Cristina
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Fiscal Federalism In Major Countries
Salient features in a few major Federations i.e. Australia and United States.
Australia - There are currently 6 States and 2 territories and approximately 774 local governments. - Commonwealth taxes- are income taxes on individuals and business, sales tax, and taxes on international trade. - The states most important taxes are on payrolls, financial and capital transactions, gambling, insurance, and motor vehicles. - Local government tax immovable property.
In 1998, the commonwealth accounted for:
- 68 percent of all publicsector current revenues - The States raised .28 percent - Local Governments collected around 4 percent
The Australian Inter governmental fiscal transfer system deal with vertical fiscal imbalance and horizontal fiscal imbalance between the states through specific grants specific purpose payments and block grants (general revenue grants) from the federal government to the States and local government.
As pant of Australian Tax reform of 2000, the federal government introduced a goods and services tax (GST) or VAT.
- In Australia, the federal government has retained the exclusive power to tax income. To ensure that the tax system has a highly degree of uniformity in tax rates and tax bases.
The high transfer dependence ratio has not led to fiscal profligacy because there is a remarkable on the need to maintain fiscal discipline at all levels of government.
Australia combine legally mandated transparency with rules and objectives for deficits and dept levels.
The States do not have any rule that prohibit them from running deficits. There is, however, a broad consensus that States should maintain fiscal balance.
As pant of reforms the States are also required To improve frequency and openness of their financial reporting not only to permit monitoring of their financial activities but also to provide move reliable information to the financial markets.
Fiscal F eder alism in t he United Sta tes
The United States federal is highly decentralized, and generally regarded as an example of well managed federal fiscal system.
- US composed of 50 states, 1 federal district and 87, 525 local governments.
The constitution of the United States allows the States to perform all functions that are not expressly reserved for the federal income and do not violate the constitution.
Practice of Language ExperienceLanguage experience is not limited to dictation. There are other instructional components that are par and parcel of the language experience approach. DictationThere are three phases to dictation: recording the account, re reading he account and drawing words from accounts for word study . The language experience approach introduces children to reading through dictated accounts.
Comprehension – Comprehension is a crucial of reading instruction. Any approach to language arts does not include a strong comprehension component has an intolerable weakness. WritingWriting is a fundamental component of language experience. It is an indispensable companion of reading instruction.
Literature –based Individual ReadingIndividual reading on children self – selecting books as the primary reading material. Children read at their own pace and keep record of the books they have read. Word Recognition Spend 20 to 25 minutes a day on word recognition activities and continue until word recognition fluency is achieved.
Talking and Listening Oral and written are parallel systems for communicating meaning. Talking and listening sometimes get short shift in language arts. Arts , Drama and Music Before children are capable of recording their ideas through the more abstract medium of print, they are capable to represent their impression of the world in the concrete forms of arts, drama and dance.
Sharing and PublishingEncourage publication and oral sharing of writing. Sharing and publishing experience are an essential component of the language experiences approach. Mechanics; spelling; handwriting, and punctuationChildren need to experience the writing process so they can draft, revise and edit their writing, and in the final stages, proofread for miscues.
The Language Experience Approach Recognizes that: Experience and language interact all the time as a normal part of our lives. Most children bring the school ability to use oral language. It is this language that they teacher start with and process from; Errors in the use of language (i.e. not using Standard English) need to be overcome by allowing more practice in talking, listening, writing, and reading. Correcting and giving advice is related to the need of children to express themselves effectively using real communication in a non-threatening climate.
The Language Experience Approach Can create situations in which talking, listening, writing, and reading have purpose, relevance and meaning across all areas of the curriculum. Is based on the concept that reading has the most meaning for children when the materials being read are centered on their experience and expressed in their language. It integrates the teaching of reading with all other learning areas as children listen, talk and write about personal experiences and ideas. Is part language development. Success depends on continued language growth so that as children acquire greater facility with language, they are able to make full use of it as an agent for wider reading and learning. Exposure to many diverse situations that involves listening, discussing, exploring, reading and writing provides children with greater understanding of language that will assist in interpreting print and expressing thought and feelings.
LEA is especially an effective approach for beginning readers because. Writing down student’s thought demonstrates that we think their ideas, language, and experience that important. Transforming student’s spoken language into printing on a page helps the new reader begin to understand the relationship between oral language and written text. The reading text produced is familiar and meaningful to the student. This familiarity helps new readers comprehend what the are reading. Figuring out the words is easier because the reader know, in general, what words is in the passage, the predictability of what specific word comes next is high because we are using the student’s own language. Having familiar text enhances comprehension and decreases demands on reader’s attention. Thinking can be focused on figuring out the word without losing the meaning of what is being read.
Salient features in a few major Federations i.e. Australia and United States.
Australia - There are currently 6 States and 2 territories and approximately 774 local governments. - Commonwealth taxes- are income taxes on individuals and business, sales tax, and taxes on international trade. - The states most important taxes are on payrolls, financial and capital transactions, gambling, insurance, and motor vehicles. - Local government tax immovable property.
In 1998, the commonwealth accounted for:
- 68 percent of all publicsector current revenues - The States raised .28 percent - Local Governments collected around 4 percent
The Australian Inter governmental fiscal transfer system deal with vertical fiscal imbalance and horizontal fiscal imbalance between the states through specific grants specific purpose payments and block grants (general revenue grants) from the federal government to the States and local government.
As pant of Australian Tax reform of 2000, the federal government introduced a goods and services tax (GST) or VAT.
- In Australia, the federal government has retained the exclusive power to tax income. To ensure that the tax system has a highly degree of uniformity in tax rates and tax bases.
The high transfer dependence ratio has not led to fiscal profligacy because there is a remarkable on the need to maintain fiscal discipline at all levels of government.
Australia combine legally mandated transparency with rules and objectives for deficits and dept levels.
The States do not have any rule that prohibit them from running deficits. There is, however, a broad consensus that States should maintain fiscal balance.
As pant of reforms the States are also required To improve frequency and openness of their financial reporting not only to permit monitoring of their financial activities but also to provide move reliable information to the financial markets.
Fiscal F eder alism in t he United Sta tes
The United States federal is highly decentralized, and generally regarded as an example of well managed federal fiscal system.
- US composed of 50 states, 1 federal district and 87, 525 local governments.
The constitution of the United States allows the States to perform all functions that are not expressly reserved for the federal income and do not violate the constitution.
Practice of Language ExperienceLanguage experience is not limited to dictation. There are other instructional components that are par and parcel of the language experience approach. DictationThere are three phases to dictation: recording the account, re reading he account and drawing words from accounts for word study . The language experience approach introduces children to reading through dictated accounts.
Comprehension – Comprehension is a crucial of reading instruction. Any approach to language arts does not include a strong comprehension component has an intolerable weakness. WritingWriting is a fundamental component of language experience. It is an indispensable companion of reading instruction.
Literature –based Individual ReadingIndividual reading on children self – selecting books as the primary reading material. Children read at their own pace and keep record of the books they have read. Word Recognition Spend 20 to 25 minutes a day on word recognition activities and continue until word recognition fluency is achieved.
Talking and Listening Oral and written are parallel systems for communicating meaning. Talking and listening sometimes get short shift in language arts. Arts , Drama and Music Before children are capable of recording their ideas through the more abstract medium of print, they are capable to represent their impression of the world in the concrete forms of arts, drama and dance.
Sharing and PublishingEncourage publication and oral sharing of writing. Sharing and publishing experience are an essential component of the language experiences approach. Mechanics; spelling; handwriting, and punctuationChildren need to experience the writing process so they can draft, revise and edit their writing, and in the final stages, proofread for miscues.
The Language Experience Approach Recognizes that: Experience and language interact all the time as a normal part of our lives. Most children bring the school ability to use oral language. It is this language that they teacher start with and process from; Errors in the use of language (i.e. not using Standard English) need to be overcome by allowing more practice in talking, listening, writing, and reading. Correcting and giving advice is related to the need of children to express themselves effectively using real communication in a non-threatening climate.
The Language Experience Approach Can create situations in which talking, listening, writing, and reading have purpose, relevance and meaning across all areas of the curriculum. Is based on the concept that reading has the most meaning for children when the materials being read are centered on their experience and expressed in their language. It integrates the teaching of reading with all other learning areas as children listen, talk and write about personal experiences and ideas. Is part language development. Success depends on continued language growth so that as children acquire greater facility with language, they are able to make full use of it as an agent for wider reading and learning. Exposure to many diverse situations that involves listening, discussing, exploring, reading and writing provides children with greater understanding of language that will assist in interpreting print and expressing thought and feelings.
LEA is especially an effective approach for beginning readers because. Writing down student’s thought demonstrates that we think their ideas, language, and experience that important. Transforming student’s spoken language into printing on a page helps the new reader begin to understand the relationship between oral language and written text. The reading text produced is familiar and meaningful to the student. This familiarity helps new readers comprehend what the are reading. Figuring out the words is easier because the reader know, in general, what words is in the passage, the predictability of what specific word comes next is high because we are using the student’s own language. Having familiar text enhances comprehension and decreases demands on reader’s attention. Thinking can be focused on figuring out the word without losing the meaning of what is being read.
