) Poor targeting: Errors in defining and selecting the sample during data collection will bias the results by making the sample less representative of the target population. e) Poor implementation: In data collection some errors are caused by the way data collection is implemented. Some of the errors include the following:
Question error - the question is wrongly worded or misleading.
Interviewer error - the interviewer makes an error whilst asking the question.
Recording error - the interviewer records incorrectly the answer given by the respondent. ·
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Coding error - the responses are wrongly coded.
Group activity i.
What does the term ‘data’ mean?
ii.
Explain the purpose of data collection.
iii.
What are the sources of data?
iv.
Discuss steps in data collection.
v.
Explain the importance of data analysis.
vi.
Discuss ethical issues in data collection.
vii.
List challenges faced by researchers in data collection.
10.0DATA DATA
ORGANIZATION,
ANALYSIS
AND
PRESENTATION Introduction The term "data organization" in research refers to orderliness in research data. This is putting the data into some systematic form. The "raw" data collected, particularly in ssurveys, urveys, needs to be processed before it can be subjected to any useful analysis. This organization includes identifying (and correcting) errors in the data, coding the data, and storing it in appropriate form. On the other hand, analysis refers to examinin examining g the coded data critically and making inferences. The presentation of data refers to ways of arranging data to make it clearly understood. This sub sub-unit unit discusses the organization, analysis and presentation of data. 10.11 Data Organization
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Collected data is known to be "raw" information and not knowledge by itself. It therefore has to be well organized in various stages. Data as alluded to earlier on is meaningless information. The organization from raw data to knowledge is as follows: • From raw data to information: Data becomes information when it becomes relevant to the problem identified by the researcher. • From information to facts: Information becomes facts, when the data can support it. Facts are what the data reveals. • From facts to knowledge: Facts therefore lead to new information, new experiences and views. • Knowledge is expressed together with some statistical degree of confidence. Before analysing the collected data, the researcher has to ensure the data is well organized. The procedure in data organization involves the following: a) Pre-processing After collecting data the researcher has to ensure it is processed in some manner before carrying out the analysis. The primary purpose of pre-processing is to correct problems that are identified in the raw data. This might include differences between the results obtained by multiple interviewers. The pre-processing stages are as follows: • The elimination of unusable data: The researcher may find two or more questions that really provide the same data. The researcher must therefore decide which one of the questions is worth coding and storing, and which one should be discarded. • Interpretation of ambiguous answers: The more subtle problems in data analysis are associated with the researcher trying to interpret ambiguous answers. It could be argued that any complex study is likely to produce at least some answers of this type. The researcher needs to develop a strategy for dealing with them.
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• Contradictory data from related questions: The researcher may also receive contradictory data from related questions. The researcher may have to verify and reject wrong responses. Many of these problems, if not detec detected ted and corrected at the organization stage, will reflect adversely on the study findings.
b) The Development of a Coding Scheme After correcting any errors that may influence data analysis, the researcher should formulate a coding scheme. The core function of the coding process is to create codes and scales from the responses, which can then be summarized and analysed in various ways. wa A coding scheme is an unambiguous set of prescriptions of how all possible answers are to be treated, and what (if any) numerical codes are to be assigned to particular responses. In the coding scheme the researcher assigns codes to each likely answer, and specifies how other responses are to be handled. For example, the researcher might allocate 1 to yes, 2 to no and 0 to do not know. There are various challenges faced by researchers in the development of a coding scheme. The major challenge associate associated with coding is the treatment of missing data. It is difficult for the researcher to decide on what action should be taken when the coding cannot be applied, such as when a question is unanswered. There are several possible approaches that a researcher ca can apply to address these challenges. These include: • Cross Cross-reference reference the missing answer with the answers to related questions • Interpolate from other answers to create a "pattern" for the respondent, and look to see how other respondents of the same "typ "type" answered this question.
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• Give missing data its own code, such as "Did not answer"; this is the most common (and safest) approach. • Exclude the respondent from the analysis (if the respondent failed to answer a number of questions, or the responses appear unreliable). • Exclude the question from the analysis (if a significant number of respondents failed to answer it). c) Deciding on Data Storage After coding the data, the researcher will have to make a decision about the short and long-term storage of the information generated. The short time storage is necessary before data analysis. The system in which the researcher stores the data will determine (at least in the early stages) what forms of analysis the researcher will carry out and how easy it will be to transfer the data into systems which will do more complicated forms of analysis. There are two major storage forms, the electronic form and non-electronic (paper) form. Paper storage: This is where the coded data is written on paper before the analysis. Paper storage has the following advantages: • It has a low cost.It allows for speedy retrieval.It is easy to distribute.• It is comprehensible. However, its disadvantages include the following: • It is not extensible.• It is fragile.• It is bulky. Electronic storage: The advantages of electronic storage include the following: • It is extensible.It is easy to distribute.• It is easy to interchange options.• It has low volume. The disadvantages of electronic storage are:
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• It has limited access. access.• Equipmentt costs are high.• high. It is fragile.
Today, selecting electronic storage is an increasingly significant decision for a researcher. In electronic storage, the researcher can transfer the data (or information derived from it) into another system.
d)) Choosing a Statistical Software Package After deci deciding on how data will ll be stored, the researcher has to reflect on the statistical software package that will be relevant in data analysis. When choosing a statistical software package, there are several things a res researcher earcher has to consider. These include the following: • Characteristics of the data to be used; for example, is it descriptive or does it analyse relationships? • Analyses that will be performed. • Technical and financial constraints. There are various typ types es of statistical software packages that a researcher can select from. The software the researcher selects depends on the overall plan that the researcher has for analysing and presenting the data. The following are some of the computer software:
WORD PROCESSOR The researcher may decide to enter the data in text form straight into a word processor, include Microsoft Word and Excel. Advantages
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• The obvious advantage of using a word processor is that the researcher does not waste time on unnecessary processing. This is because data in text form is entered directly in the processor. • If the researcher is creating a report from this data to explain and present it then he/she can directly use the data. • The researcher might choose to take the data (from survey or experiment recordings) and put them directly into a word processor.
SPREADSHEET This is one of the most versatile analysis and storage combination tools. Many of the formulae that spread sheets have built-in are applicable to the data summarization process. Advantages • Spread sheets allow a large range of conventional summary statistics. • Some also incorporate elements of Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA). • It is possible with some spread sheets to form cross-tabulations. • Most spread sheets offer graphical presentation of the results of an analysis. • Spread sheets are also able to interchange data with other systems. By using spread sheets, a researcher can take information straight from a spread sheet and place it into a word processor. Relevant information from the spread sheet can be copied directly across to report. DATABASES
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In research analysis, databases are vital in record keeping. A researcher may use a database programme where he/ she wants to take advantage of the record manipulation ooptions of database management systems. Advantages • Databases have high levels of interchange ability with other systems, such as word processors, spread sheets, sheets graphic packages and statistical packages. • The database is often a good starting point for sstoring raw data because if a researcher needs to manipulate the data (beyond the capability of the database), he/ she can do so by transferring the information into an alternative system. STATISTICAL SYSTEMS These are application systems that carry out a w wide range of statistical techniques. The simplest statistical packages support data summarization and basic inferential statistics. The more complex statistical packages support advanced inferential techniques, including multivariate methods. What they off offer er is advanced data manipulation. This includes sophisticated data description, and a range of various statistical tests. Statistical systems interchange particularly strongly with graphic systems. GRAPHICAL SYSTEMS These are not software packages. General Generally, ly, the researcher is not going to actually store data in a graphical system for future analysis. The assumption is that after the researcher has carried out the analysis, he/ she generates graphical displays of the results results.
Reflection
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i.
What is the meaning of the following terms in research, ‘data organization’’ data analysis’ and ‘ data presentation’
ii.
Explain the stages involved in data organization.
iii.
What is a database?
10.2.DATA ANALYSIS. (Transforms meaningless data into meaningful information) Data analysis refers to examining what has been collected in a survey or experiment and making deductions and inferences. It involves uncovering underlying structures; extracting important variables, detecting any anomalies and testing any underlying assumptions. It involves scrutinizing the acquired information and making inferences. Statistical data analysis divides the methods for analysing data into two categories: exploratory methods and confirmatory methods. Exploratory methods are used to discover what the data seems to be saying by using simple arithmetic and easy-to-draw pictures to summarize data. This is used mainly in qualitative research. Confirmatory methods use ideas from probability theory in the attempt to answer specific questions. These methods are mainly applicable in quantitative research. The methods used in data analysis are influenced by whether the research is qualitative or quantitative.
10.3Data Analysis in Qualitative Research Qualitative research involves intensive data collection (of several variables), over an extended period of time in a natural setting (variables are studied when and where they naturally occur). Qualitative data, such as finding out the views of respondents on a certain issue (for example, abortion) is not always computable by
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arithmetic relations: The responses can be categorized into various classes which are called categorical variables. The analysis of qualitative data varies from simple descriptive analysis to more elaborate reduction and multivariate assoc associate iate techniques. The analysis will vary with the purpose of the research, the complexity of the research design and the extent to which conclusions can be reached easily (Orodho and Kombo, 2002:116). In qualitative research designs, the researcher should ddecide ecide before going to the field, how he/she will analyse the data. The analytical technique will determine the recording style that will be used during the data collection exercise. The analytic techniques used in qualitative research are as follows: A QUICK IMPRESSIONIST SUMMARY In qualitative research, data can be analysed by a quick impressionist summary. This involves the following: • Summarizing key findings. For example in focus group discussions the researcher notes down the frequent responses of the participants on various issues. • Explanation. • Interpretation and conclusion. This rapid data analysis technique is mainly used in situations that require urgent information to make decisions for a programme for example in places where there is an ou outbreak tbreak such as cholera and vital information is needed for intervention. THEMATIC ANALYSIS In qualitative research, data can also be analysed thematically. Themes refer to topics or major subjects that come up in discussions. This form of analysis categori categorizes zes related topics. In using this form of analysis major concepts or themes are identified. In this form of data analysis, the researcher does the following:
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• Peruses the collected data and identifies information that is relevant to the research questions and objectives. • Develops a coding system based on samples of collected data. • Classifies major issues or topics covered. • Rereads the text and highlights key quotations/insights and interpretations. • Indicates the major themes in the margins. • Places the coded materials under the major themes or topics identified. All materials relevant to a certain topic are placed together. • Develops a summary report identifying major themes and the associations between them. • Uses graphics and direct quotations to present the findings. • Reports the intensity, which refers to the number of times certain words or phrases or descriptions are used in the discussion. The frequency with which an idea or word or description appears is used to interpret the importance, attention or emphasis. Weaknesses: The thematic method tends to rely heavily on the judgment of a single analyst. This may lead to high levels of subjectivity and bias. It may be necessary to have two or more analysts to code the transcript independently and compare notes.
CONTENT ANALYSIS Content analysis examines the intensity with which certain words have been used. Content analysis systematically describes the form or content of written and/or spoken material. In content analysis a classification system is developed to record the information. In interpreting results, the frequency with which a symbol or idea appears may be interpreted as a measure of importance, attention or
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emphasis. The relative balance of favourable attributes regarding a symbol or aann idea may be interpreted as a measure of direction or bias. In content analysis, a researcher can be assisted by trained researchers or a computer programme can be used to sort the data to increase the reliability of the process. Content analysis is a tedious ious process due the requirement that each data source is analysed along a number of dimensions. It may also be inductive (identifies
themes
and
patterns)
or
deductive
(quantifies
frequencies of data). The results are descriptive, but will also indicate tr trends ends or issues of interest. In content analysis, the first step is to select the data source to be studied, and then develop a classification system to record the information. In historical research there are various forms of data analysis. These include:
Analysis of concepts: Concepts are clarified by describing the essential and core concepts beginning from the early developmental stages.
Interpretative analysis relates one event to another. The event is studied and described within a broader context to add meaning and credibility to the data.
Comparative analysis examines similarities and differences in events during different time periods.
Theoretical and philosophical analysis utilizes historical parallels, past trends, and sequences of events to suggest sugges the past, present, and future of the topic being researched. Findings would be used to develop a theory or philosophy of leisure. For example, an analysis of public recreation agency goals and objectives of previous eras can be used to describe the futuree in the context of social, political, economic, technological, and cultural changes in society.
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10.3 Data Analysis in Quantitative Research Quantitative data analysis consists of measuring numerical values from which descriptions such as mean and standard deviations are made. These data can be put into order and further divided into two groups: discrete data or continuous data. Discrete data are countable data, for example, the number of defective items produced during a day’s production. Continuous data are parameters (variables) that are measurable and are expressed on a continuous scale, for example the height of a person. The analysis of quantitative data varies from simple to more elaborate analysis techniques. The analysis varies with the objective of the experiment, its complexity and the extent to which conclusion can be easily reached. Data analysis in quantitative research depends on the type of study. This is as follows:
CORRELATION STUDIES In correlational research studies, data is mainly analysed using the correlation coefficient. By using this tool the researcher indicates the degree of relationship between two variables. The correlation coefficient is a number ranging from 1 (a perfect positive correlation) through 0 (no relationship between the variables) to -1 (a perfect negative correlation). In analysing the correlation coefficient, a researcher attempts to indicate the proportion of sameness between two variables. One of the correlation tools is the Pearson Product Moment Correlation. This tool is used to analyse the relationship between isolated independent and dependent variables. Another type of correlational analysis is reliability studies (analyses conducted to provide information about the validity and reliability of tests). In reliability studies the same group of subjects is given a test and then at a somewhat later date is given the test again. The
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researcher analyses the two scores for each subject (the test score and the retest score) and the correlation coefficient between the two sets of scores can be calculated. This kind of correlation coeff coefficient is referred to as a reliability coefficient. The important thing to remember is that in correlational research, while carrying out analysis, the researcher is only looking at the degree of relationship between the variables and not the effect of one variable on another variable. PREDICTION STUDIES In predictive correlational studies, while carrying out the analysis, the researcher uses the degree of relationship that exists between two variables to predict one variable from the other. For example if reading and spelling are correlated, then the researcher can use the information to predict a student's score on the spelling test if the student has only taken the reading test. Conversely, the researcher can predict the student's score on the reading tes test given the student's score on the spelling test. Prediction studies are widely used to predict student academic success in college, based on such measures as secondary school grades in mathematics, and aptitude test scores. CAUSAL CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH Cau Causal-comparative comparative educational research attempts to identify a causative relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. However, this relationship is more suggestive than proven as the researcher does not have complete control over the independent variable. If the researcher had control over the independent variable, then the research would be classified as true experimental research. In carrying out analysis based on this design, the researcher compares two selected groups on the depen dependent dent variable. For example, if in form two, some of the students in mathematics classes use calculators while others do not,
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a researcher may be interested in finding out the effect of calculator use on mathematics grades at the end of the year. The researcher therefore selects a group of students from the class that use calculators and then selects another group of the same size form the class that do not use calculators and compares the two groups at the end of the year on their final mathematics grades. An inferential statistic used to analyse data in both causalcomparative and experimental research designs is the t-test. ·Where the subjects in the two groups are independent of one another, that is no matching of subjects or other control procedures were used. The independent t-test is used to test the significance of a difference between the means of the experimental and control groups in the study. Ln research designs where the influence of an extraneous variable has been controlled, or in designs utilizing a pre-test-post-test procedure, the appropriate t-test to use to compare the two groups would be the dependent t-test. When a researcher has three or more groups to compare, the appropriate inferential statistic to use in data analysis would be one-way analysis of variance. This statistic shows the significance of differences in the means of three or more groups of subjects. In cases where the researcher uses frequency counts for the dependent variable, the appropriate inferential statistic to use in data analysis would be the chi-square test. Th.is statistic tests the significance of differences between two or more groups (independent variable) in frequencies for the dependent variable. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH The major difference in data analysis between causal-comparative and experimental research is that the researcher has control over the independent variable in experimental research and can manipulate this variable at will. In the case of causal-comparative research, the independent variable is established by the identity of the groups
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chosen and is not under experimental control. In experimental designs, the observer should decide before carrying out the experiment the analytical process. The analytical process in experimental studies mainly involve involvess the calculation of effect size. Effect size is the mean of the experimental group minus the mean of the control group, divided by the standard deviation of the control group. The idea is to calculate the effect size across a number of studies to determin determinee the relevance of the test, treatment, or method.
Assignment Discuss statistical software packages and methods used in analysing data in both qualitative and quantitative research. 10.4 .4 Data Presentation There are three ways researchers can present data after analysis. This includes the following: • Using statistical techniques. • Using graphical techniques. • Using a combination of both. Statistical Techniques Statistics are a set of mathematical methods used to extract and clarify information from obse observed rved data. Statistics generate simple numbers to describe distributions, either grouped or ungrouped. Statistics have two major functions in data presentation. They can add to our understanding of the data that make up the distribution, and they can substi substitute tute for (be used instead of) the distribution. With descriptive statistics it is important to define whether the
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researcher is calculating values for a population or for a sample: the results will be different. A sample statistic is any numerical value describing a characteristic of a sample. The following are some of the statistical techniques used to present analysed data. a) FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS. The values in a set of ungrouped data constitute a distribution. The values that we have in a set of ordinal data, and the values we generate by converting ungrouped data into grouped form, constitute a frequency distributio11. For example, imagine a survey in which we measure the weight of a sample of pieces of wood loaded onto a lorry. The values for all the pieces of wood measured make up a distribution. A researcher can calculate sample statistics from that distribution, such as a sample mean (for example, 14.56 kg). A frequency distribution of grouped data can also be created as shown in the table below. Weight
Number
7-9
2
10-12
8
13-15
12
16-18
19
19-21
7
Class Limits: The frequency distribution is made up of the values (counts) for a set of classes; each class has a frequency (j) associated with it. The class limits are the upper and lower values for each class. They should be defined in such a way that no value is excluded, but no value can fall into two classes. The researcher
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can achieve this by using class boundaries with a precision (meaning in this case number of significant figures) one order below that of any of the actual data values. In the wood eexample, if the researcher weighs the pieces to the nearest tenth of a kilogramme, he/she would set the class boundaries to 7.05, 9.05, and so on. The class interval is the difference between the upper class boundary and the lower class boundary; in most fr frequency distributions it will be constant across the classes. The point halfway between the upper and lower class limits is the class midpoint. These values are used to calculate the mean of a set of grouped data. Statistics can be divided into two groups groups: measures of centraltendency and measures of dispersion. b)) MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY Measures of central tendency are numbers that define the location of a distribution's centre. For example, if we regard all measurements as being attempts to give us the "true" value of a particular phenomenon, we can regard the centre of the distribution of a set of measurements an estimate of that "true" value. The various sources of error in the measurement process will produce variability in the measurements, so th they ey will not all have the same value. Measures of dispersion attempt to quantify the extent of this variability. When dealing with ungrouped data, the researcher can use several measures of central tendency. These include the mean, the median and mode. When dealing with grouped data, the researcher cannot use the arithmetic mean, instead he/she can use the group mean. Using grouped data the researcher cannot use the median, but can define the modal class. MEAN MEAN- This is the average. It is found by the sum total tot divided by the number.
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MEDIAN- The median can be defined in a set of ungrouped data. If the data are arranged in ascending or descending order; in general, the median is the value that has half of the data values less than it, and half greater than it. If the sample size (n) is an odd number, the median is the middle value of the entire distribution. If n is an even number, the median is the mean of the two "middle" values. For example, in the following ungrouped data: 12, 14, 16, 18, 19, 22, 24; the median is 18. Whereas for 12, 14, 16, 18, 19, 22, 24, 27 the median is 18.5. So the median is the value that minimizes the absolute distance to the data points. MODE- The mode of a set of data is the value that occurs most often, with certain provisos: It is possible to have no mode (that is, no value occurs more than once). It is possible to have more than one mode (a distribution may be bimodal, trimodal or multimodal). For grouped data the class with the highest frequency value is the modal class. There may be two modal classes (bimodal), or more. For example, for the following frequencies: 12, 18, 13, 13, 22, 12, 14, 13 the mode is 13.
C) MEASURES OF DISPERSION This type of statistic describes how much the distribution varies around the central point. The various ways we can describe this spread are called measures of dispersion. These measures quantify the variability of the distribution. As they are attempting to quantify the general shape of a distribution rather than a single value for its centre most measures of dispersion are numerically more complex. These measures consist of the following: RANGE- The simplest measure of dispersion is the range of the data: the difference between the highest and the lowest values in the data (maximum- minimum).
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VARIA VARIANCE- This is a measure that indicates the distribution of data. It is based upon the idea that each observation differs from the mean by some amount. This is referred to as the difference from the mean. The difference between each value and the population mean is called its deviation. To get the variance, all the values are taken and summed. Dividing the result by the population size (N) gives the mean deviation. Unfortunately, this measure does not give sufficient "weight" to the values on the margins of tthe distribution. To do so, the sum of the squares of the deviations from the mean has to be taken. Dividing this value (the sum of squared deviations) by the population size gives the variance of the distribution. Standard Deviation: The standard deviation is the square root of the variance. For example in the example on the wood weight, if the mean weight was 13.78 kilogrammes, and the variance was 3.56 kilogrammes, the standard deviation will be 1.89 kilogrammes. Consequently, we cannot compare the varian variances of two distributions unless they happen to have the same units. We cannot use the variance (or the standard deviation) to indicate which of two or more distributions exhibits greater variability. For this latter purpose we need a "dimensionless" measur measure of dispersion, for which we usually employ the coefficient of variability. Coefficient of Variability (or Variation). The coefficient of variability is calculated by expressing the standard deviation as a percentage of the mean. The basic shape of a freq frequency uency curve can be described quantitatively by several measures. These are measures that explicitly quantify the "balance" of the distribution (Sec figure 2.). This balance has two components: • Are the values arranged symmetrically on either side of the centre? entre?
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• Is the distribution highly "peaked" (must vah1es lit! close to the centre, and the tails are short) or is the distribution "flat" (long tails and a low central concentration)? The measures used to describe the overall symmetry of a distribution- that is, whether the two tails of the distribution are equal –is called the skewness. The distribution can be described as left (positively) or right (negatively) skewed. The coefficient of skewness can be used to quantify the extent of the asymmetry. We also define whether the distribution is "peaked" or not; the measure for this is called the kurtosis. Distributions that are strongly peaked (that is, most of the values lie close to the centre of the distribution, with relatively short tails) are termed leptokurtic, whereas those where the values are broadly spread (the tails are long) are termed platykurtic.
tail
tail Centre spread
Figure 2: The major components of distribution shape PERCENTILES: Percentiles are values that divide a set of observations into 100 equal parts (P1, P2, P3........ P 99) such that 1% of all the data points fall below P1, 2% fall below P2 and so on. DECILES: Deciles are values that divide a set of observations into ten equal parts (D1, D2, D3 ..... D9) such that 10% of all the data points faII below D1, 20% fall below D2, and so on. QUARTILES: Quartiles are values that divide a set of observations into four equal parts (Q1, Q2, Q3) such that 25% of all the data points fall below Q1, 50% fall below Q2, and 75% fall below Q3. 10.5GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
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Whilst the most obvious way of representing grouped data is as a table, the information can also be represented diagrammatically. Data can be graphically presented by· a histogram or polygon. a) His Histogram- A basic representation of the shape of a frequency distribution (See figure 3.). This can be shown as a series of vertical (or horizontal) bars, their length indi indicating cating the frequency of the par particular class. b) Polygon Polygon- Data can also be presented ass polygons. The polygon is closed by connecting the midpoints of the end classes to the midpoints of "imaginary" classes on each side, which have a notional frequency of zero.
Figure 3: Sample Histogram c) Bars; The cumulative frequency distribution can also be plotted as a series of bars (see Figure 4), or as a series of lines joining the midpoints of the classes; this is termed an
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ogive
(Figure
5).
Figure 4: Sample bar graph
Figure 5: Cumulative Frequency Curve (Ogive)
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Pie chart - A pie chart can also be used for the purpose of presenting results. (Figure 6).
Figure 6: Pie chart showing purchasing power of people in Nairobi city. At a glance, one can be able to see that the upper class group dominates the purchasing of goods and services. Challenges Faced in Data Analysis In data analysis, the researcher should ensure the following: • Understands the assumptions of their statistical procedures, and be sure they are satisfied. In particular, the research researcher should be aware of hierarchically organized (non (non-independent) independent) data; use techniques designed to deal with the challenges faced in data analysis. • Be sure to use the best measurement tools available. If measures have errors, then that fact should be cons considered. • Beware of multiple comparisons. If one has to do many tests, then he /she should try to replace or use cross cross-validation validation to verify the results. • Keep in mind what one is trying to discover. One should look at the magnitude rather than values.
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• Use numerical notation in a rational way. One should not confuse precision with accuracy. • Be sure to understand the conditions for causal inference. If one needs to make inference, then he/she should try to use random assignment. If that is not possible, then one should devote a lot of effort to unearth causal relationships with a variety of approaches to the question. • Be sure that the graphs are accurate and reflect the data variation clearly.
Group discussion Explain how data can be presented using statistical and graphical techniques. 11.0 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This unit summarizes the whole research process. It first provides a brief summary of the whole study with particular reference to the research problem, research methodology, results, the main contributions of the research and recommendations for future work. It provides a summary of the main findings of the study, conclusions and recommendations. This unit should be reasonably short. The readers would want to know whether the objectives of the study were achieved, and whether the work has contributed to know ledge. Therefore, when compiling this unit, a researcher should focus on answering these questions. Any conclusions drawn should be those resulting from the study. A researcher should make relevant references to chapters that support
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the listed findings and may also refer to the work of others for comparison. However, one should not discuss the study's results here. 11.1. 11.1.SUMMARY SUMMARY OF THE MAIN FINDINGS In summariz summarizing, ing, a researcher should identify the findings of the study and discuss them briefly. In addition, the methodological problems encountered should be outlined so that future/ other researchers may take the relevant precautions. The researcher should clearly pinpoint if the study objectives were achieved or not. An effective summary has the following qualities: • It bases on results from the study. • It is brief; all statements are concise, and pinpoint to the contributions that the researcher has made. • All statements are factual. One way to present the summary is to use one paragraph for each idea. Alternatively, the researcher can use a point point-by-point format. 11.2 11.2CONCLUSION The conclusion section should be very brief, about half a page. It should indicate what the study results reaffirm. It should also briefly discuss some of the strategies highlighted by the respondents. In this section, the researcher should clearly state how the study has contributed to knowledge. 11.3 11.3RECOMMENDATIONS The recommendations section is important in research. This section often exposes further problems and introduces more questions. As a researcher, there is a time limit to the research project, so it is unlikely that the study would have solved all the problems associated with the area of study. The researcher is therefore expected to make suggestions about how his/her work can be
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improved, and also based on the study findings, point out whether there are areas that deserve further investigation. This section will indicate whether a researcher has a firm appreciation of his/her work, and whether he/she has given sufficient thought to its implications, not only within the narrow confines of the research topic but to related fields. This section reflects the researcher's foresightedness and creativity. This unit should be written using a punchy style and should not be too long. Conclusions and contributions should be presented concisely and factually. 11.4SAMPLE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Ambia (2003): Access and retention of girls in primary education, Wajir district, North Eastern province, Kenya From the findings of the study, the following emerged as the main factors influencing girls' access to and retention in primary schools in Wajir district; school based factors such as distance and location of school, category of schools, lack of physical facilities, learning environment, staffing as well as safety inside and outside the school. Socio-cultural factors in this concern include gender stereotyped roles, negative traditional beliefs, attitudes and practices, patriarchal descent system, religious beliefs, miraa (khat) trade as well as nomadic way of life. Socio-economic factors include high poverty level, child labour, home environment, household chores, parental level of education, occupation and income levels, lack of employment as well as high cost of education. It is evident that the government has the policy that allows equal access to primary education for boys and girls but due to the aforesaid factors, enrolment and retention rates differ in Wajir district.
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There is need to carry out awareness campaigns to sensitize all stakeholders on the importance of education especially of the girl child. It is important to create well maintained single gender boarding schools. There is need to equip existing nomadic boarding schools. Girls should be targeted in terms of bursary and sponsorship. There is need to create projects and programmes that will increase the family income hence a source of economic empowe empowerment. rment. This will help parents to generate more income to invest in primary education especially for the girl child. There is need to enforce the laws that prohibit negative practices such as early marriage, female genital mutilation and sexual harassment.
Group discussion Discuss the differences and similarities between a research proposal and a research report.
12.0 REFERENCES Finalization of the research work is very challenging. This is mainly because by the time a researcher finalizes the study, ther there may be exhaustion and an urgency to complete the study. However this section is vital and should be completed with seriousness and uttermost care. This unit discusses referencing, preparing thec1ppendix and formatting the final work. References In resear research, ch, the term "reference" applies to materials that have been referred to or quoted in the study. The reference list is a compilation of the books and articles referred to. This list is related closely to the literature review chapter. This is because all reference eference material ls used in the literature review should be
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reflected in this section. The reference list should contain the most relevant and important publications. 12.1 THE REFERENCES IN THE BODY OF THE TEXT The appropriate point at which to indicate the source of an idea is as soon as is convenient. When it is at the beginning or middle of a sentence, the researcher should indicate the surname of the author and year of publication. The year of publication should be enclosed inside brackets, for instance, "Orodho (2003) pointed out that ...," "Kombo (2005) indicated that.... " At the end of a sentence or paragraph, one needs to enclose the surname of the author and year of publication in brackets. The name and year should be separated by a comma, for example (Orodho, 2003); (Kombo, 2005). Direct Quotations Direct quotations should be accurate. If there is need to omit some words within a quotation, the writer should use three ellipses (...) to indicate the omissions. If the quotation is short, that is, a maximum of three sentences then use quotation marks within the text. Longer quotations are usually indented and typed in single spacing, without quotation marks. In both cases, the pages from which the quotation comes must be indicated at the end of the quotation (Kombo, 2004:69). Paraphrase The use of another author's idea, but expressed in the writer's words is referred to as paraphrasing. In this case the writer indicates the source author and year, for example (Kombo, 2004). Citation Styles One of the challenges experienced by researchers is how to cite references. The two most common methods for citing published work are: • the number system
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• the name name-year system THE NUMBER SYSTEM With this system, references to published work are by use of numbers, for example: There are many undergraduate texts on Process Control [1 [1-4]. The most popular seems to be the book by Kombo [2). However, the only one to deal with process design and process control in an integrated manner is that by Orodho[4]. or There are m many any undergraduate texts on Process Control1-4. Control1 The most popular seems to be the book by Kombo 2. However, the only one to deal with process design and process control in an integrated manner is that by Orodho 4. In both examples above, three citations wer were made. The first referred to publication numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4; the second citation referred to publication number 2, while the last citation referred to publication number 4. The fact that the numbers relate to items in the reference list is indicated by the square parentheses [...] or by the superscripts. The convention a researcher follows will depend on the guidelines and regulations of one's institution. When using the number number-system system citation style, the order of the corresponding reference list is impo important. rtant. By convention, the first cited publication will be the first on the list and assigned the number "1." The second cited publication will be the second on the list and assigned the number "2" and so on. That is, the publications in the reference list are presented in the order that they were cited. However, the reference list must not contain duplicates. This means that the researcher will have to keep track of the publications that have been cited and their associated order in the reference list, so
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that he/she can use the appropriate number when he/she citing a publication more than once, as in the above examples. 12.2 THE NAME-YEAR SYSTEM Using the name-year citation style, the above example becomes: There are many undergraduate texts on Process Control (Kombo, 1991; Orodho, 1990; Paul, 1995; Wamahiu, 1988). The most popular seems to be the book by Kombo (1991). However, the only one to deal with process design and process control in an integrated manner is that by Orodho (1995). The first citation named 4 authors using their surname. Associated with each surname is the year of the publication. Notice that they are presented in alphabetical order, within round parentheses, (...).The author is separated from the year by a comma. Author-year pairs are separated by semi-colons. The next two citations named the authors using their surnames with the publication year of the cited publications enclosed in parentheses. Therefore, there are two ways to use the name-year citation style. When using this citation style, the reference list is presented in alphabetical order. How a publication is cited also depends on the number of authors. If there are two authors, then cite as follows: "Orodho and Kombo (2002) modified the Minimum Variance objective function to include ...” or "The Generalized Minimum Variance self-tuning algorithm was proposed in the late 1970s (Orodho and Kombo, 2002)." When a publication has more than two authors, cite as follows: "Montague et al. (1987) considered ...” At the point at which a source is cited in the text, indicate the author's surname, followed by the year of publication. In a sentence simply indicate the surname and put the year of publication of the
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document in brackets, that is, Kombo (2004). However, if the source is indicated at the end of a sentence or paragraph, then include both the author and year of publication in brackets (Kombo, 2004). A comma separates the author's name and year of publication. If an author has published several works in the same year and one is using more than one of these, then lower case letters are used after the year for identification, that is, Orodho (2003a, 2003b, 2003c and so on). If several sources are being referred to at the same time, then the authors should be organized alphabetically and the sources separated using semi colons (Kombo, 2004; Orodho, 2003). If quotations are used, indicate the author, year of publication and page(s) of the quotation. Page(s) can be indicated by using p. (pp. if many) or using colon i.e. (Orodho, 2003, p.69) or (Orodho, 2003: 69) If many pages (Orodho, 2003: pp. 69 69-71) 71) or (Orodhn, 2003: 6969 71). 12.3 .3 LISTING OF REFERENCES There are a number of types of publications used in research. These materials
include
articles,
magazines, journals,
conference
proceedings, books, dissertations, theses and research reports. Each category of materials requires a different presentation format. However the general order of organizing the references is as follows: 1. Surname of the author 2. Initials of the author 3. Date of publ publication 4. Title of the material 5. Place of publication
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6. Publishers Author's surname, initials, (year of publication). Title of material. Place of Publication : Publishers. 12.1.4 Presentation Format There are various presentation formats for different materials. This is as follows: a) Journal Articles- These are the most common sources of cited material and include specialist technical journals as well as trade journals. They are presented in the following format: 1. Surname of the author. 2. Initials of the author. 3. Year (date) of publication. 4. Title of article: The first letter of the title is capitalized while the rest are in lower case. 5. Name of journal (underlined or italicized). You may use an abbreviated form for the journal name, but make sure that it is the recognized one. Most journals will have the "official" abbreviated title printed at the top of its pages. 6. Volume, followed by number of issue. Instead of issue numbers, some journals have a month of issue. In such cases, substitute the month for the issue number. 7. Pages in the journal where the article appears. Author's surname, initials. (Year of publication). Title of article. Name of Journal, Volume (number, pages). For example: Johnson, U.W., Johnson, H., Stanne, M, and Garibaldi, A. (1990). Impact of group processing on achievement in cooperative groups. Journal of Social Psychology, 130, 507-516.
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Garner, R. (1990). When children and adults do not use learning strategies: Towards a theory of settings. Review of Educational Resear Research, 60, 517-529. b) Conference Proceedings Proceedings- Papers presented at conferences are also common sources of research information. The format is as follows; Author(s), (year). Article title, Name of conference, Location of conference, page range. For example: Dore, ore, S.D., Perkins, J.D. and Kershenbaum, L.S. (1994). Application of geo mrtric nonlinear control in the process industries: a case study, Proc. IFAC Symposium, ADCHEM '94, Kyoto, Japan, pp 501 501-506. The author(s) surname appears first, followed by initial initials. The year is enclosed in parentheses and terminated with a full full-stop. The first letter of the title is capitalized while the rest are in lower case. You may use abbreviations to indicate the type of publication and the name of the conference. For example "Proc." is usually used in place of "Proceedings"; "Pre." for "Preprints"; "Conf." for "Conference"; "Symp." for "Symposium" and so on. c) Books Books- To list books, use the following format: Surname of the author, initials of the author. (year of publication. publication.) title of book. edition number, place of publication, publishers. For example: Awuondo, C.O. (1993 (1993). Introduction to Sociology. Nairobi: Basic Books Limited. Kombo, D. and Waiyaki, M. (2002). Sociology of Education. Nairobi: Kenyatta University Press. Oro Orodho, dho, A.J. (2003). Essentials of Educational and Social Science Research Methods. Nairobi: Masola Publishers. Gay, L.R. (1992). Educational Research: Competence for Analysis and Applications. 4'h Edition, New York: Macmillan Publishers.
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In referencing books, the first letters of keywords in the main title are in capitals, and the title is in italics. There is no need to indicate the edition of the book if it is the first edition. Some books are compilations of articles from different authors. For such cases, the format used is a cross between that for journal articles and books. This is as follows: Author(s), (year). Title of article in book, In: Name of book, Edition number, Chapter number, Name(s) of editors, Name of publisher, place of publication. For example: Rumelhart IJ.E., Hinton G.E. and Williams, R.J. (1987). Learning internal representations by error propagation, In: Parallel Distributed Processing: Vol. 1, Ch. H. D. E. Rumelhart and J.L. McClelland [editors], MIT Press: Cambridge MA. Note the use of the word "In:" and the difference in which the names of the authors and the names of the editors are presented: editors' names are listed with their initials first. However, when you list the book without reference to authors of particular chapters, editors are considered the authors, in which case the item will be listed as: Rumelhart, D.E. and McClelland, J.L. [editors]. (1987). Parallel Distributed Processing: Vol. 1, MIT Press: Cambridge MA. J) Dissertations, Theses and Research Reports Dissertations, theses and academic research reports are listed using the format below: Author(s), (year). Title in italics. Type of publication, Research Group, Name of institution, Country. For example: Peel, C. (1995). Aspects of Neural Networks for Modeling and Control. PhD Thesis, University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK.
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Bloggs, J. and Other, A.N. (1998). The Effects of Vodbull on Class Attendance. Research Report No. 123, Social Impact Research Group, Smirnoff Institute of Technology. Vladivostok, Russia. Kombo,
D.K.
(1988).
Factors
influencing
student's
poor
performance in the K.C.E Examination among Harambee Secondary schools in Kathiani Division, Machakos District, Kenyatta University, Kenya. When listing a research report, include the report number where applicable applicable. e) Company Reports oon Manuals Sometimes, a researcher may need to cite material contained in publications by companies and from manuals. In such cases there are no named individuals for authors. Use the format below: Name of company or organization, (yea (year). r). Title in italics. Place of publication. For example: Mathsoft Inc., (1999). Mathcad 2000 Reference Manual. Cambridge, MA. f) Information from the World Wide Web (www) Nowadays, much information can be obtained from the Internet, typically websites but sources include newsgroups and on-line on forums. The format to use for such publications is: Name of Author(s) or company or organization, (year), Title of article, URL, date found. The URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is the full Internet address of the artic article. Due to the transient nature of on--line information, it is important to include the date when one found the information. For example: Tham, M.T. (1997). Distillation: an introduction, http: / / lorien.ncl.ac.uk /ming /distil/distil0.htm, 30 May 2001.
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g) Personal Communications Sometimes, a researcher may have used information passed on to him/her by a colleague or another person, via a phone conversation, letter, email or other forms of communication. The researcher can include this information in the reference list. The format to use is: Name, (year). Personal communication, Affiliation of named person. For example: Blogg, J. (1996). Personal communication, University College London, UK. The reference list should be compiled as a researcher writes the chapters. The references should be organized alphabetically using surnames. If the author has several publications listed, they should be organized using the date (year) order. If there is more than one author, the names and initials of all the other authors should appear. All authors should be given credit. AU the materials cited should be referenced. The reader should note that the material presented here is not exhaustive; there are many variations. However, in the absence of other instructions, and as long as you are consistent, the guidelines presented above should be sufficient. 12.4Numbering In a research proposal or thesis, there is a specific format for numbering. There is specific numbering for the following: • Chapters and sections in chapters • Figures and diagrams • Tables and lists • Equations
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Each chapter of the proposal/thesis should be assigned a number. For example: Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION Chapter 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Chapter sections and subsections should also be assigned a numerical index. For example, the second section of Chapter 1 could be: 1.2 Statement of the Problem, while a subsection of Section 4 in Chapter 4 could be: 4.4. 1 Simulation results. Notice the use of different cases in the 3 heading categories. The title of chapte chapterr is in upper case (capitalized); the heading of a section has the first letter of keywords in upper case; while only the first letter of the first word in a subsection is capitalized. These styles are used as visual cues to indicate the different levels oof headings. Avoid having more than 3 levels, for instance, 2.1.3.2, as they can make the text messy especially when referring to them. If you need to categorize further, the contents of a subsection, use a different font style. Bold and underlined text is a popular format. To refer to a particular chapter, use the formats given by the following examples: "Chapter 2 provides a review of work in this area. The reason for this modification, stated in Chapter 3.... “Notice that the word "Chapter" is written in full with a capital "C." The following examples show how references are made to sections or subsections: "The procedure outlined in Section 5.3 was employed to ...” "Section 3.2.2 discussed the implication of..." Here, the word "Section" with a capital "S" is used to refer to both sections and subsections; the latter being obvious from the numerical index.
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12.5FIGURES AND DIAGRAMS In proposals and theses, all figures and diagrams must be captioned and given a numerical index. Captions should appear below the figure or diagram, and should be sufficiently descriptive without being too long. Simply state what the illustration is showing and do any explaining in the main text. Captions for figures and diagrams have the format: Chapter number. Figure number. Description Figure 2.4. The Physiotherapy Strategy. The word "Figure" is used generically to cover all illustrations, such as drawings, flow charts, sketches, and so on. Spell out the word in full. Note too, the positions of the full-stops. The numerical index is composed of the chapter number, a full stop, followed by the figure number, terminated with another full stop. Thus, the third illustration appearing in Chapter 4 would have the caption: Figure 4.3. Schematic of control system for the methanol-water column. You may use the abbreviated form, "Fig.", when referring to illustrations if the reference appears in the middle of a sentence. For example: "The control scheme, shown in Fig. 4.3, is quite common." Otherwise, write the word "Figure" in full, for instance, "Figure 4.3 shows a common control scheme for a distillation column." 12.6TABLES AND LISTS All tables and lists, must be captioned and given a numerical index, and the numbering style is identical to that used for figures and diagrams. The captions should be placed below each table and list. So, for example, the second table in Chapter 3 would have the caption:
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"Table 3.2. Performance measures obtained using the proposed procedure." Abbreviations should not be used when referring to tables and lists lists- write out the word "Table" in full, with a capital "T."
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REFERENCES Books and Journal Articles Bliss, J., Monk, M., &Ogborn, J. (1983). Qualitative data analysis for educational research: A guide to users of systemic networks. Canberra: Croom Helm. Elliott, A. (2001). "Professor of global optimism." The Australian, 1 August, pp. 37-38. Goetz, J. P., and LeCompte, M. D. (1984). Ethnography and qualitative design in educational research. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Mason,J., and Waywood, A. (1996). "The role of theory in mathematics education and research." In: A. J. Bishop, K. Clements, C. Keitel, J. Kilpatrick and C Laborde (eds), International handbook of mathematics education. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1055-1089. J Miles, M. B., and Huberman, M. A. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook (seconded.). Beverley Hills: Sage. Orodho (2003). Essentials of Educational and Social Sciences Research Method. Nairobi: Masola Publishers. Orodho, A. J. and Kombo, D. K. (2002). Research Methods. Nairobi: Kenyatta University, Institute of Open Learning. Tuchman, M. S. (1987). Scientific Methods and Social Research (revised edition). New York: Sterling. Webster, S. (1985). Educational Research: Competence for Analysis and Applications, 6th Edition. New Jersey: Macmillan.
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[DOCUMENT TYPE] TY
CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH [Course sub-title]
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Acknowledgements Mufulira College of Education wishes to acknowledge the contribut contribution ion of the following members of staff for making the production of this module possible. Mr .D. Nkumbwa Mr.R. Mbewe Mr. K. Moono ( Editor)
CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
Contents About this [DOCUMENT TYPE]
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How this [DOCUMENT TYPE] is structured .................................................................. 1 Course overview
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Welcome to [Add course title here] [Course sub-title] ..................................................... 3 [Add course title here] [Course sub-title]—is this course for you? .................................. 3 Course outcomes ............................................................................................................... 3 Timeframe ......................................................................................................................... 3 Study skills ........................................................................................................................ 4 Need help? ........................................................................................................................ 5 Assignments ...................................................................................................................... 5 Assessments ...................................................................................................................... 6 Getting around this [DOCUMENT TYPE]
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Margin icons ..................................................................................................................... 7 Unit 1
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EXPLANATION OF CURRICULUM ...................................................................................... 9 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 9 Theoretical and functional definitions of education and curriculum ....................................... 10 Further definations of curriculum ............................................................................................ 13 Curriculum determinants………………………………………………………………………………14 Importance of curriculum……………………………………………………………….......................15 Types of curriculum……………………………………………………………………………………17 Aims / objectives of curriculum………………………………………………………………………..18 Principles for curriculum development………………………………………………………………..19 Theories of curricula…………………………………………………………………………………..19 Explanation of curriculum studies……………………………………………………………………..20 Approaches to curriculum studies……………………………………………………………………..21
Unit summary ........................................................................................................................... 22 Assignment ............................................................................................................................... 23 Assessment ............................................................................................................................... 23
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CURRICULUM DESIGN........................................................................................................ 27 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………...27 Pattern of curriculum…………………………………………………………………………28 Currciulum elements / components .......................................................................................... 28 Instructional designs…………………………………………………………………………………...29 Forms of models……………………………………………………………………………………….30
Unit summary ........................................................................................................................... 30 Assignment ............................................................................................................................... 31 Assessment ............................................................................................................................... 31 Unit 3
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CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT ........................................................................................ 34 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 34 Factors affecting curriculum development ............................................................................... 35 The process of curriculum development .................................................................................. 37 Unit summary ........................................................................................................................... 38 Assignment ............................................................................................................................... 38 Assessment ............................................................................................................................... 38 Unit 4
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ADAPTING CURRICULUM .................................................................................................. 39 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 39 The junior secondary school curriculum .................................................................................. 43 Adapting to special education .................................................................................................. 44 Unit summary ........................................................................................................................... 44 Assignment ............................................................................................................................... 44 Assessment ............................................................................................................................... 44 Unit 5
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___________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH...........................................................45 Research for the truth…………………………………………………………………………46 Definitions of research………………………………………………………………………..49 Characteristics of research……………………………………………………………………51 Types of research……………………………………………………………………………..52 Research theories……………………………………………………………………………..55 Importance of theoretical frameworks………………………………………………………..59 Stages of the research process………………………………………………………………...62 Research area / topic………………………………………………………………………….64 Title selection…………………………………………………………………………………68
CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
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VARIABLE…………………………………………………………………………………………..72 Unit 7
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LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………………………………………..73 Importance of Literature review in research…………………………………………………………..74 Qualities of an effective literature review……………………………………………………………..75 Guidelines in formulating an effective literature review……………………………………………...76 Challenges faced in the formulation…………………………………………………………………..77 Unit 8
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RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………….79 Research design………………………………………………………………………………………..79 Steps to follow in selecting a research / design………………………………………………………..82 Qualities of an effective research design………………………………………………………………82 Guidelines in selecting a research design……………………………………………………………...83 Sampling techniques…………………………………………………………………………………...85 Probability sampling…………………………………………………………………………………...85 Non – Probability sampling……………………………………………………………………………88 Bias and error in sampling……………………………………………………………………………..90 Respondents……………………………………………………………………………………………91 Research instruments…………………………………………………………………………………..92 Unit 9
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DATA COLLECTION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION……………………………………..103 Data collection………………………………………………………………………………………..103 Steps in data collection……………………………………………………………………………….105 Importance of data analysis…………………………………………………………………………..109 Ethical issues in data collection………………………………………………………………………109 Challenges faced in data collection…………………………………………………………………..111 Unit 10
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DATA ORGANISATION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION………………………………….113 Data organisation……………………………………………………………………………………..113 Data analysis………………………………………………………………………………………….119 Data analysis in qualitative research………………………………………………………………….120 Data analysis in quantitative research………………………………………………………………...123 Data presentation……………………………………………………………………………………..126 Graphical representation……………………………………………………………………………...132
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SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS……………………………………135 Unit 12
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REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………………….138 References in the body of the text …………………………………………………………………...139 The number system…………………………………………………………………………………...140 The name – year system………………………………………………………………………………141 Listing of references………………………………………………………………………………….142 Numbering……………………………………………………………………………………………147 Figures and diagrams…………………………………………………………………………………149 Tables and lists………………………………………………………………………………………..149 References…………………………………………………………………………………………….151
CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
About this [DOCUMENT TYPE] CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH[Course sub-title] has been produced by [Add institute name here]. All [DOCUMENT TYPE]s produced by [Add institute name here]are structured in the same way, as outlined below.
How this [DOCUMENT TYPE] is structured The course overview The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course. Information contained in the course overview will help you determine: If the course is suitable for you. What you will already need to know. What you can expect from the course. How much time you will need to invest to complete the course. The overview also provides guidance on: Study skills. Where to get help. Course assignments and assessments. Activity icons. Units. We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before starting your study. The course content The course is broken down into units. Each unit comprises: An introduction to the unit content. Unit outcomes. New terminology. Core content of the unit witha variety of learning activities. A unit summary. Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.
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About this [DOCUMENT TYPE]
Resources For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with a list of additional resources at the end of this [DOCUMENT TYPE] TYPE]; these hese may be books, articles or websites. Your comments After completing completin CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH we would appreciate it if you would take a few moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this th course. Your feedback might include comments on: Course ccontent and structure. Cours Course reading materials and resources. Course aassignments. Course aassessments. C Course duration. Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.) Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this course course.
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
Course overview
Welcome toCURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH[Course sub-title] [Add a general description of the course here]
CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH[Course sub-title]—is this course for you? This course is intended for people who [Add a set of course aims here]. [Add any prerequisites or skills required here].
Course outcomes Upon completion ofCURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH[Course sub-title]you will be able to: Demonstrate knowledge of the terms, concepts, processes and principles relating to Curriculum studies and Educational Research. Outcomes
Acquire and develop Knowledge, skills and positive attitudes in undertaking applied Educational Research.
including
Timeframe [What is the expected duration of this course?] [How much formal study time is required?] [How much self-study time is expected/recommended?] How long?
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Course overview
Study skills As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that from your school days days: you will choose what you want to study study,, you will have professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or domestic responsib responsibilities. ilities. Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a consequence, you ou will need to consider performance issues related to time management, goals goalsetting,stress management, etc. Perhaps you will also need to reacquaint yourself inn areas such as essay planning, coping with exams and using the web as a learning resource. Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage in that learning learning. We recommend that you take time now—before before starting your selfself study study—to to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links are: http://www.how http://www.how-to-study.com/ The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resource resources. You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a good study place), taking notes, strategies for reading text books, using reference sources, test anxiety. http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs. You will find links to time scheduling (including a “where does time go?” link), a stud studyy skill checklist, basic concentration techniques, control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays for analysis, memory skills (“ (“remembering”). http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills, getting the most out of doing (“hands (“hands-on” on” learning) learning), memory building, tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan. The he above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time of writing these web links were active. If you want to look for more go to www.google.com and type “self-study study basics”,“selfbasics”
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
study tips”, “self-study skills” or similar.
Need help? Is there a course web site address?
Help
What is the course instructor's name? Where can s/he be located (office location and hours, telephone/fax number, e-mail address)? Is there a teaching assistant for routine enquiries? Where can s/he be located (office location and hours, telephone/fax number, e-mail address)? Is there a librarian/research assistant available? Where can s/he be located (office location and hours, telephone/fax number, e-mail address)? Is there a learners' resource centre? Where is it located? What are the opening hours, telephone number, who is the resource centre manager, what is the manager's e-mail address)? Who do learners contact for technical issues (computer problems, website access, etc.)
Assignments [How many assignments are there for this course?] [How are the assignments are to be submitted?] [To whom should the assignments be submitted?] Assignments
[What is the schedule for submitting assignments? End of each unit? Specific dates?] [What is the order of the assignments? Must they be completed in the order in which they are set?]
5
Course overview
Assessments How many assessments will there be in this course? Are they self self-assessments or teacher-marked marked assessments? Assessments
When will the assessments take place? How long will the assessments be? How long will learners be allowed to complete the assessment(s)? How long will it take a teacher to mark the assessment(s)?
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
Getting around this [DOCUMENT TYPE]
Margin icons While working through this [DOCUMENT TYPE] you will notice the frequent use of margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text, a new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you to find your way around this[DOCUMENT TYPE]. A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.
Activity
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Case study
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Terminology
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Tip
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
Unit 1
EXPLANATION OF CURRICULUM Introduction Welcome to unit 1 of this relatively new course in colleges of education in Zambia. This course will expose students to the acquisition of knowledge, skills, processes, values and principles relating to curriculum studies and educational research. Unit 1 however will endeavour to explain the concepts of curriculum, with emphasis on the relationship between education and curriculum, and how the curriculum assists in achieving educational goals. Prospecting teachers you will definitely find this unit interesting because it will also look at acceptable and unacceptable definitions of curriculum, thereby correcting the misconceptions we have had all along on the definitions of curriculum.Colleagues you will agree with me that this is a loaded unit, because it will go further by looking at the importance of curriculum, types of curricula, theories of curricula, detailed explanation of curriculum studies and approaches to curriculum studies. Upon completion of this unit you will be able to: Define education and curriculum Outcomes
Discuss the relationship between education and curriculum
State the curriculum determinants Explain the importance of curriculum Describe the types of curricula Discuss the theories of curricula Explain curriculum studies Describe approaches to curriculum studies.
Terminology Adding extra rows to the Table graphicRemoving rows from the table graphic
[Term]:
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Unit 1 EXPLANATION OF CURRICULUM
1.1THEORETICAL THEORETICAL AND FUNCTIONAL DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATION AND CURRICULUM Ladies and gentlemen it is essential for you to know from the onset that curriculum is an area of vital importance to the professional teacher and anyone who is involved in an educational programme especially in a school. Over the past decades the study of curriculum has become an established part of teacher education and all other programmes that are followed by all educationists. Similarly, most educationists have been exposed to the concepts associated with curriculum. However, the understanding of curriculum curriculum would be incomplete without having a clear understanding of education. After all curriculum is the means for achievingeducational goals goals. It is for this reason that in this study you will have to start by understanding what education is. 1.2 WHAT IS EDUCATION EDUCATION?
What is education? May ay be this is not the first time that you have engaged in answering this question. However revisiting your answers to this very important question will be of help to you. If you have no definite answer, the following parag paragraphs phs will help you understand this concept called education. Am sure we are all agreeable that this is hardly a new argument. In ancient Greece, Socrates argued that education was about drawing out what was already with the student (as you may know, the word education comes from the Latin word educere meaning ‘to lead out’). There is a dangerous tendency to assume that when people talk about education they mean the same thing.It is for this reason that a definition for education is important mportant to explore. No single definition or meaning however can be assigned to the term education. Similarly to be educated is a complex process, which cannot be explained sufficiently as an event. Prospecting teachers it is therefore important to be cle clear ar form the onset that without understanding the meaning of the term ‘education’ you can be in no position to explain , assess or evaluate what our institutions of education are doing. Similarly without the conception of what education is, empirical resear research ch into educational effectiveness of programmes and strategies cannot begin. Thus, the understanding of education is key to the study of curriculum since curriculum is the means of achieving educational goals.
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Farrant(1980) education is the total process of human learning by which knowledge is acquired, faculties trained and skills developed. Mbiti (1981) defines education as a deliberate attempt to acquire and to transmit the accumulated, worthwhile skills, attitudes, knowledge and understanding from one generation to the next. Education is therefore a process of acquiring, developing and transmitting desirable accumulated and new knowledge, wisdom, values, attitudes and skills as a result of growth, maturation and learning which can be best utilised for life in a changing society. 1.3 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? Some think it is just a list of things the learner is expected to learn. Many curricula are long lists of topics for individuals to know about; but the curriculum is more than this. Prospecting teachers’ am sure some of us are thinking as stated above. Ladies and gentlemen let us now critically look at the following argument; ‘curriculum has different interfaces because dominant groups of society exert their influences at different levels and these influences are reflected in the curriculum. Are we agreeable that our Zambian curriculum is determined by these influential groups? For instance the new 2015 curriculum in Zambian primary, secondary and tertiary institutions was influenced by both local and foreign factors. Another good example is the secondary school Geography which has changed over the years, with topics on American glaciation and the prairies removed. In this instance it’s the localfactors that exerted pressure on curriculum change. The knowledge that gets into the curriculum is selected and organised around sets of principles and values that come from somewhere, that represent particular views of normality and deviance (Apple, 1990; 63) . Educators define curriculum in different ways in part because they bring to task different perceptions of what curriculum should be. Curriculum was considered by writers on education such as Plato, Aristotle, J.A Comenius and Friedrich Froebel, although the usage of the term has not been popularised until this century. Consider the following selected definitions of curriculum: Curriculum is what is taught in school. To define curriculum as ‘what is taught in schools’ is of course, very vague. Persons often talk about school curriculum in this general way and they tend to mean by this the range of subjects taught and the amount of instruction time given each in terms of hours or minutes. Curriculum is a set of subjects. Curriculum is content. Curriculum defined as ‘content’ is an interesting emphasis and brings into question another term, namely the ‘syllabus’. A ‘syllabus’ is usually a summary statement about the content to be taught in a course or unit, often linked to an external
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examination. It is typically a list of content areas. A syllabus is clearly a subsection of the curriculum. Curriculum is a set of materials. Curriculum is that which is taught both inside and outside of school and directed by the school. To define curriculum as ‘‘that that which is taught both inside and outside school’ school’, directed by the school indicates that all kkinds inds of activities that occur in the classroom, playground and community, comprise the curriculum. This emphasis has merit in that it demonstrates that school learning is not just confined to the classroom. However, you will realise that it seems to indicate that the only important learning experiences are those which are directed by school personnel. Curriculum urriculum is everything that is planned by school personnel. The definition which refers to curriculum as ‘‘everything everything that is planned by school personnel’ is yet another orientation which emphasizes the planning aspect of curriculum. Few would deny that cclassroom lassroom learning experiences for students need to be planned although some unplanned activities will always occur (and these can have positive or negative effects). Educators and Scholars define curriculum in different ways, in part because they bring to that task different perceptions of what curriculum should be. As seen in the previous paragraphs some educators see the curriculum as a list of subjects to be studied, while others see it as an entire course content. Still others perceive curriculum as a set of planned learning experiences offered by teachers. Another group state that curriculum is a written plan of action. My fellow academicians’ am sure we now have assimilated the several misconceptions on curriculum definitions that we have been harbouring in our cognitive structures for years. Let us now try to clean our cognitive structures by inserting the following renowned definitions: The term curriculum is derived from the Latin word currere, which means to run or to run the course. ‘Curriculum may be regarded as a course of study to be followed in the process of acquiring education,’ (Brennan (Brennan, 1986) ‘Curriculum is the planned composite effort of any school to guide pupil learning toward predetermined learning outcomes ((In low, 1966: 7) ‘Curriculum is defined as both content and process, as what is taught in schools and as the process of deciding what to teach.’(Sharpes, 1988:10)
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‘Curriculum is defined as all learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups or individually or outside the outside the school,’ (Kerr, 1988) Tyler.R (1949), ‘All activities planned and directed by the school to attain educational goals.’ Wheeler D.K. (1967), planned experiences offered to the learner under the guidance of the school.’ According to Sten house (1975) a curriculum is ‘an attempt to communicate the essential principles and features of an educational proposal in such a form that it is open to critical scrutiny and capable of effective translation into practice.’ It is a system of planned activities intended to bring about specific learning outcomes. A curriculum is not just a list of topics. It must itself be an integral part of the educational system and should be the product of a deliberate process of design and development which has included: a) Entry criteria and duration of learning b) Identification of learning needs c) Input from consultation and review d) Planning of the component parts of the training programme and the respective learning outcomes e) Planning for appropriate delivery, resources, assessment and recording f) Planning for evaluation of the learning programme. What can we say so far on the definitions of curriculum? By now each one of us should have a working definition formulated in our own words. Let us all practice and come up with a working definition beforelooking at further definitions of curriculum. 1.4 FURTHER DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM The word ‘curriculum’ was first used by the universities of Leiden and Glasgow to describe the whole programme of studies offered in the universities. Definitions of ‘curriculum’ other than those stated above include: a) The formal curriculum (ideal or recommended curriculum): is what the institution sets out to teach. This is what is proposed by scholars, researchers and evaluators as a solution to meet a need or needs and consequently perceived as the most appropriate curriculum for learners. It is what a nation aspires to achieve. b) The informal curriculum: what the students learn from a variety of sources and interactions while taking part in the activities at the institution: c) The hidden curriculum: is what the students learn but the institution definitely does not intend to teach. According to ( Urevbu, 1990) Hidden curriculum refers to the non-academic but educationally significant consequences of school, e.g. school life teaches obedience to authority, punctuality, neatness, techniques for passing examinations.
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Unit 1 EXPLANATION OF CURRICULUM
d) The entitlement Curriculum: it refers to what society believes, elieves, learners should expect to be exposed to as part of their learning to become effective member of that society. e) The Intended Curriculum: this is what organisations develop for the learners in their educational systems and what should be taught by the th teachers in that system. The term is also used to refer to the knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviours that curriculum developers would like students to learn in school. f) The available or supported curriculum: that curriculum which can be taught in schools through the provision of appropriate resources, both human and material. g) The Implemented or Instructional Curriculum: This is what is actually taught by teachers in their classrooms as they and their learners interact with the intended and availabl availablee curricula. The implemented curriculum is often described in teacher’s scheme of work, lesson plans and student’s notebooks. h) The achieved or experiential curriculum: this is what learners actually learn as a result of their interaction with the implemente implemented d curriculum. It is what the learner experiences through interaction with the teacher and learning resources. The achieved curriculum includes both the intended and unintended experiences of the learner.
Group Activity i.
Discuss five misconceived definitio definitions of curriculum.
ii.
Show the relationship between education and curriculum.
iii.
Choose one definition of curriculum by renowned scholars which you can adopt as your working definition.
1.5 CURRICULUM DETERMINANTS Curriculum development is influenced by a multitude of factors. Social conditions, the efforts of community groups and parents, foundations, professional associations and agencies, colleges and universalities, government through the Ministry of Education all have a stake in what should be included in the curriculum. The list is endless but below is a list of some of the curriculum determinants: a) Political:: Politics is a science of governing people. Politics of a nation does determine the curriculum to be followed and this is usually dependent on th thee political situation in the country at any given time. Such a political influence would affect the education system. b) Ideology: An ideology is a way of thinking which forms a basis for an economic omic or political system system.. The ideology of the nation will determine the curriculum a country will offer and this will change the way people perceive things. For example, in the second republic an introduction of 14
CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
humanism in all schools and colleges inculcated certain values and beliefs and ultimately to cement these ideologies national service for all school leavers was introduced. This was further institutionalised with the introduction of the citizenship college in kabwe, which later become known as the National Management and Development Studies College. c) Society: A society is an organisation of people with particular interest or purpose. The particular interest people have determines a curriculum to follow; for example, the people of southern province emphasize agriculture whilst those in Luapula province emphasize fishing. d) Religion: Religion is the expression of one’s belief to a super – human controlling power. It is also a particular system of faith and worship. A country like Zambia whose religion is mostly Christianity will have a curriculum that will promote Christianity e) Institutions or colleges: Institutions or colleges are learning places where those committed to books will work towards the discovery of new knowledge. A particular institution will follow a curriculum of what it feels should be offered. With liberation even in education and training, institutions choose what they can offer especially at degree level. Diploma courses have now been standardised with a uniform curriculum. f) Values and norms: Values and norms determine the standard of behaviour in a given school. By upholding good morals this inevitably promotes good values and norms not only in the school but the community as well. g) Available resources:The resources can either be human or non- human resources. For curriculum to be implemented in a given institution, the resources both physical and human should be available. Availability of qualified lecturers, suitable classrooms, furniture and fittings are things one has to consider in determining the curriculum. Curriculum is also loaded with a lot of influences. Let us now examine some of the influences on curriculum so that you understand the genesis of curriculum.
DISCUSSION I. II. III.
What is the meaning of the word curriculum? Can you think of other determinants other than the ones listed above? What do you consider are the benefits of a national curriculum?
1.6IMPORTANCE OF CURRICULUM Ladies and gentlemen after critically looking at the definitions of curriculum iam sure we are now ready to state the importance of the curriculum. Before we
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Unit 1 EXPLANATION OF CURRICULUM
lookat at what other scholars have written, le lett us in our respective groups discuss the following:
GROUP ACTIVITY:
In your respective groups discuss the importance of the curriculum. In your discussions come up with about ten points. Well how were the discussions? Let us now compare your points with the following points analysed by different scholars; I.
II.
The curriculum identifies the learning outcomes, standards and core competencies that students must demonstrate before advancing to the next level level.
III.
Teachers play a key role in developing, implementi implementing, ng, assessing and modifying the curriculum; an evidenced evidenced- based curriculum acts a road map for teachers and students to follow on the path to academic success.
IV.
Impact on administrators administrators: administrators follow a detailed curriculum to help students achieve sstate tate and national standards of academic performance. The curriculum ensures that each school is teaching students relevant materials and monitoring progress of students from all types of backgrounds.
V.
Impact on teachers teachers: a school’s curriculum informs teachers teache what skills must be taught at each grade level to ultimately prepare students for post-secondary secondary school education or a job. Understanding the big picture helps teachers align the learning objectives of their own curriculum with the school’s curriculum. In the absence of a curriculum, teachers wouldn’t know whether students are building a solid foundation to support learning at the next level.
VI.
Impact on students students: a curriculum outlines for students a sequence of courses and tasks that must be successfully completed to master a subject and earn a certificate, diploma or degree. Students may be motivated to study if they understand why certain subjects are taught in the curriculum. A curriculum reassures students that they are on the right track to reaching their goals and owning desired skills.
VII.
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An effective curriculum provides teachers, students, administrators and community stakeholders with a measurab measurable le plan and structure for delivering a quality education.
in addition to teaching students academic skills, the curriculum is also intended to tea teach ch students the importance of responsibility, hard work and being responsible citizens.
CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
VIII.
IX.
X.
Teachers in partnership with parents and community members collaborate on the development of a curriculum that will instil character in students and reinforce positive behaviour. Curriculum serves the broad purpose of being educational planning tools. They help teachers and professors outline learning objectives for a course or class, which in turn sets an end goal for learning a specific volume of material. Curricula also help teachers to identify an effective learning style by focusing on the most critical aspects of a projected lesson plan. Additionally, they can help teachers make effective use of classroom time by setting time aside for revisiting complex issues or giving students time to ask questions.
XI.
Curricula ideally serve as time management and organisational tools as well; by setting an agenda ahead of time, teachers and students have the opportunity to prepare for future readings and assignments. This allows for the development of time management skills, and allows students to learn important life skills such as communication, organisation, setting and achieving goals.
XII.
Having a curriculum provides several benefits, such as providing a structure for an educational course and having an end goal that teachers set for their students to reach.
1.7TYPES OF CURRICULA They say a journey starts with one step, indeed in this unit are moving systematically step by step. If you have noticed ladies and gentlemen, one sub unit is preparing us for the next sub unit. A look at the importance of the curriculum has definitely given us hints on the types of curricula. There are mainly three types of curriculum namely: Official curriculum, Hidden curriculum and outcome based curriculum. a) OVERT/ EXPLICIT/ WRITTEN/OFFICIAL / FORMAL CURRICULUM: Sometimes it is called Perennial Curriculum. This type of curriculum is the one proposed by government in power (with the help of scholars and researchers) as a solution to meet the needs of society. It is pre – determined by the government i.e. content is prearranged in terms of subjects in each course of study. It is that which is made up of several subjects that are taught in schools. It is a course for a particular group; for example Basic school curriculum, secondary teachers’ Diploma curriculumetc. Theorists have agreed that it rests on the four important elements which are: aims/ objectives, methods, content and evaluation. In Zambia, all curricula are developed at the Curriculum Development Center(CDC) in Lusaka. b) HIDDEN OR COVERT CURRICULUM / INFORMAL CURRICULUM: This is a type of curriculum that takes place in institutions where learning is done sub – consciously by the learners. It is
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Unit 1 EXPLANATION OF CURRICULUM
not implicit in any curriculum document. This may produce either positive or negative results, e.g. bad behaviour or good behaviour.
The Hidden Micro –Curriculum:: this is the interaction that takes place at classroom level. At this level the hidden curriculum manifests itself in each lesson due to the relationship between the teacher and each pupil as well as between the learners themselves. This interaction has an impact either positively or negatively.
The Hidden Meso – Curriculum:: this occurs at school level. It refers to the experiences which learners and teachers undergo within a particular school and its immediate environment but outside the classroom.
The Hidden Macro – Curriculum:: this means those secret or hidden experiences which occur at national level, usually as a result of government or political influences e.g. school uniforms; the majority wear but there is no law enforcing this but it has the hidden effect of emphasizing quality and unity. Rural schools; most of them receive poor quality of education. Competition; schools compete with each other unofficially. Competition prepares the pupils for the competitive world of world.
c) OUTCOME BASED CURRICULUM CURRICULUM(LEARNER – CENTRED): CENTRED) This comes as a result of learners performances. The emphasis is on skill development especially in practical subjects. It focuses on the output of the learner and the curriculum can be designed with reference to the learner’s potential. Outcome based curriculum [OBC] grew out of earlier two teaching methods namely masterly learning and competency based teaching. It came out of a belief that the perennial curr curriculum iculum placed emphasis on aims and objectives of teachers and not on the end performance of the learners. ners. The argument was that the learners were taught too much theoretical knowledge that may not be needed for a job market knowledge and which they instantly forget after exams. It was believed that the best was to teach learners worthwhile outcomes of le learning; useful things they are able to do at the end of their schooling. OBC is a result of technological advancement changes of societal needs and goals, new political dispens dispensations etc. since it is based on outcomes; it gives priority to end results of learning, accomplishments of learning and demonstrations of learning. Curriculum is outcome based if it is learner- centred, results results- oriented and founded on the belief that all individuals can learn. AIMS / OBJECTIVES OF CURRICULUM 1. To draw out, cultivate, excite and inspire the full development of each learner. 2. To create an atmosphere where learners will learn to think, seek truth and solve problems, reason and develop the power of thought.
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
3. To help learners establish values through acquaintance with the humanities, Arts, natural sciences and religion. 4. To develop the character of students’ integrity, honest, judgement, cooperation, friendliness and goodness. 5. To create a community of scholars. 6. To prepare men and women of citizenship in a democratic society where freedom and liberty go hand in hand with law and justice. 7. To meet needs of students with a variety range of ability, aptitudes and interests. PRINCIPLES FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 1. Curriculum should be child centred, be based on the present needs and circumstances of the child. Must provide rich experiences for proper development. 2. Should provide a fullness of experiences, subjects and co- curricular activities. Studies must contain mental vitamins. 3. Must be flexible and dynamic; must be able to keep pace with the expanding knowledge in science and technology and the changing economic conditions. 4. Must be related to the life needs and aspirations of the people, must enable us understand our people well and must lead us to satisfactory knowledge. 5. Curriculum should be able to develop a rational outlook; it should contain mathematics and science which will give them curiosity to modern knowledge and develop a rational outlook. 1.8THEORIES OF CURRICULA The late soccer commentator would say let us go boys and do it for mother Zambia, geee, yayaya. In academic circles iam also saying let us do it for mother Zambia by understanding the previous sub units before looking at theories of curricula. I presume we have all understood the previous sub units and now ready for theories of curricula. The following are some theories of curricula; I.
II.
Rationalistic Theory: Rationalistic theory may be conceived as being ideological because its underlying principle believes that what is real is the idea of the object which is the conscious level of our mind and not the object that we see which is a mere shadow of the idea. The aim of education according to the rationalist theory is to develop the learners’ moral sense so much so that they can distinguish between the right and the wrong. Empiricism Theory: This theory states that no knowledge comes in mind except through the gates of sense. The experience may in itself be indisputable but the interaction is much more open to the subjective
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Unit 1 EXPLANATION OF CURRICULUM
perspectives of the interpreter. True knowledge is derived from evidence and authentic knowledge comes through the senses. Empiricists believ believe that education should be according to the nature of the child and activities should determine the curriculum. III.
Existentialist Theory Theory: Existentialist theorists believe that curriculum has to be what is available in the learners’ cultural environment. What is significant here is how the curriculum should be taught. The objective here is the learners’ ability to absorb and assimilate knowledge in making their personal decisions. In this case, a learner is the ultimate chooser who searches for or personal identity and the teacher becomes the facilitator of choices. Learners choose what they want to become. This theory is used for adult learning levels.
IV.
Pragmatism Theory Theory: Pragmatism theory holds that practice in life is meaningful and valuable, practical utility is the only catering standard of judgement by which we can judge theories and the basic principle of pragmatism encourage experimentation. Pragmatism does not believe in imparting knowledge for its own sake but that knowledge should enabl enable the learner to solve some of the day to day problems and lead a better and fuller life by creating new values. The principle of learning by doing or experience is a valuable one here.
REFLECTION In your respective groups critically analyse the above llisted isted theories and choose one theory which is applicable to our new curriculum in secondary schools in Zambia. 1.9.1EXPLANATIONOF LANATIONOF CURRICULUM STUDIES Curriculum innovations of recent decades have been filled with the rhetoric of promise and potential, and while some have materialised and brought beneficial results, many have proven hollow in actually improving students’ learning. The lack of impact is starting to show. Signs indicate that today’s students are more poorly equipped for higher education and en entering tering a career than were their predecessors. The roars of educators who called for changes in schooling during the 1980s 1980s/ 1990s have, at best been softened to mere whispers, and at worst have been converted to political posturing and partisan demagoguery. The majority of Zambians seem convinced that the quality of public education is on the decline, and yet there is no consensus about what should be done. Concern continues to mount over how to improve the performance of learners who attend our institutions institutions.. It is this increasing concern that will give momentum to educational improvement. Educators cannot sit back and wait for some remote external source to provide answers that will blow in through the classroom
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
window. Rather, improvement in our schools will be accomplished by active leadership that comes from within those very institutions that are being questioned. A new breed of educators must emerge, who can tap existing human resources as a means for turning institutions around and making them a more effective medium for learning. To confront educational problems in a fundamental way the curriculum should focus on improving connections between the curriculum and environment / learner. 1.9.2APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM STUDIES
ACTIVITY Identify the main approaches to curriculum studies. Explain whether or not these approaches are still applicable in the modern school set up. Welcome to the last sub-unit in unit 1. This is a welcome in style because it starts with an activity. Please ensure that you identify these approaches on your own before looking at what other scholars have written. Well let us now look at the approaches to curriculum studies as illustrated by renowned scholars. INTRODUCTION An approach to curriculum reflects that person’s view of the world: including what that person perceives as reality. An approach to the curriculum may include the person’s philosophy, his view of history, view of psychology, learning theory and his view of social issues. An approach further expresses a view point about the development and design of the curriculum, the role of the teacher, the learner, and curriculum specialists in planning the curriculum: the goals and objectives of the curriculum and the important issues that need to be examined. Allan Ornstein and Francis Hunkins [2004] identifiedfive main approaches to curriculum studies, Behavioural approach, Managerial approach, Systems approach, Academic approach and Humanistic approach / Reconceptualists. An attempt will made to explain each one of them and show if the approach is applicable in the Zambia school set up. 1) THE BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH: This approach to curriculum studies traces its origin in the University of Chicago and it is seen as the oldest and still the major approach to curriculum [Ornstein and Hunkins, 2004: 2]. This approach relies on technical and scientific principles, and it includes paradigms, models, and step by step strategies for formulating curriculum. Basing on the plan; the goals and objectives are specified, content and activities are sequenced to
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Unit 1 EXPLANATION OF CURRICULUM
coincide with the objectives and learning outcomes are evaluated in relation to the goals and objectives. Plan:44 steps of this approach Goals and objectives Content and activities Organisation of the content activities Evaluation The behavioural approach to curriculum has evolved over the years to address the complexities of human learning and it has allowed for research that investigates the depth of the mind. mind.Researchers have argued ed that students will experience and respond to the curriculum in unique ways, depending on their cultural interpretations and prior life activities. Today, behaviourists’ advocates in Zambia and probably elsewhere still formulate precise objectives and ev evaluate aluate programs according to those objectives.. Behaviourists monitor students’ activities both in class and through home works and exams, then feedback is given to the students. The features of the behavioural approach will continue to be reflected in Zamb Zambian curricula setup because of its dependency on technical means of selecting and organizing curricula. 2) MANAGERIAL APPROACH APPROACH: This approach considers the school as a social system, reminiscent of organisation theory, whereby groups of people such as stud students, teachers, curriculum specialists and administrators interact according to certain norms and behaviours. Educators who rely on this approach plan the curriculum in terms of programs, schedules, space, resources, equipment and personnel. This approach advocates among other things, the need for selecting, organising, communicating with, and supervising people involved in curriculum decisions. The managerial approach an offshoot of the behavioural approach relies on a plan, rational principles and logic steps, but not necessarily those used by behavioural approaches. This approach tends to focus more on supervisory and administrative aspects of the curriculum curriculum, especially the organizational and implementation process. The managerial approach[ managerial school] is rooted in the organisational and administrative school models of the 1900s – a period that combined a host of innovative plans involving curriculum and instruction that centred around individualisation, depar departmentalisation, tmentalisation, nonnon grading, classroom, homeroom and work study activities[ Ornstein and Hunkins: 2004:4] 2004:4].. The approach became the dominant curriculum approach in the 1950s and 60s. During this time the notion of the principals as a curriculum leader and instructional leader was popularised and fused with the idea of a general manager. Some advocates of this approach were Robert Anderson, Leslee Bishop, Gerald Firth Firth,, Arthur Lewis and John McNeil. Among these some became curriculum professors at major universities. rsities.
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
The Zambian curricularists just like the managerial approach advocates are also concerned with improving the curriculum in the light of prevailing national policies. Today, many of our new ideas about school reforms and restructuring, which are a common feature in Zambian schools, are rooted in the ideas of change and innovation that characterised the 1950s and 60s. Many current plans related to school based management and empowerment are based on the older career ladder. School based management and empowerment in Zambian schools has taken the concept of decentralization and currently it’s being implemented throughout the country. The features of the managerial approach therefore are still reflected in Zambian schools though to a limited extent. 3) SYSTEMS APPROACH This approach tends to view units and sub- units of the organisation in relation to the whole. This approach is sometimes referred to as curriculum engineering [Ornstein and Hunkins 2004; 5]. The approach includes the processes [i.e. development, design, implementation and evaluation] necessary to plan the curriculum by such engineers as the superintendents, directors, coordinators, principals and the structures [subject, courses, unit plans and lesson plans]. The systems approach was originally developed by social scientists in the 1950s and 1960s. It was widely used by school managers as part of administrative and organisational theory. In this approach, the parts of the school district or school are closely examined in terms of their interrelatedness and influence on each other. One particular application of the systems approach was developed by Rand Corporation and has rapidly spread from government to business agencies. Today, many schools employ a system approach known as Total Quality Management [TQM]. This approach also drawn from industry represents a paradigm shift emphasising client priority, in our case, extensive collection, data analysis, self-monitoring, inspection, collaboration, communication, cooperation and team responsibility. The concept of TQM though still new in the Zambian society is slowly taking root. The planners of the curriculum now have set guidelines that emphasise on client priority and are concerned with the following:
Curriculum issues and questions that relate to the entire school or school system not simply in terms of school subjects or grades.
How the curriculum is related across different program and content areas.
The extent to which the curriculum reflects the hierarchy or organisational arrangements of the school or school system.
Long term planning is infused with short range or incidental planning.
Most of these features above are reflected in the Zambian School Curriculum set- up for example the curriculum will have both long term
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Unit 1 EXPLANATION OF CURRICULUM
and short term goals. The features of the systems approach will continue to be reflected in the Zambian School curriculu curriculum m because of its emphasis on the client [student / pupil], which is the basis for school’s survival. 4) ACADEMIC APPROACH This approach is sometimes referred to as the traditional, intellectual or knowledge oriented approach approach.. The academic approach tries to analyse an major positions, trends and concepts of the curriculum. This approach tends to be historical or philosophical or to a lesser extent social science in nature. In this approach, the discussion of curriculum making is usually scholarly and theoretic [not practical]. This approach is rooted in the philosophical works of John Dewey, Henry Morrison and Boyd Bode. It became popular in the 1930s and 1950s.The field became all all-encompassing encompassing because the books published accumulated a great deal of curriculum know knowledge ledge and subject matter. However, after the 1950s the academic approach lost some its glamour among curricularists. Of the approaches examined so far, we can argue here that the academic approach is the least used approach in Zambian schools because it’s scholarly nature. Currently planners in Zambia try to use rational approaches roaches and not one that is philosophical and historical in nature. 5) HUMANISTIC APPROACH This approach comes from some curriculum leaders who reflect on the field and content of the pre previous vious approaches and hold that they are too rigid and too technocratic [Ornstein and Hunkins, 2004:8] 2004:8]. They contend that the previous approaches focus more on scientific and rational aspects thereby missing the personal and social aspects of curriculum and instruction; ignore the artistic, physical and cultural aspects of the subject matter, rarely consid consider the need for self- reflectiveness and selfself actualization among learners and finally overlook the socio socio- psychological dynamics of classrooms and schools [Ornstein and Hunkins, 2004; 8]. This humanistic view is rooted in the progressive philosophy and ch childcentred movement of the early 1900s which was first spearheaded by John Dewey, Charles Judd and Francis Parker. The approach gained impetus in the 1940s and 1950s with the growth of child psychology psychology, which deals with the needs and interests of the chi children ldren and humanistic psychology which deals with valuing, ego identity, psychological health, freedom tolearn and personal fulfilment. This approach considers the whole child and not only the cognitive dimension. Both the formal and hidden curriculum are worthwhile orthwhile in this school. This school’s advocates contend that music, art, literature, health, education and humanities are as important as science and maths, and other academic subjects. In the Zambian school curriculum the features of the humanistic approach approach are reflected for example, they favour the inclusion of both the core and science subjects. However However,, unlike the humanistic curricularists there is a tendency in Zambia to put emphasis on science
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
subjects and so more time is allocated to science and maths subjects compared to that given to humanities. Another feature advocated by these theorists is that each child has considerable input in the curriculum and shares responsibility with parents, teachers and curriculum specialists in planning classroom instruction. Curriculum committees come from the masses and not from top leaders, and often students are invited to express their views on content and experiences related to curriculum development. In the Zambian context, teachers and students are never invited to have a say on what should be included in the curriculum. This is perhaps one weakness that needs to be addressed when analysing the Zambian curriculum. There is need for teachers, parents and pupils’ representation when planning, constructing and reviewing the curriculum. 6) RECONCEPTUALISTS This is the last approach to curriculum studies according to Ornstein and Hunkins. Though viewed by others as simply an extension of the humanistic school, others recognise it as a separate field with distinct features of its own such as paying attention to ideological issues of education. They tend to take the academic approach to the curriculum because they are more interested in studying the curriculum in the abstract than in the practical application of knowledge to the creation of curriculum. They focus more on understanding than developing a curriculum arguing that the era for curriculum construction is past [Ornstein and Hunkins, 2004:9]. Among the advocates of such views are early reconceptualists such as Counts, Rugg and Benjamin. They basically urged curricularists to rethink, reconsider and reconceptualisethe curriculum. Among the other views that they hold is that the school is not a system set unto itself, apart from the world. The school is in the world, an extension of society; its purpose is not to fit students into the world, into a static society, but rather to enable them to be transformed and to transform society. They hold that the existing order is oppressive and static. The school and its curriculum must exist to change that. The Zambian curricularists do not seem to hold the view that society is static, but they might share a common view that the school and the curriculum must enhance changes in society. The role of the school and the curriculum is to bring about tangible changes in the society in which we live.
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Unit 1 EXPLANATION OF CURRICULUM
Unit summary
Summary
In this unit the curriculum was explained with emphasis on the definitions of both education and curriculum. We discussed several misconceptions oon n the definitions of curriculum and the renowned definitions by various scholars. In trying to understand the concept of curriculum further, we also discussed the determinants of the curriculum and its importance. This unit has also shared the types of curricula, aims/ objectives of curriculum and principles of curriculum development. Four theories of curricula were also analysed and their applicability in our educational system. This unit further explored explanations of curriculum studies in a practica practicall Zambian context. We concluded this unit by vividly looking at the approaches to curriculum studies and the applicability of the approaches in the Zambian school set up system.
Assignment Discuss the six approaches to curriculum studies and clearly show how each approach is applicable in the Zambian school set set-up.
Assignment
Assessment
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i.
Discuss five principles for curriculum development.
ii.
State five objectives of the curriculum.
iii.
Explain five determinants of the curriculum.
iv.
Discuss the three main types of the curricula..
CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
Unit 2
CURRICULUM DESIGN Welcome to unit 2. At this stage you are expected to define and describe different types of curricular. In this unit we will go further by looking at different models that some scholars have tried to put forward. There are so many models so far that have been propounded by different scholars as described below. It is difficult to pin- point which one is the best but depending on the circumstances on the ground at least one of them is applicable to a particular situation. There are several concepts that can guide the development, construction and implementation of curriculum. Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
Discuss types of instructional designs. Formulate instructional strategies. Analyze patterns of curriculum design.
Outcomes
Terminology
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Unit 2 CURRICULUM DESIGN
PATTERN OF CURRICULUM DESIGN
A design in this case may be referred to as a model. This is an approach taken in order to design an appropriate curriculum. Graves (1979) says “a model is a simplified representation of a complex reality which enables the curriculum specialist to understand the pr process ocess of curriculum development better.” In order for a curriculum specialist to design an appropriate curriculum, it is important that they understand the needs of society so as to set appropriate goals and objectives. Curriculum design is concerned abo about ut making choices in order to construct an ideal structural frame work for the intended curriculum. How does a curriculum developer construct a viable curriculum when given a complex array of content in order of preference? How can areas of concern be inte integrated when presented separately? What role do all stake holders play in the curriculum process? CURRICULUM ELEMENTS/ COMPONENTS Curriculum is based on four agreed upon elements from which a specialist should come up with an appropriate design in order to meet the educational needs of society. 1. Curriculum Intent Intent: This is made up of aims, goals and objectives. These are a guide to the selection of content, learning activities and evaluation procedures. Objectives should be very clear and precise. The main aim of designing curriculum is to provide answers to educational needs of a particular group or society. It should be meaningful and acceptable to the intended target. Hence, the needs should determine the formulation of appropriate objectives. 2. Content: These hese comprise the subject matterwhich is intended to be delivered to thelearners thelearners.. It includes facts, concepts, values, skills and principles. Content refers to the body of knowledge suggested to be delivered to a particular group. Dewey advises that curric curriculum ulum planners must justify their content selection in terms of its potential for generating knowledge so as to make it meaningful. Some example of such knowledge may comprise; mathematics, language, science, arts and crafts, music, religion, history, geogr geography aphy and philosophy. A philosophical analysis of knowledge is a pre pre-requisite requisite of an effective curriculum planning.
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
3. Learning experiences: This is the interaction between the learner and conditions within the external environment to which the learner should respond. It comprises the activities under which the learner is subjected to. These learning experiences should comprise activities that will help the learner to gain the intended necessary knowledge and skills. 4. Evaluation: It is an assessment of the curriculum which determines its effectiveness. It exposes the weaknesses, strengths and challenges of the curriculum in order to determine way forward. Curriculum should from time to time reviewed in order to ascertain the achievement of goal and objectives.
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGNS There are several patterns of curricular designs as propounded by many philosophers. Curriculum designers must pay particular attention in order that they design a curriculum that will serve the intended purpose. 1. Child- centered curriculum This focuses on the child’s interest. It focuses on the already developed mind of the child in terms of interests, beliefs, thoughts and wishes. Education therefore, should help to fully develop these potentialities by guiding them to select or choose the most interesting and fruitful for them in order to broaden their minds. In this regard, curriculum design is guided by the already existing knowledge of the child. The challenge with this kind of design is that the mind of the child cannot extend beyond their capacity. In addition, Urevbu (1985: 49) argues that “the major argument for the Child- centered curriculum is essentially an ethical one. How do we make children attend school even when they do not want?” This kind of approach may not cater for all children unless they are forced to attend school. 2. Subject- centered curriculum This is centered on academic subjects. It organizes the curriculum into a variable number of subjects each of which represents a specialized body of knowledge. Examples of these are: physics, mathematics, geography etc and practical subjects such as home economics fine arts, typing etc.
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Unit 2 CURRICULUM DESIGN
The advantages of this approach are that teachers are trained in specific subject areas which make it easier for them to teach effectively. Secondly, pupils find it easier to choose their areas of interest and thirdly, textbooks and other teaching/ learning materials are generally organized in advance. 3. Core Core- curriculum This simply refers to the main content that all learners should be subjected to (compulsory subjects) and mostly dictated by government policy. However, this may differ from f country to country as governments differ in their education focus and education pr priorities. iorities. The ministry of education will define education al objectives, determine content, plan and authorize programs which should be executed in schools. The challenge with this approach is that it is hard to find materials in place of conventional boo books. 4. Integrated curriculum It is difficult to clearly justify what integration means in this case. Is it putting all curricular together or putting selected curricular? What is that should be integrated? The understanding behind this is that curriculum sp specialists ecialists should look at connections or interrelations of various subjects such as history and geography, technological knowledge and urbanization, science and mathematics. A simple example could be integrated science at junior secondary school. Another ex example ample of integrated curriculum might involve areas of practical thinking such as sex education, violence and war, building a democratic society.
Activity Activity: i) what is curriculum design? ii) From the designs you have learnt above, which one is more applicable to Zambia? Justify your answer. FORMS OF MODELS As previously pointed out, there are many scholars that have tried to suggest some approaches to curriculum designs. Basi Basically there three types of models. We will look at each model in detail as propounded by different scholars.
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
1. Academic or Objective Models Tyler (1949) said the development of curriculum should be linear and systematic. He came up with a simple classical model. Tyler’s model Selection of Objectives Selection of learning experiences Organization of learning experiences Evaluation Tyler says that in order for a curriculum developer to design an appropriate curriculum, they should answer four questions based on the stages of the model. a) Selection of Objectives: What education purpose should the school seek to attain? MOE- Focus- On Learning (1996: 27). The curriculum should focus on what the school intends to achieve in order to satisfy the needs of the learner and society. b) What educational experiences are likely to attain these objectives? This looks at the content that will be delivered to the learners. It is important that the suggested content should be that which will enable the learner to fit in society and offer services that are required in that particular society. c) How can these educational experiences be organized effectively?The curriculum designer must clearly state how best these can be effectively delivered to the learners in order that they gain the appropriate knowledge and skills. d) How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? This is an evaluation or assessment of the curriculum. It is a systematic examination in order to find out the successes and challenges in the implementation of the curriculum. Hilda Taba (1962) criticized Tyler’s model. She argued that there is need to obtain more information, hence, the approach should be more scientific. She said that the approach should be based on research and suggested seven stages of a curriculum process.
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Unit 2 CURRICULUM DESIGN
Taba’ Taba’s Model: Step 1. Needs Assessment:: She said there in need to investigate the educational needs of the society. When the needs of the society are known, it becomes easy to plan for them. Step 2. Formulation of objectives: Setting targets basing on the data collec collected Step 3. Selection of content: The objectives es should determine what materials must beselected in order to meet the targets. Step 4. Organization of content: Mobilizing obilizing the selected materials to be used Step 5: Selection of learning activities:Suggesting Suggesting the learning experiences that the learners will undergo during the process of curriculum implementation Step 6. Organization of learning experiences: Prioritizing the activities or arranging them in order of preference. Step 7. Determination of what to evaluate valuate and ways and means of doing it: it:This This is theevaluation and assessment to determine way forward. 2. Cyclic Models These models take situation analysis as an important tool to curriculum design. They contend that when data is collected from a particular society about their educational needs, it becomes easy to make a plan of action in order to solve the problems.
The Wheeler Model D. K. Wheeler (1967) argued that curriculum developers should employ a cyclic process in which elements are related and inter interdependent. dependent. He suggested five stapes based on Tyler’s and Taba”s designs. He says the interrelation of the elements determines the success of the process. If the cycle is complete, it means the curriculum is successful. At a point where elements cannot rela relate te well it means there is a challenge which needs to be corrected before proceeding to the next stage.
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
Wheeler’s model
Wheeler says that the curriculum process is cyclic and that the elements are interdependent such that if the cycle is complete then the curriculum is successful. An incomplete cycle means that the curriculum has failed to achieve its intended goals. Audrey and Nicholas (1978) refined the works of Tyler, Taba and Wheeler. They agree with the cyclic model by argue that evaluation is not the last stage but that it should be done at every stage in the process. They add that regular evaluation helps to closely monitor the process which makes it easier to make adjustments or corrections and eliminate errors. A cyclic model is more ideal in countries where there is a decentralized curriculum because monitoring and supervision becomes easy. 3. Interactive Models. Interactive models are flexible and more realistic. For them they start with data collection on about the needs assessment followed by dialogue with all stake holders so as to agree on what should be done. This makes it easier for monitoring because every stake holder is aware of what is expected in the curriculum process and implementation.
Deaker’s and Walker’s Model Deaker and Walker (1970) identified only three stages. Stage 1. Platform: This involves listening, taking down notes and formulation of objectives. Stage 2. Deliberations: A stage where discussions take place to select what is appropriate.
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Unit 3 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Stage 3. Curriculum design: Conclusions made at stage 3 should result in the construction of curriculum. Walker and Deaker defend their model by provi providing a forum of discussion where stake holders deliberate, argue and agree together so that they come up with an appropriate curriculum. They contend that planning in the absence of the end users may leave out important factors that will eventually render the curriculum irrelevant. SUMMARY Curriculum is dynamic. Therefore, curriculum designers should constantly conduct needs assessment in order to find out the educational needs of a particular society. So far we have looked at three types of models namely namely,, Objective models, cyclic models and Interactive models. We have also examined different patterns of curriculum designs. Selection of a particular design depends on the prevailing circumstances of a particular environment and the stake holders involved. Therefore it is important to conduct serious scientific researches before a curriculum could be developed.
Activity: i) Provide a detailed critique about Tyler’s model ii) In your view, which model would be suitable for developing countries?
Unit 3
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Introduction In this chapter we will look at how curriculum is developed. We will further discuss the factors that affect the development of curriculum either positively or negatively. Curriculum developers need to consider these factors in order in order to design curricular that should stand a test of time. By the end of this topic SSBAT:
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
Outline factors affecting curriculum development Examine how each factor affects curriculum development
Outcomes
Terminology
Discuss how best these factors can be handled in order to produce an effective curriculum
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FACTORS AFFECTING CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
There are several factors that affect the development of curriculum. Some of these are discussed below: 1. Society: Every society has its own values, morals, traditions, beliefs and skills which should be transmitted by schools. A curriculum which is irrelevant to a society is rejected and a curriculum which brings success to a society is welcome. The society is the major stake holder of curriculum development. It is the society that curriculum is intended for hence, it is the beneficially of every curriculum. Curriculum developers need to first look at needs analysis in order to ascertain the educational needs of a particular society. The skills and knowledge that learners gain in schools are to applied in society therefore, there is need to seriously conduct a research on what the society needs. 2. The government: The Government has the duty to draw up curriculum. Through education, the ideology of the country is transmitted. More importantly, the government hires and fires
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Unit 3 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
teachers who are the implementers of curriculum. It has the mandate to dictate what necessary subjects should be offered to its citizens. The political leadership also formulates policies for education activities in the cou country. ntry. Lack of political will on education has negative effects on the education system in the country.
3. The Church: Education in colonial Africa was brought introduced by Missionaries.They were the ones who brought formal education in Africa and Zambia iin n particular. Up to now they are still running a number of Mission schools in the country supplementing government’s efforts. The church needs to be consulted on what content should be included in the curriculum. They have the freedom to make decisions on certain subjects or topics. They can reject certain aspects that they feel can jeopardize their doctrines let alone fueling indiscipline in their schools. 4. Teachers: Teachers are the implementers of curriculum. They determine its success or failure. A cur curriculum riculum for a particular group should determine the teachers’ qualifications because qualifications have a positive or negative impact on the curriculum.
5. Psychology: One of the aims of education is that the learning activities should bring mental develop development ment in the learner. A curriculum that provides ability, aptitude and intelligence of the learners, recommends appropriate rewards and punishment provides growth to learners to much with content. The suggested content should therefore stimulate learners’ thoughts. Subjects should broaden the learner’s thinking. 6. Parents: Parents may decide to send their children to particular schools of their choice for their children. They may also want to know what their children are learning and how they are taught.
7. Examination xamination Boards: ECZ, Colleges and Universities train markers and setters of assessment items. Through the process, they are able to make adjustments in terms of content and teaching strategies.
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
THE PROCESS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Developing a curriculum is not an easy task. There are a lot of things involved and if not carefully handled, the curriculum may not serve its intended purpose to the target group or society. Curriculum developers therefore, need to take a careful analysis of the process so as to make the curriculum relevant. Planning from imagination or thinking for people while in offices if an unprofessional way of designing curriculum. The better way is to get information from the stake holders on the ground. There are several stages involved in the process of curriculum development and implementation. These are discussed below: i)
Situation Analysis: This is a systematic examination of the situation conducted in order to develop an effective curriculum. It can be conducted in broader terms such as at national level, groups of schools, societies, regions and provinces, within the education system. Hilda Taba (1962) says “It is a process of examining the context of which curriculum is to be developed.” Factors to consider are: society, pupils, schools, climate, staff, facilities and equipment. Researchers must identify the needs of the learners, parents and community. These needs must be defined and priorities set and the make recommendations.
ii)
Goal formulation: These are targets that are set basing on the needs assessment. They must aim at equipping learners with relevant skills and knowledge for both formal and informal employment. The aims and objectives should uphold the values, norms, standards and traditions of society.
iii)
Policy Decision Makers The Central Government is the law maker. The recommendations by the Curriculum Development Center experts are taken to Parliament to be debated up on and once enacted, the curriculum becomes law. Policy makers consider the following: Time needed for planning and implementing the curriculum Priorities Qualifications of the personnel involved Responsibilities
iv)
Trials and Tests
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Unit 3 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
At this stage the Governments needs to try out the curriculum in order to see its practical aspect. Pilot schools are identified and selected where the curriculum will be tried out. These are representatively selected selected- both rural and town schools. At the end e of a specified period, a report is given as to whether the curriculum is viable or not. v)
Implementation Once the curriculum is accepted, it is extended to all schools across the country. All stake holders must be informed such as parents, teachers and pupils. However, there is need to retrain facilitators such as teachers, lecturers and instructors.
vi)
Evaluation After some specified period of time, an assessment to determine the successes and challenges is conducted. This determines whether the curricul curriculum um will stand a test of time or it should be abandoned.
Activity: 1. With reference to the factors determining the curriculum development, discuss the challenges curriculum planners face. 2. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of a localized curriculum. 3. Discuss factors affecting curriculum implementation.
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
Unit 4
ADAPTING CURRICULUM Introduction [Add introductory text here] Upon completion of this unit you will be able to: [verb][complete the sentence]. [verb][complete the sentence]. Outcomes
[verb][complete the sentence]. [verb][complete the sentence]. [verb][complete the sentence]. [verb][complete the sentence].
Terminology
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Adapting Curriculum for Special Education Needs (SEN) Not all learners can learn smoothly. Some learners have learning difficulties or disabilities that make it harder for them to learn than their friends of the same age. Due to these challenges their educational needs cannot be met within the traditional classroom set up, and as such, they require special attention. Therefore, it is important to plan a user friendly curriculum which will cater for them so that they feel part of the system. Infact, a disability is not inability. Some of the SEN learners perform much better than the so called normal. Learning disabilities are in many forms such as
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Unit 4 ADAPTING CURRICULUM
visually impaired, hearing impaired, mentally retarded and physically impaired. Types of Special Needs It is important that teachers become familiar with most of thes these types of special needs. The following are some of the impairments. Impairment/ Condition Physical & Physiological
Hearing
Visual
Type of Special Needs
Developmental delay
Intellectual Disability
Specific learning difficulties Neurological Austism
Poor oral communication, poor reading, poor writing, poor spellings and mathematics
Giftedness or high level of intellectual ability
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Difficulties in mobility and balance, interaction with social and none social environment Negative self-image image Poor posture and balance Difficulties in oral communication, socialization, short term memory Poor balance Difficulties in hearing Poor mobility and poor posture Difficult to develop self-help self skills Unable to read print Negative self image Skill development is delayed by 2 years behind in motor, language, cognitive, mental, social, emotional and self-help self skills Development is delayed in more than three areas. The child functions below the age of the classmates
Memory gaps, flabby muscles, irregular tremors Poor social interaction, poor language, poor communication communicati and poor learning skills Unusual behavior like rocking and spinning objects Learns too quickly Challenging behavior Critical thinking Critical of the teacher
CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
Adapting Instructional Strategies and Materials. Teachers need to develop strategies that would help them detect these special needs. They should come up with tools for screening impairments and other conditions. A child observation sheet can be developed by the teacher. It can be for the whole class or for an individual. Child Observation Sheet Class:………………… Date:…………... Compiled By:………………………………….. Specific learning Needs
Names of Pupils
Communication behaviour:
Limited vocabulary Difficulties in understanding questions Inappropriate responses Unclear speech sounds Isolation Difficulties in co-operating with others Needs repeated instructions
Reading behaviour:
Cannot recognize letters by sound Cannot sound out simple words Guesses words when reading Finds reading tiring Cannot remember common words Reads slowly and forgets the beginning easily \Loses pace when reading
Writing and Spelling behaviour:
Holds pencil/ pen awkwardly Writes letters bellow or above the line Leaves big spaces in between letters Confuses word order
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Unit 4 ADAPTING CURRICULUM
Writes slowly Writes letters backwards Writes letters too big or too small
Mathematics:
Difficulties in size relationship- big/ small Un able to comprehend mathematical language Difficulties to understand mathematical sign and symbols Cannot remember mathematical tables Difficulties in multiplying, adding, subtracting and dividing
Mobility Difficulties:
Names of Pupils
Poor gross mobility behaviour:
No active games Limited movements Poor balance Bad sitting, standing posture
Poor fine Motor Mobility Behaviour Behaviour:
Struggles to hold pencil/ pen Poor writing posture Presses pen/pencil too hard or too soft Writes slowly
Giftedness High intellectual abilities behaviour behaviour:
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Uses words accurately Very good memory Solves abstract problems High performance in all subjects
Names of Pupils
CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
Works independently Initiates interaction among peers
The above observation sheet can help teachers to identify different types of disabilities in the learners. Once, learners abilities are identified, it is easy for the teacher to develop means and other strategies for such pupils in order to enhance effective teaching and learning in the classroom. It is important that teachers should also set goals and specific learning outcomes for each child with special learning needs. They also need to specify what each child must learn including the gifted ones. Teachers must also conduct extra lessons in older to provide more time for grasping of concepts, skills and core vocabulary of pupils. THE JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM This is a two year course that covers grades eight and nine of the Zambian Education System. The curriculum at this level equips pupils with necessary knowledge and skills which will be built upon at the senior secondary level. In the past, all subjects taught to learners right from grade eight to grade nine. This time, the curriculum has changed in order to help pupils take a particular path. The curriculum has changed taking two dimensions called Career Pathways, namely: Academic and Vocational. This entails that pupils will have to take one way depending on their capability and passion. The Vocational Career pathway is meant for learners who have ambitions and interest in technical and practical jobs. The emphasis on this path is on developing practical skills which promote manufacturing and production of goods and services in industries. Learners will learn this path from grade eight up to grade 12. Learners will study these subjects and be awarded a Vocational Certificate at the end of their two year program. This certificate can help them to get employed if they decide to stop at grade nine or if they fail to qualify to grade ten. This pathway has five optional subjects from which learners can choose. i). Technology ii). Performing and Creative Arts
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Unit 4 ADAPTING CURRICULUM
iii). Physical Education and Sports iv). Home Economics v). Agriculture The Academic Career Pathway: This pathway comprises subjects that are non non-practical. practical. Compulsory subjects in this pathway are: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii.
English, Business Studies, , Computer Studies, Intergraded science, Mathematics, Religious Education Zambian Languages.
Activity Activity: 1. In your view is the change of the Zambian Secondary school curriculum necessary? 2. Explain in detail why curriculum change is necessary for any education system 3. With reference to inclusive education, what challenges do teaches face in handling learners of divergent vergent learning abilities?
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
Unit 5
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Introduction to Education Research This topic may seem strange to some people and irrelevant to others. However note that it is a very important and relevant topic especially to those who poses critical minds. It will help you become a critical thinker and someone who questions issues. The topic explains the nitty-gritty of writing a research paper. Research is important because it tries to help people who are affected directly or indirectly by the topic under research. Its purpose is to make those people live a better life thereafter (as a result of your research). Research also help improve the educational system for the benefit of all so it is important that you take it seriously like any other topic so far covered. I wish to stress the point that this cause if followed properly will enrich your understanding of the world around you. You will acquire knowledge and skills necessary to make breakthrough in talking issues of educational nature.
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to: Distinguish research from other modes of searching for the truth Define research State characteristics of research
Outcomes
Describe types of research Identify research theories State the importance of theoretical frameworks Stages of the research process Identify research area / topic State Title selection
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Unit 5 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
Terminology
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RESEARCH RESEARCH FOR THE TRUTH
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Man has been in search for truth since time immemorial
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The reasons surrounding this search is that truth is utilized (used) fully in various fields including religion, culture, traditions, economics, justice and evaluation e.t.c
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In practice the overriding principles states that truth is sought (looked for) in order to solve various. Problems confro confronting humility.
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Jesus Christ (J (John ohn 8:32), enclosing the significance of truth once taught his disciples in the following manner; “if you know the truth, the truth will set you free.”
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In searching for truth, Cohen and Manion anion (1985) have identified three mai main sources of truth, namely
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Experience
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Logic/ reasoning
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Research
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EXPERIENCE
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Where solutions to problems clearly lie beyond an a individual’s personal knowledge, such a person may make use of the different
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experiences of others, usually older. People: e.g. a child a teacher a parent -
In our efforts to come to terms with the problems of daily life, we are heavily dependent upon experience e.g. a child repairs a puncture in a bicycle’s inner tube speedily and efficiently because he has done it several times before.
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Personal experience however has got limitations; for instance the limitations of personal experience in the form of common – sense knowing can quickly exposed when compared with features of the scientific to solving problems.
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One consideration lies in the area of central distinguishing the lay mans and the scientists attitudes to experience
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The former (lay man) makes no attempt to central any extraneous sources of influence after trying to explain occurred event.
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The latter (scientist) on the other hand being conscious of the multiple (many) causes for a given occurrence resorts to definite techniques and procedures to isolate and test the effect of one or more the alleged causes.
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There is also the difference of attitude to the relationship amongst factors in a problem e.g. effects of illiteracy on academic performance.
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The lay person’s (grandfather in the village) concern with the relationships is loosely unsystematic and uncontrolled: on the other hand the scientist displays a much more serious professional concern with relationships in a problem (independent variable (factor) and dependent variable (factor)).
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LOGIC / REASONING
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Reasoning consists of three types namely; Deductive, inductive and the combined; inductive- deductive approaches.
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Deductive reasoning is based on the understanding of providing a particular instance and then a conclusion: for instance, all planets orbit the sun; the earth is a planet, therefore the truth orbits the sun
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(b)
Inductive reasoning: it means of which the study of a number of individual cases would lead to an hypothesis and later to a generalization.
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Inductive Inductive- deductive approach- this is a combination of deductive and inductive reasoning
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It is acknowledged that this dual approach is the essence of the modern sci scientific entific method and marks the last stage of man’s progress towards empirical science
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It is appreciated that despite deduction and induction having their weakness, they have contributed to the development of science namely the suggestion of hypotheses, the clarification and interpretation of scientific findings.
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RESEARCH (THE BEST SOURCE)
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The tthird means by which man sets out to discover truth is research.
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Orodh Orodho, and kombo (2002) defined research as “the process of arriving at dependable solution solutions to problems ems through the planned systematic collection analysis and interpretation of data
ACTIVITY 1.
Identify three sources of man’s experience and provide examples in each case.
2.
Why is it argued that the three modes of searching for truth complement each other?
3.
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How does the truth manifest itself?
CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
5.1DEFINITIONS OF RESEARCH INTRODUCTION: In topic one under this unit you were introduced to three modes of seeking truth with a view to solving various problems. These modes are experience, logic / reasoning and then research after your careful study you should by now come to appreciate that of these three channels of truth seeking, research has been considered the most efficient and reliable. However, it must be stressed that the other two modes much also be respected because in their own way they have contributed enormously to human development. In topic two of unit 5 you are supposed to critically state what a research is through definitions. In defining research, you need to read and understand various stands of writers in research. All in all, research is a cornerstone of any science, including for examples, the natural sciences such as chemistry and physics; and the social sciences such as sociology and psychology. -
Tuchman (1978:1) describes research as a systematic attempt to provides answers to questions,
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Orodho and kombo (2002:2) define research as the process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the planned systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data.
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Research is a systematic process of collecting and logically analyzing information (data) for some purpose (James. H. McMillan ) and Sally Schumacher: (1990)
-
Kerlinger (1973:11) defines research as a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.
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-
Hurston (2010) referred to research as the organized, structured and purposeful investigation aimed at discovering discovering, interpreting and revising human knowledge on different aspects of the wor world by someone first hand.
-
Research can be also be described as an endless quest for knowledge or unending search for truth.
-
Research is a way or arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the planned and systematic collection, analys analysis and interp interpretation of data (Cook. P. M)
-
Another definition of research may be put as a method of studying problems whose solutions are to be desired partly or wholly from facts. Those facts may be statements of historical facts, those contained in records and reports, the results of tests, test answers to questionnaires and so on (Monroe.W. S)
-
Research breeds new knowledge or corrects previous errors and. Misconceptions and adds in an orderly way to the existing body of knowledge.
-
Research is an essential and powerf powerful ul tool that leads man towards progress: it shows us the way in our difficulties difficulties, opens new avenues and provides to us better alternatives.
-
All research aims at is progress and good life. When we say research adds new knowledge, the knowledge must be verif verified by any interested person.
ACTIVITY i.
Identify the key words frequently appearing in the definitions of research and discuss their relevance.
ii.
Choose three definitions of research from the above stated and critically analyze them.
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5.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH Having defined the concept of research; lets us now turn to the characteristics of research. Ladies and gentlemen I hope we have all understood the definitions of research because it is through this understanding that we will be able to state research characteristics:
Research is systematic: Research attempts to solve problems whether social economic, political, cultural or healthy related in systematic way. It is systematic in that a general system is followed. This involves the identification of the problem review of related literature and data collection. This is followed by data analysis conclusions and recommendations.
Research is objective: Research is a scientific attempt to find an objective or unbiased solution to an educational or social problem. Research involves gathering new data from primary sources (first hand and secondary sources (using existing data).
It is based on observable experience or empirical evidence: we can therefore say that research is empirical in nature.
It employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis.
Research is self-correcting: in this manner firstly this scientific method has built in mechanisms to protect the scientist from error as for as is humanly possible. Secondly procedures and results are open for public scrutiny by fellow professionals.
Research is a combination of both experience and reasoning, and therefore must be regarded as the most successful approach to the discovery of truth.
Research is highly purposive: it deals with significant problems which demand a solution.
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ACTIVITY In your own words and understanding ex explain plain five characteristics of research. 5.3 TYPES OF REASERCH Having seen the characteristics of research we can now shift to the types of research. Prospecting teachers always ensure that you thoroughly understand a sub sub-unit before moving to the next one. on TYPES OF RESEARCH: Research can either be Qualitative or Quantitative (a) QUALITATIVE RESEARCH. This is a form of research that involves description. Qualitative research seeks to describe and analyze the culture and behavior of humans and their groups from the point of view of those being steadied. Qualitative research uses the natural setting, for instance a classroom setting and not a laboratory. This means the scenario is not artificial. Qualitative research relies on research strategy that is flexible aand nd interactive: this includes interviewing, focus groups discussions discussions, observations and Questionnaires. In qualitative research feelings and insights are considered important (Orod (Orodho o and Kombo: 2002). Sometimes qualitative research is called naturalistic in inquiry quiry of field studies. Examples of qualitative research include case studies of communities and institutions. It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research. Qualitative research describes a problem from the point of view of those experiencing it. Qualitative research is non non- statistical, its methodological approach is primarily guided by the concrete material at hand. Qualitative research is typically investigative in nature. Its findings are often
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not conclusive and cannot automatically be used to make generalizations. APPLICABILITY: Qualitative research is appropriate under the following conditions.
When the subject matter is unfamiliar: for examples, when one wants to know the causes and effects of a certain phenomenon (factor) and the answer is unfamiliar to the research: e.g. Effect of free primary education in school accessibility and retention.
When a research wants to relate particular aspects of behavior to the Wider Context: for example when the researcher wants to find at effects of functional illiteracy on the academic performance of college student teachers, a few colleges and students will be sampled the findings however will be applicable to a wider context.
When flexibility of approach is needed to allow for discovery of the unexpected and in depth investigation of particular topics. For example in finding out the effect of abortion on education, the researcher may interview those who have carried out an abortion and are willing to be interviewed. Focus group discussions may be used. The researcher can also change a research instrument depending on the respondents. For example a researcher may have planned to use questionnaire written in English but may discover that the majority of respondents are semi-literate. The researcher may therefore choose to interview and use the language which the respondents are most comfortable in.
This method is used for studying selected issues, cases or events in depth and detail (Orodho and Kombo, 2002) FORMS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Ethnographies; these are observations of groups.
Phenomenological studies: which study subjects over a period of time through developing relationships with them and reporting findings based on research experiences.
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Case studies which use various data investigate the subject over time and by activity. (b)
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH.
Quantitative research relies on the principles of variability: that means confirmation proof, etc etc. knowledge images from what can be proven by direct observation. The researcher’s values interpretation and feelings are not considered. Objectivity is reinforced. This approach is mainly applicable in scientific studies. This research establishes the cause effect relationship. Quantitative research focuses on measurement and numeric figures or numbers. Quantitative research is used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data or data that can be transformed into useable statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors behaviors, and other defined variables. APPLICABILITY Quantitative research is applicable under the following conditions.
When the research incorporates the statistical (how many?) element, designed to quantify the extent to which a target group is aware of thinks this e.t.c.
When control of approach is need to allow for discover of the unexpected and in depth investigation of particular topics. Control of one phenomenon of interest
When the scenario is artificial, for instance in a laboratory is needed. QUALITATIVE ALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Qualitative and quantitative approaches to research are complimentary. Where appropriate, they should be combined to maximize the strengths and minimize the limitations of each: for example, in a study on the effect of abortion on education, a researcher can an first use qualitative research and interview respondent to find out their views on the effect of abortion. The researcher can then segregation group of students who have
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terminated their pregnancies and another group that has not terminated pregnancies and observe them keenly on specific psychological test. The researcher can theretofore make deduction on the effect of abortion on education
Group discussion -
In your respective groups discuss the three types of research with emphasis on their applicability.
5.4 RESEARCH THEORIES Welcome to this sub-unit which appears to be strange and irrelevant to others. Most of us must be wandering why we should be wasting our time and energy studying theories in research. To the contrary theories are very important in research; to appreciate this importance let us look at the format of a research report with focus on chapter one: CHAPTER ONE -
Introduction
-
Background to the problem
-
Theoretical frame work of the study
-
Statement of the problem
-
Purpose of the study
-
Objectives of the study
-
Research questions
-
Significance of the study
-
Limitations of the study
-
Definition of terms used in the study.
The highlighted words in chapter one of the research report format is the reason why we should study theories of research: well thank you for closely following the discussion and appreciating the
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importance of research theories when writing a research report. A research report is of course writing after conducting the actual research. To further appreciate the study of theories ladies and gentlemen let us look at the theoretical framework and the actual theories in research. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK A theoretical framework is a collection of interrelated ideas based on theories. It is a reasoned set of prepositions, which are derived from and supported by data or evidence. Theoretical frameworks accounts for or explain explains phenomena. It attempts to clarify why things are the way they are based on theories. A theoretical framework is a general set of assumptions about the nature of phenomena. To understand theoretical frameworks, an analy analysis of theories has to be made. THEORIES IN RESEARCH A theory is a reasoned statement or groups of statement, which are supported by evid evidence, ence, meant to explain phenomena. They are a systematic explanation of the relationship among phenomena. Theories provide a generalized explanation to an occurrence. There are several kinds of theories in all disciplines. It is impossible for a researcher to know all these theories. Therefore a researcher should be conversant to know all these theories. Therefore a researcher should be conversant with those applicable to ones area of research. When a theory fails to be supported by data, it can be rejected, or is revised. Theories are testable in a practical situation. Theories provide indicators and examples of what is incorporated in the framework. Theories provide tentative theoretical answers to questions, issues and problems before the researcher practi practically confirms through research that the answer is correct. Theories have proponents. Researchers apply theories to guide their work and help interpret finding. They provide a foundation for inquiries. The
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following are some of their theories that can be used to formulate a theoretical framework: a) STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM THEORY (EMILE DURKHEIM, 1858-1917) This theory proposes that human society is like an organism and is made up of structures called social institutions. These institutions are specially structured so that they perform different functions on behalf of society. This theory attempts to provide an explanation on how human society is organized and what each of the various social institutions does in order for society to continue existing. According to his theory, as a result of being interrelated and interdependent, one organ can affect the others and ultimately the whole. The whole can also affect one or all the social institution. A researcher can use this theory to point out why and how some societies operate relatively well compared to others socially. b) SYMBOLIC INTERACTION THEORY (MAX WEBER, 1864-1920) This theory deals with explaining how individuals relate with each other. This is a theoretic orientation, which contains assumptions proposing that the social world is made up of symbols, which human beings use as a means of interaction. According to this theory human beings do not act individually but interact with each other, thus reacting to each other. A researcher can use this theory in an attempt to explain and understand how people relate to each other and what is used in facilitating a relationship between individuals and groups of people in society. A researcher may attempt to show how the behavior expressed by members of groups to which one belongs and by members of one’s personal networks have an influence. The researcher may show how people rely on the opinions of others, especially when a situation is highly uncertain or ambiguous and no objective evidence is readily available.
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c) CONFLICT THEORY (KARL MARX 1818-1883) 1818 This theory emphasizes the existence of opposing forces in the life of individuals group, social structures and society in general. This theory views human society as a collection of competing interest groups and individual, eeach ach with their own motives and expectations. The principles assumption underlying this theory is that all members in society do not have the same values, interest or expectations. These vary according to one’s position, privileges, ability, class and wealt wealth. h. Agreement tends to appear among those who share similar privileges. This is likely to encourage unequal distribution of the scarce but valuable resources and opportunities. This results in divisions in society resulting in hostility and opposition. A re result sult in divisions in society resulting hostility and opposition. A researcher can use this theory in an attempt to explain why conflicts occur in society. d) BASIC NEEDS THEORY (ABRAHAM MASLOW. 1943) According to this theory, there are certain minimum require requirements that are essential to a decent standard of living. These are known as physiology needs. They include food, shelter, health and clothing they are primary needs and have to be centered for before others needs such as security and shelter, sense of belo belonging and affection, love, esteem and finally self –actualization actualization are pursued. A researcher can apply this theory when attempting to prove that lack of basic survival needs may be a contributory factor to the situation of the phenomena under study.
Assessment Discuss the research theories and clearly state situations in which these theories can be used.
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IMPORTANCE OF THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS A theoretical framework plays a major role in research. These include the following: a) It introduces the researcher to a new view of the research problem. This enables the researcher to understand the total realm of the problem. b) It enables the researcher to conceptualize the topic in its entirety as an outgrowth of the larger society. This helps the researcher to acknowledge the problem from a wider perspective and not from a narrow personalized self-interest approach. This enhances the researcher’s objectivity.
QUALITIES
OF
AN
EFFECTIVE
THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK An effective theoretical framework should: a) Account for and explain a phenomenon. b) Be specific and well-articulated. c) Reflect the research problem being addressed. d) Be measured in a practical situation. e) Provide tentative answers to questions, issues and problems addressed in the research problem. f) Should systematically address the various aspects of the problem, particularly the key factors that are assumed to influence or cause the problem. GUIDANCE
IN
FORMULATING
A
THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK In formulating an effective theoretical framework, the researcher should adhere to the following: a) Reflect- on the existing theories for the purpose of identifying a fitting context.
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b) Analyze the research title to identify the independent and dependent variables. The researcher should then reflect on the relationship between these variables. c) Find out which theories best explain the relationship the variables. This can be achieved by using the library and reading books and articles related to the topic selected. The researcher should read through various theories related to one’s research resear topic. The sources include professional publications, journals in education, these, abstracts from doctoral dissertations and master these psychological obstruct. These reading will present various studies related to one’s study area. This will assist in i the formulation of the theoretical framework. d) Formulation- the researcher should then write down the theories applicable, link the ideas and identify the relationship. After this the researcher should formulate the theoretical framework. This will involvee discussing the selected theories in an attempt to answer the research question. e) Evaluation- after formulating the theoretical framework, the researcher should evaluate it to find out it addresses all sections of the research problem
CHALLENGES FACED IN FORMULATING OF THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Lack of differentiation between a theory and theoretical frames work. While a theory simply states what proponents have discovered in relation to a certain issue, a theoretical framework uses this theory to account for a certain issue, a theoretical framework uses this theory to account for and clarify why things are the way they are applicable to the study. Moreover, some researchers quote theories that do not explain the phenomenon under study.
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RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN
CONCEPTUAL
AND
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS Many researchers get confused whether to use conceptual or theoretical frameworks in the studies. Although both these frameworks are tools to assist a researcher make meaningful findings, they vary. A conceptual framework bases on ideals that may be formulated from a researcher’s own perception. This may be from observation or experience. On the other hand, the theoretical framework is based on recognized theories. A conceptual framework cannot be refuted or tested through research. A theoretical framework is testable and can be rejected or revised. Ideas raised in a theoretical framework have proponents while those in a conceptual framework are mainly the researcher’s with a few references to support them. A theoretical framework is a discussion of related theories attempting to predict a phenomenon. A conceptual framework is an idea stated.
Reflection i.
Discuss the relevance of theoretical and conceptual frameworks in research.
ii.
Show the relationship between conceptual and theoretical frameworks.
iii.
State four qualities of an effective theoretical framework.
iv.
Briefly explain how a theoretical framework can be formulated.
v.
List three challenges faced in formulating a theoretical framework.
5.5 STAGES OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS Ladies and gentlemen welcome to this subunit which will help us understand the research process of the research proposed and the
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research thesis (report) respectively. However will look at the research proposal and research thesis (report) in brief so as not to pre--empty empty year two and year three work. According to the Junior Secondary teachers diploma syllabus, curriculum studies and Education Research, Research Proposal will be studied in year two, write the research report in year three. To have an insight of the research process will outline the formats for the research proposal and research report, because these two documents have two different stages of the research process. The first step in the research process of course is to identify the problem and formulate a title.
RESEARCH PROPOSAL FORMAT Chapter 1 –Introduction
Background to the study
Statement of the research problem- purpose of the study
Objectives of the study
Research questions
Significance of the study
Hypothesis
Conceptual or theoretical framework
Chapter2 –Literature Review Chapter 3 –Research Methodology: Research design, Research site, Population, Sampling techniques, Research instruments, Data collect collection, Analysis and Presentation. RESEARCH REPORT (THESIS) FORMAT A research report consists of preliminaries which are numbered in roman numerals. The preliminaries in order of appearance include the approval, acknowledgement, table of contents, lists of tables, list of figures and abstract. Others include declar declaration and dedication before the approval page. A research report consists of
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the first three chapters of the proposal plus the research findings, conclusions and recommendations.
Title
Declaration
Approval
Acknowledgement
Table of contents
List of tables
List of figures
Abstract
CHAPTER ONE –INTRODUCTION
Background to the problem
Theoretical framework of the study
Statement of the problem
Purpose of the study
Objectives of the study
Research questions
Significance of the study
Limitations of the study
Definition of terms used in the study
CHAPTER TWO –LITERACURE REVIEW CHAPTER THREE –METHODOLOGY
Methods used in the study
Design of the study
Population of the study
Sampling procedure
Research instruments
Pre-testing of research instruments
Size of the sample
Data collection
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Data analysis
Data interpretation
Problems encountered in the field
CHAPTER FOUR –PRESENTATIONS PRESENTATIONS OF FINDINGS CHAPTER FIVE –DISUSSION, DISUSSION, CONCLUSION AND ANDRECOMMENDATIONS
5.6 RESEARCH AREA/TOPIC 5.6.1. .1. Topic Selection. The term "topic'' refers to subject, issue or area under discussion. The topic (subject) one selects to research is essential in the success of the research. This is mainly because one's interest in the topic will sustain the research. If a researcher is interested nterested in a particular area, he/she will enjoy reading materials related to that subject, and will put time and effort into the work. The researcher will be keen on collecting the required data, analyzing it and finding out the results.It is imperative that a researcher selects a topic that interests him/her. The followingare some of the stepsthat that should be followed in topic selection. a) Identify what interests. or puzzles one in an area of study There are many issues in life that may puzzle or interest a researcher. These may be social, economic, health, political or cultural issues. However, it is important to identify a puzzling aspect in one's area of study. This not only enables the researcher to go in in-depth depth in one's professional area, but also to defend defe the researched work with authority. For example, in identifying an area of study, a student in the department of Sociology may be puzzled as to why people still consume illicit brews despite the dangers experienced and the warnings given by the governme government. These are fertile grounds in which students can identify research topics.
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b) Identify keywords for the topic The researcher should then zero down to the real aspect puzzling him/her and express it in specific keywords. These keywords can include words representing the issue that has puzzled the researcher. For example if the researcher is puzzled about illicit brews, the keywords may be increase of illicit brews. For the student in education, the keywords may be free primary education, school accessibility, retention and performance. The researcher should think of what to concentrate on based on these words. c) Define the topic After identifying the keywords the researcher wants to concentrate on, he/ she has to define the topic. Defining the topic involves analysing selected keywords keenly. Out of these keywords there are a number of topics that can be studied. For example, on the issue of free primary education, the researcher may decide to concentrate on free primary education and student accessibility, or free primary education and student retention, or free primary education and learners' performance or all of the above, thus analysing free primary education and school accessibility, retention and performance. The researcher has to identify specifically what he/she wants to concentrate on. This enables the study to be focused. d) Formulate the topic After identifying and defining the topic, the researcher should formulate it. For example the prevalence of illicit brews in Kenya. The researcher should search for articles and other materials relevant to the research topic. This information will assist the researcher develop clarity over the topic selected. This will also assist the researcher in the formulation of the research problem later on. The researcher should, take notes, paraphrase and summarize what has been read on relevant materials. This will be 65
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included in the literature review. Relevant information related to the selected topic can be foun found d in a library or the Internet. Qualities of an Effective Research Topic A good research topic has the following qualities: a) It is researchable: That means it is a subject where the research instruments can be easily formulated and the study population sampled. The objectives that will be formulated based on the topic are measurable. b) It captivates the interest of the researcher: The topic selected should be one that the researcher has an interest in. c) It makes a contribution to knowledge: A good research topic is one in which the researcher is aware that the findin findings of the study will contribute to the body of knowledge. d) It is provocative:: It open to varied views and interpretations e) It is clear and focused: The topic is not vague va or alien to the researcher. Challenges Encountered in Topic Selection Selecting a topic in research is essential and requires a lot of care. This is because the topic selected has a lot of influence on the success of the project/study. There are various challenges encountered in topic selection, and some have resulted in researcher aba abandoning ndoning the project half way, or the project taking longer to be completed than anticipated. The following are some of the problems encountered in topic section. a) Choosing a topic that is too wide A researcher may select a research area that is too wide and fail to limit the scope. This occurs due to underestimating the dimension of the topic. For example, a topic such as Truancy in schools may also be problematic unless the scope is clearly specified. This topic
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may be too wide because the causes and effects of truancy on education vary by gender and region. Truancy also has diverse effects
on
school
accessibility,
retention
and
academic
performance. It may be impossible for this researcher to conduct an in-depth study. To avoid selecting a topic that is too wide, the researcher should be very clear and focused on what they want to research. If it is issues related to drought or truancy, then they have to be very certain on what they want to investigate in relation to drought or truancy and make that the focus of the study. b) Choosing a topic that is too complex At times a researcher may choose a topic that is too complex for research at the level of the student. This complexity is based on the fact that some of the research may require large samples. A study on the mushrooming of churches in Zambia is complex in that it requires clear definition of the term "mushrooming. This topic may present the researcher with problems particularly during data collection and analysis. c) Poor timing Most research works have a limited time span for which data should be collected and presented. Failure to adhere to this may lead to disqualifications or penalties. Some topics, for example, Effects offree primary education over a five year period may not be feasible for a master's programme. This is mainly because these programmes usually cover a span of two years. d) Limited accessibility to materials and respondents A particular topic may prove unsuitable simply because there is no ready accessibility to the requisite source materials. It is common for some source materials not to be made available for some years after an event or during the lifetime of an individual. Other materials may not be available in libraries. Some research works have been delayed or changed due to the problem of unavailability 67
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of subjects. For example, a study based on Ai Aids ds patients at Ndola central Hospital may not be easy as accessibility to respondents may be limited. The patients may also feel an invasion of privacy and refuse to respond.
Activity i.
Explain the steps involved in selecting a topic.
ii.
Formulate your own topic based on educational matters by following the above stated steps.
iii.
List qualities of an effective research topic.
iv.
Scrutinize your research topic by subjecting it to the above mentioned qualities.
v.
Discuss challenges encountered in topic selection.
5.7TITLE TITLE SELECTION. The term "title" refers to heading, label or tag. The title of the proposal or thesis describes what the study is about. The title is a mini abstrac abstract. t. It portrays a quick summary of the key idea(s) in a proposal or thesis. For example the following title by Kombo (2005), Abortion in Kenya: An examination of its causes and effects on female students in secondary schools and colleges indication that the study is on abortion. It also indicates that the study will analyse the causes and effects of abortion. It can be deduced from the title that the respondents will include female students in secondary schools and colleges. The title should be formulated af after the researcher has identified the research topic.
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5.7.1THE FOLLOWING STEPS ARE ESSENTIAL IN TITLE SELECTION: a) Identify keywords for the title Before selecting the title, the researcher should identify key issues in the topic the researcher is interested in. b) Reflect on the key issues The researcher should brainstorm the key issues identified. This includes attempting to find out the independent and dependent variables. For example if the researcher is puzzled over price increase and commodity consumption, questions that the researcher should attempt to answer are: • Does price increase affect consumption? • Does price increase influence consumption? • Does consumption influence price increase? The researcher will attempt to find out how these issues can be linked to form a title. c) Formulate the title After the researcher is clear about the independent and dependent variables, the title can be formulated. The formulation of the title involves trying to link the key variables. This can be formulated by using terms such as The effect of ..., The impact of ..., An assessment of ..., for instance, The effect of price increase on consumption or The effect offree primary education on school accessibility.
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d) Evaluation After formulating the title, the researcher has to ensure that it is clear and specific. This means the independent and dependent variables are easily identified (variables will be discussed later). For example, if the title is on the effect of price incre increase on consumption the researcher may specify it as The effect of price increase on sugar consumptionin Kenya. If the title is on free primary education, the title can be The effect of free primary education
on
student
accessibility,
retention
and andacademic
performance. 5.7.2 5.7.2Qualities of an Effective Title An effective research title should portray the following qualities: • It should be brief.md specific: For example, The impact of drug abuse on education. This brevity makes the title stand out and have a strong impact. It is easier to identify the independent and dependentvariables. The title becomes clear and focused. • It should be in line with the set objectives: The title is a brief summary of what the study is about. It should portray the aims and objectives of the study. The words used in the title should clearly reflect the focus of the study. • It should be clear and unambiguous: The title should not lead to various interpretations of the study. • It should reflect a relationship between the independent and dependent variables, for example, the effect of price increase on food consumption. ' • The title should portray an issue that is researchable. The aspects in question should be measurable. 5.7. 5.7.3CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED IN TITLE SELECTION There are various challenges faced by researchers in title selection.
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These include the following: a) Choosing a title that is not specific A researcher may select title thatis open to varied interpretations. For example, Crime in Zambia wide title that is open to various interpretations. This is because there are also varied forms of crime. For it to be effective, it has to be specific. To avoid this in title selection, the researcher should be very clear and focused on what the independent and dependent variables of the study are. b) Writing a title that is too wordy A brief title is more effective than a long one. This is because variables are easily identified. Some titles have too many words. To avoid this, researchers should ensure that words that are not necessary for understanding the title are omitted. For example, the title; the effect of free primary education on the academic performanceof boys and girls in boarding and day schools in Zambia can be summarized as The effect of freeprimary education on academic performance. When all else fails, a two part title can be used with the parts separated by a colon. c) Poorly formulated titles Some titles are difficultto comprehend for example, Understanding drug abuse in Zambia. It is difficult to comprehend what the term"understanding" means. d) Lack of consistency Some study titles neither tally with the research objectives, nor with the problem statement or methodology applied. For example a 'researcher who in a study on the effect of price increase on sugar consumption In Zambia, concentrateson finding out about student indiscipline in schools is not addressing the title selected.
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Activity I.
Explain the difference between a topic and a title.
II.
Mention the key steps in research title selection.
III.
List qualities of an effective title.
IV.
Formulate your research title and subject it to the qualities of an effective title.
V.
Discuss challenges encountered in title selection.
6.0 VARIABLES. The term "variable" is derived from variations. This refers to differences. Variables are attributes or qualities of the cases that we measure or record. For example, if the cases are persons, the variables could be sex, age, height, weight, level of empow empowerment, ability, and so on. They are referred to as variables because it is assumed that the cases will vary in their scores on these attributes. For example, if the variable is age, we obviously recognize that people can be of different ages. In any parti particular cular study, variables can play different roles. For example the reaction of people towards price increase may vary according to commodity use and availability. There are two major forms of variables: the independent and dependent variables. Independent Va Variable The independent variables are also known as the predictor or explanatory variables. These are the factors that the researcher thinksexplain variation in the dependent variable. In other words, these arethe causes.If a study is on The impact of price increase on beer consumption in Zambia then price increase is the independent
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variable. This is because it canexplain or affect the increase or decrease in beer consumption. Dependent Variable Usually there is only one dependent variable, and it is the outcome variable the researcher is attempting to predict. If theresearcher attempts to predict the effect of the physiotherapy strategy on community-based rehabilitation programmes for the physically impaired. A community-based rehabilitation programme therefore is the dependent variable. Variation in the dependent variable is what the researcher is trying to explain. In other words, the dependent variable" depends" on the independent. For instance, the fluctuation in beer consumption is seen in so far as it is caused by the price increase- independent variable - which is expected to change or alter in some way the dependent variable.
Activity Identify the independent and dependent variables in your research title with scholarly justification.
7.0LITERATURE REVIEW The term "literature" refers to the analysis of textbooks or manuscripts. Although many people rightly associate literature with novels and poetry, in research the term is more specific. In terms of a literature review, "the literature" means the works the researcherconsulted in order to understand and investigate the research problem. A literature review therefore is an account of what has been published ona topic by accredited scholars and researchers. It is a critical look at the existing research that is
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significant to the work that the researcher will be carrying cut. It involves examining documents such as books, magazines, journals and dissertations that have a bearing on the study being conducted. 7.1 .1 Importance of Literature Review in Research Resear Literature review is essential in research. This is due to the following: a) It sharpens and deepens the theoretical foundation of the research. Literature review enables the researcher to study different theories related to the identified topic. By studying study these theories, a researcher gains clarity and better understanding of the theoretical foundations related to the current research. b) It gives the researcher insight into what has already been done in the selected field, pinpointing its strengths and weaknesses. knesses. This information guides the researcher in the formulation of a theory that aims at addressing the identified gaps. c) It enables the researcherto know the kind of additional data needed in the study. This helps avoid duplication of work. d) An understanding of previous works helps the researcher to develop a significant problem which will provide further knowledge in the field of study e) Wide reading exposes the researcher to a variety of approaches of dealing with the research issue. This contributes to a well-designed designed methodology. The researcher can avoid methods indicated in the literature to have failed and adopt new approaches. This will result in a significant study. f) It helps in developing an analytic framework or a basis for analysing and interpreting data. 7.2 .2 Qualities of an Effective Literature review
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The following are qualities expected from an effective literature review. a) It is critical, organized and analytical in orientation - In an effective study the literature review is used to analyse issues such as: whether the hypotheses in the studies reviewed were logically formulated. The methodology used in the studies and the quality of interpretation of the findings are also analysed. Other issues addressed by the researcher while reviewing literature relate to the sampling procedures adopted and their appropriateness for the study. The interpretation of data particularly on whether it is based on logical deduction of findings is also examined. An investigation is also made on research findings and their statistical significance. The applicability of the research findings to a wide population is discussed. b) It justifies the need for the study- An effective literature review identifies the gaps in the studies quoted. By identifying these gaps and highlighting the identified controversies, it helps to indicate that further research needs to be carried out on the identified topic. It also points out how the current study will contribute positively towards filling the identified gaps. c) It highlights the relationship between the past and the current study – An effective literature review links the current study with past studies. It evaluates and shows the relationships between the work already done by other scholars and the researcher's work. This link brings consistency and continuity in relation to the identified topic. d) It puts the research problem into perspective. - By quoting and analysing various studies related to the selected topic, the literature review helps define the research problem. It also acts as a guideline in assessment of the research questions. 7.3 Guidelines in Formulating an Effective Literature Review 75
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The following techniques are ess essential ential in reviewing literature: a) Identify key issues to be addressed by the literature reviewBefore the researcher begin:; to search for articles and materials relevant to the research topic, he/she should identify the key issues that will guide the literature search. These key issues can be formulated by the researcher clearly identifying the research topic, title and the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. The objectives of the study should also be identified. The researcher should also be certain of the specific problem the literature review will help address. b) Formulate a preliminary statement of the problem. -The researcher should formulate a preliminary statement. This will assist the researcher to be focused in material selection. For example, what are thecauses and effects of abortion on the education of female ale students in secondaryschools and colleges? What has been done and can be done to assist thesestudents?
After the
preliminary statement,
the
researcher can now begin to identify sources of information relevant to the research topic. c) Identify sources of information-The The researcher needs to identify books, articles, professionalpapers and other relevant publications that relate to the research title and the research problem. There are a wide variety of sources available for locating articles for the review of literature. Many of these sources are available in the libraries. The Internet can also be used to locate articles. Some of the sources of information include journal articles. These are good especially for up to date information. They are frequently used ed in literature reviews because they offer a relatively concise, up-to-date date format for research, and because all reputable journals are peer reviewed and
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refereed (that is, editors publish only the most relevant and reliable research). Books offer a good starting point from which
to
find
more
detailed
sources.
Conference
proceedingsare useful in providing current research findings or research that has not been published. Information
can
government/corporate
also
be
reports.
gathered Many
from
government
departments and corporations or commissions carry out research. Their published findings can provide a useful source of information, depending on the researcher's field of study.Newspaperscan also offer useful information about recent trends, discoveries or changes, e.g. announcing changes in government policy. Theses and dissertations can be useful sources of information. d) Analyse critically the articles identified –After identifying the articles to be used, the researcher should critically analyse each book or article selected by reading the article’s abstract or summary. This will enable the researcher to deduce how applicable the article is to the current study. In the selection of articles, the most recent works on a subject area must be identified. This shows or demonstrates how the researcher is conversant with current trends in knowledge in the subject area. 7.4Challenges Faced in the Formulation of a Literature Review There are many challenges researchers encounter while writing the literature review. This includes the following: a) Failure to connect the reviewed studies with the current study– Some literature reviews are simply listings of one piece of literature after the other without any discussion and analysis. The researcher hardly relates the studies to his/her study. These make the studies unrelated to the current study.
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b) Poor presentation-Some Some researchers create too many paragraphs in their work by treating each article in a separate paragraph. This makes the work disjointed particularly if separatee paragraphs are addressing a similar point. The researcher should ensure that similar points are grouped together or combined. Some researchers start each article with the name of the researcher. This repetition can become tiresome for readers. This can bee varied by quoting the author after writing about the article. c) Large quantities of studies to review-Some review researchers attempt to read and review all the materials related to their topic. This is impossible. The idea of the literature review is not to provide ide a summary of all the published work that relates to one's research, but a survey of the most relevant and significant works. The researcher should therefore read abstracts of the selected articles, and select materials that are most relevant to his /her study. d) Lack of documentation- Some researchers read articles without writing until they have "finished" reading. This at times results in forgetting or omitting important points. A researcher should note down important points in the course of reading. e) Lack of referencing- Some researchers rarely note down the references in their work while reading. Researchers should always put references into their writing. f) Lack of critique- Some researchers blindly accepts research findings and interpretation without critically examining all aspects of the research design and analysis. The researcher should critically analyse the work, pointing out contrary findings and alternative interpretations. g) Failure to review current studies- Some researchers bases their reviews on works that were carried out over twenty
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years ago. Though these studies may have valid information and cannot be ignored, the researcher should attemptto base most of the review on current studies. The researcher should make attempts to analyse studies carried out less than five years ago in relation to his/her study. After reviewing 1iterature the researcher should discuss the identified gaps.
Reflection i.
In your own words what does literature review mean?
ii.
Discuss the importance of literature review.
iii.
State qualities of an effective literature review.
iv.
Check your literature review and compare it to the stated qualities.
v.
Explain the guidelines in formulating an effective literature review.
vi.
List challenges faced in formulating an effective literature review.
8.0RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Research Design A research design can be thought of as the structure of research. It is the "glue" that holds all of the elements in a research project together. A design is used to structure the research, to show how all of the major parts of the research project work together to try to address the central research questions. Orodho (2003) defines it as the scheme, outline or plan that is used to generate answers to research problems. 8.1 Types of Research Designs.
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It is important to understand the relationship among various designs. This will assist the researcher in makin making design choices and thinking about the strengths and weaknesses of different desig designs. The designs are as follows: a) DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists. The researcher reports the findings. Kerlinger (1969) points out that descriptive studies are not only restricted to fact findings, ndings, but may often result in the formulation of important principles of knowledge and solution to significant problems. They are more than just a collection
of
data.
They
involve
measurement,
classification, analysis, comparison and interpretation int of data. Descriptive survey is a method of collecting information by interviewing or administering a questionnaire to a sample of individuals (Orodho, 2003). It can ca be used when collecting information about people's attitudes, opinions, habits or any of the variety of education or social issues (Orodho and Kombo, 2002). For example, teachers in schools can carry out a survey to find out students' attitudes towards their heir teaching styles or discipline. When using this design the researcher should ensure the following:
Construct questions that will solicit the desired information.
Identify the individuals that will be surveyed.
Identify the means by which the survey will wil be conducted.
Summarize the data in a way that provides the designed descriptive information.
b) EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
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In this design, subjects are randomly assigned to an experimental group which receives the treatment or to a control group which does not receive treatment. Assuming the two groups were initially equivalent, the researcher can compare their performance. In this design cause and effect can be easily determined. If you decide to use this design, you must be certain of the independent and dependent variables and must guard against the influence of extraneous variables.
c) CORRELATION DESIGN This design enables the researcher to assess the degree of relationshipthat exists between two or more variables. H analyses the correlationbetween two or more variables (Orodho, 2003). For example, if you compare the examination performance of a group of university students who prepare their own meals every day and those who eat at the cafeteria, you will use a correlation design. Suppose the academic performance of students who prepare their own meals is lower than those who eat at the cafeteria, then you may deduce that preparation of meals by students has an impact on their academic performance.
d) CASE STUDY DESIGN A case study seeks to describe a unit in detail, in context and holistically. It is a way of organizing educational data and looking at theobject to be studied as a whole. In a case study, a great deal can belearned from a few examples of the phenomena under study. For example,the impact of pay-as-you-eat on education: A case study of Kenyatta University. A study of Kenyatta University can allow an in-depth investigation of the problem at hand. You should use case study design if you intend to analyse an issue in detail.
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e) CROSS CULTURAL RESEARCH DESIGN ESIGN This is used to compare the behaviour patterns of different cultures. Using this design you can perceive how various -cultures perceive certain educational and social outcomes. For example, you can compare the performance of students in English in ru rural and urban schools and find out to what extent cultural variations influence performance. Steps to Follow in Selecting a Research Design Below are some of the steps a researcher should follow while selecting a research design: a) Identify the kind of research you intend to carry out. Being aware of the purpose and objectives of your study and your theoretical foundations will considerably influence how you design your research: where you go, for how long, with whom you talk, and the kind of questions you y ask. Deciding if you intend to test or elaborate existing theory or are trying to build a new, grand theory, or are using existing theory in a new way, has implications in the kind of information you need to collect. b) Use the library to analyse samples off research designs from books and periodicals. The Internet is another option. c) Discuss with colleagues on the validity and reliability of your research and make a decision on what design will assist in answering your research questions appropriately. Quali Qualities of anEffective Research Design
They are systematic and logical. They effectively address the questions raised in the study. Based on this design the researcher can construct questions that will solicit the desired information.
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They contribute to accurate ate and fair interpretation of results.
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They clarify to the researcher the respondents and the means by which the study will be conducted.
They contribute to deeper insights and better understanding of the research topic.
Guidelines in Selecting a Research Design The following are essential points that researchers should adhereto while selecting a research design: a) Identify the research questions to be addressed by the study: The researcher should identify and reflect on the research questions raised in the study. Reflection should include brainstorming on issues such as:
Do the questions raised in the study require collecting information by interviewing or questionnaires? If the response is positive then the researcher will use a survey design.
Do the questions raised in the study require systematic manipulation of independent and dependent variables? If the answer is yes, then the researcher will use an experimental design.
Does the study require the researcher to assess the degree of relationship between two or more variables? If the answer is positive then a correlation design will be used.
Does the study seek to describe a unit in detail? If so then a case study design will be used.
Does the study seek to compare the behaviour patterns of different cultures? If the answer is positive then a crosscultural research design will be applicable.
b) After identifying the research design to be used, read materials related to that design to understand its advantages and disadvantages.
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Indicate the research design ign pointing out its validity and reliability to the current research. Pitfalls in Selection of Research Designs. While selecting a research design, a researcher should be on the lookout for the following pitfalls and avoid them: a) Choosing a design that cannot assist in meeting the research objectives. b) Choosing a design that is too complex for research at the level at which the student is studying. c) Choosing a design that requires extensive study and a lot of time while the time assigned to the resea research rch is limited. d) Lack of clarity about the design. e) A research design that lacks flexibility. From the above, it is clear that in selecting a research design the researcher should ensure that it links concepts and questions with the study and it is spe specific cific and flexible and expansive enough to adapt to various complexities.
Reflection i.
Discuss your own understanding of a research design.
ii.
Discuss types of research design and state situations in which they can be used.
iii.
Explain steps and guidelines to follow low in selecting a research design.
iv.
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List qualities of an effective research design.
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8.2 Sampling Techniques. Sampling is the procedure a researcher uses to gather people, places or things to study. It is a process of selecting a number of individuals orobjects from a population such that the selected group contains elementsrepresentative of the characteristics found in the entire group(Orodho and Kombo, 2002). When dealing with people, it can be defined as a set of respondents (people) selected from a larger population for the purpose of a survey. Research conclusions and generalizations are only as good as the sample they are based on. Samples are always subsets or small parts of the total number that could be studied. Sampling is the act, process or technique of selecting a suitable sample. The way in which a researcher selects subjects for a study will determine how one is able to generalize the results of the study. Sampling Design The term "sampling design" refers to that part of the research plan that indicates how cases are to be selected for observation. Sampling designs are divided into two broad areas: • Probability designs. • Non-probability designs. 8.3PROBABILITY SAMPLING The key component behind all probability sampling approaches is randomization, or random selection. In probability sampling people, places or things are randomly selected. Each unit in the population has an equal chance of being selected. This sampling gives every member of the population equal chances of being included in the study. Probability sampling enables the researcher to generalize to the larger population and make inferences. If the purpose of your research is to draw conclusions or make predictions affecting the population as a whole, then probability
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sampling is appropriate. Various methods have been established accomplish probability sampling. Thes Thesee include the following:
a) Simple random sampling This method referred to as simple random sampling as no complexities are involved. All you need is a relatively small, clearly defined population to use this method. For example in a town of 10,000 residents, the researcher may simply obtain a list of all residents, and then using a sequence of numbers fr from a random numbers table (or draws of a hat, flips of a coin), selects say 10% or 20%, or some portion of names on that list, making sure that he/ she is not drawing from any letter of the alphabet more heavily than others. Advantages of simple random sam sampling pling are that the samples yield research data that can be generalized to a larger population. Disadvantages However this method also has disadvantages. This includes the following:
It is not the most statistically efficient method of sampling. The researcher her may, just because of luck of draw, not get good representation of subgroups in a population.
Bias in selection is common.
Some samples may be over or under represented.
Non response error is high'. Some of the members selected may have moved to other areas.
b) Stratified random sampling
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Stratified random sampling involves dividing your population into homogeneous subgroups and then taking a simple random sample in each subgroup. The sample is selected in such a way as to ensure that certain subgroups in the population are represented in the sample in proportion to their number in the population. This method is appropriate when the researcher is interested in issues related to gender, race or disparities in the population. The advantages of this method are that you will be able to represent not only the overall population, but also key subgroups of the population, especially small minority groups. Stratified random sampling will generally have more statistical precision than simple random sampling. Disadvantages If not carefully stratified, bias can occur resulting in some groups of the population being unrepresented.
c) Systematic random sampling Suppose a researcher had a large list of people, places or things to select from, such as 100,000 people or more. The appropriate method to use is to select-every 10th, 20th, or 30th person from such a list. This decision to use every l0th, 20th, or 30th person is called the sampling interval, and as it is done systematically and the entire list is used, the researcher is said to be systematically random sampling. Advantages
Large populations can be analysed.
Every member of the populations has an equal chance of inclusion.
Bias is minimized.
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Disadvantages
The response may be low since the respondents' availability is unpredictable.
The selection of the first sample member may result in a bias in the entire sample.
The list used may not be in a systematic order.
d) Cluster random sampling In the event that a population is dispersed across a wide geographic region, one may have to use cluster random sampling. This method allows for the division of the study population into clusters (usually counties, regions, provinces or other boundaries) and random sampling of everyone in those clusters. The units within the sampl sampled clusters should be measured. Some forms of random selection include picking a name out of a hat. These days, you can use a computer and generate random numbers as the basis for random selection. Random sampling is still regarded as one of the best statistic statistical methods ethods as it is free from bias. Disadvantages
There is a risk of missing on important sub-groups. sub
Lack of complete representation of the target population.
8.4 .4 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING This method is mainly applied to find out how a small group, or a representative group, is doing for purposes of illustration or explanation. Various methods have also been established to accompl accomplish non-probabilistic sampling.
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a) Quota sampling This sampling technique begins by dividing the population into relevant strata such as age, gender or geographical region. The total sample is allocated among the strata in direct proportion to their estimated or actual size in the population. Once the researcher identifies the people to be studied, they have to resort to haphazard or accidental sampling because no effort is usually made to contact people who are difficult to reach in the quota. The problem with this method is that bias intrudes on the sampling frame. This is because researchers allowed to self-select respondents are subject to bias such as interviewing their friends in excessive proportions or concentrating in areas where there are large numbers of potential respondents.
b) Convenience sampling This method is based on using people who are a ca19tive audience, people
the
researcher meets
haphazard1y
or
accidentally
Respondents are people who just happen to be walking by, or show a special interest in your research. The use of volunteers is an example of convenience sampling.
c) Purposive sampling. In this sample method, the researcher purposely targets a group of people believed to be reliable for the study. For example, to study the effects of abortion on learning, the researcher may make efforts to contact students who previously had terminated their pregnancies. The researcher never knows if the sample is representative of the population. The power of purposive sampling lies in selecting information rich cases for in-depth analysis related to the central issues being studied.
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Purposive sampling can be used with bo both th quantitative and qualitative studies. Purposive sampling can be carried out in addition to probabil probability sampling.
8.5 .5 Bias and Error in Sampling There are various challenges faced by researchers during sampling. Some of these challenges include the foll following: owing: Sampling error error- Sampling error comprises of the differences between the sample and the population that are due solely to the particular units that happen 'to have been selected. There are two basic causes for sampling error; chance and sampling bias. a) Chance Chance-This This is the error that occurs due to bad luck. This may result in untypical choices. Unusual units in a population do exist and there is always a possibility that an abnormally large number of them will be chosen. The main protection agains against this kind of error is to use a large enough sample. b) Sampling bias- Sampling bias is a tendency to favour the selection of units that have particular characteristics. Sampling bias is usually the result of a poor sampling plan. The most notable is the bias of non-response response when for some reason some units have no chance of appearing in the sample. A mail questionnaire is sent to 100 randomly selected graduate students. Only 52 students respond. The results show that students are not under stress, yet the actual case is that stress levels may be high except among those who are answering the questionnaire.
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Reflection i.
Explain what sampling techniques and sampling designs mean.
ii.
Mention the various methods used in probability sampling, and state the advantages and disadvantages of these methods.
iii.
Discuss the various methods used in non- probability sampling.
iv.
Discuss biasness and error in sampling.
8.6 Respondents In research, the term "respondents" refers to those who will reply to, or respond to the research instruments. The selection of respondents is crucial to the overall usefulness of the information produced. This is because respondents help in the clarification of issues under the study. This contributes to the achievement of set objectives. The selection of respondents will largely depend on the information needed and the data techniques to be used. The researcher should ensure that informants, particularly key informants, possess special knowledge related to the study area. Qualities of Effective Respondent Selection The following should be adhered to by researchers in the selection of respondents: • Respondents should be individuals who possess some knowledge about the topic being studied. • They should be willing to share the information they have in relation to the topic with the researcher. • They should be active participants in the culture or organization under study.
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• They must be willing to give their time to the study. • A large sample of respondents is better than a small one. In general, the larger the sample, the more representative it is likely to be, and the more generalizable the results of the study are likely to be. Challenges Faced in Respondent Selection The selection of reliable informants has various challenges. These include clude the following:
Unwillingness of respondents to share all they know on the issue with the researcher.
Language barrier: the interview or questionnaire may have been written in Kiswahili yet the .respondent can effectively express him/ herself in English sh or, say, Dholuo.
Hostility towards the researcher: some respondents may personalize
the
questions
asked
particularly
during
interviews and become hostile towards the researcher.
Time limitations.
In general, selection of respondents will depend on the nature of the analysis to be performed, the desired precision of the estimates one wishes to achieve, the kind and number of comparisons that will.
8.7 .7 Research Instruments Research instruments include the following: questionnaires, interview schedule schedules, observation and focus group discussions. In formulating research instruments the researcher should ensure the following: a) The objectives of the study are clear. This will assist the researcher to anticipate the type of information needed.
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b) The population sample. The researcher should be aware that some types of instruments are unsuitable to some groups of people due to factors such as the literacy level, profession and culture. A researcher should determine the literacy level of the study population in advance. For the illiterate, interview and focus group discussions should be used. The type of language that will be used (either English or Bemba)will depend on the literacy level of respondents. c) Geographical distribution. The span of the study dictates the type of instrument to be used. A countrywide study may require the use of postal questionnaires and telephone interviews. d) A researcher should be careful about the questions he/she asks. According to Orodho and Kombo (2002), a researcher should do the following:
Begin with a few interesting but non-threatening questions
Avoid vague questions, for instance, "What do you like?"
Keep the language simple.
Limit each question to a single idea. Ensure each item included has a specific purpose.
Only include questions that are directly relevant to the study.
Have a logical sequence.
Do not put the key questions at the end of the questionnaire. It is best to have them in the middle.
Avoid emotionally charged words.
Avoid leading questions, for example, "Do you think students riot because they are unfairly treated?"
Avoid acronyms and abbreviations.
Consider the order of questions related to each topic.
A researcher should vary closed and open ended questions. Closed questions give the respondent a set of choice or
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options. Open-ended ended questions are free response type questions. They allow the respondent to answer in their own words. e) Check the consistency of answers. It may be beneficial to ask the same question again using different wording. This ensures validity.
1) Questionnaires This is a research instrument that gathers data over a large sample. Questionnaires have various advantages including the following:
Information can be collected from a large sample and diverse regions.
Confidentiality is upheld.
Saves on time.
Since they are presented in paper format there is no opportunity for interviewer bias.
However they have their disadvantages in that:
Response rates can be quite low.
There is no direct contact so the researcher cannot deal with any misunderstanding.
There is no opportunity to ask for further information related to answers given.
No clear reason can be given for incomplete responses.
To ensure the effectiveness of questionnaires a pre-test pre should be carried out. Pilot the questionnaire with a small representative sample. This will enable the researcher to find out if: ·
The questions are measuring what they are supposed to measure.
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The wording is clear.
CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
If all questions are interpreted in the same way by respondents.
What response is provoked?
If there is any research bias.
Steps in Formulating a Questionnaire The following are essential in the formulation of a questionnaire: a) Reflector-Before formulating a questionnaire it is important for the researcher to reflect on the aim and objective of the study. The researcher should reflect on the type of response expected. b) Formulation of questions-The researcher should write down questions related to each stated objective. While constructing the questions the researcher should begin with a few interesting but non-threatening questions. The researcher should only include questions that are relevant to his/her study. The researcher should keep the key questions in the middle. c) Pilot-After
constructing
the
questionnaire,
the
researcher should try it out on a small sample of the population. While piloting the researcher should address the following questions:
Are the questions measuring what they are supposed to measure the researcher should analyse each answer and see if it is supplying the appropriate information.
Is the wording clear? The researcher should analyse the responses to find out if there was any confusion in the way questions were interpreted by all the respondents.
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Do the questions provoke a response? If some questions have been omitted, the researcher re should find out why.
Is there researcher bias? The researcher will analyse whether the questions asked were skewed towards certain issues more than others.
d) Evaluation- After piloting and making the necessary amendments, the researcher should carry out an evaluation of the revised questions. This includes finding out if the questions are clear and specific, where the key questions are placed and if the balance of questions is correct. Qualities of an Effective Questionnaire An effective questionnaire has the following qualities:
It is simple to understand. The language used is clear and straight forward. This helps reduce misinterpretation.
Instructions are clearly given. There are a few words of explanation in each new section.
The questions ions are focused and are limited to a single idea. Sentences are short and precise.
Each item included has a specific purpose, and contributes to the study.
There are no leading questions.
There is a balance of questions per topic. Advantages
Can cover a wide area.
No bias on the side of the researcher and the respondents. Disadvantages Questionnaires have the following disadvantages: disadvantages
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The response rate can be quite low. Since the researcher is not in direct contact with the respondents they may not feel the obligation to complete the questionnaire as soon as possible. This postponement in completion can result in the questionnaire not being answered at all.
There are no direct contacts between the researcher and respondent. The researcher cannot therefore deal with or clarify any misunderstanding.
There is no opportunity for the researcher to ask for further information, or probe deeper into answers given by the respondent.
In case some questions are not answered, the researcher cannot get an explanation from the respondent as to why some questions are incomplete.
The researcher is not able to predict if respondents have answered all the questions until after the collection of the instrument.
The researcher has no control over the order in which questions are answered. Yet in research, the way questions are answered can pre-determine their validity.
INTERVIEWS
These are questions asked orally. There are various forms of interviews as follows: Unstructured interviews In this approach to interviewing, the researcher has some idea in mind of the topics to be covered and may use some sort of topic list as a reminder. There is minimal control over the order in which topics are covered and over respondents' answers. In unstructured interviewing, neither the specific questions to be asked nor the range or type of possible answers are pre-defined. They are informal and conversational.
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The aim is to get the informants to open up, and the researcher should stimulate an informant to produce more information. This approach aallows llows the interviewer to be responsive to individual differences and situational characteristics. This approach builds on observation. It is useful in studying sensitive topics such as sexuality or political topics. To effectively achieve the aims of an open en-ended ended interview, one must ask a whole series of secondary questions such as:
What do I want to get out of these interviews?
With whom am I going to conduct these interviews?
How do I know they will talk to me?
How many interviews must I do?
As much as ppossible, ossible, test your methods in advance. Because there is no set format for conducting these interviews, each interview is unique. This makes it difficult ttoo systematize and analyse data. Advantages Unstructured interviews have the following advantages:
They are flexible. This is because there are no pre-defined pre questions. This allows the respondents to freely respond to an issue. The researcher can therefore gather a lot of information.
The respondent feels part of the team since no rigidity is displayed. He// she can therefore freely participate in the research.
Since it is a free response in a relaxed atmosphere situation, the answer given are more reliable.
It allows the interviewer to be responsive to individual differences and situational characteristics.
This instrument is useful for studying sensitive topics such as sexuality and abortion.
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Disadvantages Unstructured interviews have the following disadvantages: • They are time consuming since a respondent can dwell on one issue. • They are not systematic as a respondent can comment on issues in a haphazard way. A respondent can comment on issues already discussed. • If the researcher is not careful, it can get out of control, with the respondent getting too emotional or personal. • Irrelevancies can be displayed by the respondent. • Since there is no set format for conducting these interviews, it is difficult to systematize and analyse data. Semi-structured interviews These interviews are based on the use of an interview guide. This is a written list of questions or topics that need to be covered by the interview. There are several types of semi-structured interviews. a) Focused interviews -This intensively investigates a particular topic. They aim at gaining a complete and detailed understanding of the topic. b) Case studies-The purpose of case studies is to collect comprehensive, systematic and in-depth information about particular cases of interest. Advantages Semi-structured interviews have the following advantages: • They are flexible. This is because they consist of both open and closed-ended questions. • In-depth information is gathered by closed ended questions.
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• By using both the open and closed closed-ended ended approach, the researcher gets a complete and detailed understanding of the issue under research. Disadvantages advantages Semi Semi-structured structured interviews have the following disadvantages: • They can be time consuming due to the open open-ended ended questions. • Analysis of data may be problematic. • The respondent may be cautious of the answers given in close ended questions. Structured interviews These involve subjecting every informant in a sample to the same stimuli, for instance, asking each informant similar questions, as in the case of a survey. Advantages Structured interviews have the following advantages: • The reliabi reliability lity of the information gathered is high. This is because each informant is subjected to similar questions with the others. • It gives in in-depth depth information about particular cases of interest to the researcher. This is because the researcher seeks informati information on specific issues. • It is systematic. Researchers intensively investigate a particular issue before moving to the next. • It is time time-saving saving since the respondents simply answer what has been asked by the researcher. • The researcher gets a complete and detailed understanding of the issue from the respondent. • It is comprehensive and systematic since questions are formulated before the interview.
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• The data collected is quantifiable. Disadvantages Structured interviews portray the following disadvantages: • The rigidity displayed by the researcher can affect the responses given. The respondent may feel as if he/ she is under investigation and is being probed. This may affect the response. Some of the respondents may become hostile. • It is too formal. Since the researcher does the questioning and the respondent simply answers, the respondent may be too cautious in the answer given. The respondent may give answers he/she thinks are acceptable or will impress the researcher. • The researcher may miss out on some important points that are not included in the questions formulated. 3) Focus Group Discussions This is a special type of group in terms of its purpose, size, composition and procedures. A focus group is usually composed of 6-8 individuals, who share certain characteristics, which are relevant for the study. The discussion is carefully planned and designed to obtain information on the participants' beliefs and perceptions on a defined area of interest. Special predetermined criteria are used in selecting focus group participants. This includes the following: a) The topics to be discussed are decided beforehand. b) There is a predetermined list of open ended questions. c) Focus relies on discussion among participants about the topics presented. This method requires thorough .planning and training of group moderators. Focus groups should usually be composed of homogeneous members of the target population, for instance,
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similar in age, education level, gender, profession. Focus group discussions can produce a lot of information quickly and are good for identifying and exploring beliefs, ideas or opinions in a community. However, the researcher has less control over the flow of the discussion and results are hard to analyse. analyse Focus group discussions are used tto o assess needs, develop intervention, test new ideas or programmes or improve existing programmes. 4) Observation This is a tool that provides information about actual behaviour. Direct observation is useful because some behaviour involves habitual routine routiness of which people are hardly aware. Direct observation allows the researcher to put behaviour in context and thereby understand it better. Observation can be made of actual behaviour patterns. Forms of obs observation ervation include the following: a) Participant obse observation The investigator becomes an active functioning member of the culture under study. An investigator participates in any activity appropriate to the status which is assumed. However, it can be time consuming. b) Unstructured observation The observer takes the position of an onlooker. C)Structured Structured observation The observer is an onlooker. The focus is on a small number of specific behaviour patterns, and only those appearing on a pre predefined observation list are recorded. This requires the researcher to be clear on the behaviour being observed.
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Group Activity i.
List four research instruments and explain guidelines in formulating them.
ii.
State the advantages and disadvantages of the above mentioned research instruments.
9.0
DATA
COLLECTION,
ANALYSIS
AND
PRESENTATION 9.1 DATA COLLECTION Meaning of Data Collection Data is meaningless information, which is made meaningful through analysis. In research, the term “data collection” refers to gathering specific information aimed at proving or refuting some facts. In data collection the researcher must have a clear understanding of what they hope to obtain and how they hope to obtain it. In data collection, the researcher must have a clear vision of the instruments to be used, the respondents and the selected area. Data collection is important in research as it allows for dissemination of accurate information and development of meaningful programmes. Purpose of Collecting Data In research, data is collected for various purposes. This includes the following: a) To stimulate new ideas. This is because data collection helps in identifying areas related to the research topic that need improvement or further evaluation. b) To highlight ~ situation and therefore create awareness and improvement. c) To influence legislative policies and regulations.
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d) To provide justification for an existing programme or illustrate a need for a new programme. e) It is the only reliable way to evaluate the responsiveness and effectiveness of the study. f) It promotes decision decision-making and resource ource allocation that are based on solid evidence rather than on isolated occurrences, assumption, emotion, politics, and so on. Sources of Data There are two major sources of data used by researchers. These are the primary and secondary sources. Primary ssources: Primary data is information gathered directly from respondents. This is through questionnaires, interviews, focused group discussions, observation and experimental studies. It involves creating "new" data. Data is collected from existing sources. IInn an experimental study, the variable of interest is identified. Secondary sources sources: Secondary information sources are data neither collected directly by the user nor specifically for the user. It involves gathering data that already has been collected by someone else. This involves the collection and analysis of published material, and iinformation nformation from internal sources. Secondary data collection may be conducted by collecting information from a diverse source of documents or electronically stored information. This is often referred to as desk research. Advantages The main advantages of us using ing secondary data are as follows: a) It is usually available more cheaply. The collection of secondary data is generally significantly quicker and easier (and hence less costly) than collecting the same data "from scratch."
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b) Existing data are likely to be available in a more convenient form; using secondary data can give the researcher access to otherwise unavailable organizations, individuals or locations. c) Secondary data allows the researcher to extend the "time base" of their study by providing data about the earlier state of the system being studied. d) The fact that secondary data are likely to be pre-processed eliminates the time-consuming (and hence costly) analysis stage. Disadvantages The main disadvantages of using secondary data are as follows: a) The method by which secondary data was collected is often unknown to the user of the data (apart from major sources like the Census). This means that the researcher is forced to rely on the skills and propriety of the collectors- usually, but not always, a safe proposition. b) With secondary data the researcher may have little or no direct knowledge of the processing methods employed, and the researcher may rarely have access to the original raw data to check the validity of the findings. c) The researcher is forced to rely on the skills and integrity of the people who collected and analysed the data. Steps in Data Collection The following are essential steps that a researcher should use in data collection: a) Define the sample: Before gathering data, the researcher should define the target population. This involves identifying the respondents and their accessibility. b) Reflect on the research design: The researcher should be clear of the research design to be used. This is whether it is a survey, a case
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study or an experiment. This is critical as it enables the researcher to be sure of the format in which data will be collected. The objective of the study and the type of questions raised determines the research design. c) Ensure research instrume instruments are ready: the key data collection instruments to be used in the study for example questionnaires, interviews, observations, focus group discussions and experimental treatments should be in order. This includes finding out if they are ready and availab available. d) Define the data to be collected collected:: The researcher should make sure that he/ she and the assistant researchers are clear on the information that is being sought. Researchers should be clear of the sample, for instance, the male/female ratio. e) Request permission to collect data from the relevant authorities: Before collecting any information, the researcher should ensure he/she has been granted permission to carry out the study. The researcher should also send an advance letter to the sample respondent respondents, s, explaining the purpose of the study. After reflecting on all these components, the researcher should carry out a pre pre-test. f) Pre Pre-testing: Before collecting data, the researcher should pre-test pre the research instruments. A pre pre-test test is a pilot study. The researcher should pilot the questionnaire with a small representative sample. The importance of pre pre-testing testing before data collection includes the following:
It enables the researcher to find out if the selected questions are measuring what they are supposed to measure.
It enables the researcher to find out if the wording is clear and all questions will be interpreted in the same way by respondents.
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It helps the researcher to detect what response is provoked and find out if there is any research bias.
It enables the researcher to monitor the context in which the data will be collected and the topic areas addressed. The researcher should not use the pre-test sample in the actual study.
9.2 Collection of Data The procedure used to collect data will be influenced by the research instruments used. For example if questionnaires or interviews are used, the researcher should carry out the following: Use of Questionnaires In questionnaires respondents fill in answers in written form and the researcher collects the forms with the completed information. There are various methods used to collect the questionnaires, such as the following:
The instruments are distributed to the respondents by the researcher and research assistants. Respondents are given time to complete answering questionnaires. All the questionnaires are gathered after the given response time is over.
Questionnaires may be distributed to respondents by the researcher and research assistants. They are later collected on an agreed upon date.
Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents. After they have answered them, they are mailed back. If questionnaires are administered, respondents should be given sufficient time to complete the questionnaire. The questionnaires should then be collected by the researcher or research assistants or mailed to the researcher.
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Use of Interviews Collecting data using the interview method requires the researcher to identify respondents and request them to answer certain questions. The researcher and research assistants note down the answers given. In some interviews the response is recorded. Some interviews are carried out through the telephone and the information received is recorded by the researcher. The main requirement for good interviewers during data collection is the ability to approach identified respondents in person or by telephone and persuade them to participate in the study. Once a respondent's cooperation is acquired, the interviewers must maintain it, while collecting the needed data. This data must be obtained in exac exact accordance with instructions. Focus Group Discussions In focus group discussions, the researcher should have specific topics to be discussed. A focus group discussion consists of six to eight people seated in a group discussing various topics. A recordin recordingg list should be made of the discussion. A tape recorder should also be used to keep the records. Observation: In observations, the researcher should have a checklist to provide information about actual behaviour to be observed. The researcher should note down the observation. In experiments, the observer should also note down what has been observed. In experimental studies, where the researcher wants to obtain information under controlled conditions, subjects may be randomly assigned to various tests and eexperiences xperiences then assessed via observation or standardized scales. Each data collection method has its strengths and weaknesses. When designing a research study it is important for the researcher to decide what outcome (data) the study will produce then sele select the best methodology to produce that desired information.
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9.3Importance of Data Analysis Importance of data analysis includes the following:
Findings/results are clearly shown.
Areas/gaps for further research are pointed out.
Researchers can be able to know the results without wasting time on primary and secondary data.
One can be able to know the statistical methods used for analysing data.
Transforms meaningless data into meaningful information.
9.4 ETHICAL ISSUES IN DATA COLLECTION Researchers whose subjects are people or animals must consider the conduct of their research, and give attention to the ethical issues associated with carrying out their research. Sometimes a research project may involve changing the subjects' behaviours or in some cases, 1 causing the subjects pain or distress for example in experiments where I the researcher analyses blood samples. Most research organizations have complex rules on human and animal experimentation. Some of the rules applicable to data collection are as follows: a) The researcher must justify the research via an analysis of the balance of costs. The researcher's interest alone is not sufficient justification to carry out research and collect data. In order to carry out a survey or experiment, there has to be benefits from the study that outweigh the costs. Researchers are expected to justify beyond any reasonable doubt, the need for data collection. b) The researcher must maintain confidentiality at all times. Only certain people conducting the survey I experiment should know the
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identity of the participants. Any subject should generally not know the identity of other subjects. c) Researchers are responsible for their own work and for their contribution to the whole study. Researchers must accept individual resp responsibility onsibility for the conduct of the research and, as far as foreseeable, the consequences of that research. d) The researcher must obtain informed consent from any subjects used in the study and must ensure that all subjects participate voluntarily. e)) The researcher must be open and honest in dealing with other researchers and research subjects subjects.. The researcher must not exploit subjects by changing agreements made with them. For example, a researcher might discover that his/her survey I experiment show somet something hing that he/she would like to further investigate. If the researcher carries out the investigation secretly but pretends to be still carrying out the previous study that had been agreed to in the first place, this is a form of exploitation, and would brea breach the principles of informed consent and voluntary participation. f) The researcher must take all reasonable measures to protect subjects
physically
and
psychologically.
Even
voluntary
participants can "get carried away" to the 'point where they have to bee protected from themselves and each other. The researcher must be prepared to intervene, even at the cost of the study I experiment itself, to protect the subjects. g) The researcher must fully explain the research in advance and "debrief” subjects afterw afterwards. Whilst full explanations before the survey I experiment are essential to gaining informed consent, it is, unfortunately, a common practice for researchers to complete their research without telling the participants anything about the results. Challen Challenges ges Faced by Researchers in Data Collection
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a) The researcher failing to carry out a pilot study: Failure to pilot the study may contribute to haphazard work in the field. This is mainly because a pre-test helps to identify some of the shortcomings likely to be experienced during the actual study. b) Lack of sufficient follow up on non-respondents: A researcher's failure to follow up non respondents can ruin an otherwise welldesigned study. A low response rate does more damage in rendering a survey's results questionable than a small sample. To deal with this possibility, the researcher may have to return to sample households where no one was home (perhaps at a different time or on a weekend) or attempt to persuade persons who are inclined to refuse to participate. c) Inadequate quality controls: In some field work the researcher allocates all work to research assistants with minimum supervision. This can result in guessing the results. The researcher should during field work, re-examine the sample selection, carry out some of the interviews, assessing the editing and coding of the responses. Without proper checking, errors may go undetected. d) Poor targeting: Errors in defining and selecting the sample during data collection will bias the results by making the sample less representative of the target population. e) Poor implementation: In data collection some errors are caused by the way data collection is implemented. Some of the errors include the following:
Question error - the question is wrongly worded or misleading.
Interviewer error - the interviewer makes an error whilst asking the question.
Recording error - the interviewer records incorrectly the answer given by the respondent. ·
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Coding error - the responses are wrongly coded.
Group activity i.
What does the term ‘data’ mean?
ii.
Explain the purpose of data collection.
iii.
What are the sources of data?
iv.
Discuss steps in data collection.
v.
Explain the importance of data analysis.
vi.
Discuss ethical issues in data collection.
vii.
List challenges faced by researchers in data collection.
10.0DATA DATA
ORGANIZATION,
ANALYSIS
AND
PRESENTATION Introduction The term "data organization" in research refers to orderliness in research data. This is putting the data into some systematic form. The "raw" data collected, particularly in ssurveys, urveys, needs to be processed before it can be subjected to any useful analysis. This organization includes identifying (and correcting) errors in the data, coding the data, and storing it in appropriate form. On the other hand, analysis refers to examinin examining g the coded data critically and making inferences. The presentation of data refers to ways of arranging data to make it clearly understood. This sub sub-unit unit discusses the organization, analysis and presentation of data. 10.11 Data Organization
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Collected data is known to be "raw" information and not knowledge by itself. It therefore has to be well organized in various stages. Data as alluded to earlier on is meaningless information. The organization from raw data to knowledge is as follows: • From raw data to information: Data becomes information when it becomes relevant to the problem identified by the researcher. • From information to facts: Information becomes facts, when the data can support it. Facts are what the data reveals. • From facts to knowledge: Facts therefore lead to new information, new experiences and views. • Knowledge is expressed together with some statistical degree of confidence. Before analysing the collected data, the researcher has to ensure the data is well organized. The procedure in data organization involves the following: a) Pre-processing After collecting data the researcher has to ensure it is processed in some manner before carrying out the analysis. The primary purpose of pre-processing is to correct problems that are identified in the raw data. This might include differences between the results obtained by multiple interviewers. The pre-processing stages are as follows: • The elimination of unusable data: The researcher may find two or more questions that really provide the same data. The researcher must therefore decide which one of the questions is worth coding and storing, and which one should be discarded. • Interpretation of ambiguous answers: The more subtle problems in data analysis are associated with the researcher trying to interpret ambiguous answers. It could be argued that any complex study is likely to produce at least some answers of this type. The researcher needs to develop a strategy for dealing with them.
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• Contradictory data from related questions: The researcher may also receive contradictory data from related questions. The researcher may have to verify and reject wrong responses. Many of these problems, if not detec detected ted and corrected at the organization stage, will reflect adversely on the study findings.
b) The Development of a Coding Scheme After correcting any errors that may influence data analysis, the researcher should formulate a coding scheme. The core function of the coding process is to create codes and scales from the responses, which can then be summarized and analysed in various ways. wa A coding scheme is an unambiguous set of prescriptions of how all possible answers are to be treated, and what (if any) numerical codes are to be assigned to particular responses. In the coding scheme the researcher assigns codes to each likely answer, and specifies how other responses are to be handled. For example, the researcher might allocate 1 to yes, 2 to no and 0 to do not know. There are various challenges faced by researchers in the development of a coding scheme. The major challenge associate associated with coding is the treatment of missing data. It is difficult for the researcher to decide on what action should be taken when the coding cannot be applied, such as when a question is unanswered. There are several possible approaches that a researcher ca can apply to address these challenges. These include: • Cross Cross-reference reference the missing answer with the answers to related questions • Interpolate from other answers to create a "pattern" for the respondent, and look to see how other respondents of the same "typ "type" answered this question.
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• Give missing data its own code, such as "Did not answer"; this is the most common (and safest) approach. • Exclude the respondent from the analysis (if the respondent failed to answer a number of questions, or the responses appear unreliable). • Exclude the question from the analysis (if a significant number of respondents failed to answer it). c) Deciding on Data Storage After coding the data, the researcher will have to make a decision about the short and long-term storage of the information generated. The short time storage is necessary before data analysis. The system in which the researcher stores the data will determine (at least in the early stages) what forms of analysis the researcher will carry out and how easy it will be to transfer the data into systems which will do more complicated forms of analysis. There are two major storage forms, the electronic form and non-electronic (paper) form. Paper storage: This is where the coded data is written on paper before the analysis. Paper storage has the following advantages: • It has a low cost.It allows for speedy retrieval.It is easy to distribute.• It is comprehensible. However, its disadvantages include the following: • It is not extensible.• It is fragile.• It is bulky. Electronic storage: The advantages of electronic storage include the following: • It is extensible.It is easy to distribute.• It is easy to interchange options.• It has low volume. The disadvantages of electronic storage are:
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• It has limited access. access.• Equipmentt costs are high.• high. It is fragile.
Today, selecting electronic storage is an increasingly significant decision for a researcher. In electronic storage, the researcher can transfer the data (or information derived from it) into another system.
d)) Choosing a Statistical Software Package After deci deciding on how data will ll be stored, the researcher has to reflect on the statistical software package that will be relevant in data analysis. When choosing a statistical software package, there are several things a res researcher earcher has to consider. These include the following: • Characteristics of the data to be used; for example, is it descriptive or does it analyse relationships? • Analyses that will be performed. • Technical and financial constraints. There are various typ types es of statistical software packages that a researcher can select from. The software the researcher selects depends on the overall plan that the researcher has for analysing and presenting the data. The following are some of the computer software:
WORD PROCESSOR The researcher may decide to enter the data in text form straight into a word processor, include Microsoft Word and Excel. Advantages
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• The obvious advantage of using a word processor is that the researcher does not waste time on unnecessary processing. This is because data in text form is entered directly in the processor. • If the researcher is creating a report from this data to explain and present it then he/she can directly use the data. • The researcher might choose to take the data (from survey or experiment recordings) and put them directly into a word processor.
SPREADSHEET This is one of the most versatile analysis and storage combination tools. Many of the formulae that spread sheets have built-in are applicable to the data summarization process. Advantages • Spread sheets allow a large range of conventional summary statistics. • Some also incorporate elements of Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA). • It is possible with some spread sheets to form cross-tabulations. • Most spread sheets offer graphical presentation of the results of an analysis. • Spread sheets are also able to interchange data with other systems. By using spread sheets, a researcher can take information straight from a spread sheet and place it into a word processor. Relevant information from the spread sheet can be copied directly across to report. DATABASES
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In research analysis, databases are vital in record keeping. A researcher may use a database programme where he/ she wants to take advantage of the record manipulation ooptions of database management systems. Advantages • Databases have high levels of interchange ability with other systems, such as word processors, spread sheets, sheets graphic packages and statistical packages. • The database is often a good starting point for sstoring raw data because if a researcher needs to manipulate the data (beyond the capability of the database), he/ she can do so by transferring the information into an alternative system. STATISTICAL SYSTEMS These are application systems that carry out a w wide range of statistical techniques. The simplest statistical packages support data summarization and basic inferential statistics. The more complex statistical packages support advanced inferential techniques, including multivariate methods. What they off offer er is advanced data manipulation. This includes sophisticated data description, and a range of various statistical tests. Statistical systems interchange particularly strongly with graphic systems. GRAPHICAL SYSTEMS These are not software packages. General Generally, ly, the researcher is not going to actually store data in a graphical system for future analysis. The assumption is that after the researcher has carried out the analysis, he/ she generates graphical displays of the results results.
Reflection
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i.
What is the meaning of the following terms in research, ‘data organization’’ data analysis’ and ‘ data presentation’
ii.
Explain the stages involved in data organization.
iii.
What is a database?
10.2.DATA ANALYSIS. (Transforms meaningless data into meaningful information) Data analysis refers to examining what has been collected in a survey or experiment and making deductions and inferences. It involves uncovering underlying structures; extracting important variables, detecting any anomalies and testing any underlying assumptions. It involves scrutinizing the acquired information and making inferences. Statistical data analysis divides the methods for analysing data into two categories: exploratory methods and confirmatory methods. Exploratory methods are used to discover what the data seems to be saying by using simple arithmetic and easy-to-draw pictures to summarize data. This is used mainly in qualitative research. Confirmatory methods use ideas from probability theory in the attempt to answer specific questions. These methods are mainly applicable in quantitative research. The methods used in data analysis are influenced by whether the research is qualitative or quantitative.
10.3Data Analysis in Qualitative Research Qualitative research involves intensive data collection (of several variables), over an extended period of time in a natural setting (variables are studied when and where they naturally occur). Qualitative data, such as finding out the views of respondents on a certain issue (for example, abortion) is not always computable by
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arithmetic relations: The responses can be categorized into various classes which are called categorical variables. The analysis of qualitative data varies from simple descriptive analysis to more elaborate reduction and multivariate assoc associate iate techniques. The analysis will vary with the purpose of the research, the complexity of the research design and the extent to which conclusions can be reached easily (Orodho and Kombo, 2002:116). In qualitative research designs, the researcher should ddecide ecide before going to the field, how he/she will analyse the data. The analytical technique will determine the recording style that will be used during the data collection exercise. The analytic techniques used in qualitative research are as follows: A QUICK IMPRESSIONIST SUMMARY In qualitative research, data can be analysed by a quick impressionist summary. This involves the following: • Summarizing key findings. For example in focus group discussions the researcher notes down the frequent responses of the participants on various issues. • Explanation. • Interpretation and conclusion. This rapid data analysis technique is mainly used in situations that require urgent information to make decisions for a programme for example in places where there is an ou outbreak tbreak such as cholera and vital information is needed for intervention. THEMATIC ANALYSIS In qualitative research, data can also be analysed thematically. Themes refer to topics or major subjects that come up in discussions. This form of analysis categori categorizes zes related topics. In using this form of analysis major concepts or themes are identified. In this form of data analysis, the researcher does the following:
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• Peruses the collected data and identifies information that is relevant to the research questions and objectives. • Develops a coding system based on samples of collected data. • Classifies major issues or topics covered. • Rereads the text and highlights key quotations/insights and interpretations. • Indicates the major themes in the margins. • Places the coded materials under the major themes or topics identified. All materials relevant to a certain topic are placed together. • Develops a summary report identifying major themes and the associations between them. • Uses graphics and direct quotations to present the findings. • Reports the intensity, which refers to the number of times certain words or phrases or descriptions are used in the discussion. The frequency with which an idea or word or description appears is used to interpret the importance, attention or emphasis. Weaknesses: The thematic method tends to rely heavily on the judgment of a single analyst. This may lead to high levels of subjectivity and bias. It may be necessary to have two or more analysts to code the transcript independently and compare notes.
CONTENT ANALYSIS Content analysis examines the intensity with which certain words have been used. Content analysis systematically describes the form or content of written and/or spoken material. In content analysis a classification system is developed to record the information. In interpreting results, the frequency with which a symbol or idea appears may be interpreted as a measure of importance, attention or
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emphasis. The relative balance of favourable attributes regarding a symbol or aann idea may be interpreted as a measure of direction or bias. In content analysis, a researcher can be assisted by trained researchers or a computer programme can be used to sort the data to increase the reliability of the process. Content analysis is a tedious ious process due the requirement that each data source is analysed along a number of dimensions. It may also be inductive (identifies
themes
and
patterns)
or
deductive
(quantifies
frequencies of data). The results are descriptive, but will also indicate tr trends ends or issues of interest. In content analysis, the first step is to select the data source to be studied, and then develop a classification system to record the information. In historical research there are various forms of data analysis. These include:
Analysis of concepts: Concepts are clarified by describing the essential and core concepts beginning from the early developmental stages.
Interpretative analysis relates one event to another. The event is studied and described within a broader context to add meaning and credibility to the data.
Comparative analysis examines similarities and differences in events during different time periods.
Theoretical and philosophical analysis utilizes historical parallels, past trends, and sequences of events to suggest sugges the past, present, and future of the topic being researched. Findings would be used to develop a theory or philosophy of leisure. For example, an analysis of public recreation agency goals and objectives of previous eras can be used to describe the futuree in the context of social, political, economic, technological, and cultural changes in society.
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10.3 Data Analysis in Quantitative Research Quantitative data analysis consists of measuring numerical values from which descriptions such as mean and standard deviations are made. These data can be put into order and further divided into two groups: discrete data or continuous data. Discrete data are countable data, for example, the number of defective items produced during a day’s production. Continuous data are parameters (variables) that are measurable and are expressed on a continuous scale, for example the height of a person. The analysis of quantitative data varies from simple to more elaborate analysis techniques. The analysis varies with the objective of the experiment, its complexity and the extent to which conclusion can be easily reached. Data analysis in quantitative research depends on the type of study. This is as follows:
CORRELATION STUDIES In correlational research studies, data is mainly analysed using the correlation coefficient. By using this tool the researcher indicates the degree of relationship between two variables. The correlation coefficient is a number ranging from 1 (a perfect positive correlation) through 0 (no relationship between the variables) to -1 (a perfect negative correlation). In analysing the correlation coefficient, a researcher attempts to indicate the proportion of sameness between two variables. One of the correlation tools is the Pearson Product Moment Correlation. This tool is used to analyse the relationship between isolated independent and dependent variables. Another type of correlational analysis is reliability studies (analyses conducted to provide information about the validity and reliability of tests). In reliability studies the same group of subjects is given a test and then at a somewhat later date is given the test again. The
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researcher analyses the two scores for each subject (the test score and the retest score) and the correlation coefficient between the two sets of scores can be calculated. This kind of correlation coeff coefficient is referred to as a reliability coefficient. The important thing to remember is that in correlational research, while carrying out analysis, the researcher is only looking at the degree of relationship between the variables and not the effect of one variable on another variable. PREDICTION STUDIES In predictive correlational studies, while carrying out the analysis, the researcher uses the degree of relationship that exists between two variables to predict one variable from the other. For example if reading and spelling are correlated, then the researcher can use the information to predict a student's score on the spelling test if the student has only taken the reading test. Conversely, the researcher can predict the student's score on the reading tes test given the student's score on the spelling test. Prediction studies are widely used to predict student academic success in college, based on such measures as secondary school grades in mathematics, and aptitude test scores. CAUSAL CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH Cau Causal-comparative comparative educational research attempts to identify a causative relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. However, this relationship is more suggestive than proven as the researcher does not have complete control over the independent variable. If the researcher had control over the independent variable, then the research would be classified as true experimental research. In carrying out analysis based on this design, the researcher compares two selected groups on the depen dependent dent variable. For example, if in form two, some of the students in mathematics classes use calculators while others do not,
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a researcher may be interested in finding out the effect of calculator use on mathematics grades at the end of the year. The researcher therefore selects a group of students from the class that use calculators and then selects another group of the same size form the class that do not use calculators and compares the two groups at the end of the year on their final mathematics grades. An inferential statistic used to analyse data in both causalcomparative and experimental research designs is the t-test. ·Where the subjects in the two groups are independent of one another, that is no matching of subjects or other control procedures were used. The independent t-test is used to test the significance of a difference between the means of the experimental and control groups in the study. Ln research designs where the influence of an extraneous variable has been controlled, or in designs utilizing a pre-test-post-test procedure, the appropriate t-test to use to compare the two groups would be the dependent t-test. When a researcher has three or more groups to compare, the appropriate inferential statistic to use in data analysis would be one-way analysis of variance. This statistic shows the significance of differences in the means of three or more groups of subjects. In cases where the researcher uses frequency counts for the dependent variable, the appropriate inferential statistic to use in data analysis would be the chi-square test. Th.is statistic tests the significance of differences between two or more groups (independent variable) in frequencies for the dependent variable. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH The major difference in data analysis between causal-comparative and experimental research is that the researcher has control over the independent variable in experimental research and can manipulate this variable at will. In the case of causal-comparative research, the independent variable is established by the identity of the groups
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chosen and is not under experimental control. In experimental designs, the observer should decide before carrying out the experiment the analytical process. The analytical process in experimental studies mainly involve involvess the calculation of effect size. Effect size is the mean of the experimental group minus the mean of the control group, divided by the standard deviation of the control group. The idea is to calculate the effect size across a number of studies to determin determinee the relevance of the test, treatment, or method.
Assignment Discuss statistical software packages and methods used in analysing data in both qualitative and quantitative research. 10.4 .4 Data Presentation There are three ways researchers can present data after analysis. This includes the following: • Using statistical techniques. • Using graphical techniques. • Using a combination of both. Statistical Techniques Statistics are a set of mathematical methods used to extract and clarify information from obse observed rved data. Statistics generate simple numbers to describe distributions, either grouped or ungrouped. Statistics have two major functions in data presentation. They can add to our understanding of the data that make up the distribution, and they can substi substitute tute for (be used instead of) the distribution. With descriptive statistics it is important to define whether the
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researcher is calculating values for a population or for a sample: the results will be different. A sample statistic is any numerical value describing a characteristic of a sample. The following are some of the statistical techniques used to present analysed data. a) FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS. The values in a set of ungrouped data constitute a distribution. The values that we have in a set of ordinal data, and the values we generate by converting ungrouped data into grouped form, constitute a frequency distributio11. For example, imagine a survey in which we measure the weight of a sample of pieces of wood loaded onto a lorry. The values for all the pieces of wood measured make up a distribution. A researcher can calculate sample statistics from that distribution, such as a sample mean (for example, 14.56 kg). A frequency distribution of grouped data can also be created as shown in the table below. Weight
Number
7-9
2
10-12
8
13-15
12
16-18
19
19-21
7
Class Limits: The frequency distribution is made up of the values (counts) for a set of classes; each class has a frequency (j) associated with it. The class limits are the upper and lower values for each class. They should be defined in such a way that no value is excluded, but no value can fall into two classes. The researcher
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can achieve this by using class boundaries with a precision (meaning in this case number of significant figures) one order below that of any of the actual data values. In the wood eexample, if the researcher weighs the pieces to the nearest tenth of a kilogramme, he/she would set the class boundaries to 7.05, 9.05, and so on. The class interval is the difference between the upper class boundary and the lower class boundary; in most fr frequency distributions it will be constant across the classes. The point halfway between the upper and lower class limits is the class midpoint. These values are used to calculate the mean of a set of grouped data. Statistics can be divided into two groups groups: measures of centraltendency and measures of dispersion. b)) MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY Measures of central tendency are numbers that define the location of a distribution's centre. For example, if we regard all measurements as being attempts to give us the "true" value of a particular phenomenon, we can regard the centre of the distribution of a set of measurements an estimate of that "true" value. The various sources of error in the measurement process will produce variability in the measurements, so th they ey will not all have the same value. Measures of dispersion attempt to quantify the extent of this variability. When dealing with ungrouped data, the researcher can use several measures of central tendency. These include the mean, the median and mode. When dealing with grouped data, the researcher cannot use the arithmetic mean, instead he/she can use the group mean. Using grouped data the researcher cannot use the median, but can define the modal class. MEAN MEAN- This is the average. It is found by the sum total tot divided by the number.
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MEDIAN- The median can be defined in a set of ungrouped data. If the data are arranged in ascending or descending order; in general, the median is the value that has half of the data values less than it, and half greater than it. If the sample size (n) is an odd number, the median is the middle value of the entire distribution. If n is an even number, the median is the mean of the two "middle" values. For example, in the following ungrouped data: 12, 14, 16, 18, 19, 22, 24; the median is 18. Whereas for 12, 14, 16, 18, 19, 22, 24, 27 the median is 18.5. So the median is the value that minimizes the absolute distance to the data points. MODE- The mode of a set of data is the value that occurs most often, with certain provisos: It is possible to have no mode (that is, no value occurs more than once). It is possible to have more than one mode (a distribution may be bimodal, trimodal or multimodal). For grouped data the class with the highest frequency value is the modal class. There may be two modal classes (bimodal), or more. For example, for the following frequencies: 12, 18, 13, 13, 22, 12, 14, 13 the mode is 13.
C) MEASURES OF DISPERSION This type of statistic describes how much the distribution varies around the central point. The various ways we can describe this spread are called measures of dispersion. These measures quantify the variability of the distribution. As they are attempting to quantify the general shape of a distribution rather than a single value for its centre most measures of dispersion are numerically more complex. These measures consist of the following: RANGE- The simplest measure of dispersion is the range of the data: the difference between the highest and the lowest values in the data (maximum- minimum).
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VARIA VARIANCE- This is a measure that indicates the distribution of data. It is based upon the idea that each observation differs from the mean by some amount. This is referred to as the difference from the mean. The difference between each value and the population mean is called its deviation. To get the variance, all the values are taken and summed. Dividing the result by the population size (N) gives the mean deviation. Unfortunately, this measure does not give sufficient "weight" to the values on the margins of tthe distribution. To do so, the sum of the squares of the deviations from the mean has to be taken. Dividing this value (the sum of squared deviations) by the population size gives the variance of the distribution. Standard Deviation: The standard deviation is the square root of the variance. For example in the example on the wood weight, if the mean weight was 13.78 kilogrammes, and the variance was 3.56 kilogrammes, the standard deviation will be 1.89 kilogrammes. Consequently, we cannot compare the varian variances of two distributions unless they happen to have the same units. We cannot use the variance (or the standard deviation) to indicate which of two or more distributions exhibits greater variability. For this latter purpose we need a "dimensionless" measur measure of dispersion, for which we usually employ the coefficient of variability. Coefficient of Variability (or Variation). The coefficient of variability is calculated by expressing the standard deviation as a percentage of the mean. The basic shape of a freq frequency uency curve can be described quantitatively by several measures. These are measures that explicitly quantify the "balance" of the distribution (Sec figure 2.). This balance has two components: • Are the values arranged symmetrically on either side of the centre? entre?
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• Is the distribution highly "peaked" (must vah1es lit! close to the centre, and the tails are short) or is the distribution "flat" (long tails and a low central concentration)? The measures used to describe the overall symmetry of a distribution- that is, whether the two tails of the distribution are equal –is called the skewness. The distribution can be described as left (positively) or right (negatively) skewed. The coefficient of skewness can be used to quantify the extent of the asymmetry. We also define whether the distribution is "peaked" or not; the measure for this is called the kurtosis. Distributions that are strongly peaked (that is, most of the values lie close to the centre of the distribution, with relatively short tails) are termed leptokurtic, whereas those where the values are broadly spread (the tails are long) are termed platykurtic.
tail
tail Centre spread
Figure 2: The major components of distribution shape PERCENTILES: Percentiles are values that divide a set of observations into 100 equal parts (P1, P2, P3........ P 99) such that 1% of all the data points fall below P1, 2% fall below P2 and so on. DECILES: Deciles are values that divide a set of observations into ten equal parts (D1, D2, D3 ..... D9) such that 10% of all the data points faII below D1, 20% fall below D2, and so on. QUARTILES: Quartiles are values that divide a set of observations into four equal parts (Q1, Q2, Q3) such that 25% of all the data points fall below Q1, 50% fall below Q2, and 75% fall below Q3. 10.5GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
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Whilst the most obvious way of representing grouped data is as a table, the information can also be represented diagrammatically. Data can be graphically presented by· a histogram or polygon. a) His Histogram- A basic representation of the shape of a frequency distribution (See figure 3.). This can be shown as a series of vertical (or horizontal) bars, their length indi indicating cating the frequency of the par particular class. b) Polygon Polygon- Data can also be presented ass polygons. The polygon is closed by connecting the midpoints of the end classes to the midpoints of "imaginary" classes on each side, which have a notional frequency of zero.
Figure 3: Sample Histogram c) Bars; The cumulative frequency distribution can also be plotted as a series of bars (see Figure 4), or as a series of lines joining the midpoints of the classes; this is termed an
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ogive
(Figure
5).
Figure 4: Sample bar graph
Figure 5: Cumulative Frequency Curve (Ogive)
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Pie chart - A pie chart can also be used for the purpose of presenting results. (Figure 6).
Figure 6: Pie chart showing purchasing power of people in Nairobi city. At a glance, one can be able to see that the upper class group dominates the purchasing of goods and services. Challenges Faced in Data Analysis In data analysis, the researcher should ensure the following: • Understands the assumptions of their statistical procedures, and be sure they are satisfied. In particular, the research researcher should be aware of hierarchically organized (non (non-independent) independent) data; use techniques designed to deal with the challenges faced in data analysis. • Be sure to use the best measurement tools available. If measures have errors, then that fact should be cons considered. • Beware of multiple comparisons. If one has to do many tests, then he /she should try to replace or use cross cross-validation validation to verify the results. • Keep in mind what one is trying to discover. One should look at the magnitude rather than values.
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• Use numerical notation in a rational way. One should not confuse precision with accuracy. • Be sure to understand the conditions for causal inference. If one needs to make inference, then he/she should try to use random assignment. If that is not possible, then one should devote a lot of effort to unearth causal relationships with a variety of approaches to the question. • Be sure that the graphs are accurate and reflect the data variation clearly.
Group discussion Explain how data can be presented using statistical and graphical techniques. 11.0 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This unit summarizes the whole research process. It first provides a brief summary of the whole study with particular reference to the research problem, research methodology, results, the main contributions of the research and recommendations for future work. It provides a summary of the main findings of the study, conclusions and recommendations. This unit should be reasonably short. The readers would want to know whether the objectives of the study were achieved, and whether the work has contributed to know ledge. Therefore, when compiling this unit, a researcher should focus on answering these questions. Any conclusions drawn should be those resulting from the study. A researcher should make relevant references to chapters that support
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the listed findings and may also refer to the work of others for comparison. However, one should not discuss the study's results here. 11.1. 11.1.SUMMARY SUMMARY OF THE MAIN FINDINGS In summariz summarizing, ing, a researcher should identify the findings of the study and discuss them briefly. In addition, the methodological problems encountered should be outlined so that future/ other researchers may take the relevant precautions. The researcher should clearly pinpoint if the study objectives were achieved or not. An effective summary has the following qualities: • It bases on results from the study. • It is brief; all statements are concise, and pinpoint to the contributions that the researcher has made. • All statements are factual. One way to present the summary is to use one paragraph for each idea. Alternatively, the researcher can use a point point-by-point format. 11.2 11.2CONCLUSION The conclusion section should be very brief, about half a page. It should indicate what the study results reaffirm. It should also briefly discuss some of the strategies highlighted by the respondents. In this section, the researcher should clearly state how the study has contributed to knowledge. 11.3 11.3RECOMMENDATIONS The recommendations section is important in research. This section often exposes further problems and introduces more questions. As a researcher, there is a time limit to the research project, so it is unlikely that the study would have solved all the problems associated with the area of study. The researcher is therefore expected to make suggestions about how his/her work can be
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improved, and also based on the study findings, point out whether there are areas that deserve further investigation. This section will indicate whether a researcher has a firm appreciation of his/her work, and whether he/she has given sufficient thought to its implications, not only within the narrow confines of the research topic but to related fields. This section reflects the researcher's foresightedness and creativity. This unit should be written using a punchy style and should not be too long. Conclusions and contributions should be presented concisely and factually. 11.4SAMPLE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Ambia (2003): Access and retention of girls in primary education, Wajir district, North Eastern province, Kenya From the findings of the study, the following emerged as the main factors influencing girls' access to and retention in primary schools in Wajir district; school based factors such as distance and location of school, category of schools, lack of physical facilities, learning environment, staffing as well as safety inside and outside the school. Socio-cultural factors in this concern include gender stereotyped roles, negative traditional beliefs, attitudes and practices, patriarchal descent system, religious beliefs, miraa (khat) trade as well as nomadic way of life. Socio-economic factors include high poverty level, child labour, home environment, household chores, parental level of education, occupation and income levels, lack of employment as well as high cost of education. It is evident that the government has the policy that allows equal access to primary education for boys and girls but due to the aforesaid factors, enrolment and retention rates differ in Wajir district.
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There is need to carry out awareness campaigns to sensitize all stakeholders on the importance of education especially of the girl child. It is important to create well maintained single gender boarding schools. There is need to equip existing nomadic boarding schools. Girls should be targeted in terms of bursary and sponsorship. There is need to create projects and programmes that will increase the family income hence a source of economic empowe empowerment. rment. This will help parents to generate more income to invest in primary education especially for the girl child. There is need to enforce the laws that prohibit negative practices such as early marriage, female genital mutilation and sexual harassment.
Group discussion Discuss the differences and similarities between a research proposal and a research report.
12.0 REFERENCES Finalization of the research work is very challenging. This is mainly because by the time a researcher finalizes the study, ther there may be exhaustion and an urgency to complete the study. However this section is vital and should be completed with seriousness and uttermost care. This unit discusses referencing, preparing thec1ppendix and formatting the final work. References In resear research, ch, the term "reference" applies to materials that have been referred to or quoted in the study. The reference list is a compilation of the books and articles referred to. This list is related closely to the literature review chapter. This is because all reference eference material ls used in the literature review should be
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reflected in this section. The reference list should contain the most relevant and important publications. 12.1 THE REFERENCES IN THE BODY OF THE TEXT The appropriate point at which to indicate the source of an idea is as soon as is convenient. When it is at the beginning or middle of a sentence, the researcher should indicate the surname of the author and year of publication. The year of publication should be enclosed inside brackets, for instance, "Orodho (2003) pointed out that ...," "Kombo (2005) indicated that.... " At the end of a sentence or paragraph, one needs to enclose the surname of the author and year of publication in brackets. The name and year should be separated by a comma, for example (Orodho, 2003); (Kombo, 2005). Direct Quotations Direct quotations should be accurate. If there is need to omit some words within a quotation, the writer should use three ellipses (...) to indicate the omissions. If the quotation is short, that is, a maximum of three sentences then use quotation marks within the text. Longer quotations are usually indented and typed in single spacing, without quotation marks. In both cases, the pages from which the quotation comes must be indicated at the end of the quotation (Kombo, 2004:69). Paraphrase The use of another author's idea, but expressed in the writer's words is referred to as paraphrasing. In this case the writer indicates the source author and year, for example (Kombo, 2004). Citation Styles One of the challenges experienced by researchers is how to cite references. The two most common methods for citing published work are: • the number system
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• the name name-year system THE NUMBER SYSTEM With this system, references to published work are by use of numbers, for example: There are many undergraduate texts on Process Control [1 [1-4]. The most popular seems to be the book by Kombo [2). However, the only one to deal with process design and process control in an integrated manner is that by Orodho[4]. or There are m many any undergraduate texts on Process Control1-4. Control1 The most popular seems to be the book by Kombo 2. However, the only one to deal with process design and process control in an integrated manner is that by Orodho 4. In both examples above, three citations wer were made. The first referred to publication numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4; the second citation referred to publication number 2, while the last citation referred to publication number 4. The fact that the numbers relate to items in the reference list is indicated by the square parentheses [...] or by the superscripts. The convention a researcher follows will depend on the guidelines and regulations of one's institution. When using the number number-system system citation style, the order of the corresponding reference list is impo important. rtant. By convention, the first cited publication will be the first on the list and assigned the number "1." The second cited publication will be the second on the list and assigned the number "2" and so on. That is, the publications in the reference list are presented in the order that they were cited. However, the reference list must not contain duplicates. This means that the researcher will have to keep track of the publications that have been cited and their associated order in the reference list, so
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that he/she can use the appropriate number when he/she citing a publication more than once, as in the above examples. 12.2 THE NAME-YEAR SYSTEM Using the name-year citation style, the above example becomes: There are many undergraduate texts on Process Control (Kombo, 1991; Orodho, 1990; Paul, 1995; Wamahiu, 1988). The most popular seems to be the book by Kombo (1991). However, the only one to deal with process design and process control in an integrated manner is that by Orodho (1995). The first citation named 4 authors using their surname. Associated with each surname is the year of the publication. Notice that they are presented in alphabetical order, within round parentheses, (...).The author is separated from the year by a comma. Author-year pairs are separated by semi-colons. The next two citations named the authors using their surnames with the publication year of the cited publications enclosed in parentheses. Therefore, there are two ways to use the name-year citation style. When using this citation style, the reference list is presented in alphabetical order. How a publication is cited also depends on the number of authors. If there are two authors, then cite as follows: "Orodho and Kombo (2002) modified the Minimum Variance objective function to include ...” or "The Generalized Minimum Variance self-tuning algorithm was proposed in the late 1970s (Orodho and Kombo, 2002)." When a publication has more than two authors, cite as follows: "Montague et al. (1987) considered ...” At the point at which a source is cited in the text, indicate the author's surname, followed by the year of publication. In a sentence simply indicate the surname and put the year of publication of the
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document in brackets, that is, Kombo (2004). However, if the source is indicated at the end of a sentence or paragraph, then include both the author and year of publication in brackets (Kombo, 2004). A comma separates the author's name and year of publication. If an author has published several works in the same year and one is using more than one of these, then lower case letters are used after the year for identification, that is, Orodho (2003a, 2003b, 2003c and so on). If several sources are being referred to at the same time, then the authors should be organized alphabetically and the sources separated using semi colons (Kombo, 2004; Orodho, 2003). If quotations are used, indicate the author, year of publication and page(s) of the quotation. Page(s) can be indicated by using p. (pp. if many) or using colon i.e. (Orodho, 2003, p.69) or (Orodho, 2003: 69) If many pages (Orodho, 2003: pp. 69 69-71) 71) or (Orodhn, 2003: 6969 71). 12.3 .3 LISTING OF REFERENCES There are a number of types of publications used in research. These materials
include
articles,
magazines, journals,
conference
proceedings, books, dissertations, theses and research reports. Each category of materials requires a different presentation format. However the general order of organizing the references is as follows: 1. Surname of the author 2. Initials of the author 3. Date of publ publication 4. Title of the material 5. Place of publication
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6. Publishers Author's surname, initials, (year of publication). Title of material. Place of Publication : Publishers. 12.1.4 Presentation Format There are various presentation formats for different materials. This is as follows: a) Journal Articles- These are the most common sources of cited material and include specialist technical journals as well as trade journals. They are presented in the following format: 1. Surname of the author. 2. Initials of the author. 3. Year (date) of publication. 4. Title of article: The first letter of the title is capitalized while the rest are in lower case. 5. Name of journal (underlined or italicized). You may use an abbreviated form for the journal name, but make sure that it is the recognized one. Most journals will have the "official" abbreviated title printed at the top of its pages. 6. Volume, followed by number of issue. Instead of issue numbers, some journals have a month of issue. In such cases, substitute the month for the issue number. 7. Pages in the journal where the article appears. Author's surname, initials. (Year of publication). Title of article. Name of Journal, Volume (number, pages). For example: Johnson, U.W., Johnson, H., Stanne, M, and Garibaldi, A. (1990). Impact of group processing on achievement in cooperative groups. Journal of Social Psychology, 130, 507-516.
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Garner, R. (1990). When children and adults do not use learning strategies: Towards a theory of settings. Review of Educational Resear Research, 60, 517-529. b) Conference Proceedings Proceedings- Papers presented at conferences are also common sources of research information. The format is as follows; Author(s), (year). Article title, Name of conference, Location of conference, page range. For example: Dore, ore, S.D., Perkins, J.D. and Kershenbaum, L.S. (1994). Application of geo mrtric nonlinear control in the process industries: a case study, Proc. IFAC Symposium, ADCHEM '94, Kyoto, Japan, pp 501 501-506. The author(s) surname appears first, followed by initial initials. The year is enclosed in parentheses and terminated with a full full-stop. The first letter of the title is capitalized while the rest are in lower case. You may use abbreviations to indicate the type of publication and the name of the conference. For example "Proc." is usually used in place of "Proceedings"; "Pre." for "Preprints"; "Conf." for "Conference"; "Symp." for "Symposium" and so on. c) Books Books- To list books, use the following format: Surname of the author, initials of the author. (year of publication. publication.) title of book. edition number, place of publication, publishers. For example: Awuondo, C.O. (1993 (1993). Introduction to Sociology. Nairobi: Basic Books Limited. Kombo, D. and Waiyaki, M. (2002). Sociology of Education. Nairobi: Kenyatta University Press. Oro Orodho, dho, A.J. (2003). Essentials of Educational and Social Science Research Methods. Nairobi: Masola Publishers. Gay, L.R. (1992). Educational Research: Competence for Analysis and Applications. 4'h Edition, New York: Macmillan Publishers.
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In referencing books, the first letters of keywords in the main title are in capitals, and the title is in italics. There is no need to indicate the edition of the book if it is the first edition. Some books are compilations of articles from different authors. For such cases, the format used is a cross between that for journal articles and books. This is as follows: Author(s), (year). Title of article in book, In: Name of book, Edition number, Chapter number, Name(s) of editors, Name of publisher, place of publication. For example: Rumelhart IJ.E., Hinton G.E. and Williams, R.J. (1987). Learning internal representations by error propagation, In: Parallel Distributed Processing: Vol. 1, Ch. H. D. E. Rumelhart and J.L. McClelland [editors], MIT Press: Cambridge MA. Note the use of the word "In:" and the difference in which the names of the authors and the names of the editors are presented: editors' names are listed with their initials first. However, when you list the book without reference to authors of particular chapters, editors are considered the authors, in which case the item will be listed as: Rumelhart, D.E. and McClelland, J.L. [editors]. (1987). Parallel Distributed Processing: Vol. 1, MIT Press: Cambridge MA. J) Dissertations, Theses and Research Reports Dissertations, theses and academic research reports are listed using the format below: Author(s), (year). Title in italics. Type of publication, Research Group, Name of institution, Country. For example: Peel, C. (1995). Aspects of Neural Networks for Modeling and Control. PhD Thesis, University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK.
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Bloggs, J. and Other, A.N. (1998). The Effects of Vodbull on Class Attendance. Research Report No. 123, Social Impact Research Group, Smirnoff Institute of Technology. Vladivostok, Russia. Kombo,
D.K.
(1988).
Factors
influencing
student's
poor
performance in the K.C.E Examination among Harambee Secondary schools in Kathiani Division, Machakos District, Kenyatta University, Kenya. When listing a research report, include the report number where applicable applicable. e) Company Reports oon Manuals Sometimes, a researcher may need to cite material contained in publications by companies and from manuals. In such cases there are no named individuals for authors. Use the format below: Name of company or organization, (yea (year). r). Title in italics. Place of publication. For example: Mathsoft Inc., (1999). Mathcad 2000 Reference Manual. Cambridge, MA. f) Information from the World Wide Web (www) Nowadays, much information can be obtained from the Internet, typically websites but sources include newsgroups and on-line on forums. The format to use for such publications is: Name of Author(s) or company or organization, (year), Title of article, URL, date found. The URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is the full Internet address of the artic article. Due to the transient nature of on--line information, it is important to include the date when one found the information. For example: Tham, M.T. (1997). Distillation: an introduction, http: / / lorien.ncl.ac.uk /ming /distil/distil0.htm, 30 May 2001.
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g) Personal Communications Sometimes, a researcher may have used information passed on to him/her by a colleague or another person, via a phone conversation, letter, email or other forms of communication. The researcher can include this information in the reference list. The format to use is: Name, (year). Personal communication, Affiliation of named person. For example: Blogg, J. (1996). Personal communication, University College London, UK. The reference list should be compiled as a researcher writes the chapters. The references should be organized alphabetically using surnames. If the author has several publications listed, they should be organized using the date (year) order. If there is more than one author, the names and initials of all the other authors should appear. All authors should be given credit. AU the materials cited should be referenced. The reader should note that the material presented here is not exhaustive; there are many variations. However, in the absence of other instructions, and as long as you are consistent, the guidelines presented above should be sufficient. 12.4Numbering In a research proposal or thesis, there is a specific format for numbering. There is specific numbering for the following: • Chapters and sections in chapters • Figures and diagrams • Tables and lists • Equations
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Each chapter of the proposal/thesis should be assigned a number. For example: Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION Chapter 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Chapter sections and subsections should also be assigned a numerical index. For example, the second section of Chapter 1 could be: 1.2 Statement of the Problem, while a subsection of Section 4 in Chapter 4 could be: 4.4. 1 Simulation results. Notice the use of different cases in the 3 heading categories. The title of chapte chapterr is in upper case (capitalized); the heading of a section has the first letter of keywords in upper case; while only the first letter of the first word in a subsection is capitalized. These styles are used as visual cues to indicate the different levels oof headings. Avoid having more than 3 levels, for instance, 2.1.3.2, as they can make the text messy especially when referring to them. If you need to categorize further, the contents of a subsection, use a different font style. Bold and underlined text is a popular format. To refer to a particular chapter, use the formats given by the following examples: "Chapter 2 provides a review of work in this area. The reason for this modification, stated in Chapter 3.... “Notice that the word "Chapter" is written in full with a capital "C." The following examples show how references are made to sections or subsections: "The procedure outlined in Section 5.3 was employed to ...” "Section 3.2.2 discussed the implication of..." Here, the word "Section" with a capital "S" is used to refer to both sections and subsections; the latter being obvious from the numerical index.
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12.5FIGURES AND DIAGRAMS In proposals and theses, all figures and diagrams must be captioned and given a numerical index. Captions should appear below the figure or diagram, and should be sufficiently descriptive without being too long. Simply state what the illustration is showing and do any explaining in the main text. Captions for figures and diagrams have the format: Chapter number. Figure number. Description Figure 2.4. The Physiotherapy Strategy. The word "Figure" is used generically to cover all illustrations, such as drawings, flow charts, sketches, and so on. Spell out the word in full. Note too, the positions of the full-stops. The numerical index is composed of the chapter number, a full stop, followed by the figure number, terminated with another full stop. Thus, the third illustration appearing in Chapter 4 would have the caption: Figure 4.3. Schematic of control system for the methanol-water column. You may use the abbreviated form, "Fig.", when referring to illustrations if the reference appears in the middle of a sentence. For example: "The control scheme, shown in Fig. 4.3, is quite common." Otherwise, write the word "Figure" in full, for instance, "Figure 4.3 shows a common control scheme for a distillation column." 12.6TABLES AND LISTS All tables and lists, must be captioned and given a numerical index, and the numbering style is identical to that used for figures and diagrams. The captions should be placed below each table and list. So, for example, the second table in Chapter 3 would have the caption:
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Unit 5 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
"Table 3.2. Performance measures obtained using the proposed procedure." Abbreviations should not be used when referring to tables and lists lists- write out the word "Table" in full, with a capital "T."
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CURRICULUM STUDIES AND EDUCATION RESEARCH
REFERENCES Books and Journal Articles Bliss, J., Monk, M., &Ogborn, J. (1983). Qualitative data analysis for educational research: A guide to users of systemic networks. Canberra: Croom Helm. Elliott, A. (2001). "Professor of global optimism." The Australian, 1 August, pp. 37-38. Goetz, J. P., and LeCompte, M. D. (1984). Ethnography and qualitative design in educational research. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Mason,J., and Waywood, A. (1996). "The role of theory in mathematics education and research." In: A. J. Bishop, K. Clements, C. Keitel, J. Kilpatrick and C Laborde (eds), International handbook of mathematics education. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1055-1089. J Miles, M. B., and Huberman, M. A. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook (seconded.). Beverley Hills: Sage. Orodho (2003). Essentials of Educational and Social Sciences Research Method. Nairobi: Masola Publishers. Orodho, A. J. and Kombo, D. K. (2002). Research Methods. Nairobi: Kenyatta University, Institute of Open Learning. Tuchman, M. S. (1987). Scientific Methods and Social Research (revised edition). New York: Sterling. Webster, S. (1985). Educational Research: Competence for Analysis and Applications, 6th Edition. New Jersey: Macmillan.
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