Cook Book 55 4

A LOOK ON THE DARK SIDE OF JAMES COOK O By Michael T. Connell B

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24

Chapter Page It Started with a Block of Wood 8 John Cawte Beaglehole Articles of War 18 Transit of Venus 30 HM Bark Endeavour 36 First Voyage � Orders 42 First Voyage Scurvy 47 Melancholia, Madness and Mayhem 65 People Affected by Antimony Poisoning 76 Venereal Disease after HM Bark Endeavour�s First Visit. Lieutenant James Cook�s Charts 108 The First Explorers 116 1st Voyage - Flogging 130 1st Voyage - Tahiti 141 1st Voyage - New Zealand 146 The East Coast of New Holland 152 1st Voyage - Batavia and Home 164 The Search for Cook�s Ship 171 Artefacts salvaged Endeavour Reef Queensland 186 Artefacts of Cook�s Voyages 200 Sir Clowdisley Shovell 212 Navigation at Sea 219 Second Voyage � HM Sloops Resolution and Adventure 235 Second Voyage � Death and Scurvy 248

12

89

25. 26. 27. 28. 29.

Second Voyage � Orders Captain Tobias Furneaux 1735-1781 Johann Reinhold Forster � 2nd Voyage James Cook RN � The Illnesses Continue Flogging and Punishment during the Second Voyage

30. 31 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 37.

Thieving, a Pacific way of Life Cook�s Mayhem and �Heevas� Continue Third Voyage 1776-1780 Third Voyage - the Rate of Flogging Increases The Death of James Cook FRS RN HM Sloop Resolution and the French North West Passage The Structure of the Royal Navy in James Cook�s time

Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix

1 2 3 4 5 6

the Articles of War � Select Bibliographical Reference � Transports to America �Vitamin �C� Fruits and Vegetables - Cost of living in Harrison�s Day � Salaries Paid in England during 1781

Appendix 7 �Mather and Family owned vessels Appendix 8 Mather and family Whaling Interests References

260 263

271 277

284

275 306 319 335 368 377 387 383 405 415 426

439

427 429

430

431 437

Foreword. To Jill � who for fifty years was my partner and great intelligent muse, she would

help in my research, editing and providing invaluable input, she is greatly missed. The author is indebted to many individuals who have helped craft this complex story. First and foremost to my dear friend Desmond Liddy who added so much common sense and a scientific approach to the early research on Cook�s ships. He died just after our initial paper establishing the name changes of two of the ships was published. Dr. Mary Malloy of Woods, Hole, for her invaluable assistance in providing access to material not held in Australia. Thanks are also due to John B. Hattendorf, the Ernest J. King Professor of Maritime History, at the Naval War College at Rhode Island for his lead on David Lyon's book. To David Lyon who gave me a computer disc containing valuable unpublished data and amendments to his book �The Sailing Navy List : All the Ships of the Royal Navy Built, Purchased and Captured 1688-1860�. Conway Maritime Press, London 1993. Of great help, was Dr Stuart Frank of the Kendall Whaling Museum, Sharon, Massachusetts who first mentioned Du Pasquier's �Les baleiners fran�ais de Louis XVI � Napol�on�. Kronos, Paris (1990). Also I owe thanks to Thierry Du Pasquier for giving access to his unpublished data and for his records connecting prize Resolution, Marie Antoinette, and Libert� this information enabled a key connection to be made. Thanks are also due to Oswald Brett in New York for kindly sending copies of his correspondence with �Chaco Harbor� author Godfrey Blunden. Of help, was Anne Cowne at Lloyd's Register of Shipping in London for access to Lloyd's hand written emendations in the earliest Lloyd�s Registers. For initial research in England, thanks go to Ron Moore. Medical facts were checked with Dr. Brian Palmer M.D of Newcastle NSW. Matters French were translated by my friend Michel Laroche, of Tarana NSW. Many thanks are also due to Kathy Abbass, Rhode Island Marine Archaeology Project for the Newport connection for establishing the final resting place of the ship �Lord Sandwich�. The idea of collecting all of the data and �fleshing it out� into a book came from Dr. John Ratcliffe OAM, of Cooranbong NSW once Executive Director, Warden and Fellow of the University of NSW International House, and Professor of Chemical Engineering at NSW University, NSW. Dr. Archie Kalokerinos M.D. and his lifetime studies on the vitamin C, especially with indigenous populations, provided me information from his book �Every Second Child�, Keats Publishing, New Caan, Connecticut, this should be read by every mother. The final edit on antimony and Cook�s madness was �tidied up� with the diligence and input of Dr. Joan MacDonald, Ph.D., B.A. Edu., of Sunshine NSW. Mrs. Joy Farr who has an eagle eye for correcting my English, I am forever thankful.

Finally �Grumpy� must mention the curious, inquisitive minds of two grand daughters Talecia age twelve years and Emily-Kate age nine years who have the amazing ability to play in my office, one listening to some raucous recorded sounds, the other watching TV, and at the same time interrupt my work with intelligent corrections as to my use of alien punctuation, or to notice an incorrect spelling.

Mike Connell. Bonnells Bay NSW. January 2010

Chapter One It Started with a Block of Wood

Chapter 1 - It Started with a Block of Wood. Although this original book started out as the search for two of the principal ships of James Cook�s voyages of exploration, HM Bark Endeavour and HM Sloop Resolution. It presented the opportunity to bring fact to the fiction as to the final resting place of these two important ships. This fiction can now be laid to rest as both ships ended their days in Newport, Rhode Island within a few cable lengths of each other. The research behind this book started in 1996, when the Australian National Maritime Museum (ANMM) contacted me to value a potential donation from a generous

Sydney QC who had approached Museum to see if it would be interested in acquiring �significant historical artefact�. The Museum was interested in acquisition if a valuation could be agreed, the eminent silk hoped to win tax credits under the Australian Government Cultural Gifts Scheme. I was contracted to conduct the valuation in my capacity as a valuer under the Section 30-200 of the Income Tax Assessment Act, under the Federal Government Cultural Gifts Program � Taxation Incentives for the Arts Scheme. I am authorised to value Australian marine paintings; Prints; Naval and maritime artefacts; Books; Photographs; Ephemera; Ship and boat models; Maritime collections including Archival records and documents. I was doubtful from the first moment I saw the so called �significant historical artefact� which was a newish looking block of wood purportedly from the keel of HM Bark Endeavour. The artefact looked �wrong� and my instant gut feeling was that it could not have come this vessel as it showed no degradation, no marine growth, no teredo holes and no evidence of being in the sea for a two hundred years. There was no doubt that the block was from an old tree, growth rings certainly suggested a few hundred years, but this was judged by my untrained eye, without any replication for floating chronology. I suggested to the ANMM that a number of more formal tests be conducted, to include dendrochronological, and a test for dendritic salt, importantly a test for sodium chloride (NaCl). When one of these sodium tests was surreptitiously conducted, at the time of my initial valuation, the timber failed to indicate ever being in salt water. No surprised, this test rendered this object in a new, light as an �insignificant artefact�. Armed with this comforting knowledge I felt that I was now on safe ground! I advised the museum to refuse the generous offer. According to the current owner the son of the original donor, this significant historical artefact, had been inspected by experts at Sydney University who carbon dated the wood and decided it was almost 600 years old. This confirmed that the wood was hewn from an old tree. How a block of heart-wood with only two hundred or so growth rings could be six hundred years old is outside my expertise. The wooden artefact was housed in a silk lined �Artefact�s (plural) of Captain Cook�. The box and it was the donor�s belief that the box was very valuable! The donor was adamant that this ship Bark Endeavour.

box bearing a silver label giving the appearance of the 1820s clearly made to house something wooden artefact was part of Cook�s

In 2007 the son of the artefact donor took his boxed block of wood to be valued by the prestigious British Antiques Roadshow team when they visited Sydney. One of the show�s most respected experts, the elegant Paul Waterbury listened to the story of the block of wood. Waterbury noted the keel�s provenance and declared it might be worth $250,000 if it ever came on to the market. (I would have no problem with this valuation if the artefact had James Cook�s provenance and it showed evidence of some immersion in salt water for a period of time). 1 The irony is that the true fate of the HM Bark Endeavour might never have been revealed but for the block of wood offered to the National Maritime Museum � even though that same trophy had dubious provenance and the generous offer declined. However needing to protect myself from any backlash from the donor, one of Australia�s most feared litigious silks and needing to confirm my negative findings, I decided to establish the resting place of HM Bark Endeavour, wherever it was. What a twisted convolution of facts, fiction, hearsay and myth this turned out to be. However during the investigation I was staggered to learn facts relating to the actions of James Cook that in my eyes reduced him from being the �immortal

Cook� to the man who, towards the end of his life was not fit to command any ship of HM Navy. My initial self-appointed quest was to find remains or whereabouts of HM Bark Endeavour and once found, to track down the final days of HM Sloop Resolution; I though the task would be easy, for surely someone in the past must have written the ultimate history of two of the most historic ships ever to explore the Pacific. Tracking Cook�s ships, my first port of call was the Mitchell Library in Sydney and their vast James Cook reference section. The Cook bibliography housed in the Mitchell and Dixon collections exceed 4,808 different books on the man, his voyages and his ships during his first, second and third voyages.2 I started at book one �The Bonwick Transcripts� four cases of State papers and official records, original held at the PRO London. These intriguing papers offered a plethora of research data, but alas no reference to the demise of Cooks ships. I frustratingly ploughed through the entire collection at the Mitchell, ending with a collection of news-paper clippings housed in the Melbourne Library. After six months or so, I was of the opinion that not one historian had written about the last days of the Cook�s ships of exploration. However I was intrigued by the constant reference by the wonderful librarians at the Mitchell Library to �Beaglehole�. Almost with reverence, the Mitchell librarians at Sydney suggested that no research on James Cook could possibly be complete without reference to John Cawte Beaglehole, a New Zealand Academic with a passion for Cook and his exploits. My personal library of 30,000 books contains around eighty-two books on James Cook and his voyages but only three by Beaglehole, initially I had tended to overlook these works because of poor indexing of the Penguin Classic edition �James Cook The Journals�. However when I obtained my six volume copy of �The Journals of Captain James Cook�, Cambridge University Press, my dismissive attitude to Beaglehole was in an instant overturned, his work is a marque that any author should strive to achieve.

Chapter 2 - John Cawte Beaglehole

Chapter 2 - John Cawte Beaglehole Professor John Cawte Beaglehole OM; CMG; (1901-1971) was a New Zealand historian who was a noted world authority on the life, times and voyages of James Cook R.N., his greatest scholastic achievement was the editing of James Cook�s three journals

of exploration, together with the writing of an acclaimed biography of Cook, published posthumously. Beaglehole was educated at Mount Cook School, Wellington College and Victoria University College, Wellington. After his graduation, he was awarded a scholarship to study at the London School of Economics. He left for England in 1926. After three years of post-graduate study Beaglehole obtained his Ph D with a thesis on British colonial history. He worked as for Workers Educational Association, as a lecturer, later professor, at the Victoria University College New Zealand. He was historical adviser to the Department of Internal Affairs, New Zealand; Chairman of the Board of Management of the New Zealand University Press; President of the New Zealand Council for Civil Liberties; Member of the Board of Trustees of the National Art Gallery and Dominion Museum, New Zealand; Professor of British Commonwealth History at Victoria; Fellow of the Royal Society of New Zealand. Beaglehole�s four �Journals of James Cook� volumes were released 1955 and 1967. For the first voyage, of the Bark Endeavour, Beaglehole used the manuscript journal held in the National Library of Australia at Canberra. This only came to light in 1923, when the heirs of a Teesside ironmaster, Henry William Ferdinand Bolkow, put the journal up for sale; he had originally purchased this manuscript at auction in 1868. Bolkow had a passion for James Cook, erecting a huge memorial granite vase marking the location of Captain Cook's cottage, Stewart Park, Marton, Middlesbrough, UK. He arranged its installation in 1858. Henry Bolkow's residence (Marton Hall) was built near by, in 1853. He was Middlesbrough's first Mayor and first MP, and co-founder of Bolkow and Vaughan Iron and Steel Works (now part of British Steel). For Cook�s �Second Voyage�, Beaglehole used the original bound documents Cook�s widow had given to a relative. This Journal had been sold off at public auction. The British Museum gathered resources and acquired this copy like the earlier Bolkow� purchase, it too was acquired in 1868. For �Cook�s Third Voyage�, Beaglehole relied on the original Journal, written, and much revised by Cook up to early January, 1779. This manuscript is owned by the British Library, and housed in their repository. If Beaglehole had a flaw in his persona it was in his obsession with Cook, he could see no wrong with �the immortal Cook�, a term than became adopted world wide. Beaglehole refused to recognize any imperfection in his subject, anyone who offered a negative or thought ill of Cook, was given short shrift by the brilliant Beaglehole, and this flaw, tended to mask the truth! In 1970 John Cawte Beaglehole was awarded the British Order of Merit, he was only the second New Zealander ever to receive this award, the first being the nuclear physicist, Ernest Rutherford. The Order is unique in several ways, first, it is the only Order specifically for artists, scientists and intellectuals, and is one of the few given by HM Queen Elizabeth II without any political recommendation the others are the Order of the Garter; the Order of the Thistle and the Royal Victorian Order. The Order of Merit is granted to members of Commonwealth realms as well as individuals from the UK, recipients from the Commonwealth have included Mackenzie King and Lester Pearson from Canada (1947); painter Sidney Nolan (1983) and opera singer Dame Joan Sutherland (1991) from Australia, honorary members from overseas have ranged from American Army General Dwight Eisenhower, made OM by George VI in 1945, to Mother Teresa of Calcutta, honoured by the Queen during her visit to India in 1983. Beaglehole was awarded the C.M.G., in 1958, and Linnaeus Medal in 1966.

Beaglehole wrote, edited or reviewed many works, including: 1. 1934 �The Exploration of the Pacific�. 1936 �New Zealand: a Short History�. 1939 �The Discovery of New Zealand�. 1942 �Abel Janszoon Tasman and the Discovery of New Zealand� (editor) 1947 �The Exploration of the Pacific�. 1950 �As Captain Cook put it� an article. 1952 Review of �Captain Cook in New Zealand�. A.H. and A.W. Reed 1955 �Journals of Captain James Cook�. Hakluyt Society � in four volumes 1955-67 (The Journals). 1956 �On the character of Captain James Cook�, an article. 1957 �Some problems of editing Cook's Journals�, an article. 1959 Review of �Sir Joseph Banks in New Zealand�. (Ed) by W.P. Morrell 1960 Review of �Surveyor of the Sea: the life and voyages of Captain George Vancouver�. 1961 �The Discovery of New Zealand�. (Second edition) 1961 �Journals of Captain James Cook: Resolution and Adventure Voyage�. 1961 Review of �The Discovery of the Pacific Islands�. (Ed) Andrew Sharp 1962 �The Endeavour Journal of Joseph Banks�. 1963 �The Endeavour Journal of Joseph Banks�. (Second edition) 1964 �The Death of Captain Cook�. An address, Publisher - The Australian Journal of Science Vol 26 No 10. 1965 Review of �John Ledyard's Journal of Captain Cook's last voyage� by J.K. Munford. 1965 Review of �The Golden Haze� by Roderick Cameron. 1966 �The Exploration of the Pacific� (Third edition). 1967 �Captain Cook and Captain Bligh� a lecture, 1967 �Journals of Captain James Cook: Resolution and Discovery Voyage� Biographical articles in the Encyclopaedia Britannia on James Cook. Alexander Dalrymple and others. 1968 �Pacific Exploration before Cook� an article. 1969 �The Discovery of Australia�, a revision of a book by Arnold Wood, 1969 �Cook the Navigator�, an article. 1969 �Some problems of Cook's biographer� an article. 1969 �The Study of Cook: a host of questions to ask� an article. 1969 �The Unknown Cook� an article Review of �The Voyages of Abel Janszoon Tasman� by A.C. Sharp. 1970 �Cook the Writer� an article. 1970 �Cook the Man� an article Patron's address. 1970 �What made Cook a Discovery�, an article. 1971 �James Cook and Mercury Bay�, an article �Cook in the Cook islands and Tonga� an article. However the remarkable Dr. Beaglehole did not record the last resting place of Cook�s ships. By the time this researcher had exhausted the 4,808 books written about Cook, housed in the Mitchell Library I realized that Cook�s ships had slipped past all writers, no author had recorded their whereabouts, and I felt that this needed to be addressed. Beaglehole�s scholarly works did however lead me down many fascinating channels of research especially hints of the surprising tyrannical actions of James Cook. One place kept cropping up as the final resting place of Bark Endeavour �Newport Rhode Island� but this was never conclusive, in fact it was a tangled web of confused incorrect data, much of the detail was on the right track but alas all history to date had Cook�s ships confused. Like any aspect of history, the retelling often misconstrues the facts, so it was

with Cook�s ships, but more alarming so was the appalling actions of the �immortal Cook�. The deeper I looked into his everyday activities the more it became obvious that he had been a troubled man and possibly mentally deranged.

Chapter 3 Articles of War �General-at-Large� Robert Blake (1599 � 1657)

Chapter 3 - The Articles of War General-at-Large Robert Blake (1599-1657) The �Articles of War� were the brainchild of �General-at-Large� (not Admiral) Robert Blake who was totally unhappy with his fleet turning to run rather than take the battle up to the brilliant Dutch Admiral Martin Harpertszoon Von Trompe (1593-1653), as happened during the three months of the first Anglo-Dutch War. The British naval officer-in-charge General Blake went to war with many transports (merchant ships) crewed by undisciplined sailors. These ships were not part of a formal navy they were in fact individual units under control of their owner/captain who did not have to answer to Blake. Blake returned to home port after being defeated by the Dutch and he set about to make amends. His first action was to restructure the Commonwealth Navy under the Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658). Part of this reform was the introduction of �The Articles of War� a set of simple rules that were to be obeyed by every member of the crew from Admiral to the deck boy. Blake, known later as �The Father of the Navy� formed structured battle lines of three squadrons. The Admiral�s squadron wore a red ensign; the Vice Admiral wore white, and the Rear Admiral, blue. As the squadrons grew, each was eventually commanded by a full Admiral, with a Vice Admiral and Rear Admiral commanding sections. The official titles became �Admiral of the Red�, with a Vice Admiral of the Red; �Rear Admiral of the Red� (controlling the rear of the fleet) et cetera, et cetera; and the same for blue and white. The squadrons ranked in order, red, white, and blue, with Admirals ranked according to their squadron. The head of the fleet (van) was usual to be under the �Red� command. This was not hard and fast, as some Admirals of the Red preferred to control the battle from the centre of the fleet. Nelson preferred to lead from the front of one of two columns. From the start he set out to break the enemy line of battle with two columns in order to cut the centre and rear of the fleet from its van, and to then concentrate his forces on the ships at the rear. The point of attack was when the opposition ships were sailing downwind, it would be difficult for those in the van to sail back upwind and come to the aid of the rear. This is a similar tactic Nelson had already used

successfully at the Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1797). The Admiral of the Fleet flew the union flag at the mainmast, (often misnamed the �union jack�), the Rear Admiral wore his ensign at the mizzen and the Vice Admiral wore his ensign at the foremast. This restructure ensured a sound fighting force, for the first time. Knowing that a happy crew would serve him better, Blake also reformed the seamen�s pay and conditions, ensuring that no ship would ever leave a battle because it lacked fire-power, he armed all ships with decent ordnance even transports.1 With renewed confidence and a formal line of command the three British Royal Navy vans (fore-front of the fleet) headed out to the Channel almost twelve months after the first loss. This time in 1652 the roles were reversed. Dutch Admiral Tromp lost twelve warships and forty-three transports, and fifteen hundred men paid with their lives and the great Dutch Admiral himself was killed. The Dutch were devastated at the loss of their great Admiral, but they regrouped and went back into battle this time forty ships were lost whereas Blake lost no ships the British were starting to establish some superiority at sea. During August 1768 James Cook took the unusual step of reading out Blake�s (amended) Articles of War, to all of the crew just prior to departure. 2 The Articles of War as amended in 1757 set out all the rules, regulations and punishments, by which a Royal Navy ship operated. Even though the articles are commonly known as Articles of War, the Act itself specifically states in the �preamble� that these Articles and Orders applied in times of peace as well as times of War. This section of the Act was to indicate to the fo�c�sle lawyers in the crew that they did not have to be at war to be bound by the Articles of War. The Articles of War regulated the British Navy beginning in 1652 with revisions in 1661, 1749, 1757 and 1866. There are thirty-six articles, twenty of which carry a possible penalty of death. The vast majority of the disciplinary measures administered on Admiralty fell under Article Thirty-six also known as the �Captain's cloak� because it covered the Captain for any legal punishment he ordered: All other crimes not capital committed by any person or persons in the fleet, which are not mentioned in this act, or for which no punishment is hereby directed to be inflicted, shall be punished by the laws and customs in such cases used at sea. Articles of War. James Cook was never charged under any of the articles, as his unfortunate death intervened. However had he survived Cook should have been charged with breaking the following Articles of War: Article 26. punished

All murders committed by any person in the fleet, shall be with death by the sentence of a Court Martial.

Article 31. If any flag officer, captain, or commander, or lieutenant belonging to the fleet, shall be convicted before a Court Martial of behaving in a scandalous, infamous, cruel, oppressive, or fraudulent manner, unbecoming the character of an officer, he shall be dismissed from His Majesty's service. Article 33. in

If any person who shall be in actual service and full pay of His Majesty�s ships and vessels of war, shall commit upon the shore, any place or places out of His Majesty�s dominions, any of the crimes punishable by these articles and orders, the person so offending shall be liable to be tried and punished for the same. 3

Captain William Bligh F.R.S., (1754-1817) As was made more than obvious with the execution of Admiral Byng, no person serving with the Royal Navy was exempt from the consequence of breaking the Articles of War. No officer or commander of any Royal Navy vessel is immune from being summoned to attend an Admiralty Court Martial. Captain William Bligh faced the Admiralty Courts twice. In 1797 Captain Bligh commanded HMS Director at the battle of Camperdown. As Captain of HMS Glatton Bligh took part in the 1801 Battle of Copenhagen, after which he was commended for his bravery by Admiral Lord Horatio Nelson (1758 1805); Also in this same year Bligh was elected a Nautical Fellow of the Royal Society, in consideration of his distinguished services in navigation, botany, etc, he was also elected a Member of the Asiatic Society. Under the Articles of War Captain Bligh faced the Admiralty Court Martial twice. The first time over his loss of his ship HM Armed Transport Bounty after the infamous mutiny of 1804, he was exonerated. Bligh took command of HMS Warrior on survey duties, it was not a happy command, and one of the lieutenants constantly niggled Bligh. During the voyage Bligh charged Lieutenant John Frazier with neglect of duty, after disagreeing that an injury had made him unfit to take watch. Frazier claimed he tripped and fell over a keg on deck and was placed in the sick bay by the ship�s physician Mr. Cosnaham. Captain Bligh believed that Lieutenant Frazier was a �malingerer� and ordered the physician to discharge his patient back to his watch. Claiming an inability to stand on his legs during the watch, Captain Bligh reluctantly gave permission for the malingerer to be seated. Bligh and Frazier could not see eye-to-eye on anything and soon Bligh lost his temper. Once at home in England Lieutenant Frazier took this matter to a higher court, where he was acquitted. Frazier then accused Captain Bligh of having grossly insulting and ill-treating him, and behaving in a tyrannical and oppressive and un-officer like manner. With Frazier�s success in the civil court, he now had the ammunition to proceed further, this time with the Admiralty Courts Martial, Frazier set out to seek revenge, and he knew exactly how to go about it. In a letter dated 13th November 1804 to Vice Admiral Collingwood, Lieutenant Frazer vented his venom against Captain Bligh. Stating that whilst serving in HM Ship Warrior, Bligh �grossly insulted and ill treated him in the execution of his office by calling him a �rascal and scoundrel� and shaking his fist in his face on or about 30th October, 1804�.4 Unable to shake off the nonsense, Bligh was faced with no other choice but to answer the subpoena to attend the Naval Court Martial. Bligh was a capable naval officer and like Cook unable to suffer fools, he had powerful friends who stood by him. Amongst his regular friends Bligh could count the Admiral of the Fleet Sir James Hawkins; the Earl of Selkirk; Dr. Alfred Getty; the Duke of Clarence and Sir Joseph Banks. Yet none could save Bligh from the embarrassment of a trivial matter being heard by a Navy Court Martial held during February 1805. Bligh had an eloquent tongue and could cut an adversary to bits with his polished language, however when riled he was known to use more cutting language, but rarely debased. Bligh did not resort to obscenity when he could cut a man down with a few well chosen words. The Royal Navy Court Martial trying these charges, found them 'in-part proved', and sentenced Bligh to be reprimanded and ordered him to be 'more correct in his language' in future (considered a tap on the back of the hand). This unfortunate instance had no bearing on the future of Captain Bligh he was to be promoted to higher office. Bligh accepted the position of Governor of New South Wales, succeeding Governor Philip Gidley King. Bligh�s

salary was double that of his predecessor, at �2,000 per annum. This appointment proved to be a disaster. Bligh was the wrong man to take control over the unruly colonialists. On 6th August 1806 Bligh reached Sydney in New South Wales. Bligh was greatly distressed with the cavalier attitude of those in supposed �authority�. Bligh set out to clean up the chicanery. One of the first he suspended was the chief medical practitioner Dr. D'Arcy Wentworth (1762-1827) MD for employing 'invalids' from the hospital on his private concerns, he was found guilty. By 4th October 1806 things were on a collision course for Bligh when he issued new regulations to tighten up the government's control of ships, their cargoes, including spirits. Rum was the �currency� of the colony and this was �protected� by the military. This was to cause angst with the locals as rum was the local currency. During the period 3rd January to 14th February 1808 Bligh ordered all promissory notes should be drawn payable only in sterling money � rather than rum, that were the limit for the locals. Bligh ordered illicit stills closed, and forbade under stringent penalties, charges against those who continued to distil alcohol. Governor Bligh ordered those said to be illegally occupying certain town sites to move, and questioned the leases of others, including the wealthy colony leaders� pastoralist John Macarthur (1767-1834). Macarthur was arrested and was prosecuted for a variety of misdemeanours and �outrageous offences�. Macarthur called in a favour from the commander of the New South Wales Corps, Major George Johnston (1764 - 1823) who ordered Macarthur's release. With a patrol of armed marines, Johnston deposed Bligh and assumed the government of the colony. For more than a year after his arrest, Governor Bligh remained in confinement in Sydney; refusing to promise to sail to England should he ever be liberated. Isolated, Bligh stayed until his replacement Governor Lachlan Macquarie arrived in Sydney. Macquarie sent the upstarts to Courts Martial in England. Bligh reached England 25th October 1810 and was soon involved in the court martial of one of the coup leaders, Major Johnston. Since the defence was justification, this was virtually Bligh�s trial too. Major Johnston was convicted but the court thought the Governor not free from blame. It was stated that Johnston was acting as Macarthur's tool. Though Bligh's hot temper and violent language did not justify mutiny, they certainly marred his record. Bligh was gazetted Rear-Admiral of the White on 31st July 1810 and was promoted again during June 1814 Rear-Admiral Bligh RN was gazetted Rear-Admiral of the Blue; however, he never raised his command flag again. Admiral John Byng (1704-57) Two other unfortunate naval officers were not given a slap on the wrist, they were executed for breaking the Articles of War. Admiral John Byng was executed in 1757 for failing to relieve Minorca (in the western Mediterranean) from a French siege (looked on in retrospect as a possible miscarriage of justice). Byng was seen by Admiralty as incompetent in action against the French fleet that was besieging the British garrison at Port Mahon in Minorca. In 1756 he was tried by court martial, Byng was found guilty and sentenced to death. He remains the only British Admiral ever executed. The Royal Navy specified death for committing a number of offences under the Articles of War. This ultimate punishment was common in most European navies. A hanging was usually carried out with the victim being hung from the yard arm of the sailing ship; the noose around the neck having the other end of the rope heaved on briskly by a party of designated seamen. Admiral Byng by contrast, was shot by firing squad on his own quarterdeck. He had been charged under - Article

of War IX - Treacherously or cowardly yield or cry for quarter. If found guilty before a Court Martial of any one of eight offences under the Articles of War, death was the punishment, but only murder, treason, cowardice and buggery normally attracted it. Admiral Francesco Caracciolo (1752-1799) Another unfortunate to see the end of a rope from the yard-arm, was Admiral Francesco Caracciolo, Duke of Brienza, born in Naples and learning his naval-craft in the British Royal Navy under Rodney. He fought with distinction in the British service in the American War of Independence, and against the French at Toulon. Leaving the royal navy, Admiral Francesco Caracciolo returned to Naples to help sort out family affairs, when he learned that his family and other royalists were fleeing to Sicily. 5 Admiral Nelson just managed to rescue the royal family from Naples before the city fell to French invaders. On 21st January 1799 an English naval squadron approached Naples and occupied the island of Procida. Neapolitans proclaimed a Parthenopean Republic 23rd January 1799 with support from the French occupation force. Pressure was brought to bear and Caracciolo was asked to lead the Republican Navy and, after some doubts, he accepted the new task. His fleet, however, had only small ships but he fought with bravery against the remaining superior royalist vessels of Bourbon King Ferdinand IV, who was allied to the British. Fearful of the arrival of the Franco-Spanish fleet, Caracciolo took command of frigate Sannita under Republican colours. Ferdinand IV recaptured Naples in June 1799, the Republic was overthrown, its supporters were massacred in violation of a peace treaty, and Ferdinand was restored to his throne along with his consort, Maria Carolina. Nelson was relieved to see the restoration of King Ferdinand and Consort as it afforded him the opportunity to continue with his m�nage � trois at Palazzo Palagonia in Palermo with Lady Emma and Sir William Hamilton the British Envoy. During the voyage south Admiral Caracciolo ran into his old fleet under Nelson, an action commenced and Caracciolo was captured and brought in chains to Nelson's flagship the HMS Foudroyant. Admiral Caricciolo was charged under The Articles of War with high treason and condemned to death on 28th June 1799; Nelson ordered that he should be hanged from the yard-arm of HMS Minerva the next morning. The sentence was duly carried out on being proclaimed dead Caracciolo�s body was unceremoniously thrown into the sea. At sundown, Caracciolo�s family were able to rescue the corpse, discarded to the sea. 6 The people of Naples could not forget their hero they installed a memorial plaque at the Naples city hall. The epitaph testifies to the ignominious non Christian treatment administered by Caracciolo�s enemies. It is written in Italian, translated into English, it reads: �Francesco Caracciolo Admiral of the Republic of Naples, who fell victim of the hatred and the lack of mercy of his enemies. He was hanged at the mast on 29th June, 1799. The people of Santa Lucia took it upon themselves to honour him with a�Christian burial. The City Council of Naples, 1881�.

The Litigious Mathew Cox James Cook faced his own problems with a litigious crew, one character refuting the Captain�s right to discipline him for offences outside the Articles of War � �Stealing potatoes in a native patch at NZ�. Cook had sentenced Mathew Cox to one dozen lashes and the next day another dozen for disputing the sentence. It seems that after taking umbrage with Cook, Cox harboured the belief of injustice, and after the voyage issued a summons for James Cook to present himself at the London Assizes. The Admiralty Solicitor prepared a defence and attended. The wheels of justice however were very slow, so slow indeed that the claim failed, after much disinterest from the authorities; by the time it was due to be listed Cook had been killed and the case extinguished.

Chapter 4 The Transit of Venus

Chapter 4. The Transit of Venus In London The Royal Society, had requested His Royal Highness George III command the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to provide a ship to carry an expedition to the Pacific Ocean to determine accurately the solar parallax; the measurement from points widely separated in latitude on the earth's surface. Scientists wished to observe the duration of the transit of the planet Venus across the disc of the sun; this would provide data to assist in the preparation of more accurate navigation tables.

In 1769 many eminent scientists believed that points of observation would best be found at a number of suitable locations including Rotterdam or Amsterdam Island found in the middle of the Indian Ocean at approximately 80� longitude, Marquesas de Mendoza (Marquesas Islands), and the volcanic archipelago in the southern Pacific Ocean, which was part of French Polynesia, discovered by a Spanish navigator in 1595. Part of Cook's sailing 'Orders and Instructions' were more specific, naming Port Royal Harbour (Matavai Bay) in King George the Third's Island (now Tahiti) as the point to observe the transit of Venus. Confirmation of this order was dispatched to Cook. Lieutenant James Cook and a compliment of ninety-four sailors, officers and marines were placed on muster role of HM Bark Endeavour. The appointed officers were Second Lieut. Zachary Hicks; Third Lieut John Gore; Master Robert Molineaux; Master�s mate Richard Pinkersgill; Master�s mate Charles Clarke; Surgeon William Brougham Monkhouse; Surgeon�s Mate William Perry; John Satterly, ship�s carpenter; Stephen Forward ship�s gunner; Captain�s Clerk Richard Orton; Cook, John Thompson; Captain�s steward, two quartermasters, an armourer, a sail maker; Three midshipmen, John Bootie, Jonathon Munkhouse, Patrick Saunders; forty-one able seamen, nine servants, and twelve marines. The King had approved the expedition and authorised an expenditure of �4,000 for this venture, Joseph Banks (1743-1820) was to provide a further �10,000 from his own personal wealth to underwrite the costs of his grand style and his shipboard retinue including Botanist Dr. Daniel Solander (1733-1782); Naturalist Herman Dietrich Sporing (1733-1782); Three artists, Alexander Buchan (1769-1769); John Reynolds (1750-?); Sydney Parkinson (1745-1771) two footmen James Roberts and Peter Briscoe they were two tenants from Bank�s Revesby UK properties. Two coloured servants (Thomas Richmond and George Dorlton who were to freeze to death later in the voyage off the Tierra del Fuego). Charles Green of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich was selected as second observer under Cook to witness the transit of Venus. Death of Joseph Bank�s Footmen. Five months out, at Tierra del Fuego on 17th January 1769, Lieutenant Cook sent the naturalists Joseph Banks and Charles Solander inland with their black servants, Thomas Richmond and George Dorlton. The servants were both charged with guarding the alcoholic spirits (for preserving specimens). While the scientists picked plants, mindless of the cold and impending dark, the servants stupefied themselves with the preserving alcohol to the degree that they were laid-out, comatose in the cold night air. The inclement weather overwhelmed the two servants. The terrain and nightfall made it impossible for any one to find them and take them to the ship and safety. The crew were obliged to leave the two inebriates and the next morning when they were both found dead. 1 Death from cold was not uncommon at sea. Once whilst in Antarctic iceberg territory 61�21s it was bitterly cold, freezing to death the ships litter of newborn pigs and breeding sow. One of the goat was lost overboard a few months later. It was recovered by the crew in the long boat but it died soon after � its mate returned with the ship to England. Another goat gave birth but the newborn kid froze to death. With the cold and wet during this rescue the crew came down with chilblains so Cook ordered one of the kegs stored on the quarter-deck be tapped and double rations of arrack issued to the crew. (Arrack, a drink with 50 to 52% alcohol spirit, obtained by distillation from the external pulp of different species of palms, or from rice, which has been fermented).

Cook�s mission was to reach Tahiti in good time for the transit; estimated to occur on June 3rd 1769. Cook was instructed to set up an astronomical fort observatory, to observe the transit of Venus when the shadow of the planet Venus can be measured as it glides across the face of the sun, and by doing so an accurate measurement was possible indicating the size of the earth. Transits of Venus are rare, they come in pairs being eight years apart, separated by approximately one hundred and twenty years.1 In 1717 Astronomer Royal, Edmund Halley wrote, that with the start and stop times of the transit of Venus from widely spaced locations on earth, he could calculate the distance to Venus using the principles of parallax, the scale of the rest of the solar system would follow. There was a problem for observers of the transit, not only for Cook in Tahiti, but the seventy-six points around the world. The calculations obtained were not precise enough to set the scale of the solar system. Astronomers did not manage to accurately record the transit until the 19th century when they used photography to record the next pair of transits. Six weeks before the transit Cook ordered the crew and scientists build a fort with the materials shipped from England. The crew dubbed it �Fort Venus�, built to protect the equipment from the light fingered locals. Lieutenant Cook and Mr. Green agreed exactly on one of the observation times, and only differed by six seconds on the other. 2 The massive supply of instruments to be used to calculate the transit included many bespoke or special instruments, supplied by the Royal Society these included: John Shelton�s astronomical clock �number thirty-five�, stabilised by sand bags to the base. This clock was too big, too difficult to stabilise and quite useless for use at sea, but a superb instrument for land based time-keeping. An alarum (alarm) clock; An astronomical quadrant (a huge one-foot instrument); A Hadley's Sextant by Ramsden; A Hadley's sextant by Dolland; An achromatic telescope with a treble object glass of forty-six inch focus with an object glass micrometer and an eye tube with moveable wires (two-foot Gregorian reflecting telescope); A reflecting telescope; A four-foot hand perspective with a large aperture; A marine dipping needle with six magnetic steel bars; Two small variation compasses; An azimuth compass with a spare card; A theodolite and G�nter�s chain (used in land surveying); A basin for holding quick silver for observing double altitudes with six pounds of quick silver (water in a good reflecting bowl covered with clean glass is just as good as the dangerous quick silver (mercury). Possibly this was unknown to James Cook); Two portable barometers; six thermometers; Kendal's 1st watch made in exact replica of Mr. Harrison's (H1 This was to prove to be the finest of all the instruments of it�s day and was to allow James Cook accuracy in his calculations with longitude the errors rarely exceed half a degree); A pinchbeck pocket watch with a second hand and ruby bearings; A marine barometer; A wooden bucket to fetch up sea water from great depths to try it's saltiness and coldness - two barometers belonging to it; Three bottles for weighing salt water in; A Hydrostatic Balanced (an accurate balance for weighing things in air and water); Two night telescopes; A tent observatory. 3 Lieutenant Cook, astronomer Green, young Mr. Banks and other �Gentlemen� observed the transit for about six hours. Lieutenant Cook had set up two other locations on the Island to take comparable observations. Observations were to be published in the �Philosophical Transactions� the Royal Society Journal. The timings that were deemed critical were of the first and second ingress contact. Both Cook and Green had problems in accurately establishing the ingress and egress moments.4 During the observations of the transit the silhouette of Venus appeared with a curved surface as it passed across the sun commonly known as the �black drop� effect. This caused some inaccuracies in the survey calculations. Regardless of these inaccuracies, these measurements allowed the French astronomer Joseph Jer�me Lalande (1732-1807) to estimate the Solar Parallax to approximate 153,000,000 �1

kilometres. (NASA later calculated the distance between earth and the sun, at 149,597,870,691 kilometres �0.030 kilometres).

Chapter Five HM BARK ENDEAVOUR

Chapter 5 - HM Bark Endeavour The Board of Admiralty needed a vessel of rugged construction, capacious enough to carry stores for a long voyage as well as a considerable supercargo of Scientists, and a larger than average crew. Although being informed that the sloops HMS Trial (1744) 14 guns, and HMS Rose (1757) could not be ready for sea in time, no existing naval craft of the day was considered suitable. Admiralty�s attention turned to the vessels, which carried coal around the coast of England � the Whitby colliers; this suggestion could have come from the expert in these craft, James Cook. Admiralty sought approval to purchase an alternate vessel; in 1768 the Navy Board recommended that the vessel be cat-built vessel for this service, of about 350 tons from the coal trade. Admiralty considered three possible vessels �Ann and Elizabeth�; �Valentine�; and �Earl of Pembroke�. All three were surveyed by Sir Thomas Slade and John Williams the Naval surveyors from the Deptford yard, the latter vessel was recommended and purchased from her owner, Thomas Milner, for �2,307. Cook was well aquatinted with Whitby colliers; in 1746 he had signed a three-year apprenticeship agreement with John Walker, a Whitby shipowner. Cook combined an arduous but invaluable period of training in that hard school of seamanship along the East coast of England. After about eighteen months young James Cook sailed on longer voyages to the Baltic in the collier �Freelove� 450 tons continuing for three years on the �Three Brothers�, this vessel carried troops to and from Europe. Promotion came easily for able-bodied seaman Cook on the Baltic trader �Mary� (Maria). At the age of twenty-four years he was promoted to the position of mate. Three years later he took command as master of the collier trader �Friendship�, out of England's East Coast to Baltic and other Continental ports. At the commencement of the �Seven Years War� with France, James Cook left the services of Walker Brothers. He was twenty-seven years old, when he joined the Royal Navy as an able seaman. Within a month of service he was promoted to the

warranted rank of master's mate, his duties included taking soundings and keeping the log book. Within two years James Cook was promoted again to master, a warrant officer of HMS Eagle, one month after leaving this vessel he was master of HMS Solebay. Collier Earl of Pembroke Other than a possible recommendation, Cook played no part in the purchase the collier Earl of Pembroke, as at the time of the negotiation, he was serving aboard the HM schooner Grenville, returning to the English winter from a voyage surveying Newfoundland - where he was also known as the official engineering � surveyor. The Admiralty Board made it a strict requirement that the ship they selected for the great voyage of exploration must be able to take the ground with a minimum of damage and lie comfortably on shore, careened, whilst accidental damage was repaired. 1 The Earl of Pembroke was a �cat-built bark�, a rather imprecise name, a term lost in time. Whitby colliers were built with broad apple-cheeked hull shape, a vertical stem with no figure-head or billet-head and a narrow shape at the stern, with no decoration or galleries. They had a very utilitarian design with a bluff bow her hull had a number of ports through which coal or timber could be passed directly when loading, the internal structure was designed to provide the maximum cargo space, with a main deck and four levels to distribute the load. The main attraction to those in the know, was and a �tumble-over� bottom, this was to save the ship at Endeavour River when she needed to be careened after running upon a reef. Another more expected danger was �shipworm� (Teredo navalis) a mussel of the genus teredinidae, which include about 80 species living in wooden material like logs, pilings and ships at all temperate and warm coast around the world. The shipworm body is elongate and wormlike; the shell no longer protects the body, but covers, helmet-like, the anterior parts and acts as a powerful boring instrument. A bored tunnel connects to the surface with a tiny hole with two siphons for the shipworm to inhale and exhale water. Therefore from the outside the shipworm is very hard to detect, often the damage appears only when too late to repair. To ward off this scourge HM Bark Endeavour had the special protection, a mailetage sheathing covered with broad-headed wrought iron nails (the size of saucers) that were hammered in so close, that the heads of each nail touched the other, armadillo like. Parkin in his splendid book �HM Bark Endeavour� 2 refers to this process as 'almost iron-clad on the bottom'. Prior to the clouting with the big wrought iron nails the bottom of the vessel was 'filled' with tarred matted hair sheathing which was the bottom was overlayed with a layer of one-inch thick boards. The rudder pintles, tiller arm straps and gudgeon pins were also made of wrought iron, considered superior to other material because of its rust proof quality. This expensive process was to be replaced by the more practical copper sheathing on later builds. But the copper sheathing used on the bottom of HM ships was to cause problems with the copper reacting with the iron fittings; this was to take many years to resolve. The idea of copper as a sheathing was first recommended to the stubborn Navy Board in 1708 by Charles Perry, the idea was initially rejected. In 1761 the 32-gun HM Frigate Alarm was ordered to have her entire bottom coppered, in response to the terrible condition in which she returned from service in the West Indies. Before the copper plates were applied, the hull was first covered with �soft stuff�, hair, yarn and brown paper this was supposed to provide a barrier between the copper and the ship fastenings. The copper performed very well in protecting the hull from invasion by worm, however it was soon discovered by the Admiralty that the copper clouts used to hold the plates to the hull had reacted with the iron bolts used in the construction of the ship, rendering many

of the iron near useless. In 1766, due to the poor condition of the iron bolts, HM Frigate Alarm's copper was ordered to be removed, and was not replaced � the Teredo Navalis worms soon came back! The �Earl of Pembroke� age three years and nine months was commissioned into His Majesty's Royal Navy during 1768 and was renamed HM Bark Endeavour and work began at once to fit her out at Deptford. She had been built in 1764 at the shipyard of Thomas Fishburn in Whitby. The vessel measured: - Length 97' 8�; Beam 29' 2�; Depth of Hold 15' 4�; Tonnage 368 71/94 tons when surveyed. There is a slight discrepancy with her nominal tonnage calculated from her plans which were drawn later, this indicated 366 tons. A valuation of �2,307 and sixpence was issued for the hull, masts and yards. 3 It should be noted that �Bark Endeavour� is a proper noun and not �the bark Endeavour� a mistake in naming that was to haunt the vessel for evermore. Thomas Fishburn established his shipyard in Whitby in about 1748. He later built a dry-dock nearby. His son, also known as Thomas succeeded him at the yard. Junior entered a partnership with a Thomas Broderick which continued in operation until 1830.4 Meanwhile staffing the vessel was in train. James Cook whilst in Newfoundland received a letter dated 25th May 1768 from Admiralty confirming the appointment as first Lieutenant of HM Bark Endeavour, laying at Deptford. Cook was informed that the vessel was to be fitted out for Foreign Service, manned with seventy seamen, and victualled for twelve months with all species of provisions for the said number of men. Alcohol was to be the �whole allowance�, except for beer, of which the vessel was to have only a proportion for one month, and to be supplied with brandy and arak in lieu.

Chapter Six Orders

Chapter 6 - Sailing Orders HM Bark Endeavour was ready to sail, Lieutenant James Cook was presented with a number of documents including �Secret Orders� and the formal �Sailing Orders� and �Hints�.1 Secret Orders dated 30th June 1768 The concealed reason for Cook's expedition was simply to settle the eastern side of the Terra Australia, a great tract of the East Coast that had remained unexplored after having been discovered in 1606 by Willem Janszoon It is ironic that notwithstanding the �Secret� nature of his sealed orders, dated 30th July 1768, the London Gazette of 19th August 1768 2 published a front page headline under the banner �Secret Voyage� detailing all of the secrets that would be disclosed to Cook when Cook had left the Channel! The article attracted a huge readership so further details of the �secret Voyage were published one week later 26th August 1768. The masses now knew of Cook�s �Secret Voyage� yet HM Bark Endeavour was still in English waters. 3

The official �Secret Orders� and other official documents lay undiscovered till the Navy Records Society published them in 1928. This publication proved the accuracy of the London Gazette reporters of 1768 where they stated that Cook was to proceed to the southward in order to �discover the Continent above-mentioned until arriving at the Latitude of 40�. 4 So much for the Transit of Venus cover! 4 �Hints� Besides the �sailing orders�; �general orders�; and �secret orders� Lieutenant Cook was given a most interesting document a list of �Hints� not offered lightly nor written by an obscure Government body, the �Hints� were issued by the Royal Society, considered the top scientific brains in Britain. The Society was underwriting this voyage of exploration. The �Hints� bore the signature of the President, the 14th Earl James Douglas Morton (1702-1768), who was dead before the word that Lieutenant Cook had disregarded almost every one of the well thought out �Hints� reached the illustrious ears of the new President James West. 5 The document was addressed specifically to Lieutenant James Cook, Mr. Banks, Doctor Solander and the other gentlemen who were on the expedition on board the HM Bark Endeavour. Cook and the �Gentlemen� were instructed to: �Restrain the wanton use of fire arms! The shedding of blood of those people is a crime of the highest nature, they are the natural and in the strictest sense of the word, the legal possessors of the several regions they inhabit. No European nation has a right to occupy any part of their country, or settle among them without their voluntary consent! Conquest over such people can give no just title because they could never be the aggressors�. Cook overlooked all of this advice without exception. 6 The Royal Society had initially proposed a Society Fellow lead the voyage to study the transit of Venus. They had in mind, the illustrious yet curmudgeonous Alexander Dalrymple (1737�1808). The Society�s intent was to find a suitable place to conduct the transit of Venus. Tahiti had been recommended by Wallis after his 1767 voyage. Captain Samuel Wallis RN had sailed from Plymouth with HM Sloop Dolphin under his command, entering the Pacific through the Magellan Straits in April 1767. Dolphin passed through the Tuamotou Archipelago to reach Mehetia and Tahiti. The sailors saw a mountain covered with cloud and thought it was the �Southern Continent�, instead they had discovered the island of Tahiti. Wallis called Tahiti �King George Island� in honour of the English king. After some skirmishing with the natives, including firing his canons at them, and destroying their canoes, the Tahitians understandably preferred peace, bringing gifts of food and cloth. The crew of HM Sloop Dolphin was to become the first Europeans to satiate their carnal desires with the exquisite local Tahitian wahines. Wallis was adamant that it was not his crew that introduced venereal disease to this Pacific population. Wallis slips the blame to the French by stating that �Cook�s men found it here�. This is far from the truth and the Wallis comments had been heavily edited by Hawkesworth in 1773. Wallis did not write these �Cook� comments in the first person, and he did not write them six year after his visit to Hawaii. More importantly these comments on the venereal disease were noted six years after Wallis had written the �1766-7 Log Book of HMS Dolphin�. Cook was to arrive at Tahiti April 1769 two years after Wallis. If Wallis claimed it wasn�t his crew, and James Cook did not realize who the �authors� were until March 1776 it is understandable why the fingers were pointing

at the French. Wallis was adamant that that none of his people contracted the venereal disease at Tahiti, and therefore, as they had regular intimate contact with great numbers of the women, there is the greatest probability that venereal disease was not left behind on the departure of Wallis. Venereal disease was however, according to Cook, found there on arrival of HM Bark Endeavour. No European vessel is known to have visited this island before Captain Cook�s arrival, other than the Dolphin, and the French Boudese and Etoile, commanded by M. Bougainville. It is therefore reasonable to see why Cook was looking to others to reproach for having contaminated with that despicable disease a race of happy people to whom its miseries had till then been unknown. Wallis arrived back in England via the Cape of Good Hope, during May 1768 in time to hand over the ship�s log and pass on navigational information to the Admiralty and Cook, then preparing to leave on his exploration voyage in HM Bark Endeavour.

Chapter Seven Scurvy � the Killer of Seamen

Chapter 7 Scurvy the Killer of Seamen After a talk about James Cook RN, at my Church �kids group� I was approached by one of the Church Elders who suggested that I should have introduced a Christian message into my talk. Without hesitation I responded that � the talk was about Cook�s insistence that the crew should be eating greens to prevent disease and death. To Cook this was as Christian as any biblical text could be, and to me this message is as true to-day as it ever was in the 18th Century. Dr. James Lind (1716-1794) There was hope for some sailors in 1747, aboard 4th rater HM Ship Salisbury 74 guns, surgeon, ship surgeon Lind took twelve patients, each with well-established scurvy, and cured them. Lind found that the most effective treatments were fresh

oranges and lemons, followed by cider. In his �Treatise upon the Scurvy�, James Lind graphically details scurvy; he described some of the symptoms as the �horrific killer of sailors�. Sailors who consumed nothing but salted and smoked dried meat or fish, sea-biscuits, stinking water, unfermented farinaceous vegetables and pease, would as matter of course contract scurvy, this was part of Lind�s findings.1 (Pease pudding, sometimes known as pease pottage or pease porridge - a baked vegetable product, which mainly consists of split yellow or carlin peas, water, salt, and spices, often cooked with a bacon or ham joint). The diet of the seamen of the day was predictable; many of the dishes were traditional and stodgy and understandably contained no fresh vegetables! Pease pudding, sometimes known as pease pottage (or pease porridge) is a baked vegetable product, which mainly consists of dried split yellow or Carlin peas, water, salt, and spices, often cooked with a preserved bacon or ham joint. The basic staple on board Cook�s ships was dried sea biscuits, which had little to no nutritious value other than the protein provided by weevils which were always evident in this �hard tack�. Dried rock-hard salt-meat that needed to be soaked for days to make it palatable was standard fare, so too were dried Carlin beans and split peas augmented with King George�s sauerkraut concoction. Surgeon Lind was quick to recognise the cause of the scurvy as being dietary; likewise those who suffered melancholic, maniacal hysteria, or hypochondriacal disorders. Lind may have been wrong here but he described the way an unbalanced diet attacked seamen. Scurvy caused spontaneous weariness, heaviness of the body, difficulty in breathing, especially after bodily motion; rottenness of the gums, a stinking breath, frequent bleeding of the nose, and difficulty of walking; sometimes a swelling and �rubbery� legs, in which there are always livid, plumbeous, yellow, or covered in violet-coloured spots; the colour of the face is generally of a pale tawney. The first state of this disease begins with unusual laziness, spontaneous weariness; the patient loves to be in a sitting or lying posture; there is a pain in all the muscles, as if over tired, especially the legs and loins; when waking in the morning, all joints and muscles seem to be tired and bruised, in the second state, the gums swell, grow painful, hot and itching, and bleed upon the least pressure; the roots of the teeth become bare and loose; pain is felt in all the external and internal parts of the body. Lind�s graphic description went on to describe the final stages of untreated scurvy. Gangrene ensues; the teeth, now loose by degrees, grow yellow, black, and rotten; the sublingual veins become varicose, and like rings; there are often fatal haemorrhages, which break out from the external skin, without any appearance of a wound from the lips, gums, mouth, nose, lungs, stomach, liver, spleen, pancreas, intestines, womb, kidneys and obstinate ulcers arise, of the very worst kind, which no applications will cure, and which are apt to turn gangrenous; the ulcers break out in all parts, but especially the legs, which stink. There is an itch and dry scabs, with a dry and mild leprosy. The blood drawn from a vein is black, grumous, thick, and yet wants its due consistence in the fibrous part; the serum is salt, sharp, and abounding with yellowish green mucus on its surface. There are gnawing, rending pains, quickly shifting from place to place, which grow more violent in the night, affecting all the joints, bones, and viscera. Lind explained the fourth state, the final stage just prior to death: �there are fevers of various kinds, which bring on atrophy; sometimes diarrhoeas, dysenteries, or violent strangury�s; also fainting and mortal anxieties, a dropsy, consumption, convulsions, trembling, a palsy, contractions, black spots, voiding of blood upwards and downwards, a putrefaction and consumption of the liver, spleen, pancreas, mesentery, now the contagion spreads very quickly�. 2 After much experiment, Dr. Lind knew how to limit the damage of scurvy; he

correctly concluded that the problem was dietary; however he had no scientific explanation as to the cause. It was not until Axel Holst and Theodore Frolich carried out their experiments with scurvy on guinea pigs during 1907-12 that the concept of a deficiency disease was established. As late as 1932 King and Waugh isolated ascorbic-acid the vitamin �C� we all know so much about today. Scurvy had been the bane of sailors since ships first put to sea, but now prevention and cure were a simple case of eating the right food. Jacques Cartier (1491-1557) In 1535 King Francis I of France underwrote the cost of three voyages of exploration under command of Captain Jacques Cartier whose exploration of the North American coast and the St. Lawrence River in 1534, 1535, 1541-42 laid the basis for later French claims to Canada. During the second voyage Cartier sailed his convoy of three ships, one-hundred and ten men, and the two native boys, into the St. Lawrence River, and reached the Iroquoian village of Stadacona, where Cartier met again with Chief Donnacona and his two sons. The crew were in a desperate state, twenty-five dead others were near death from scurvy. On the first voyage Captain Cartier had had taken Domagaya, the chief's son to France. On return home to Stadacona, young Domagaya was also near death from scurvy, within a week or so however, Domagaya, was free of disease. Cartier was desperate to know how this miraculous cure had taken place. Domagaya showed Cartier his strange cure, made from the fresh young tree cuttings of Annedda (thuja occidentalia white cedar tree). The medicine was made by boiling the fresh branches and drinking the brew. Cartier�s crew were apprehensive and at first refused to drink the concoction, but those that did, started to rid the scurvy within days. The entire crew soon realised the brew would cure their swollen knees, shrunken sinews, rotting stinking gums and made them all feel �marvellous glad�.3 Alas Cartier and his crew suffered from another European disease �Gold fever� The men also began collecting what they believed to be diamonds and gold, but which upon return to France were discovered to be merely quartz crystals and iron pyrites which gave rise to a French expression: "faux comme les diamants du Canada" ("As false as Canadian diamonds), King Francis I, was not impressed. Admiral Sir Richard Hawkins (1562-1622) Slave trader Sir Richard Hawkins had noted the efficaciousness of fresh oranges and lemons in keeping his crew healthy especially from scurvy. Also the North American �Indians� at Nootka had shown him how to distil spruce beer to relieve the scurvy. Hawkins had logged the recipe, but his cargo of looted silver and gold were of more interest to the Crown than the health of his crew. Hawkins had been searching for a cure to sea scurvy. Hawkins had confidence in the antiscorbutics he issued to his crew including sower oranges and lemons, and the strange Dr. Stevens Water � The Oyle of Vitry which he believed beneficial for this disease. But principal of all he believed was �the air of the land, for the sea is natural for fishes and the land for men�. The strange concoction �Dr. Stevens Water - The Oyle of Vitry� was based on sulphuric acid, it is difficult to comprehend, how it could cure any poor soul suffering from scurvy. Blaming the �sea air� may also seem a bit far off the mark, but to the mind of a 16th century sailor, it was no more way out than eating orange and lemon rind to prevent the ship-board killer. Hawkins claimed to have witnessed more than 10,000 cases of scurvy during his period at sea; he however managed to prevent his ship's company dying from this dreaded disease making them all drink orange and lemon juice. 4 The scurvy solution found by Admiral Hawkins was apparently forgotten for nearly fifty years until 1747, when Dr. James Lind, a surgeon in the Royal Navy proved the case for oranges, tamarinds and lemons as a cure for scurvy, various other things such as cider and vinegar were not as good, although Lind initially believed in them. Why antiscorbutics of oranges and lemons, was not adopted for the use of all sailors

is too deep to comprehend, but they were not formally adopted by Admiralty for many years to come, at the expense of the lives thousands of stricken sailors.5 The literature of the day made it clear that herbal cures were available for a multitude of ailments. Elizabeth Blackwell�s exquisitely illustrate book on herbals covers a plethora of plant cures and the dangerous scurvy was not overlooked by the author she was close to the mark with her belief that radishes were believed to open the bowels, prevent scurvy, and stimulate the flow of urine. Ordinary radishes are a great source of vitamin C and are rich in minerals like sulphur, iron, and iodine. Daikon is even better, a source of vitamin C, potassium, magnesium, and folate as well as sulphur, iron, and iodine. The pressed juice of the radish is now used for disorders of the bile ducts and upper respiratory inflammations. 6 William Adams of Kent (1564-1620) Navigator William Adams of Kent sailed with the Dutch VOC ship �De Liefde� which was part of a convoy which sank off Japan in 1598. Adams aboard the near sinking �De Liefde� found safe haven at north-eastern coast of Usuki in the province of Bungo on the Island of Kyushu, his crew were near death from scurvy. The overlord of Bungo �tomo Yoshimune ordered the visitors be treated with limes and a diet of vegetables they all recovered from the scurvy. Adams, the first Englishman to live in Japan was to become a favourite of Emperor Iyeyasu and was �detained� for twenty years. He bigamously married a local Japanese girl and sired a number of children. Twenty years later in 1620 Adams was allowed to return to England in an English East Indiaman, to his legal wife and children � alas he was in a coffin. Duke of Argyll (1682�1761) Archibald Campbell, 3rd Duke of Argyll (nicknamed the �Treemonger� by Horace Walpole) introduced a plant into the United Kingdom in the 1730s where it is known as Duke of Argyll's �Goji� Tea Tree. The Duke delighted in growing other exotic trees and shrubs in his garden at Whitton in Middlesex, England. Thanks to birds dropping seeds, his exotic �Goji� plant continues to grow wild in UK hedgerows around the Duke�s estate. There is no doubt that if Admiralty had introduced fresh Goji (Wolf Berry) Lycium barbarum into the diets of all seamen as a scurvy antiscorbutic, then tens of thousands of lives could very well have been saved, but how were they to know that this simple fruit was better than all of the antiscorbutics taken aboard Captain Cook�s ships, better than oranges, lemons, sauerkraut, beer, limes and on par with kale scurvy grass. James Cook�s Prophylactics During the second and third voyages James Cook was instructed by the Admiralty to follow the dietary regime detailed by Dr. James Lind. This included feeding his men a supply of orange and lemon rob (with 240 mg vitamin C per 100grams) and liberal quantities of sauerkraut as recommended by King George III � of German heritage which has only 10mg vitamin C per 100mg (when fresh which was not the case most of the time); Inspissated wort malts (no vitamin C), spruce needle beer (little or no vitamin C � as it was not freshly brewed), and the wonderfully antiscorbutic scurvy grass or spoon wort (up to 200 mg vitamin C per 100 g) which was obtained on Pacific Islands and New Zealand. 7 By 1795 daily rations of lemon juice were now compulsory on the Royal Navy ships. However, some time later it was replaced by the much cheaper and inferior lime juice manufactured by �Rose and Company�. This gave rise to the nickname of 'limeys' for British sailors. The vitamin C content was a meagre 1mg per 100 mg of juice; freshly squeezed limes produce 11.4 mg per 100 mg of fresh juice. It is claimed that not one of the crew of James Cook�s voyages of exploration had died as a result of scurvy. This was principally brought about by a controlled diet of antiscorbutics; the diet was not accepted by Admiralty as standard fare on

all of HM Ships. 8 James Cook was unable to indicate which one of the various prophylactics served to his crew were the most effective as a scurvy antiscorbutic. Cook had no idea of vitamins. His conifer beer made from pine needles, if served by fresh infusion contained up to 270 mg per 100 mg served of vitamin �C� whereas if fermented or stewed the brew contained little or no vitamins of benefit � this how it was offered to the crew. Cook did not know that �fresh� broccoli contained up to 150 mg per 100 grams served. The ship�s cook was not told to stop using copper cooking utensils (as used on HM Ships) during the preparation of sauerkraut they were not to know that vitamin C in food is unstable in neutral and alkaline environments and when exposed to oxygen/air, heavy metals (copper), light and heat the longer the exposure the greater the loss. Vitamin C stability is favoured by an acid environment and in the presence of other antioxidants, e.g. vitamin C in fresh fruits and vegetables, and in fermented products. Cook was not aware that the sauerkraut so keenly recommended by the King was next to useless as a scurvy preventative as it contained little or no vitamin C after being stored for one month. Notwithstanding the useless medical value of sauerkraut Cook was loaded with 7,860 lbs of the stuff. 9 Sir Gilbert Blane (1749-1834) But for the intervention of the dogmatic, some said arrogant, Sir Gilbert Blane (�The Father of the Navy�) a confidant and colleague of naval heavyweight Admiral George Brydges Rodney, 1st Baron Rodney, KB (1719� 1792). Blane knew of the good work of Lind and of James Cook�s diligence. Blane was determined to implement the same antiscorbutic procedure on all Royal navy ships. Blane had powerful friends in his medical practice included the Prince of Wales and the Duke of Clarence. With such contacts he was determined to succeed in his quest to stamp out scurvy in the royal navy.10 Admiral Rodney�s West Indies Fleet was the first to follow Blane�s advice and adopt the Lind diet. The 12,000 men under sail were now protected from scurvy. Blane went further when he outrageously insisted the crew bathe and use carbolic soap! � Bathe ? Good God sir we are British! Although the British sailors thought the procedure madness, and took umbrage at the thought of washing with soap, surgeons, insisted, as they too were instructed in simple hygiene with carbolic soap. The results of Blane�s intervention, was a reduction from 38% ill with scurvy and other illnesses to 6% of the total crew lost. 11 Blane�s lesson took a long time to sink in. Scurvy was evident during the British National Antarctic or �Discovery Expedition 1901�1904�.12 Despite inadequate rations and little knowledge of sled dog driving, Scott, Shackleton, and British zoologist Edward Wilson reached latitude 82�17� south. No person had ever been further south. Their trek home was a race against starvation, with Shackleton also suffering from scurvy. Upon their return to base, Scott sent the ailing Shackleton home on a relief ship.13 Scurvy was not the only dreadful disease the ship�s surgeons had to treat on board HM ships, typhus (�jail fever�); dysentery which could include typhoid; battle wounds, smallpox; measles; �gripes and fluxes�; tuberculosis; yellow fever, drunkenness, beriberi; food poisoning; malaria; trauma to limbs; venereal disease where the diseases of the day. Many took their toll, but the main killer was scurvy. Death and devastation on board HM Ships peaked in 1793 when 38.4% members of the Royal Navy or Marines where �sent sick�.14 However, with thanks to Blane, Lind and Cook, the percentage reporting sick out of 120,000 on the muster roles had dropped to 7,662 (6.4%.). 15 1911 Captain Robert Scott RN, CVO, FRGS

(1868 �1912)

The Royal Navy had trouble coming to terms with the prevention of scurvy, showing a complete ignorance as to the cause. Captain Robert Scott RN wrote in his diary that �scurvy and ptomaine poisoning, for which the enforced diet was responsible is believed to be caused by the virus of the bacterium of decay in meat�. Further as a scurvy antiscorbutic, Scott wrote in his log that he intended to amend his menu by ceasing to eat bacon and substituting it with seal blubber. With this idea Scot was near the mark, as seal blubber, as well as walrus, whale and other sea mammal fatty tissue is very high in vitamin C. Eating this raw provided the Inuit with this essential nutrient in a region where vegetables and fruit were scarce. One hundred grams of seal blubber contains two hundred mg of vitamin C this is comparable with one hundred grams of fresh blackcurrants or guava fruit. However, it was too late to change the diet, during March 1913 tragically, Captain Scott and his four companions died in Antarctica on the return journey from the pole Scott and his four comrades all perished, due to a combination of exhaustion, hunger, extreme cold and scurvy. 16 h Lieutenant James Cook�s Battle with Scurvy. At the Basin, Deptford Yard, the port of lading of HM Bark Endeavour, Lieutenant James Cook R.N., became the ship�s purser for a month during the transfer of the supplies to his command. During April 1768, Cook angrily broached a keg marked �Salted Pork� and was disgusted at the sight of feet and pig�s heads and nothing else. It was tossed into the river Thames and a complaint lodged with the victualling supply firm who whose invoice was not paid. v The barrels of butter and cheese were only good for a few weeks at the most, no sooner had the ship entered the sub tropical climes and the hot weather these victuals turned rancid and would be rejected by all on board. The butter was used with the rendered fat from the pork and beef to grease the rigging blocks. Cook was of the opinion that the fat in beef and pork was part of the scurvy problem and he insisted it be rendered off by the cook and not served to his crew. (Similar to the belief that Captain Scott held during his Antarctic expedition in 1911). The crew and the officers on the other hand were not averse to the occasional baked rat. Cook on more than one occasion consumed stone roasted heart, liver, and kidneys of dog. l A number of special victual barrels were loaded below decks, with a suggestion by the purser that this was �for the officers only�. The crew were upset at the thought that they would be eating inferior food. Unbeknown to the crew the barrels contained recommended antiscorbutics. Cook was determined to ensure the crew were safe from scurvy, a killer of many seamen on other voyages, scurvy, had been the scourge of the sea for hundreds of years and Cook was determined to help stamp it out. Cook�s devious hint that special food �for officers only� ensured that the crew would eat it when offered by Cook, and if the crew bucked at eating this special food they would be flogged! With the new �health food� of the day a regular diet of fresh fruit was added � this was the true antiscorbutic. r Conditions for sailors also improved during the 18th century; however scurvy was still the major killer disease that they faced at sea. Although not knowing why the use of fruits and vegetables would ensure good health, James Cook�s followed orders by augmenting the fresh fruits with his inspissated worts, malts and the near useless sauerkraut. n By July 30th 1768 HM Bark Endeavour was ready for sea and moved from Galleons Reach and sailed down to Gravesend where she anchored to a buoy till 3rd August when she set sail for Plymouth. w Mile-end, Thames, March 5th 1776.

The �Victualling Board� operating out of the Deptford Victualling Yards and the strangely named �Sick and Hurt Board� ensured that the dreaded scurvy would be kept at bay by ordering special food for this lengthy voyage of exploration. The two Boards had faith in John Knyveton, a surgeon�s mate, who, in the Seven Years War wrote in his log that �a rare treasure has this day fallen into his hands�. It was the famous paper on �Scurvy� by James Lind M.D., Physician at Haslar Hospital for Seamen near Portsmouth� (1752).19 f In a letter dated 5th March and July 1776 to Sir John Pringle, Bart, President of the Royal Society, (1707-1782), Cook claimed that the Bark Endeavour diet had proved so successful that he repeated it for the HM Sloop Resolution second voyage and was loaded the same for the third voyage. Although he had played a part in the administration of the antiscorbutics Cook played no part in the selection of the scurvy prophylactics. In a further letter to Admiralty, James Cook laid down his philosophy on the good health of his crew. Cook was pleased with the health of the Resolution crew. This voyage had no accidents similar to the ill fated Batavia visit that killed some of crew of HM Bark Endeavour. Cook places the good health of the crew on the antiscorbutics malt, of which was made into sweet-wort, one to two or three pints in the day to each man or in such proportion as the surgeon thought necessary; which sometimes amounted to three quarts in the twenty-four hours. Cook believed that this is without doubt one of the best antiscorbutic seamedicines yet found out; and if given time will with proper attention to other things, will prevent the scurvy from making any great progress for a considerable time: but he was not altogether of opinion, that it will cure it in an advanced state at sea. s Cook was informed that the King himself recommended the sauerkraut, of which there was a large provision. Cook believed that it was not only a wholesome vegetable food, but, in Cook�s judgment, highly antiscorbutic, keeping would not soil it. A pound of it was served to each man, when at sea, twice a week, or oftener when it was thought necessary. Portable soup or broth was another essential article, of which we had likewise a liberal supply. An ounce of this to each man, or such other proportion as was thought necessary, was boiled with their pease three days in the week; and when we were in places where fresh vegetables could be procured, it was boiled with them and with wheat or oatmeal, every morning for breakfast, and also with dried pease and fresh vegetables for dinner, it enabled us to make several nourishing and wholesome messes, and was the means of making the people eat a greater quantity of greens than they would have done otherwise. e The crew was provided with rob of lemons and oranges; which the both crew and surgeon found useful in several cases. Amongst other articles of victualling we were furnished with sugar mixed with oil, and with wheat instead of oatmeal. Cook believed that sugar, was a very good antiscorbutic; whereas oil, such as is usually given to the navy, has the contrary effect. u Cook acknowledged the suggestions and hints given him by Sir Hugh Palliser, and the Captains Campbell, Wallis, and other intelligent officers, that enabled him to lay down the dietary plan for his crew. The crew worked three watches during a twenty-four hour period. This three-watch working day ensured the crew were not so much exposed to the weather and they had generally dry clothes to wear after the w watch. Cook personally took proper care to keep the crew, hammocks, bedding, clothes, constantly clean and dry. He took equal pains to keep the ship clean and dry between decks. Once or twice a week the below decks crew accommodation and mess area was aired with fires; and when, this could not be done, the areas were smoked with gunpowder moistened with vinegar or water. Cook had also had frequent fires in iron pots at the bottom of the well, which greatly purified the air in the

lower parts of the ship. Cook was of the belief that putrid, offensive smells that came from below decks could easily be moved with fire. Cook believed that it was these below-deck smells that were the cause of illness and �bad consequences�. Care was also taken with the ship's cooking copper pots, so that they were kept constantly clean. The fat, which was boiled out of the salt beef and pork, was never fed to the crew; Cook being of opinion that it promoted scurvy. Cook never failed to take in fresh water, wherever it was to be procured, even when the water butts were full; he looked upon fresh water from the shore to be much more wholesome than that which has been kept some time on board. Water was never rationed but was always in abundance for every necessary purpose. Cook was convinced that with plenty of fresh water and a close attention to cleanliness the crew would be kept healthy. Cook strongly believed that the ship's company would not become afflicted with scurvy providing they consumed the antiscorbutics provided. Copley Medal James Cook was elected a �Fellow� of the prestigious Royal Society during 1776. His election into this scientific old boys club was ironic as the Society did not cite his brilliance as a navigator, explorer and cartographer but he received the prestigious Sir Godfrey Copley medal for his research into the prevention of scurvy at sea during his second voyage from 1772 until 1775. 20 This medal is the Society's oldest award.� It is still given annually for outstanding achievements in research in any branch of science, and alternates between the physical sciences and the biological sciences.� The medal is of silver gilt and is accompanied with a gift of �5,000. The Copley medal was first awarded in 1731, and during its long history it has been awarded to such luminaries as Neville Maskelyne; John Harrison; Charles Darwin; Albert Einstein; Jean Foucault, more recently Stephen Hawkins. 21 Scurvy on board the ship The voyages of James Cook were not �scurvy free� as is often thought, a number of cases of scurvy were either deliberately hidden from the Captain or not recorded in the ship�s log. William Perry, surgeon HM Bark Endeavour, promoted from surgeon�s mate on the death of Surgeon Monkhouse, noted Boatswain�s Mate Richard Hutchins, aged twenty-eight years old was normally of an active lively disposition and florid complexion, he presented to the surgeon with sore gums and several small fungous ulcerations in one leg. His gums were swollen and painful upon pressure, but he had retained his teeth. The sores in the ankle and were somewhat �dematous and of a livid circumference. The surgeon prescribed wort and other treatment which ensured his bowels were sufficiently open. Perry concluded that Hutchins was showing early stages of scurvy although he did not find his appetite impaired nor felt the usual lassitude. Prescribed a pint of wort and a serving of portable soup each day and was ordered to use flour in lieu of salt meat. The wort loosed his bowels again. After the first ten days the gums were perfectly sound and the ulcers in the leg had dried up; his speedy cure, took another week, the wort was continued to April 8th 1769. Marine, William Wiltshire, twenty-seven years old, complained on March 24th 1769 of sore and bleeding gums; his teeth were loose; he had no other scorbutic symptoms. This man had a pint of wort, repeated regularly every day for three weeks or so, his complaint gradually cleared up and after twelve days of taking the medicine. Samuel Jones, seaman, aged twenty-six years was naturally brisk and active, till he complained on April 2nd 1769 of having a dull heavy pain in his limbs and a lowness of spirit, and a general weariness all over his body. His stools were regular and healthy; he had no rigidity in the tendons, nor was his appetite

impaired. The next day he took a quart of the wort; this gave him three offensive loose stools in the twenty-four hours; his bowels were kept constantly open. The discharge became less putrid, his pains went gradually disappeared and on the 12th which was the last day of his taking the wort, not a man in the ship was more in spirits, and lively than him. When surgeon William Perry himself came down with scurvy, he kept his own case notes he wrote of taking a quart of the wort for some days before an unusual languor and laziness infested him. He stated that lying down was his constant desire, and a swelling of a phlegmonous type had appeared on his left leg. The part had been bruised many years before, and an induration had remained. The integuments were discoloured from the calf downward. The apex of the tumour was too painful to the touch. To this he applied a discutient plaster, and kept from lying down as much as possible. The wort at first griped him, but not violently. On the 6th April he first observed amendment in the aspect of the tumour, the discolouration more circumscribed and the apex falling. His spirits were indisputably more alert. From this day he improved his health. On the 12th April he left off the wort, being within sight of Tahiti. Where the tumour had been there was now a circle of a deep blue, and round that a light tinge of yellow. When Hutchins first complained on March 14th 1769, it set off the first alarm, wort was ordered for all of the scorbutic invalids and the older people, and others of the men who were suspected of being constipated. This continued till the 12th of April without any shadow of scurvy. From this time on, while at sea the wort became a part of the regular diet. The diet of the crew was preventing scurvy, except in the five reported cases. Three of the crew presented with the symptoms while the ship was at New Holland and two while on the coast of New Zealand. In the cases mentioned a trial was made with the rob of lemon and orange which proved successful. 22 Supplies Aboard HM Bark Endeavour the crew and marines of ninety four was supplied generously with rations for two years. The supplies included 60,000 pounds of ships hard tack biscuits; 7,637 four-pound pieces of salt-beef; and twice that number of two-pound pieces of salt pork, 19 tons of beer; 642 gallons of wine; 1,400 gallons of spirits, including arrack; 1,900 pounds of suet and 3,102 pounds of raisins. To these must be added the antiscorbutics to offset the effects of the scurvy 20,000 pounds of sauerkraut, (King George�s favourite salted cabbage) and portable broth (cakes of meat essence - like giant oxo cubes that could be boiled with wheat), and thirty gallons of carrot marmalade, another German innovation recommended by the King. The �portable broth� was augmented with a culinary wonder brew containing sassafras from the aromatic lauraceous tree, dried tubers of one of the orchid family used as a hot infusion, is it any wonder the crew jacked up and refused to drink this mad hatter brew, which is a shame for surprisingly it contained an extraordinary amount of antiscorbutic and was the best of all of the man made foodstuffs containing vitamin C. 23 The basic daily ration of victualling per man was a pound of biscuits, and as much small beer as he can drink or a pint of wine, or half a pint of brandy, rum or arrack� (an ardent liquor obtained by the fermentation of toddy, rice and sugar. Plus, on Monday for example, half a pound of butter, ten ounces of Cheshire cheese, and as much boiled oatmeal or wheat as he could eat. Then, the next day: two four-pound pieces of beef or one four-pound piece of beef, three pounds of flour and one pound raisins or half a pound of suet. At Rio de Janeiro fresh and live beef was loaded and again 3,032 gallons of wine and arrack; Ten ton of poultry and sweetmeats, The crew once again uttered mutinous words they would not eat the fresh meat! Two of the crew would suffer the lash for refusing the fresh food.

Chapter Eight Melancholia, Madness and Mayhem Cook�s Poison Chalice

Chapter 8 � Melancholia, Madness and Mayhem Cook�s Poison Chalice. The international auctioneer Christie�s, London, advertised �Captain Cook�s Antimony Cup - A squat drinking vessel made of antimony alloy. From this, the great South Seas explorer consumed red wine that, having reacted with the metal, created a potion with purgative qualities�. This handy laxative system fetched �220,800 ($471.986 AUD) in 2005.1 Christie�s catalogue describes the cup as having been exhibited at the Royal Naval Exhibition, Chelsea during 1891 (labelled - 'metal cup and case taken by Capt. Cook in his voyages round the world, lent by Viscount Galway'). Further provenance cites the Greenwich, National Maritime Museum, on loan 19802005, (W83-45) and Sotheby's, London, 'Rule Britannia' loan exhibition of paintings and works of art in aid of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution. January 1986, number 292, 'a small metal antimony cup which belonged to Captain Cook'. Christie�s described the cup as a 17th century (?) medical device, used for turning wine into an emetic, as the wine stood in the cup it reacted with the metal antimony, producing a liquor with purgative qualities. The cup under auction was part of Captain Cook's medicine chest at sea, at a time when a naval Captain would hold great store by the use of such devices. Antimony cups seem to have lost favour during the late eighteenth century but there is no doubt that England, at least, escaped a French controversy about the use and abuse of antimony. Controversial use of antimony came to Great Britain however when it was understood that this metal was the basic ingredient in the notorious Dr. Ward's �drop and pill� and it is interesting that they were both made by steeping glass of antimony in wine. It was therefore evident that, in the eighteenth century, the effects of wine upon antimony were well-known. The other purging medicine of the day Dr. James's powder was made in a different way using mercury and antimony but considerable doubt was starting to be shed upon this prescription. An anonymous publication in 1773 entitled: �Considerations on the use and abuse of antimonial medicines in fevers and other disorders�, claimed that there were other active, hidden ingredients, although antimony was said to be the active principle. During the eighteenth century, Admiralty supplied large quantities antimony preparations including �Dr. James's powder� for use at sea and �Dr. Ward's drop and pill� (Joshua Ward (1685-1761) was famous for his pills which were a mixture

of antimony and balsam and were touted as cures for many ailments. His drops were made of the same mixture, with wine added. Faith in antimony was widespread among naval Captains it is therefore entirely likely that antimonial cups were acquired privately by them. The cups produced sweating and purging, which, at that time, were considered the first line of treatment in fevers, and would be effective against the constipation, prevailing in those who went to sea eating the sea diet of the period. This information was supplied to Christies in London in a letter dated 3rd May 1983 from Sir James Watt, KBE. MS. President, the Royal Society of Medicine, to Dr. John Munday, Keeper, Department of Weapons and Antiquities, National Maritime Museum, discussing the present cup.2 According to Christie�s the cup was probably among the relics and artefacts of James Cook bought by the fifth Viscount Galway from the sale of the effects of Admiral Isaac Smith, who was the brother of Mary Smith, James Cook's mother-inlaw. Elizabeth Cook and Isaac Smith were therefore first cousins. Isaac Smith accompanied Captain Cook firstly on HM Survey Sloop Grenville, surveying Newfoundland and on the first and second voyages. Christie�s did not reveal the exact identity of the people who sold the cup, but they stated that it was �the property of a family of trust�. The cup may well have passed down through Viscount Galway�s family.3 �Bibliography of Captain James Cook R.N. F.R.S.� Mitchell Library 1970 refers incorrectly to this Cup as a �Communion Cup used by Captain Cook on his Voyages and its leather case. The original is in the possession of the Dowager Viscountess Galway. Bawtry, Doncaster�.4 In general religion played no part of Cook�s life, although when he was at home, his wife Elizabeth would accompany Cook and family to St. Paul�s Church Shadwell in London�s East End. Cook did not hold Communion for the crew whilst at sea, so he would have no use for a �Communion Cup�. The surgeon William Brougham Monkhouse did conduct some fore-deck services. Occasionally Cook conducted Sunday divine morning worship but he was more regular for foredeck funerals. The study of this little cup led me into a labyrinth of alchemy and the treatment of the ailments of the 18th and 19th century sailors and other notables. The antimony cup was used for self-medication, once filled with wine and allowed to stand for a few hours overnight, the chemical infusion produced around two grains of antimony in two ounces of wine. 5 The standing wine leached out antimony from the little vessel, turning the tartaric acid in the wine into a potent brew of tartar emetic, a poisonous crystalline compound 6 (antimony-a, a�dimercaptopotassium succinate). One sip from this little cup causes a violent evacuation of the bowels and an instant episode of vomiting �up and down� (Hippocrates). How apt was the Roman name for this procedure. �pocula emetica� or �calyces vomitori�. 7 Antimony used minimally could no doubt be efficacious, (antimony sodium tartrate is currently used in the treatment of schistosomiasis and leishmaniasis. It inhibits the normal anaerobic glucose metabolism of schistosomes and has been shown to cause Schistosoma Mansoni to migrate from the mesenteric veins into the liver).8 However when used long term, over a six year period, in the case of James Cook, it has an adverse affect on the body and mind. The toxicity in antimony metal causes the body to purge by vomiting and diarrhoea. However it also causes breathing difficulties when excessively handled (as by Sir Isaac Newton in his alchemy experiments). It is my belief that over-use of antimony caused adverse reactions on James Cook�s brain similar to the effects of lead poisoning. Antimony has an atomic number of 51 and is represented by the symbol Sb, derived from the Latin Stibium. Antimony was once found in many paints (referred to as �lead paint�). It is used industrially in batteries, rubber, lead-free solders, bullets, printer�s blocks, plumbing, and matches. For a number of years it was used as a flame retardant to treat such things as seat covers, toys, children�s

clothing and children�s mattresses and pillows. German folklore refers to a monk and alchemist Basil Valentine (1565-1624) who in 1604 cleaned out some laboratory waste antimony into the monastery's pig pen, the pigs purged from both ends freeing themselves of the roundworm, whip worm and a variety of other worm parasites. They became very healthy and fattened quickly. The monk decided that the element antimony must have healing properties, so he fed it to his fellow brothers, who all died of toxicity. Antimony is relatively toxic the effects are similar to those of arsenic, causing severe vomiting and eventually death. Once the probable cause of the source of James Cook�s behavioural problems was unearthed, his �over the top� floggings, killings, savagery and mayhem during the three voyages, could now be explained. But did others suffer the same problems as Cook? I decided to find out if other historic luminaries had suffered maladies by purging with antimony cups, 9 the results were startling. The Journals of James Cook and various other officers and �gentlemen� refer to a variety of illnesses believed to be affecting Cook, these included memory loss, increased allergic reactions, depression, �heevas�, mood swings, irritability, poor concentration, aggressive behaviour, sleep disabilities, fatigue, neuropathy, chronic fatigue these are just some of the many conditions, all probably resulting from his exposure to toxins. 1769 � James Cook�s illnesses 1st Voyage aboard HM Bark Endeavour James Cook took to his bunk complaining of severe gut pain, possibly constipation. Cook refused to eat, referring to stay in his bunk. Cook to purging with his antimony cup, this failed to cure him, he was getting worse. Fearing the death of his Captain, Joseph Banks ordered his greyhound dog be butchered and a special broth made to nurse Cook back to health. The Captain must have liked the dog broth for a few months later he and Banks ate roast dog leg, cooked on the hot stones. 10 Joseph Banks refers on 16th Sept 1769 to a comment by Cook � �myself rather better but still very sick at the stomach which continually supplies a thin acid liquor which I discharge by vomit�. Cook had used his �cure-all� antimonial cup to purge his bowels and stomach. Another bout of serious illness was evident during the second voyage during August 1773. Whilst supervising a simple operation of dropping the best bower anchor, Cook lost control of his bowels, in trouble, he ordered the crew prepare to drop the anchor, but as the vessel approached the drop point very close to shore, James Cook doubled over in agony with a violent attack of stomach pain; he urgently sought refuge in his quarters. Without command, the ship continued forward and was nearly put aground at Vaitepha Bay, Tahiti. 11 Cook was not the only person during the 2nd Voyage to be treated with antimony. On board HM Sloop Adventure less than two months out, midshipman Samuel Kempe died at sea in the Atlantic. He and others, including John James Lambrecht who also died, are supposed to have spent time �unprotected from the sun� during the stopover in the Cape Verde Islands leading to their illness. This diagnosis was corrected by William Bayley, the Adventure's astronomer who reported that at 11.00 am Mr. Kempe, Midshipman departed this life of a putrid fever (diphtheria) which he contracted at St Jago. He recovered so far as and was able to walk about but caught a cold and had a relapse of the fever. The surgeon gave him �Dr Norris� Antimonial Drops Regular� according to the printed directions but to no avail they had no desired effect.12 Surgeon Thomas Andrews� naval surgeon�s medical kits contained �Dr Norris�s Antimonial Drops Regular� which was typical of all 18th century naval kits for

surgeons. According to astronomer Bayley the kit was opened to administer �Dr Norris�s Antimonial Drops Regular� to poor Kemp and no doubt others suffering from the same putrid fever (diphtheria).13 Cook believed that Kemp�s malady was damage caused after being �unprotected from the sun�. Why the surgeon would purge Kemp suffering from �sun damage� is open to question. It took fifty years before an official warning was issued by the Royal College of Surgeons, London concerning the dangerous Norris's Fever Drops. �Being a preparation of antimony, the nostrum capable of proving very injurious in typhus fever and other illnesses�. 14 December 1773 during the second voyage Johan Forster reported that Cook looked pale and lean and laboured under �perpetual costiveness� (constipation) and frequently vomited. Cook�s solution was to purge his own body with his antimony cup. Forster augmented this procedure with �tobacco glisters�, where liquefied tobacco was inserted into the bowels via a syringe and rubber hose. Evidence of the over use of Cook�s purging cup, was noted by Swedish botanist Sparman who commented on the Captain�s illness. This incident, although he had from beginning to end of the incident appeared perfectly alert and able, the Captain was suffering so greatly from his stomach that he was in great sweat and could scarcely stand. This question of James Cook mental degradation and possible cause of his illnesses was cited by Admiral of the Fleet Lord Lewin of Greenwich who quotes during a London lecture given by the eminent physician Dr. Surgeon Admiral, Sir James Watt who stated that an infestation of round worm caused Captain James Cook�s erratic behaviour. 15 Cook certainly suffered from intestinal worms, a known treatment then, was antimony, however this medicine was likely to have exacerbated Cook�s behaviour problem. When Sir James Watt considered the symptoms suffered by Cook during this severe illness, vomiting, constipation and hiccoughs, he stated that these symptoms give a classical picture of acute intestinal obstruction. The obstruction may have been caused by a gall-bladder infection. Hippocrates (460 BC- 370 BC) and the Roman Pocula Emetica. Hippocrates of Cos wrote that in disorders of the bowels and vomiting occurring spontaneously, if the matters purged be such as ought to be purged, �they do good and are as well borne�! 16 He went on to state that persons in good health quickly loose their strength by taking purgative medicines, or using bad food. Antimony was a common purging medicine in his times. Hippocrates had it right, when he proclaimed purgative medicines will not agree with persons in good health. The Roman practice of purging after gluttony was recorded by Lucius Seneca in the reign of Nero AD 54-68 AD. 17 Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (AD 37�AD 68) was in himself a temperate man, took an emetic after a heavy meal with Cicero, who mentions it without disapproval. Vitellius the glutton and Claudius habitually used emetics, allowing them to continue with their Bacchanalian feasting. The Romans were regular purgers by sipping wine from an antimony cup, it was part of their toilet practice they called it �pocula emetic� or �calyces vomitori�. The natural sulphide of antimony, stibnite, was known and used in Biblical times as medicine and as a cosmetic, especially with Egyptian women. The use of antimony as an emetic became unpopular, but was resurrected in the middle ages. The Swiss physician, botanist, alchemist, astrologer, and general occultist Paracelsus (1493-1541) is credited with the re-introduction of antimony, chiefly as an emetic and purgative in medical practice The Greek physician Galen of Pergamum in 200 AD continued the practice of purging as a natural part of his daily toilet practice. Galen was of the belief that not to believe in the absorption of nutrients and such things would of course be like refusing to believe that purgative drugs draw their appropriate humours from all

over the body.18 Joachim Tanckivs The sixteenth century alchemist Joachim Tanckivs prescribed a cure for gout. �Let three drops of this Spiritu vini that has received the power of the antimony, fall into a small glass of wine. This has to be taken by the patient on an empty stomach at the very moment in time when he senses the beginning or arrival of his trouble, bodily ailment and pain. On the next day and afterwards on the third day it should also be taken and used in the same way. On the first day it takes away all pain, however great it may be, and prevents swelling. On the second day it causes a sweat that is very inconstant, viscous and thick, that smells and tastes quite sour and offensive, and occurs mostly where the joints and limbs are attached. On the third day, regardless of whether any medicine has been taken, a purging takes place of the veins into the bowels, without any inconvenience, pain or grief. And this demonstrates a great power of Nature�. Joachim Tanckivs explains the use of an antimony cup �in the case of pestilence give the patient seven drops in a good wine, and see to it that the infected person is all by himself, and caused to sweat. Then this poison will, with Divine assistance, do him no harm�19 �Pilules Perp�tuelles� At the latter end of the 16th century, part of the Christmas entertainment at St. John's College, Cambridge, staged a satirical play with the following dialogue: �Giving the poets a pill, giving them a purge. Few of the university pen plaies well, they smell too much of the writer Ovid, and that writer Metamorphosis, and talke too much of Proserpina and Jupiter. Why heres our fellow Shakespeare, puts them all downe. I and Ben Jonson too, oh that Ben Jonson is a pestilent fellow, he brought up Horace giving the Poets a pill, but our fellow Shakespeare hath given him a purge that made him bewray his credit�.20 In the middle-ages, antimony was used as a cure for constipation in France. The swallowing of �pilules perp�tuelles� (small balls of antimony aka �Nancy Balls�) irritated the gut sufficiently to expel its contents. The balls of antimony were recovered from the excrement, washed and reused and known to have been passed down the generations!20 It was a practice to use the �pilules perp�tuelles� in a goblet of wine, thus serving a multiple task in the purging process. Prof. Dr. Ian McCullum in his scholarly book �Antimony in Medical History� states that these pills survive and can be seen in the Schweitzerisches Pharmazie Historisches Museum. Basel.21 As I investigated antimony and its use as a purgative, in the 18th and 19th centuries it seemed to me that there was an association with emetic drinks and the unfortunate mental deterioration of the patient, it was a common thread 22. The use of antimony for purging was considered a �modern� approach to medicine, but the dangers were little understood. Those historic figures who were regularly purged with antimony had some mention of mental disturbance, be it recorded as �heevas�; �erratic behaviour�; �unhinged�; �melancholia�; �periodic mental disturbances�; �perpetually cantankerous�; �mental disorder�.

Chapter Nine People Affected By Antimony Poisoning

Death of Napoleon D

Chapter 9 - Napoleon Bonaparte (1769 � 1821) Napoleon�s physician Dr. Fran�ois Carlo Antommarchi 1780�1838) wrote that Napoleon was given a lemonade drink with an emetic. On 22nd March 1821 the patient was suffering from �maladie de languer�, this �maladie� was first noted two months earlier in January 1821. More emetic salts of antimony were prescribed. And in the following days, Napoleon was given additional emetic drinks of antimony potassium tartrate which being highly toxic, quickly induced purging, �upper and lower�. t Napoleon suspected he was being poisoned by his minders, especially the Grand Marshall the Palace, St Helena, (Henri Gratien, Comte Bertrand 1773-1844) who was also feeding emetics into the Emperor. In a fit of rage Napoleon refused Bertrand�s services.1 Not trusting another soul to look after his welfare, Napoleon augmented his own diet and self medication with orgeat, a drink of barley orange, almonds and bitter almonds of (4�9mg of hydrogen cyanide per almond!) which he drank a great deal. w Dr. Antommarchi was totally opposed to any outside interference to care for his patient, and under protest of both patient and doctor, British physician Alexander Arnott (1771-1855) purged poor Napoleon, with 10 grains of calomel (mercury chloride � the miracle drug of the day) and together with tartar emetic procedure and Orgeat, surely an insane concoction! This dose failed to work, but it was repeated, then it �worked� producing enormous bowel evacuations of black pitch or tar. 2 Is it any wonder that Dr. Antommarchi was to state Napoleon�s mind was unhinged, teetering on the brink of madness, his body now toxic with heavy metals adversely affecting his brain 3. a Tests conducted in 2005 with very sophisticated ICP-MS (Inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry) Dr. Pascal Kintz Robert Wennig of the University of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg conducted tests on the lock of hair given to Napoleon�s valet Abram Noveraz as a token of esteem. What they found was staggering. In (not on) Napoleon�s hair was evidence of arsenic 42.07 ng/mg; Mercury 3.33 ng/mg; Lead 229.2 ng/mg; Silver 4.80 ng/mg and Antimony 2.10 ng/mg all evident in the hair sample. The benchmark normal antimony level one expects is a maximum 0.004-0.006.4 Napoleon�s hair had more than four hundred times the acceptable level of antimony p present. After Dr. Antommarchi performed the autopsy, the hunt was on to find the person that had poisoned Napoleon. As Antommarchi was a fellow Corsican and Napoleon�s trusted friend, he was free of suspicion. Was Napoleon poisoned by his British captors? Did Charles Tristan, Marquis de Montholon (1782�1853), acting for the Bourbons, murder his Emperor he certainly had motive! Did he organise the Emperor�s demise as payback for his wife Countess de Albine Montholon�s indiscretions in the Emperor�s bed (this coupling may have begat an illegitimate child, H�l�ne Napoleone Bonaparte). Montholon�s brother Claude Marin Henri Montholon was Commissioner of the Bourbon Government at St, Helena. CharlesTristan de Montholon was after all responsible for trying to get rid of

Antommarchi by bringing in Dr. Arnott the British military doctor. It was understood that Napoleon would not countenance the British doctor, and importantly Napoleon was unhappy that the British were trying to become involved food preparation, this too was unacceptable. 5 Napoleon had trouble with hiccoughs with caused concern to his numerous physicians. (In James Cook�s case, Dr. Reinhold Forster fearing that unless the hiccoughs stopped, the Captain may very well die). Also Cook had similar weakness in the lower limbs. This weakness confined Napoleon to his bed where he would stay until the day he died. Cook managed to overcome his leg weakness after a seven-day bunk rest. Both suffered from an �unhinged mind�. King George III (1738 - 1820) King George�s mental instability was long thought to have resulted from a hereditary disease, porphyria, which arises from defects in the oxygen-carrying pigment, haemoglobin. His symptoms, lameness, abdominal pain, insomnia, periodic mental disturbances, and discoloured urine, are typical of porphyria. Recent evidence suggests that the root cause of King George�s condition could have been arsenic poisoning, brought on and induced by regular emetics. In cases of antimony, lead, mercury or arsenic poisoning induced porphyria, other changes in porphyrin profiles appear, most notably elevations in uroporphyrins I and III, coproporphyrins I and III and pre-coproporphyrin. In July 2004 a remarkable exhibit came to light, hidden in the vaults of a London museum it was a scrap of folded paper containing a few strands of hair of His Majesty, King George III (1738http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom - cite_notedate-0�1820). Tests conducted on samples of the King�s hair by Harwell International Business Centre for Science and Technology in Didcot, Oxfordshire, showed large concentrations of arsenic (17 parts per million), 300 times the toxic level. The BBC contacted Professor Tim Cox, an expert on extreme cases of Porphyria at Addenbrookes Hospital in Cambridge, who confirmed that porphyric attacks can be triggered by a wide range of substances including alcohol, common medications, even monthly hormones. 6 Professor Cox confirmed that arsenic was listed as a trigger, and the massive levels found in King George's hair suggested that the arsenic had been liberally ingested over a long period of time. In the medical records there was passing reference to arsenic used as a skin cream, and as wig powder, but nothing that could explain the staggering levels of arsenic showing up in the King's hair. 7 The most common medication given to the King was �Dr. James' Powders�, a routine medicine, made from metallic oxide, forty three per cent phosphate of lime and fifty seven percent oxide of antimony (with traces of arsenic) administered several times a day, this was a lethal concoction. The phosphate of lime was used as a bulking agent, serving no other purpose. The antimony in this medication which had been administered to control the King�s �madness� was triggering more attacks. The king had ingested a lifetime of arsenic and antimony poisoning which had accumulated in his body. It was one hundred and fifty years later that George III�s true medical condition was fully understood. The King did suffer from the rare incurable blood disorder, acute porphyria. This was the cause of bouts of epileptic fits and severe abdominal pain and cramps, and the evidence often reported was �red urine�. But the treatment did nothing but exacerbate his medical condition. King George III�s medical practitioners were regularly inducing antimononial emetic tartar into him. (via �James Powders�). Antimony is contaminated with about five per cent arsenic. Since the King took about 180 mg of emetic tartrate a day, he could have unwittingly received 9 mg of arsenic, not enough to kill him, but plenty for

chronic poisoning especially when combined with his hereditary disease and the other medications being forced into him. Poor old King George was condemned as insane and confined to a strait jacket and chained to a chair, considered then as the sure way to control insanity. Although this was an untreatable medical condition, the King�s doctors persisted with the lotions and potions of the day. The royal archives at Windsor detail the King�s treatment and they also indicate the use of �arsenic skin cream�; �arsenic wig powder� and the ingestion �several times a day �James Powders� � for purging? The poor old �Mad King� was being turned even madder by his antimony and arsenic medication. His porphyric attacks prolonged because he was being force-fed copious amounts of poisons now accumulating in his body. 8 Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) Regarded as the father of modern physical science, after his death, Sir Isaac Newton left hundreds of notebooks, alas, these were scattered around the world after his modern relatives auctioned them off. Economist Milton Keynes purchased many of them for Cambridge library, and thanks to his diligence some of these notebooks are available for inspection. One can read of Newton�s health, and he was treated for a mental disorder characterized by great depression of spirits and gloomy forebodings, later known as melancholia. It is also documented that between 1692�1693 Newton experienced an eighteen-month period of psychosis.9 The notebooks detail Newton�s experiments with antimony, and his experimental alchemy transmutation of metal, trying to make gold! Antimony is a toxic metal that causes vomiting, diarrhoea and breathing difficulties when touched or ingested. These were symptoms known to Sir Isaac and his physician Dr. Richard Mead (1673 -1754), who was vice president of the Royal Society, known widely as a �purge and vomit man�. The practice was challenged by Professor of Physic John Woodward, a renowned Geologist who pointed out the dangers of antimonial purging. This �interference� led to a sword dual, during the silly dual Woodward slipped and fell to the ground unhurt. But his �second� and other colleagues intervened, breaking up the nonsense before either of the combatants injured themselves. 10 But Woodward had made his point, that Newton was suffering from poisoning exacerbated by his constant purging with antimony, that he was also known to handle as a regular practice. Ludwig van Beethoven (1770 �1827) The legendary composer, who experienced decades of illness that left him in misery for most of his life, is suspected of dying from lead poisoning. Modern researchers noted high concentrations of lead, matching earlier findings of lead in his hair. However, according to scientists, half-life measurements of the lead suggest it was present in Beethoven�s body for many years.11 The source of the lead is unknown, but the institute said some people stated that Beethoven drank a respectable amount of wine, and the lead may have come from a wine goblet made of the metal - antimony? Beethoven�s physician Dr. Malfatti ordered him to the spa at Teplitz in Czechoslovakia, where he penned the famed letter to �My Eternally Beloved� (Meine Unsterbliche Geliebte, believed to be to Antonie Brentano). The spa treatment was intended to cure his chronic bowel problems and reduce the constant ringing he had in his ears. In 1793 he moved to Vienna. He began noticing hearing loss in 1799, and in 1801, in a letter to a friend, he also mentioned problems with diarrhoea. His hearing problems were variously treated with medications including almond oil used by apothecaries since 1632 and bitter almonds, which can be lethal, both contain the highly toxic hydrogen cyanide or Prussic acid. For Beethoven�s internal disorders, the doctors often went to great extremes to

purge the body of its stomach contents in order to expel the �noxious humours�. In the fourth century B.C., the Greek physician Hippocrates developed a medical theory called �humouralism�, which held that four humours (liquids) coursing through the human body determined one's temperament and state of health. The purging treatment was usually accompanied by a routine of drinking the medical waters found in and among the spas of Europe.� Purging was the accepted German treatment of the day, Beethoven continued his purging and in August of 1812 he spent a month at the cold spas of Franzensbrunn. Researchers at the U.S. Department of Energy's Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois, in December 6th 2005 found massive amounts of lead in the bones of Ludwig von Beethoven, confirming the cause of his years of chronic debilitating illness. 12 The bone fragments, confirmed by DNA testing to have come from Beethoven's body, were scanned by X-rays from the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne. A control bone fragment sample from the same historic period was also examined. Both bone fragments were from the parietal section, the top of the skull. Bill Walsh, chief scientist at the Pfeiffer Treatment Center in Warrenville, Illinois, and director of the Beethoven Research Project believed that the finding of elevated lead in Beethoven's skull, along with DNA results indicating authenticity of the bone/hair relics, provides solid evidence that Beethoven suffered from a toxic overload of lead. In addition, the presence of lead in the skull suggests that his exposure to lead was not a recent event, but may have been present for many years, �Beethoven suffered from bad digestion, chronic abdominal pain, irritability and depression. Since he died in 1827 at age 57, there has been much speculation but no proof of the cause of his illnesses and death. 13 Walsh confirmed that the original autopsy findings were consistent with lead poisoning. Paracelsus (born Phillip von Hohenheim, (1493-1541) The �father of modern medicine� Paracelsus claimed antimony as the best bloodpurifying agent. He also outrageously claimed to have used it for the cure of many diseases, including cancer. �of all minerals antimony contains the highest and strongest Arcanum (remedy) it purifies itself and at the same time, everything else that is impure. Furthermore, if there is nothing healthy at all inside the body, it transforms the impure body into a pure one, which was proved in cases of leprosy�. These claims were substantiated by Theodor Kerckring of Holland in 1670 when he prepared and used antimonial tinctures in his medical practice. By the 20th century antimony was discovered to be extremely useful in the therapy of tropical diseases, especially the deadly parasitic children's disease leishmaniasis. In the early years, mainly trivalent antimony had been applied which showed an ability to kill the parasite but unfortunately has also been known to kill the human host. Modern medicine also has used antimony for the treatment of schistosomiasis known as �snail fever�, and cutaneous schistosomiasis, sometimes commonly called �swimmer's itch�. Antimony attaches itself to sulphur atoms in certain enzymes which are used by both the parasite and the human host. Louis XIV (1638�1715) Emetic purging was banned in France in the 16th century by royal decree as a dangerous poison; however, Louis XIV overturned the decree in 1666 after a he experienced a cure by tartar emetic containing antimony.14 Modern researchers analysing the sites of the latrines at a hunting lodge built for Louis XIV have concluded that those who used the pit, including the King and his courtiers, were heavily infested with various gastrointestinal parasites. Ascaris 15 and trichinella 16 appear to have been particularly common, probably

due to poor hygiene and the consumption of undercooked meat. Samples from less affluent households of this period show less prevalent infestations. Presumably because meat was less commonly eaten and when it was available it was usually boiled. Fashions in diet also account for Fasciola hepatica in the courtiers, which probably resulted from ingestion of fresh watercress. 17 In the autumn of 1685, Louis developed an agonising and persistent toothache, and his doctors decided to extract the offending molar. However, they were ignorant of the importance of post-operative hygiene, and infection set in: the king's gums jawbone and sinuses became dangerously inflamed. A committee of nervous physicians concluded that drastic measures were called for. Louis underwent a truly terrible ordeal: they removed all the teeth from the top layer of his mouth, then punctured his palate and broke his jaw. This was all completed without anaesthetic, the king being fully awake throughout this procedure. At least the wounds were kept clean on this occasion � cauterised with red-hot coals. The swaggering 1701 portrait of Louis XIV by Hyacinth Rigaude clearly confirms the state of the King�s dental health � he had no teeth. Aged forty-nine years he also underwent surgery to remove an internal fistula, he recovered. Cardinal Richelieu (1585�1642) suffering the same complaint died of it in the same year. The King suffered from gout which was common with people who were medicating with pilules perp�tuelles and other antimony potions. George Frederick Handel (1685-1759) In his later years Handel was perpetually cantankerous, he died of lead poisoning purportedly introduced into his body via �cheap port� a common explanation of the day. In April 1737, aged fifty-two years, Handel suffered a stroke which left his right arm temporarily paralysed and stopped him from performing. He also complained of difficulties in focussing his sight, and it was suggested that he should visit Aix-la-Chapelle, taking hot baths, as being efficacious for his health. While on a journey back from Germany to London, Handel was seriously injured in a carriage accident between The Hague and Haarlem in the Nederlands. This accident was the possible start of a life-time of medical ails, and treatments from a variety of �quack� doctors. Handel�s eyesight started to fail in one eye, and quickly the condition progressed to his other eye. One diagnosis was that Handel suffered from saturnine gout, induced by lead or antimony poisoning, attributed to his prolific consumption of port, or to a consequence of his purging with an antimony cup. This practice was introduced by a number of medical practitioners. Handel had been �couched� (ophthalmic procedure) by the brilliant Royal Physician William Bromfield (17131792) to no avail. Handel was introduced to the �coucher� a self-promoting quack, John Taylor (1703-1772), commonly known as 'Chevalier�, he was a famous eighteenth century itinerant oculist and a striking medical personality. Samuel Johnson wrote of Taylor as an example of the triumph of impudence over ignorance. Taylor was a self-proclaimed cataract surgeon, who performed removal of cataracts by breaking them up into pieces; Handel�s sight regressed rapidly under this surgeon�s knife. It was recorded that Johann Sebastian Bach died of complications due to the same surgeon�s incompetent surgery. Handel entered a period of melancholia �dejected, wan, and dark� at the onset of his blindness and sought medical help. His physician stated that associated mental disorder cannot be identified because the descriptions are so incomplete 18 Handel died in London, his last attended performance being his own �Messiah�, He had more than 3,000 mourners attending at his funeral�which was given full state

honours�and he was buried in Westminster Abbey. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756�� 1791) Mozart may have died from antimony poisoning ingested through his medication. He had been prescribed, antimony salts and mercury as a treatment for his frequent attacks of melancholia. The more melancholic he became the more he was known to purge! Mozart was poisoned with antimony tartrate which had been prescribed by his doctors, and with which he also self-medicated. 22 The late Dr. Ian James of the Royal Free Hospital in London, offered a theory that Mozart had died of iatrogenic antimony poisoning, that had been prescribed as a compound by his physicians, as a treatment for melancholia and depression! The symptoms of antimony poisoning, are coughing, arthralgia, arthritis, myalgias, headache, fainting, apnoea, abdominal pain, vascular collapse, facial oedema, skin rash, chronic indigestion, renal dysfunction and renal failure. When chronically ingested, antimony like most heavy metals, can lead to many problems including polyneuropathy, tremors, gait disturbance, hearing loss, and mental deterioration. Most of these symptoms were familiar to Mozart as they were to James Cook.

Wolfgang Armadeus Mozart and family.

Chapter Ten. Venereal Disease The Lasting Legacy of HM Bark Endeavour�s First Visit.

Chapter 10. Venereal Disease. The Lasting Legacy of HM Bark Endeavour�s First Visit Cook tried with dedication to keep his crew healthy. However he could not have foreseen that venereal disease, so common with 18th century sailors, would cause such devastation to the innocent populations wherever the ship called. Once Cook

realised his crew were infected, it was too late to prevent the damage inflicted by the insatiable sexual appetite of both parties. b At sea the Captain is called upon to be the surgeon, chaplain and apothecary, and the absolute law. On ships without a surgeon or doctor the Captain was called upon to heal, cure, amputate and provide lotions and potions for all maladies that befall the crew; the ailments were as varied as was the treatment, and if all failed it was the Captain who administered the last rights. f Some of the medications available to the ship�s surgeon included violent emetic purges. These purges were tried with little success on Commodore Lord George Anson (1697�1762). He led a squadron into the Pacific in the 1740s to raid Spanish shipping. Anson�s voyage was a disaster, of those on board, one hundred and eighty eight of the crew and officers were all that remained of the original crews of HM ships Centurion, Gloucester, Tryal and Anna. Together with the survivors of HM ships Severn, Pearl and Wager, about five hundred had survived of the original nineteen hundred that had sailed in September 1740, all but a handful falling to scurvy, disease or starvation. 1 s Copaiba Balsam The mate of the Bark Paulina wrote of the treatment to one poor soul, crewman McCloud, during a voyage in, he presented suffering venereal disease. He was �cured� with blue vitriol (copper sulphate), castor oil and an injection of balsam of copaiba, directly into his penis! The patient refused absolutely to take more pills, refused injections as ordered by Captain Patch and he begged the Captain to treat him no more.2 Copaiba was a herbal oil also used as an emollient. In 1751 Copaiba was believed to have diuretic, disinfectant and stimulant properties. Copaiba balsam was believed to be a natural oil that was most beneficial in chronic mucous affections, such as in chronic gonorrheae, bronchitis, irritable conditions of the bladder, gleet, (a mucous discharge from the urethra in chronic gonorrhoea) leucorrhoea (a discharge in men and women), chronic catarrh, chronic diarrhoea and obstinate piles. The effect in the treatment of gonorrheae was supposed to be much improved by the addition of liquor potasse. 3 s Culbreth�s �A Manual of Materia Medica and Pharmacology� describes liquor potasse as a multi purpose medicine used to cauterize chancres, poisoned wounds, ingrown nails, scrofulous abscesses, carbuncles, tumours, varicose veins, diphtheria, urethral stricture, corns�. Potassium hydroxide is one of the strongest caustics or escharotics; destroys tissues by abstracting moisture and dissolving albumin, fibrin, and gelatine. Its action differs from that of silver nitrate in not being superficial, but in penetrating deeply. s 18th century ship�s surgeons and doctors based their diagnosis of illness on the ancient beliefs of humours, bodily tension, or other cruder doctrinaire dogmas. The practice of bleeding with leeches or breathing a vein into a pewter cup to cure illness was common. In fact, the practice of ship-board medicine often caused more harm than good. The ship-board medical practitioners, be they qualified or not, did not understand the need to sterilize their hands, or instruments. Many of the medicines prescribed were just as poisonous as the un-washed surgeons. t Blackwell�s Curious Herbal During the 18th century many of the commonly used medicines were botanical, some were effective, most were cruelly useless. Instructions for the use the botanical cures came from widely published material �herbal� catalogues, which explained the use of many herbs. u Elizabeth Blackwell�s book �A Curious Herbal� was written, drawn, engraved and coloured mostly using plant specimens from the Chelsea Physic Garden. Written and

illustrated with unabashed confidence, this illustrated literature explains in detail how to use the herbs to cure a vast array of diseases and maladies. The �Herbal� was issued in weekly parts between 1737 and 1739, each part containing four illustrated plates and a page of text. It was highly praised by leading physicians and apothecaries (makers and sellers of medicines), and made the author a wealthy woman. Today, Blackwell�s writings would be challenged as outrageous, especially as a treatment a plethora of ailments. The modern administrators of the Trades Practices Act would cringe at some of the purported �cures�, for instance Sassafras was suggested as a treatment for syphilis, scurvy, gout, fluid retention, rheumatic pains, colds and influenza, and skin eruptions. However, its main component, safrole, has been found to be toxic and is not now recommended for medical use. Native Americans first used the dried root and bark for medicinal purposes. They introduced its medicinal uses to the European settlers and many ship�s surgeons. 4 s The Crew leaves a Venereal Legacy The explosive transmission of venereal disease � gonorrhoea and syphilis � from the crew of HM Bark Endeavour first visit, was waiting for the French and more British sailors who followed including the crew of HM Sloop Resolution. The French argued that crew of HM Bark Endeavour initially introduced the venereal disease in the Pacific, they were no doubt correct. Notwithstanding whom the authors were the evidence is that Cook�s men went a long way in spreading it. Bougainville suffered illness and the crews of both ships Boudeuse and Etoile reported cases of scurvy and venereal disease. Both the French and British accused each other of introducing venereal disease to Tahiti and Pacific region. Some writers believed the disease was yaws (aka framboesia), a non venereal infection known in the Pacific (It is caused by a spirochete micro-organism similar to that which causes syphilis). Yaws can be disfiguring and disabling because it may cause gross destruction of the skin and bones. It can also cause deformities of the legs, nose, palate, and upper jaw. d Whatever the origin of the introduced venereal disease, the sexual relations between European men and Pacific men and women ensured that it spread far and wide and devastated a once innocent paradise. a By Cook�s first arrival into the Pacific, leprosy had been established for some time. Banks noted strange �cutaneous distempers�. The following voyage it was also noted by Forster who studied it a little deeper noting the various stages it presented from the initial �whitish scaly exfoliation�, first assumed to be salt on the skin. Forster recorded in his Journal the sight of natives with �spongy kind of flesh�, and in the later stages �elevated tumours�. Venereal Lues HM Bark Endeavour left a lasting legacy on the native populations of the Pacific Islands, it was venereal disease. The ship�s company went ashore every day to work building the fort and a guard of marines was set every night to protect the tools and the fort. The women were so very liberal with their favours in exchange for nails, shirts and clothes these were temptations that they could not withstand. So common were the sexual frolics that the venereal �distemper� soon spread itself over the greatest part of the ship�s company.5 Symptoms of gonorrhoea usually appear two to five days after infection, however, in men, symptoms may take up to a month to appear. Some people do not have symptoms, they may be completely unaware that they have caught the disease, and therefore do not seek treatment. Treatment and prophylactics offered by the ship�s surgeon to crew and natives were ineffectual. The surgeons were exasperated when they came to terms with the fact that the had protection for the venereal lues, (sexually transmitted disease) but find it ineffectual as they had no emetic medicines.6 f

Although animal-gut condoms were available, it was high unlikely that the ship�s crew had access to them, the �Gentlemen� on board may have brought them on board. London had two famous condom sellers were Mrs. Phillips, of Half Moon Street on the Strand and Mrs. Perkins, both issued pamphlets to promote their shops. A �Miss Jenny� did a roaring trade in washed, second-hand condoms. 7 J By 13th April 1769 the venereal disease alarm bells were ringing but Cook was not listening. HM Bark Endeavour arrived at Royal Bay, Matavai, Otaheite. By this time venereal disease was becoming evident with the crew. The unsuspecting yet willing partners ashore were to welcome the white-skinned sailors, unaware that the first sexual contact was to be a death sentence. Cook would not and could not accept responsibility for the disease now spreading throughout the population it was too easy to look for a scapegoat. Looking for someone to blame for the obvious venereal disease now evident in the locals, Cook looked a little deeper. On 6th June 1769 Cook had been informed by several of the natives that about ten or fifteen months ago, two ships touched at the island and stayed ten days in a harbour to the eastward called �Ohidea�. Cook believed that no sooner had they arrived at the island some locals presented with disease. But no such thing happened to any of the �Dolphin�s� people while Wallis was there in 1767. h Cook did all he could with no help from the crew, to keep his men out of the local beds. But work on the fort needed to go on. Cook posted a strong guard every night. Still the women were so very liberal with their favours, nails and shirts were temptations that they could not forego. The venereal distemper very soon spread over the greatest part of the ships company, but Cook had the strange mistaken belief in what the natives chose to believe, they all agreed that Bark Endeavour�s crew did not initially introduce it to the islands. 8 E Not withstanding the Captain�s belief at the Society Islands, Tahiti, casual sex between sailors and innocent vulnerable wahines or young mahus resulted in sexually transmitted disease being spread through the islands like wild-fire by 13th April - August 1769 the disease was well established. 1 The treatment of this scourge formed a substantial part of the workload of naval surgeons. Treatment was often naive and primitive, usually resulting in an injection of mercury, arsenic or antimony into the affected penis. The patient would also have his pay docked, as contracting such a disease was considered a self-inflicted injury. The dreaded treatment for syphilis (the pox) was just as primitive as there were originally no effective treatments for this disease. The use of Guaiacum gum from the wood was once used as treatment. (Guaiacum officinale is the national flower of Jamaica, while Guaiacum sanctum is the national tree of The Bahamas). The commonest treatment remained injections of mercury: the use of which gave rise to the saying �A night in the arms of Venus leads to a lifetime on Mercury�, other uses of mercury were tried including mercury vapor soaked into the body of the patient. One of the many treatments used in dealing with second stage syphilis infection was �touching the sores with nitric acid nitrate of silver or any other escharotic�. During the third voyage three of the officers aboard HM Sloop Resolution were found to have venereal disease. Lieutenant King wrote a vivid clinical description of what their venereal disease was like: �In one of them it had broke out in the groin, and in some parts seemed healed, but in other places the morbid matter was issuing out, this person had an emaciated countenance, haggard eyes, and it was a pain to him to drag along his body�. King stated that despite their afflictions, all three of the infected persons were cheerful; only with difficulty could they be persuaded to accept treatment from the ships surgeon. 9 b Cook noted in his journal that the crew were free of disease prior to going ashore. This was fallacious, in fact twenty-four crew and nine of the eleven

marines were afflicted with a rampant venereal disease. Cook flogged Bradley for inflicting venereal disease on the natives; he was a particularly wretched case constantly infected and reinfected and the principal source of much of the disease. Earlier three nations had sent ships on voyages of exploration to the Pacific Islands Matavai Bay in Otaheite (Tahiti). The Spanish were first to call. Samuel Wallis stated that his crew aboard the ship Dolphin had reported no ill health from the visit. The French arrived under Bougainville with two ships. James Cook assumed that the French were the only possible source of this infection; he records in his log, �to blame the Spanish sailors, for inflicting this dreadful malady the natives with is a canard�. It was not the Spanish but an old adversary, from the Quebec days, it was Bougainville, who was last at Tahiti an he and his crew infected islanders.10 So, there it was, according to Cook, it was the dreadful French who were responsible for the spread of this venereal disease, as it was in the year 1495 when the French soldiers were accused, of inflicting this revolting disease whilst they were waging war in Italy. Cook gave no thought whatsoever to the fact that on his watch, the crew from HM Bark Endeavour�s first voyage transferred the �dreadful malady� firstly to New Zealand then through the Pacific islands. Hough in his interesting �Captain Cook - A Biography� declared that it was not venereal disease but, yaws, a one-time endemic disease all over the Pacific. Yaws was highly infectious and he inaccurately, remarked that it was treated at that time in the same manner as venereal disease with arsenic injections.11 Today there is no vaccine to prevent yaws, however an injection of Benzathine Penicillin will cure it.12 Yaws or not, Surgeon David Samwell of HM Sloop Resolution knew what he was treating and what was now an epidemic and his explosive report on the subject left no doubt as to what befell the islanders. He had no doubt it started on the first visit on HM Bark Endeavour. Samwell was so moved by the devastation inflicted on the once tranquil idyllia that he let the world know in no uncertain terms what he thought of this scourge when he published his explosive narrative of the voyage.13 There is no credible evidence, or entries in any of the Surgeon�s logs that James Cook personally contracted venereal disease although he often slept in the native huts, and entertained Tahitian princesses in his cabin. The devastation of the innocents. During the period of Captain James Cook's 1778 expedition to Hawaii the population was estimated by some to be upwards of 400,000. Others believe that Cook�s officers miscalculated and a better estimate would have been 150,000. In 1823 the American missionaries estimated their number at 142,000; the census of 1832 showed the population to be 130,313; the census of 1878 proved that the number of natives was no more than 44,088. In 1890 they numbered 34,436; in 1900, 29,834, a decrease of 4602 or 13.3% within the decade. 14 A generation of children mostly born with venereal disease and a raft of other alien diseases unheard of in Hawaii until Cook and his followers arrived, these diseases included smallpox, measles, mumps, cholera, tuberculosis, and influenza, plague, scarlet fever, diphtheria, and rheumatic fever, although leprosy was evident, this was established prior to Cook. The European influence devastated the traditional society. Over the one hundred years following Cook�s visit the population had been decimated to a low 53,900. 15 By the 1995 census the ethnically pure Hawaiian population was still in decline to 8,000 the ethnic population trending towards extinction. 16

More European ships landed on the islands with ever greater frequency. The bestknown of these ships was HM Armed Transport Bounty, whose crew mutinied shortly after leaving Tahiti in 1789. The diminishing local population trend was also visible at the Marquesas Islands in French Polynesia, with six large and six small islands; the population reached its peak when Captain Cook arrived in the late 1700s when the population was between 60,000 and 100,000. This was to be decimated with the introduction of venereal and other disease. The 1996 French Polynesia census recorded a population of 8,064 Marquesas inhabitants on the Islands. 17 Homosexual practices. Johann Reinhold Forster sailed with James Cook during the second voyage, was not convinced that any members of the crew from Cook�s ships were the authors of venereal disease. Forster states that because the crew had been at sea for six months (Cape Town to New Zealand) without female contact, gonorrhoea could not lay dormant within the sailors for such a length of time. This argument is not only na�ve but is flawed. Notwithstanding the severity of the penalty under Articles of War 29 � Buggery, the penalty laid down was hanging; certain members of the crew practiced homosexual coupling. The introduction of venereal disease started with the Bark Endeavour crew, who must have carried the germ on board from England. The carriers were the sexually active crew who probably kept the Neisseria gonorrhoea bacterium alive, during homosexual practices, aboard the ship. In December 1778 during the third voyage Surgeon Samwell started to treat local natives with inflamed swollen genitalis inflicted with gonorrheae. The surgeon had no hesitation in recording his opinion as to who introduced the devastation. Also on the same voyage Second Lieutenant James King in utter dismay and humiliation when he was to learn first hand of the venereal disease amongst the locals. Lieut King went on to declare: �I am pretty well convinced that the daughters of the principal chiefs did not all appear, perhaps from the dread of that terrible distemper which we have given them�. 18 King could see first hand the devastation happening with the Pacific island natives. He had no hesitation in recording that men and women were killed by it. His use of the word �killed� rather than �died� certainly points to the escalating seriousness of the effects of venereal disease. Still looking to pass the blame to someone other than his crew, Cook had his head in the sand when he recorded in January 1779 �that the natives of Otaheite had caught venereal disease by intercourse with their neighbours.� The penny dropped, after ten years of regular denial, Cook recognised who were the �authors� of this. His log states �I am afraid it is not to be denied we are the Authors of this irreparable mischief� The natives had no doubt as to who were the �authors� of their medical condition, the locals named the disease �apa no Pretane� (Britannia disease). However earlier visitors may have left behind a different disease. These ships were Aquila and her transport Jupiter from Callao, under Don Domingo Boenechea who visited Tahiti to try to establish a Spanish settlement and check on the activities of Wallis. HM Ship Dolphin 18th June 1767 had indeed called in at Matavai, Tahiti with Captain Wallis. Aquila stayed in Owhaiurua Harbour for about three weeks. On departure the French may have left behind a non venereal disease which was just as lethal. The natives called this disease �apa-no Pep-pe� (from the ship of Peppe). This was most likely �Yaws�. While attempting departure three of the �Aquila� crew jumped ship and paid

the fare by being hanged at the Spanish ship�s yard arm. 19 t Yaws may have originated in Central Africa, during the 14th century transmitted by direct skin contact, producing deep, ulcerative lesions of the skin, underlying tissues and bone. t Still others believed with some foundation that Bougainville�s crews aboard Le fr�gate du roi La Boudeuse, et la fl�te L'�toile; 1768 were the �authors�. 20 f Although he was eventually to come to terms with the fact the crew of HM Bark Endeavour must have left the venereal disease behind after the first visit in July 1769. Cook had a great deal of trouble accepting responsibility for the spreading of venereal disease into the Pacific Islands and he tried to slate the blame on earlier visitors. In his log of Cook recorded his concerns about his venereal ridden crew: � �..the ship�s company had had at this place and the too free use of women were in a worse state of health than they were on our first arrival, for by this time full half of them got the venereal disease�. 21 h These people are and were, before the Europeans visited them, very subject to scrofulous diseases; so that a seaman might easily mistake one disorder for another� a The scrofulous disease referred to by Cook was in fact leprosy in the second and third stages. t When it was more than obvious that the Bark Endeavour crew had been responsible for the disease, James Cook noted that during the third voyage as natives climbed on board the sloop Resolution one of the locals told Cook that Endeavour had left a disorder amongst their women of which several persons of both sexes had died. The complainant was himself afflicted with venereal disease, and gave a very full and minute account of the various symptoms with which afflicted him. Cook agreed that there was not the slightest appearance of venereal disorder amongst them on the first arrival, Cook at last accepted the fact that his crew were the authors of this �irreparable mischief�. o Bayley the astronomer during the second and third voyage displayed a naivety beyond comprehension during the third voyage he when he reported that on leaving the Society Islands that it was his belief that Bougainville, following Wallis did not see any cases of syphilis at Tahiti, though they must have seen plenty of yaws. Bayley continued with his naivety when he wrote that the sailors were in very good health � �except for a few venereals and those but slight�. v Venereal disease in New Zealand. Captain Cook stated in October 1769 that he saw no source of disease either critical or chronic the people seem to enjoy perfect and uninterrupted health. Cook never saw a single person who showed any bodily complaint. Amongst those he saw naked he did not see the slightest eruption upon the skin or any marks that an eruption bad left behind. e On his return to New Zealand after a break of eight years 12th February 1777, Cook�s Journal recorded that venereal distemper was among the natives. On arrival at Maui, the second largest of the Hawaiian Islands, Cook issued orders that trade was forbidden; women were banned from the ship, except under certain restriction but the evil he meant to prevent by this regulation, he soon found had already got amongst them. Cook applied the same embargo to himself when he was offered a young lady to keep him l

So which of the European visitors to New Zealand was responsible for the introduction of venereal disease into New Zealand? i 1642 Abel Tasman. Abel Tasman and the ships Zeehaen, a 100 ton flute, a long, three masted narrow ship, flute like - with a tapered hull and sloped quarter deck carrying fifty men. With Tasman was the Heemskerck, the flagship, a small warship of around 60 tons and carrying sixty men, under command of Frans (Franchoys) Jacobszoon Visscher. Tasman first sighted New Zealand in the vicinity of the coast between modern Hokitika and Okarito, on the west coast of the South Island. 22 H The Dutch had no chance of social contact with the Maori women. From day one of landing, skirmishes between the two parties caused a number of deaths on both sides. As the two Dutch ships looked for a watering spot they came close to the shore at the northern part of the South Island. The VOC (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie ships soon came to the notice of the local Maori, who refused to cooperate and come aboard. Initially the Maori gave the appearance of being friendly, but when they started to gather in numbers the Dutch crews became wary and sceptical of the intent of the Maori. Signals were passed between the two ships via the cockboat, Tasman sensibly instructed the Zeehaen to lay-off and cease encouraging the Maori to board. c The Maori took the opportunity to show their intent and attacked the cockboat killing one of the four Dutch seamen, and bundled the dead seaman into a canoe, no doubt to be carved up later, they headed to the shore. The remaining three sailors had been tipped into the sea but manage to swim back to the safety of the H Heemskerck. The Maori now in fighting mode started to chant the war �Haka�. The Dutch fired a long distance shot and killed one of the natives and scared the rest back into the bush. Because of this incident, Tasman named the bay �Moordenaers Baij� Murderer's Bay. 23 Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne (1724 - 1772). Two French Indiamen Mascarin, under the command of Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne and Marquis de Castries a sixteen-gun ship with Ambroise-Bernard-Marie du Clesmeur in command, sighted a snow covered mountain at New Zealand. Commander du Fresne named this mountain �Le Pic Mascarin�, quite unaware that Lieutenant James Cook had already given it the name of �Mount Egmont�. h Looking for fresh drinking water now in serious need, to satiate his crew, du Fresne cruised up to the North Island of New Zealand, but no water could be found at a place where the ships could find safe anchorage. Anchorage and water were eventually found on arriving at Cape Aeolus. Commander du Fresne anchored his ships at �Spirits Bay� the place known today as �Kerr Point�. s The ships were caught in a gale, by 17th April 1772 du Fresne gave orders to weigh anchor and move to a safer mooring, this they did, but not before a major problem occurred. Unable to raise the anchors in the rising sea and ferocious weather, all five anchors were cut free and abandoned. Without anchors the ship was in dire trouble. Cook adopted a practice of anchor buoys attached to the cable, for easy retrieval should the anchor be lost, this was not a practice adopted by the French. Du Fresne sent Mascarin back to Spirits Bay to try and locate the five abandoned anchors; alas only two could be found; these were hauled aboard. The ship�s forge would need to sand-caste replacements, and this was a very time consuming complex task. c Du Fresne set sail with the intent of heading to Batavia, they were still in New

Zealand waters, south of Moturua Island which they named �Ile Marion�, (also recorded as �Port Marion�) again not realising that Cook had already given the area the name �The Bay of Islands�. The two ships laid cable and anchors near the present day town of Russell. Repairs to the ships commenced. Initially the French and the Maori did not squabble, the stay exceeded five weeks. Some contact with the Maori women took place until a week or so into the visit when bedlam broke o out. It was just after this stay that du Fresne recorded that some of his crew had contracted venereal disease from the Maori women. The probable source of this was the crew of HM Bark Endeavour in October 1769. t The war paint applied, the Haka of utu started to be heard, this was the prelude to war. �Tika tonu mai Tika tonu mai Ki ahau e noho nei Tika tonu mai I a hei ha!� T In the eyes of the locals, by fishing at Te Hue, a bay where some Maori warriors had died years earlier, Du Fresne and the French sailors had desecrated a �sacred tapu� an area that was revered, prohibited, understood to be untouchable by human contact. This spot situated at �Tacoury's Cove� (or today's �Manawaora Bay�). With the intrusion by the visitors, a hostile armed group of a few hundred warriors waited to set on Marion du Fresne, who had arrived to fish the area with a small gig with part of the crew and the ship�s long-boat. Twenty-six of the French were butchered by the Moturua Maori including: Marion du Fresne, de Vaudricourt, Pierre Lehoux - a volunteer, Thomas Ballu of Vannes, Pierre Mauclair - the second pilot from St Malo, Louis Menager - the steersman from Lorient, Vincent Kerneur of PortLouis, Marc Le Garff from Lorient, Marc Le Corre of Auray, Jean Mestique of Pluvigner, Pierre Cailloche of Languidic and Mathurin Daumalin of Hillion. The French retaliated with force, burning a village and killing 250 Maoris, and named the bay �Ance des Assasinats� (Assasination Cove). t As was the practice of visiting explorers the French buried a bottle at Waipio, 12th July 1772 at Moturua enclosing a parchment depicting the arms of France with a formal statement taking possession of the whole country; by naming it: �France Australe�. 31 The Act of Possession translated from French into English is as follows: �In the Year of Grace one thousand seven hundred and seventy-two, the eleventh of July, we Captains and officers of the King's ships Le Mascarin and the Marquis de Castries, have taken possession in the name of His Majesty Louis XV, our King, of the Continent to the Eastward of New Zealand, named by M, Marion du Fresne, our Commander, France Australe �� 24 Jean-Fran�ois-Marie de Surville (1717-1770) ? Jean-Fran�ois-Marie de Surville, aboard the French India Company ship St Jean Baptiste, rounded Cape Marie Van Diemen (named by Tasman) and entered New Zealand waters. The weather was appalling. Serendipitously and unbeknown to each other James Cook in HM Bark Endeavour had passed the French at this point at the same time, the weather being too inclement for the ships to see each other. These were the first Europeans to enter New Zealand waters since Abel Tasman�s visit in 1642. The French found the locals to be amiable, and friendly relations were established between the Maori and the French at Doubtless Bay. The French replenished the ship's supplies, and transferred the numerous sick crew members off the ship to recuperate on shore. r A weather change forced the French to take the sick crew members back on board and the ship was moved to a safer mooring a small cove, which de Surville named

�Refuge Cove�. During the move to this safe harbour St Jean Baptiste ran on to rocks, and a broken rudder, damaged masts and sails, and the loss of the two anchors resulted. This damage caused the French to stay in New Zealand for a much longer period than planned. From the start of the repairs the relationship with the locals turned to animosity when the Maori stole a small boat. Any thought of social interaction with the local women was from this point on was out of the question. By now any disease left two months earlier following the October 1769 visit of the Bark Endeavour crew would have been virulent in the Maori. v Today there is a commemorative plaque which marks the anchorage of the ship: �Jean Franois Marie de Surville anchored his ship St Jean Baptiste in Doubtless Bay 7th -13th December 1769 to refresh his men. He visited a Pa on this headland, 30th December 1769� Cook believed the agents of �venereal distemper� were French, a few days after Cook�s first visit, De Surville�s Saint Jean Baptiste, recorded that they found friendly relations with the Maori at Doubtless Bay, De Surville was able to replenish the ship's supplies, and care for a number of the crew that were sick. It is feasible of course that the French could very well have contracted venereal disease left behind by Cook�s Bark Endeavour crew in 1769. d The attractiveness or otherwise of the local Maori women was summed up during Cook�s third voyage visit when surgeon Samwell somewhat arrogantly noted: �many girls came on board but all of them very ordinary, and they like other courtesans were so lavish of red Paint in daubing their faces and so fragrant of noisome smells that they did not meet with many admirers even among the ship's company, who upon these occasions are never known to be peculiarly nice in the choice of their paramours.� 25 Forster noted in his log that the Mate and a number of the crew from HM Sloop Adventure reported to the ship�s physician that they had contracted venereal disease from a Maori girl two weeks prior to reporting sick. The bells were now ringing with Forster, as he deduced that as Cook had found no evidence of the disease on arrival in 1769 that this dreadful disease must have been left behind by the Bark Endeavour crew in October 1769. b The bound copy of HM Sloop Resolution�s Paybook has a list of the crew treated by the Surgeon William Anderson between July 1776 and August 1788. This list shows that of the crew of one-hundred and twelve, sixty-six were treated for venereal disease. 26. d

Chapter Eleven James Cook�s Charts J

Chapter 11 James Cook�s Charts The �Bark Endeavour Journal of James Cook� includes a number of charts, with fascinating original names chosen by Cook. �Three Brothers�, one such name, is the same name used in New Zealand south of Queen Charlotte�s Sound and the �Three Brothers� near Port Macquarie, NSW. (Three Brothers was the original name of the Whitby collier James Cook worked on for three years when he was a twenty-one year old). �The �Great Barrier Reef� was originally named by Cook �The Labyrinth� 1 o Cook�s coastal chart starts between Orbost and Eden at �Point Hicks� then on to Cape Dromedary (near Narooma) where he sighted �Mt Dromedary� whilst anchored well off the coast. HM Bark Endeavour sailing track is fascinating as it indicates Cook�s interest in certain points along the NSW coastline. Where a stand-out landmark was noted Cook deliberated and spent a long time. The charts indicate that the vessel tacked and wared off a few notable points, sailed out to sea to take a longer view of the place. Cook normally sailed close to the coastal shore line, occasionally zigging and zagging off special places like Bateman�s Bay, he sketched �Pigeon House� on the chart (he said that it reminded him of a pigeon loft); �Cape St George� (near Nowra); There is much evidence of deliberation and zigzag tracking at �Botany Bay� (originally named �Stingray Harbour� by Cook but changed and re-named by Banks who �ushered it into the European imagination�. Banks was in awe at the flora it offered; �Point Solander� and �Cape Banks�; No deviation however as he sailed past �Port Jackson� (which Cook names) the straight tracking indicates either no interest or an oversight of the great harbour; sighting of the �Three Brothers� at the Port Macquarie; �Smoakey Cape� (his spelling) and Point Danger where he observed �Mt. Warning�; �Glass House Bay�, sighting �Glass Houses�; �Northumberland� and �Cumberland Islands� (off Mackay, Qld), Cook�s chart concludes at �Wales Isles� at the �Endeavour Straits�. From his tracking Cook seems to have adopted a practice each time he spotted a major landmark or mountain � he went out to sea for a better look. This single action confirms his dedication to accuracy. His annotation at Endeavour River is a very telling, �for on this ledge HM Bark Endeavour laid, twenty-three hours and received much damage�. 2 r During the first voyage (1768-1771) James Cook charted Le Maire Straits January 1769; Society Islands April-July 1769; New Zealand North Island October 1769 � February 1770; South Island February � March 1770; East Coast Australia April � August 1770. A The speed in which James Cook surveyed and drew his charts never impaired their accuracy. The first voyage around New Zealand, 2,400 miles (4,445 kms) was charted in six months. The 2,000 miles (3704 km) of the Australian coastline was charted in four months. Cook�s charts are in general, correct in outline and accurate in their latitudes, the longitude errors rarely exceed half a degree. (The South Island of New Zealand is not quite this accurate with Queen Charlotte Sound 40� too far east, and the distance to Cape Palliser was greater by 10� of Longitude compared to that which is laid down by (dead reckoning). These inaccuracies were understandable without an accurate timepiece and reliant only on the dead reckoning methods, however in the later voyages armed with the Kendall watch and

Mr. Harrison�s timepieces the second and third voyage charts are even more accurate. 3 a James Cook did not discover the great southern continent, it was not there to be discovered, but he did more than any other man to disprove that it never existed. Evidence of his thoroughness can be seen in the intricate criss-crossing and back tracking of the Pacific Ocean, there is no place in the Pacific a mythical land could possibly have been. Beaglehole sums up Cook�s exploits thus: �James Cook did not discover Tahiti, but he gave that island of Venus and of George III a prominence. He did not discover New Zealand, but he had brilliantly reduced it to the dimensions of fact, charting it in an accurate manner not seen before. James Cook is fallaciously assumed by many to have discovered New Holland, what he was to find was that this eastern coast of New South Wales at least was no archipelago, but continuous land; He was the second and not the first ship�s captain to sail between Australia and New Guinea; but the act had both the force and the effect of a new discovery. a James Cook was the finest navigator the 18th century world has ever known. J Alexander Dalrymple (1727-1808) Midway through the year 1500 the colourful French �Dieppe� maps started to depict 'Java la Grande�4 Nicholas Vallard's Atlas of 1547 held by the National Library of Australia depicts some of the Dieppe Maps commissioned by Henry II of France and Henry VIII of England. The Dieppe school of cartographers included Pierre Desceliers, Johne Rotz, Guillaume Le Testu and Nicholas Desliens. Vallard 1547, Desceliers 1550 maps with colourful compass roses and navigational rhumb lines. The Dieppe maps hint of Portuguese exploration of the Australian coast in the 1520s. Many of the Dieppe maps show a land mass entitled "Jave La Grande", between Indonesia and Antarctica. The Portuguese were active in Southeast Asia from 1511 and in Timor from 1516. a In Roman times philosopher Macrobius believed the earth was divided into three climatic zones, with a massive continent (Antipodum) covering much of the southern, and temperate, hemisphere. Like the modern question �is there life on Mars? Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius the Roman grammarian and Neo-Platonist philosopher posed the tantalizing question � �Why should we not assume that there are men living in Anitipodum? 5 The thinking, that a southern continental mass must exist to offset the northern continents, to �balance the world�, strongly influenced cartographers of the Renaissance period. Voyages of exploration to the Americas (thought to be China) and across the Pacific Ocean did nothing to erase belief in a great southern c continent. Dalrymple was a geographer and first hydrographer of the British Admiralty he was responsible for much of the time wasting endured by James Cook during his first two voyages. Dalrymple was convinced that �The Great South Land� was to be found in the Pacific � in addition to �Australia incognita� which was two thirds known. What had convinced Dalrymple were a series charts and maps including the earliest Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius (fifth century AD); Magellan's mythical �Southern Continent�. But Dalrymple had not noted the emendation on W. J. Oronce Fin�s (1491�1555) �Nova, et integra universi orbis� world map, included the words �Terra Australis recently discovered but not yet explored�. The earlier edition of this map Fin� titled his deception 'The South-Land, recently discovered, but not fully known yet�. k William Blaeu's 1619 world wall map updated by Joan Blaeu in 1646, is interesting, (The line representing part of the northern coast of the mythical southern continent was deleted during the update).

The great land mass fabrication had its followers up till 1769 when Cook returned from his first voyage. However it was not put to rest till Cook returned from the second voyage unable to find �the Great South Land� or 'Java la Grande'. s Cook confirmed the Antarctic coast line and finished the charting of the east coast of the only great land mass he could find was the so-called �Terra Australia�, however, by his exploration of New Zealand Cook realised that there was no way he had overlooked the land mass that Dalrymple had �sighted� on early Dutch charts in his possession. D So where did Dalrymple get the information that convinced him that this great mythical landmass existed? It seems that Dalrymple was asked to translate some Spanish documents captured in the Manila in 1762, this city came into British hands for eighteen months, but after the Treaty of Paris (1763) Manila was given back to Spain in April 1764. Amongst the documents seized was a contemporary chart showing in great detail the sailing track Torres took in 1606. This chart was used by Dalrymple in his book �An Account of the Discoveries Made in the South Pacifick Ocean, Previous to 1764� (London, 1767). This then must have been the spark that started the belief of the �Great Southern Land�. With the first voyage in mind Dalrymple could not contain his excitement he decided to lunch with Joseph Banks, and put the suggestion that the Royal Society should underwrite a great voyage of discovery � Dalrymple would of course lead the expedition, or so he thought. d Dalrymple was so convinced that the immense continent lying south of 28� 40 S and occupying at least 100� of longitude. He put the proposition to Banks that an expedition to locate that unseen �Great Southern Land� would offer trade with such an immense continent which would be worth more than that of the Americas. With potential trade as the ulterior motive, Dalrymple applied for command of a ship, and selection of the officers, for an expedition to observe the transit of Venus. But the demands of this dreamer were found unacceptable to the Admiralty. He took the rebuff as a challenge yet was still anxious to command the first voyage (urged on, it must be said, by the Royal Society). Admiralty still would not listen to him no matter how often he tried to pull strings, for after all he was only a hydrographer and not really a proper sailor, and that was that! h After Cook returned from the first voyage Dalrymple was still adamant that Cook was wrong in dismissing the �Great South Land� theory. Dalrymple persisted in his claim � by now mostly on deaf ears. Even Sir Joseph Banks had changed his mind. There was no way a massive land mass could possibly have been overlooked, Banks knew, because he had been there. k Dalrymple was aware that many maps of the 16th century depict �Terra Australis�, notably those maps produced by Abraham Ortelius: 1570 �Indiae Orientalis� with Portuguese discoveries ; 1589 �Maris Pacifici� showing some Spanish exploration; 1589 �Americae� Although a little confused with the interlay of New Guinea, nevertheless �Terra Australis Magellanica Hactvs Incognita� is included. Cartographer Petrus Bertius in his delightful 1550 depictions has part of the northern section of the continent showing colourfully attired natives with umbrellas prostrating themselves in front of the sun, and a cow (which he has posed on it�s hind legs on a most un-bovine manner), as well as other odd characters � a wooden wheel barrow, camels and thatched roofed huts, all of which were alien to the aboriginals of Terra Australis.6 w By 1598 the Dutch traders of the VOC (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie � Dutch East India Company) started to recognize Terra Australis Incognita and mapped Cape York in de Bray�s �Descripto Hydrographica� based on Cornelius de Houtmans voyage to the East in 1595. A 1699 chart of the west coast of New Holland by Captain

William Dampier covers a good 50% of the continent.7 Prior to Cook, with an eye on expansion into the South, the French Government in 1756 charged Academie Royale des Sciences via Robert de Vaugondy with the task of bringing together all the known places explored at Nouvelle Hollande. �Carte reduite de l'Australasie pour servir a la lecture de l'Histoire des Terres Australes 1756�, was the result. However for reasons known only to the cartographer, the Academie chose to state: �Nouvelle Hollande d�courverte en 1644�. Paradoxically this chart overlooks the discoveries Tasman, 1642, who landed and took possession of Tasmania, and went on to chart great stretches of the West Coast of Australia. Notwithstanding it�s shortcomings it was still one of the most complete maps drawn in up to 1756. It is without detail of the East Coast yet covers two thirds of the continental coastline � �Terre du St Espirit� (north from where Townsville is today), up to Cape York where ships called for fresh water. Each explorer names a river �Speult�; �Batavia�; �Water plaets� (two locations); �Coen�; Nassaw�; �des Etuts�; �de Dieman�; de Caron. The chart continues in detail across the Gulf of Carpentaria to the named �Terra d�Arnhem� across the �Joseph Bonaparte Gulf� (but then called �Terre de Diemen�) down the west coast to �G. F. de Witland� (discovered 1628) south of where Port Headland is today� Terre de Concorde� near Carnarvon; �Terres de Dinning� Perth; Terre de Leuwin near Albany. 8

Chapter Twelve The First Explorers

Chapter 12 - The First Explorers Notwithstanding the suggestion that it was the Portuguese who may have been the first to explore Australia. As the Portuguese had interest in Timor (now part of Indonesia). It is more than plausible to claim that Portugeuse sailed to or past the norther Australian coast line, accidently or otherwise. Timor was an important trading port from the beginning of the fifteenth century. Portuguese traders often used Timor as a base. Timor is only 620km from Darwin and the north of Australia. However by early 1600s Portugal was losing power in South-East Asia. Holland on

the other hand was becoming more powerful especially with its huge trading company VOC (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, otherwise the Dutch East India Company) which was established in 1602 and did regular voyages to its base at Batavia. w The coast of Australia was visited by many explorers including: 1606, William Janszoon and Jan Lodewijkszoon van Rosingeyn aboard Duyfken were the first confirmed Europeans to discover. They landed at a place now called �Wenlock River�, at the tip of Cape York. Here a member of the crew was killed, making him the first European to die in Australia. 1 t 1606, Luis V�ez de Torres � Torres Strait, San Pedrico and Los Tres Reyes (sighted Cape York) and recorded his findings on a chart, this was the chart that convinced Dalrymple that the Great South Land existed! A hand written note referring to the Barrier Reef is written as �Coste Dangereuse�. B 1616, Dirck Hartogszoon is credited with the discovery of West Australia. He stepped ashore at Shark Bay and charted to North West Cape. His vessel was VOC Eendracht after landing he nailed a plate to a tree to prove he had visited. 2 E 1618, VOC ship Zeewolf, voyaged from the Nederlands to India, under the command of supercargo Pieter Dirkszoon and skipper Haevik Claeszoon van Hillegom. They made further discovery of the West-coast of Australia.3 f 1619, The VOC ships Dordrecht and Amsterdam under Commander Frederik De Houtman, supercargo Jacob Dedel, and skipper Reyer Janszoon van Buiksloot and Maarten Corneliszoon (?) On a voyage from the Nederlands he named Dedelsland and Houtman's Abrolhos. 4 A 1622, VOC ship Leeuwin (captain unknown) almost shipwrecked at the south western extremity of Western Australia, which was later named �Cape Leeuwin� by Mathew Flinders. The land discovered by the Leeuwin is recorded on the Hessel Gerritsz' map issued in 1627. This map includes a section of the coastline labelled ' Landt van de Leeuwin beseylt A� 1622 in Maert ("Land made by the ship Leeuwin in March 1622"), which is thought to represent the coast between present-day Hamelin Bay and Point D'Entrecasteaux. a Four maps by Hessel Gerritsz that charted the Dutch discoveries of Australia including: (1) �Mar Del Sur�, published in 1622, which reveals the Spanish and Dutch discoveries, and includes Willem Janszoon's voyage in the Duyfken in 1606. (2) A map of the �Indian Ocean� published in the same year, which shows the Dutch discoveries of the west coast of Australia. (3) �Caert van't Landt van d'Eendracht� (Chart of Eendracht's Land), dated 1627, which embraces the Dutch discoveries along the same coastline from 1616 to 1622, from Cape Leeuwin to North West Cape. (4) A map of the �Malay Archipelago�, originally dated 1618 but more likely made in 1628, which shows the Dutch discoveries on Australia's West and South coast from 1616 to 1628.5 f 1622, The VOC ship Wapen van Hoorn was almost shipwrecked when she ran aground near Shark Bay, on the west coast of Western Australia. It had been commanded by J. van Roosenbergh, who mapped some of the west coast near Dirk Hartog Island. 6 J The Scoundrel Captain John Brooke Captain John Brooke, of the English East India Company (EEIC) ship Trial (also spelt Tryal and Tryall), ran onto a reef near the Montebello Islands, becoming Australia�s first shipwreck. The spelling of Trial appears on the Hessel Gerritz map �Uitslaande Kaart van het Zuidland� 1622. Forty-six of the crew survived.

Unfortunately ninety-two of the remaining crew was left to fend for themselves, and it is assumed that they all perished. of the original crew of 140 men four had died, out to Cape Town. Ten of the crew, including the captain took to the skiff, another thirty six made it to safety on the 8th of July 1622 in a repaired longboat they had sailed 1,500 sea miles to Batavia. Whereas VOC standing orders made it practice to sail back and pick up abandoned crews, the English (EEIC) failed to follow this custom. Trial was the first English ship to visit Australia. Brooke had been following advice relating to a southern route, recommended by Captain Humphrey Fitzherbert of the ship Royal Exchange, who had used the southern route in 1620 to the Indies but found no �Great Southland�. Brooke sighted land near North West Cape but misunderstood Fitzherbert's directions and was dashed upon the rocks and wrecked, losing ninetytwo lives and, purportedly, much treasure. 1622, Captain John Brooke arrived at Jakarta (Batavia) in a skiff with nine others to announce the loss of the EEIC Ship Trial off the �Great Southland� (More evidence for Dalrymple!). At the court of inquiry, Brooke told a plethora of lies from start to finish. He lied about where the ship was wrecked. (When the wreck site was found 1969 it confirmed beyond doubt that Brooke had lied. When the wreck was found, iron cannons and anchors were recovered. The site �Trial Rocks� where Brooke swore the ship was wrecked, took 300 years to be discovered. �Trial Rocks� were not located where Brookes said they were. Thus his deception covered up his lying about the course he had taken after leaving his wrecked vessel. Brooke needed to relocate �Trial Rocks� 200 leagues eastwards. The English East India Company were entirely fooled by this hoax but never charged Brooke for the total loss of Trial. Thomas Bright who had sailed in Trial, held Brooke totally guilty of negligence and responsible for the ship's loss. One wonders if the intent of Brooke�s deception was related to the treasure on board, and a secret desire to sail back one day to retrieve it. Brooke did go to prison when charged with running another East Indiaman Moone on to the rocks off the coast of Dover, UK. The ship was deliberated wrecked and Brooke found himself in prison for the duration of the two-year court case, which self-extinguished when the Company failed to prosecute.7 1623, Jan Carstensz, (VOC ship Pera) and Willem van Coolsteerdt (VOC ship Arnhem) explored the south coast of New Guinea and the western side of Cape York Peninsula both of which they charted. Coolsteerdt broke away from Pera sighted and charted a section of �Caep Hollandie� which was to become �Cape Arnhem�.8 In the same year Claes Hermanszoon in VOC ship Leijden under Captain Cock, landed and charted Shark Bay Western Australia. 9 1624, the discovery and naming of �Tortelduyf Island� was recorded on the Hessel Gerritsz map of 1627.� The 1623-1624 voyage of VOC Ship Tortleduyf from Nederlands to India is the probable discoverer of this rocky outcrop off the west coast, south of the Houtman Abrolhos, (now translated to English �Turtle Dove Island�. 10 1626, Dani�l Janssen Cock sighted �Zuydtland� in the VOC ship Leijden, voyaged from Nederlands to Java. Earlier in 1623 aboard this same ship Captain Klaas Hermanszoon charted more of Western Australia, South of Shark Bay.11 1627, Francois Thijssen and Peter Nuyts, in the VOC ship Gulden Zeepaert (Golden Seahorse) charted from Cape Leeuwin to Nuyts Archipelago, and named the area �Nuyt's Land�. They also discovered two islands which they named �St Francis� and �St Pieter�.12 David Pieterzoon de Vries and J. van Roosenbergh, in the VOC ship Wapen van Hoorn,

during the second visit of the ship charted part of the west coast of Western Australia near Sharks Bay, and revised Hartog�s 1616 chart. 13 A Jan Pieterszoon Coen, with VOC ships Galias, Utrecht and Texel, charted part of the West Australian coast. He nearly ran on to Albrohos reef after a near collision with the three ships. Coen was to become Governor General of VOC. 14 c VOC ship Wapen Van Hoorn with Jan van Roosenburgh made revisions to the Endracht's map of the Dirck Hartog Island area. 15 m 1628, Gerrit Frederikszoon de Wit, in the VOC ship Vianen, sighted the west coast at latitude 21�S and charted the coast for over 300 kms going north. He named the land �de Wit's Land�. 16 l 1629, Francois Pelsaert, VOC ship Batavia, was wrecked on Morning Reef, Abrolhos, Western Australia and the mutiny of the Batavia crew followed. Theo Wiebe Hayes for the VOC built a 'fort' to hold off an attack by mutineers. Following VOC standing orders concerning a sinking in the Pacific, the Captain set sail to Batavia in the long boat to get a rescue ship. In 1629 Commander Pelsaert returned from Batavia in the VOC ship Sardam to rescue the Batavia survivors. He was to uncover horrible murders among the crew and passengers he conducted a trial and punished the mutineers, Wouter Loos and Jan Pelgrom De Bye, two of the mutineers of the Batavia, were taken in a small boat to the mouth of the Hutt River on the mainland, and were left with equipment to fend for themselves as punishment for their role in the mutiny. These miscreants were to be the first recorded convict immigrants to Australia, who were stranded on the Abrolhos of Frederick Houtman, at a latitude of 28� � south of the equinoctial line.17 a 1631, The VOC ship Grooten Broeck (Great Brook) sailed along the west coast from Cape Leeuwin to Dirk Hartog Island on the way to Batavia. C 1635, Woolebrand Geleynszoon de Jongh and Pieter Dirckszoon, in the VOC ship Amsterdam, charted the west coast around Shark Bay. 18 A 1636, Commander Pieter Pieterszoon with the VOC ships Klein, Amsterdam and Wezel charted and named �van Diemen's Land�. The original Captain, G.T. Pool, was killed on the South-west coast of New Guinea on April 28th 1636, and was succeeded in the command of the ships by Pieterszoon. They mapped the N.T. coastline.19 c 1642, Abel Janszoon Tasman, while searching for the �Great South Land� with the two ships, Heemskerck and Zeehaen, discovered the west coast of �Van Diemen's Land� (Tasmania), and landed and took possession. Abel Tasman was born in Lutjegast, Nederlands in 1603. In 1633, he entered the Dutch East India Company (appointed by Anton Van Diemen, the Governor-General of Batavia) to explore lands in the rich Southern Ocean. i 1644, Tasman discovered Van Deiman's Land and New Zealand. During his second voyage, Tasman established that Eendracht Land (Western Australia) and Carpentaria (Queensland) were a part of a single land mass separated by sea from New Guinea and the East Indies. Tasman died comfortably in 1659 aged 56. Van Deiman's Land was later named after him in 1855 in honour of his discovery. 20 w Abel Janszoon Tasman commanded a second expedition with 3 ships, the Zeemeeuw, Limmen and Bracq and explored and charted the northern and western coast from Cape York to Point Cloates in the west. He called the western part of the new continent �N New Holland�. 21

1648, Jan Janszoon Zeeuw, in VOC ship Leeuwerik, charted the west coast of Western Australia � but both his journal and charts are missing. 22 W 1656, Pieter Albertszoon, in the VOC yacht Vergulde Draeck ran onto a reef (five kms off Ledge Point) and the ship was wrecked leaving 68 seamen stranded. The ship's boat with seven men sailed to Batavia to get help. Following VOC standing orders two rescue ships, the Goede Hoop and Witte Valeq, were dispatched from Batavia to search for survivors. Rough seas made landing impossible for Witte Valk, but Goede Hoop found no survivors and lost eleven men in the process. On the 7th June 1656 the cock-boat with seven men arrived at Batavia, from the yacht reporting that Vergulden Draeck, had run aground on the South-land on April 28th 1656 that besides the loss of her cargo, of which nothing was saved, one hundred and eighteen men of her crew had perished, and that sixty-eight men who had succeeded in getting ashore, were still left there. VOC dispatched the flute Witte Valeq, together with the yacht Goede Hoop with instruction to search and rescue and salvage any valuables. They failed in the mission when violent storms forced to ships to return. 23 t 1657, Unlike the English East India Company, who had no standing orders concerning abandoned or stranded crews, the Dutch VOC considered the search for any crew left behind as mandatory. The flute Vink sailed from the Cape to Batavia with orders to call at New Holland and search for the stranded crew from Vergulde Draeck but rough seas prevented a landing.24 Wreckage, flotsam and jetsam were found but no survivors. However of the fourteen of the crew marooned on the mainland, four survived after sailing their way to Batavia with minimal food or fresh water and ten believed to have perished on Green Islets on the central west coast Western Australia. 25 A 1658, Still showing expected concern for the crew of the stranded Vergulde Draeck the VOC sent out Samuel Volkersen and Aucke Pieterszoon Jonck, with the Waekende Boey and Emmeloort, to search for possible survivors. 26 B 1658, Jacob Pieterszoon Peereboom explored the region north of Cape Leeuwin and Geographe Bay in Elburgh. A landing party found and noted the local Aborigines and artefacts, but the locals �went bush� rather than palaver. 27 a 1678, Jan van der Wall explored and charted the northwest coast of New Holland in VOC Vliegende Zwaan and explored Exmouth Gulf, North West coast from North West Cape to Roebuck Bay. Cartographers chose not to recognize this finding and named the district �Dampier� and not �der Wall�. 28 t 1681, Captain John Daniel explored the north sector of Islands and came in sight of the coast of New Holland, Wallabi group in the ship London. (This were the first part of Australia in English). One hundred years later published this chart.29 p

de Houtman and Abrolhos making a sketch of the sketch and detailed map of Alexander Dalrymple

1687, French naval commander Captain, later Admiral Abraham de Bel�bat de Duquesne-Guitton, also spelled �Duquesne-Guiton� (1648-1724) sailed from the Cape of Good Hope in the L'Oiseau, to the French Embassy in the Kingdom of Siam. He sighted Eendracht Land on the West Australian coast and sailed in close to shore near the Swan River on the 4th August 1687. This was France's first recorded contact with Australia. He wrote that it looked very attractive, and fully covered with green despite the fact that we were in the middle of winter in this country. Captain Duquesne-Guitton�s nephew Nicolas Gedeon de Voutron also sighted the western coast of Australia that year on another ship at the same latitude. 30 w

1688, William Dampier visited the west coast with his ship Cygnet, remaining for three months at King Sound for ship repairs. 31 1694, VOC ship de Ridder-schap van Holland, under Dirck de Lange and James Couper, are believed wrecked at Abrolhos Islands. On 11th July 1693, this VOC ship departed Wielingen, Nederlands, on a voyage to Batavia with a crew of around three hundred and two passengers. She never reached her destination, and was never heard from again. 1697, The VOC dispatched Willem de Vlamingh with three ships to search for the missing de Ridder-schap van Holland; they explored the west coast of Australia, to no avail. Modern thought is that de Ridder-schap van Holland was wrecked in the Pelsaert Group of the Houtman Abrolhos Islands off the coast of Western Australia; this is based on remains reported by the crew of Zeewijk, which was also wrecked on Pelsaert Island. The crew of HM Armed Transport Beagle purportedly found artefacts in 1840 which were believed to be from the missing ship, de Ridder-schap van Holland. 32 1696, Willem de Vlamingh, Gerrit Collaert, and Cornelis de Vlamingh and artist Victorzoon (who sketched a number scenes 80km inland up the Swan River), were part of a convoy of VOC ships Geelvink, Nijptangh and Weseltje, dispatched to look for the de Ridderschap van Holland and explore New Holland. They explored Rottnest Island, landed on Dirk Hartog Island, where de Vlamingh retrieved Hartog's pewter plate and left his own behind.33 1699, Eleven years after his first voyage to New Holland, William Dampier was back in HMS Roebuck. He studied the land and bays, and named Shark Bay after seeing many sharks swimming around the ship. He collected a natural science selection. Dampier was not impressed with New Holland after local aboriginals let it be known that he was not welcome.33 1705, Maarten van Delft, Andries Roosenboom and P. Hendrikszoon, with VOC ships Vossen-bosch, de�Waaier and Nieuw Holland, explored the Gulf of Carpentaria and the northern coast of Arnhem Land. 34 1712, The VOC ship Zuytdorp, under command of Marinus Wijsvliet, was wrecked on on rocks at the bottom of cliffs now named after the ship just south of Shark Bay. The wreck is 60 kms north of the mouth of the Murchison River. After some time, the survivors moved north, never to be seen again by Europeans. In 1927 the survivors� campsite on the river was discovered. Coins helped identify the wreck.35 1727, Captain Jan Steyns, Zeewijck, was wrecked when she ran onto Half Moon Reef, near Gun Island in the Pelseart Group, Houtman Abrolhos, and was a total loss. Ninety-six of the one hundred and twelve aboard made it onto the island, and twelve of the crew sailed for Batavia in a long-boat, but were never heard of again. The survivors built a sloop from salvage timber, naming her Sloepie (Little Sloop), and sailed to the VOC station on Java. Two sailors who were charged with �committing together abominable sins� (cannibalism) were marooned on separate islands, and left behind. Sloepie is the first ship known to have been built in Australia.36 1756, Jean Gonzal and Lavienne Lodewijk van Asschens in the Rijder Bujis made a number of local contacts with the Aboriginal community of the Gulf of Carpentaria and Cape Keer-Weer (Aruken Qld).37 1768, Two Frenchmen Louis de Bougainville and Chesnard de la Giraudais in the ships Boudeuse and Etoile came close and noted the Great Barrier Reef. 38

It was hard to understand why the Dutch did not make more formal claims on Australia, the scores of ships landing or skirting the coastline and the hundreds of Dutch crew lost, drowned or buried certainly gave some vested interest in New Holland. If VOC could have discovered transportable wealth, then surely the course of history would have changed. The VOC cartographers collated the data from the many visits of their ships, and were able to map most of the Australian continent except the eastern part which still remained a mystery until Cook arrived. The Dutch objection to English colonization of New Holland was reported in the Dublin Evening Herald of 30th October 1786: �An opposition to the intended settlement of Botany Bay has lately started from a quarter from which it was little expected. The Dutch have always claimed sovereignty of it by the right of discovery, a right which has been greatly respected by the different powers of Europe; and we are credibly informed that his Excellency the Baron de Leyden, the Dutch ambassador to our Court, has received orders to remonstrate with our Ministers, in the name of the States#General, against our regular planting of a territory which they assert belongs to another country�. This Dutch objection festered for years, many newspapers became stirringly patriotic. The Morning Post of 13th November 1786 declared: �Our right, as a nation, to the territorial possession of the surrounding country of Botany Bay, is disputed by those who are determined to dispute every inch of ground with the Ministry. The best authorities have established it as a maxim, that in all parts uninhabited, formal possession confers property�. The Dutch were loosing the argument in the popular press and took steps to ensure an apposing point was published in the London Morning Herald on Friday 17th November 1786: �On Tuesday last, the ill-concerted plan of Government, to found a Colony at Botany Bay, expired in the Cabinet; with all the shame upon its projectors, that could appertain to so unconstitutional and impolitic a proceeding�. All was lost to the Dutch when the First Fleet under Arthur Philip landed and established the colony of New South Wales on 20th January 1788. Just four days later on the 20th January 1788 Count Jean Francois de Galoup de La P�rouse led two ships La Boussole and L�Astrolabe into Botany Bay. They were too late to claim the country. A number of the English convicts incorrectly thought that the French would offer them free passage home! They were lucky, for the French never completed the voyage and never saw France again. Some historians believe that the L�Astrolabe and La Boussole were wrecked on a coral reef off the island of Vanikoro, (sometimes known as Vanikolo) is an island, located 118�km to the Southeast of the main Santa Cruz group. It belongs administratively to the Temotu Province of the Solomon Islands.

Chapter Thirteen Flogging During the First Voyage

Chapter 13. Flogging During the 1st Voyage It was a flogging age, and Cook was a man of his age. There is no disputing the fact that James Cook �the humanitarian� flogged his crew and did so with increasing uncharacteristic regularity. i The Admiralty, Second Secretary John Barrow F.R.S., F.S.A., (1764-1848) who survived in the job for more than fifty years, would not countenance any suggestion that James Cook was unstable or used excessive discipline. Barrow, overlooking the facts, stated in his �James Cook� biography, �that the justice and humanity of Captain Cook is shown throughout all his dealings, whether with the natives he met with in his several voyages, or with his own men. He never had recourse to the lash except in cases of marked necessity; and Barrow did not find, upon inspecting his logs in the record of the Admiralty, that, even in the grossest cases, he ever sanctioned more than two dozen lashes. Some of our officers would do well to follow his example, and the Admiralty would do better, if flogging cannot be wholly abolished�.1 i Barrow was categorically wrong; he had no idea of the truth behind the over-thetop punishment dished out by James Cook, the murders, floggings, fornication desecration of sacred ground and idols. Barrow�s biography of James Cook was the start of the fallacious myth that the great navigator (which was true) was also a �g great humanitarian and a revered seaman�. Cook started the floggings five weeks out on 16th September 1768 while the vessel was riding her anchor in the channel at Funchal Road, Island, Madeira (Cook has it as �Fenchchal�). The waterfront of Funchal, the principal town on the island of Madeira, had no wharves or piers at which large vessels could dock. Ships had to anchor at the mouth of the bay in which Funchal was situated. This stretch of water was protected from all winds except those blowing from south, which could drive ships onto the shore unless they were able move into the open sea. Laying down the law, Cook made it obvious that he would not tolerate stealing, insubordination, dissonance, refusing an order, mutinous behaviour, or drunkenness on duty. (If any member of the crew were to break any of the Articles of War, Cook assured them that the cat would be let out of the bag, and punishment would be a administered). At Madeira, Cook punished two seamen for disobeying a lawful order; he ordered the flogging of Henry Stephens, seaman, aged twenty-eight years and Thomas Dunster, marine, both took twelve lashes for refusing to take their allowance of fresh beef. Part of their punishment was to carry on board casks wine and water. This punishment was covered under article twenty of the Articles of War. 2 p Bonavista Islands, Cape Verde Islands. Neither officer nor midshipmen were excused Cook�s discipline, Master�s mate (later third lieutenant) Richard Pickersgill (Cook spelled this name �Petersgil) was punished, referred to as the �intelligent Pickersgill� by Forster. Pickersgill being one of the few friends Foster attracted on the second voyage. Officers and

midshipmen were punished by the command to scrape and clean between decks. Pickersgill refused this command and was ordered �before the mast� Pickersgill was known to like his alcohol. However when he was sober Cook considered him to be an able navigator astronomer and chart maker. He held no malice against Cook for the humility of sending him �before the mast�, for he sailed on the 2nd Voyage as a lieutenant. Later he may he have commanded a privateer, however, he died in 1779 when drowned in the River Thames, he was possibly drunk again. w Twenty year old able bodied seaman John Thurman (Thurmond � Cook), was punished Saturday 19th November 1768, with twelve lashes for mutiny and disrespect when he refused to help the sail-maker repair the sails. Under article nineteen of the Articles of War, James Cook had the law on his side should the sentence issued to Thurman been more severe. T Rio de Janeiro Desertion was problematic, by the end of the three voyages more than fifty sailors were to abscond from the ships. To ensure that no man aboard misunderstood the consequences of desertion, prior to a flogging Cook read the �Articles of War�. Whilst article thirty-two was not specific as to the severity of the punishment for desertion, HM Bark Endeavour deserters were let off lightly with twelve lashes in other circumstances desertion was a attract the hangman�s noose. While waiting for the Viceroy of Rio de Janeiro to send out a pilot to escort the ships out of the Rio de Janeiro roads, a trio of miscreants were punished on 30th November 1769. Quartermaster, Gunner Robert Anderson, aged thirty-five years was punished with twelve lashes for leaving his duty ashore and attempting to desert. Able bodied seaman Charles Williams, aged thirty-eight years, was punished for leaving his duty ashore and attempting to desert with twelve lashes. Private Marine William Judge was also punished with twelve lashes for insolence. M John Reading, boatswain�s mate punished for abusive language to the officer of the watch and with twelve lashes for not doing his duty in punishing Anderson, Williams and Judge, he had not flogged his mates with vigour! Redding was to drink himself to death with one and a half pints of rum. d Heading to the Tuamoyus and Society Islands Marine William Greenslade stole part of a seal skin and was caught. Rather than face a flogging he decided to �meet his maker�. He was last seen walking to the fore-castle where he jumped into the Pacific Ocean and was seen no more it was 26th March 1769. He was the second of the crew to drown accidentally or otherwise. The ship�s cooper, Isaac Johnson aged twenty-six years was flogged with twelve lashes for broaching a cask of �decoction� (spruce needle beer) which resulted in turning sour. t With Joseph Banks up the mainmast looking in vain for Tahiti, Charles Clerke recorded that 11th April 1769 Samuel Jones, aged twenty-two years, able bodied seaman, was punished with twelve lashes for disobedience of orders. Jones was to suffer from a bout of scurvy which was cured by wort and malts. s At Matavai Bay, George�s Island (Hawaii) Able bodied seaman Richard Hutchins, aged twenty-seven years, on 16th April 1769 was punished with twelve lashes for disobedience of orders. Hutchins had fancied visiting the dusky wahines ashore in preference to pushing the holy-stone across the wooden decks. All was eventually forgiven, for eighteen months later; he was promoted to the position of boatswain�s mate. p In an extract from Mr. Molineux's Log, he records an incident not mentioned by

Cook. The ship�s butcher and able bodied seaman Henry Jeffs was punished with a dozen lashes for ill-behaviour on shore. He had been rude to a Tuburri�s wife by making lewd suggestions. Tamide made a formal complaint to Cook. After the Captain proved the facts of the complaint Jeffs was confined. Cook invited the offended parties on board the bark to witness punishment. All hands were called and the prisoner brought aft, the Captain explained the nature of his crime in the most lively manner, and made a speech to the ship's company during his punishment. The insulted woman was in distress pleading with Cook to stop the flogging; the plea fell on deaf ears. Lewd suggestions to the locals did not fall under the Articles of War, so Cook cited the old standby, Article of War XXXIV �All other crimes not capital committed by person or persons in the fleet�..� c York Island. Moorea This island is an exquisite place fringed by coral reef and lagoon. Mo�orea is a mountainous volcanic island that is 132 square kilometres in area. The highest of the island�s numerous peaks is Tohiea, which rises 1207 metres above sea level. The local wahines and young mahus were as exquisite and exotic as their island. Favours were offered in exchange for iron nails. The stealing of the nails was now evidently a major problem when the crew discovered the trade-value of each nail. On 4th June 1769 the crew started to extract nails from the sheathing iron plates protecting the hull from teredo worm, Cook upped the rate from one dozen to two dozen lashes as his temper wore thin. The thirty-nine year old tailor Archibald Wolfe had access to the main supplies store-room, on the pretence of gathering a bolt of cloth, collected a bucket of nails instead; he not only failed to satiate his carnal desire but paid the price with two dozen lashes. Wolfe was one of the Batavia victims who died in the Indian Ocean on 31st January 1771. B Cook was so exacerbated with the �nail trade� and the illicit ship to shore trade, that he firmly resolved to stamp it out and established a set of rules to be observed by every person belonging to HM Bark Endeavour for the better establishing a regular and uniform trade for provisions with the inhabitants of George�s Island. G James Cook�s Rules: J 1st

To endeavour by every fair means to cultivate a friendship with the natives and to treat them with all imaginable humanity. n

2nd A proper person or persons will be appointed to trade with the natives for all manner of provisions, fruit, and other productions of the earth; and no officer or seaman, or other person belonging to the ship, excepting such as are so appointed, shall trade or offer to trade for any sort of provisions, fruit, or other productions of the earth u unless they have my leave so to do. 3rd Every person employed a shore on any duty whatsoever is strictly to attend to the same, and if by neglect he loose any of his arms or working tools, or suffers them to be stole, the full value thereof will be charged against his pay according to the custom of the navy in such cases, and he shall receive such farther punishment as the nature of the offence may deserve. n 4th

The same penalty will be inflicted on every person who is found to embezzle, trade or offer to trade with any part of the ships stores of what n nature so ever.

5th No Sort of Iron, or any thing that is made of Iron, or any sort of Cloth or other useful or necessary articles are to be given in exchange for any thing but provisions.

J. C. J Regardless of these �Rules� the crew continued the trade, as their primeval desire for sex with the locals was more of a challenge than a few dozen lashes. f James Nicholson able bodied seaman, aged twenty-one years and James (John) Thurman, one year younger, the sail maker�s mate who had been impressed at Madeira. On 11th June they were both punished with two dozen lashes for theft of native goods. These two decided to bully their way into the native camp and stole bows, arrows, and hanks of plaited hair belonging to native Polynesians. Cook was once again livid as he believed that these actions, if not punished, would show the natives that it was all right to steal, and he made sure the natives witnessed the floggings.2 t As the regular supplies of alcohol diminished, Cook knew that the remaining kegs of rum, arrack, Madeira port and other alcohol if left in the hold or the victuals store were vulnerable to broaching, so he ordered them stored on the quarterdeck in full view of the officer of the watch. James Tunley aged twenty-four years, managed to surreptitiously sneak on to the quarter deck then cause a diversion giving him time to steal a keg of rum. But his ruse failed as he was caught in the act and was punished with twelve lashes for taking rum out of the cask. a Robert Anderson was confined under guard for leaving his duty and refusing to obey the Mate�s orders whilst he was supposed to be working down the hold. He was released from confinement on the 21st June 1769. Anderson sailed on all three voyages with Cook. He had initially joined the HM Bark Endeavour as an able bodied seaman becoming and quartermaster on 26th September 1768. During the voyage, he was punished on two occasions. Anderson was obviously a popular member of the crew as the wills of several members refer to him. Young Manuel Pereira was Portuguese, and a supernumerary with Banks. (Cook named him �Manuel Ferrara�). He was brought aboard to replace Peter Flower, the seaman who fell over the side and was lost at sea. After Pereira went missing at Tahiti, on 23rd June 1769 Cook paid a native with an axe to find the absconder. Cook was once more angry, and ordered Pereira found and flogged with �two dozen�. Pereira�s flogging was not carried out after a group of female natives admitted to kidnapping him for their pleasure! Pereira was to die at sea on the 27th February 1771, a casualty of the Batavia visit. The body buried was misnamed again by Cook this time as �Emanuel Phara�!3 t Godfrey Blunden in �Chaco Harbour� suggests that Banks fancied Cook and during their first meeting Banks �desired to possess the object of his emotion..� Evidence of Joseph Banks� sexual predilections were challenged when he was seen on a regular basis in the bed of the broad shouldered 40 year old Queen Obarea who had taken Captain Wallis� eye years earlier in 1767. According to Parkinson�s Journal, 4 Banks and Queen Obarea had been quarrelling over a trivial matter of stolen goods. s In the absence of Queen Obarea, Banks fancied lesser Princess. A dual was a near thing when an officer and a gentleman entered vigorous discussion over sleeping rights with this certain young princess. In a mood of sexual mischief two of Queen Obarea�s court decided to try to bed Mr. Banks. In the quiete of night they left the tent of Mr. Monkhouse and 2nd Lieutenant Hicks, who had been entertaining them. One young princess slipped under the blankets occupied by Mr Banks and proceeded to encourage seduction. In a furious rage Monkhouse tried to drag the young wahine out of Banks tent and return to his. A row ensued and flintlocks primed, but not used � the dual was only a threat. In the morning Mr. Banks bade the young lady goodbye. Surgeon Monkhouse seethed and threatened dire consequence should it happen again. Any dual would no doubt have resulted in Bank�s favour �

he was a crack shot. 5 The night time romp certainly did nothing to assist the argument that Banks had a preference for compliant young men. a Heading towards Huahine. Prior to the departure from Georges Island the capture and punishment was ordered of Clement Webb, master marine, gun room steward and Samuel Gibson, marine (ages unknown), both for deserting the �fort� on Tahiti. To add insult to injury they had sent word to Lieutenant Cook that they had married into a local family. Cook was fuming and set out to find the recalcitrants; and ordered them punished with two dozen lashes each. Cook calmed down after it was explained the situation, he fully followed why they had �married� local girls. Cook really understood this reason after all he had his princess ashore too, as did Banks who topped the lot with Queen Obarea! w Within a few hours of anchoring at Tahiti, Joseph Banks climbed the mast to sight the first view of Bora Bora which was sighted in the offing. Meanwhile on the main-deck at the foot of the mainmast, Samuel Jones, able bodied seaman aged twenty-one years was punished with twelve lashes, and remitted to confinement for refusing to come on to the deck when all hands were called and afterwards refused to comply with the orders of the officer on deck. t Three of the crew Mathew Cox, Henry Stevens (Henry Stephens) and Manuel Pereira (another strange spelling by Cook �Manoel Pereira�) the three punished by twelve lashes each for leaving their duty when a shore last night and digging up potatoes from the plantation. Cox was remitted in confinement because he insisted that there was no harm in what he had done. On arriving home at London, Cox continued this case by instructing a legal firm to pursue James Cook for damages. Cox was of the belief that Cook used his authority outside of the Articles of War Cox argued that a native garden full of potatoes was fair game. The death of Cook put an end to this trial. t Once again the crew could not resist the temptation offered when they discovered the �safe storage area� for the kegs of rum and arrack on the quarterdeck. Under the darkness of night prior to the start of the dog watch, three members of the crew crept up to the quarterdeck and broached a keg. They were caught in the act by the officer on watch and each was forced to pay with twelve lashes each. Between midnight and 4.00 am the gunner Stephen Forwood was in charge of the watch, together with able bodied seaman Alexander Simpson, age unknown, Richard Littleboy A.B., aged twenty years and Thomas Rossiter marine drummer age unknown stole between ten and twelve gallons of rum being all that was in the cask. They were caught when part of the rum was found in the gunner�s cabin. The three men were flogged with twelve lashes each. But it was Forwood the gunner who richly deserved the strokes to his bare back for his drunkenness and for being the most useless person on board the ship. u

Chapter Fourteen Tahiti � First Voyage

Chapter 14 First Voyage - Tahiti Cook stated in his Journal under the heading �manners and customs�, that the openness to sex by the locals is quite confronting to the British. In Tahiti both sexes express the most indecent ideas in conversation without the least emotion, and they delight in such conversation constantly. Chastity has no value, especially among the young people. If a wife is found guilty of entertaining another man, her only punishment is a beating from her husband. The men will very readily offer the young women or boys to strangers, even their own daughters, and think it very strange if you refuse them; but this is done openly with na�ve innocence. Other than scurvy, no illnesses were logged after the visit to Tahiti of Captain Wallis in HMS Dolphin, June 1767 he did however, describe how the natives of the island flaunted their nakedness and made unmistakable gestures and responded to ribaldry of the seamen as if sex had its own universal language of natural signs. The natives, both male and female, used a sign of a willingness to share a dalliance by the clenching of the hand a few times. It took only minutes for this action to be understood by the entire crew, officers and gentlemen alike. The crew exchanged trinkets and iron nails which were highly sought after in exchange for sexual favours. Wallis made note of the Queen a striking beauty, alough her name was Queen Purea, for reasons know to Wallis he gave her a name thyat was to stick with the Europeans �Queen Obarea�. The crew aboard HM Bark Endeavour could not help but notice the exquisite beauty of the locals. The majority of the crew ogled at the half naked females but a few of the crew looked at the lithe bodies of the effeminate young �mahus�. Some �Gentlemen were bewitched with both sexes. The crew would take their liberty ashore and Cook knew that he had no hope of confining them aboard as there sexual urging was far too great for restraint. Lieutenant Cook, Joseph Banks and the astronomical team of Dr. Solander and Mr. Green had no time to join the crew in local sexual gymnastics; they had to set up the observatory for the upcoming the eclipse of the first satellite of Jupiter and the transit of Venus, at NE point of the Bay (Now Venus Point). The armourers were instructed to make small hatchets, the currency exchange rate being one hatchet for one pig. Within a matter of weeks, the shore-side hogs became scarce upping the exchange rate to two or three hatchets or one steel marlin spike per pig. The ultimate tool of trade was the sail maker�s marlin spike that was so easy to fashion into a killing weapon. The wahines or young mahus on the other hand traded one iron nail for satiating the sexual appetite of a crew member. This was to become a problem after Cook realised that the crew had broached the nail supply. Once Cook had ensured that nails were no longer plentiful the quick thinking crew came up with an easy swap. In exchange for �special favours� the trade rate was changed, the wahine were offered the clothes

off the backs of the visitors. When it became obvious that most of the crew had no clothes left, Cook issued beads and baubles as trade goods but all paled into insignificance when compared with the large square headed nails or the rare marlin spike. Death of Alexander Buchan The landscape artist Alexander Buchan one of Mr. Banks� �gentlemen�, died unexpectedly on 17th April 1769. He was sober, diligent and an ingenious young man. Buchan proved to be an epileptic and suffered a fit while accompanying the shore party. At Matavai Bay in Tahiti, rather than disturb the locals who had there own way of burying the dead, Cook took the ship out to sea, dropped the anchor and committed Mr. Buchan's body to the deep. Preparing to leave Tahiti. As the local wahines and young mahus enjoyed the last minute company of Cook�s men they had no idea that the crew would leave behind more than memories of lost innocence. The night before the bark was to leave, many pigs were eaten and the nose flutes wafted through the balmy air as nails were exchanged, and contracts sealed with the usual clenching of the hands. The locals bade farewell to �Lono�, the �God reincarnate� the name given to Cook. The Elegant Raiatean As extra nummaries, Chief Tupaia, a high priest and his servant Tarheto (Tiato) departed with Banks who wanted to �introduce them� to the Royal Society in London. Tupaia of Raiatea, Society Islands, was a fine handsome specimen of a man. He was Queen Obarea�s (Purea) regular lover, but on the arrival of Banks the Queen had two regular lovers. Cook liked Tupaia and showed him European ways to navigate. Tupaia in turn showed Cook the Raiatean way of navigation with the currents and stars, Cook was impressed especially when the priest displayed an ability to talk with the Maori in a local dialect, the Maori treated Chief Tupaia as a �Tohunga� � a wise holy man. A chart of the seventy-four Polynesian Islands drawn by Tupaia for Cook in 1769 was impressive; it accurately placed each island at the correct sailing distance from each other. Copies were collected by Cook, Banks, J.R. Forster and Pickerskill. 2 The British library hold eight watercolour drawings from Tupaia, they are competent and demonstrate that he understood use of colour and perspective. No portraits or drawings exist of the man himself. One wonders what Sir Joshua Reynolds would have seen in Tupaia for he cut a far more dashing figure than his fellow Raiatean �Omai� who was to be painted in 1774 when was �presented� to London Society. Chief Tupaia, never reached London, On 26th December 1770 both he and his servant Tarheto died of dysentery contracted at Batavia. They were both buried on the island of Eadam, about seven miles from the centre of Batavia. 3 .

Chapter Fifteen New Zealand First Voyage

Chapter 15 New Zealand First Voyage - Shootings Killings and Murder The captain and crew, officers and gentleman of HM Bark Endeavour never had a �close relationship� with the local population of New Zealand, such as the closeness developed with the sensual locals of Tahiti. Although judging by the gonorrheae left behind, in New Zealand the crew must have found some Maori girls willing to participate in sexual gymnastics. 9-10th October 1769 HM Bark Endeavour, New Zealand (Turanganui, Gisbourne Area), Cook�s anger was evident again when he �took the Heevas� as his crew called it. On entering New Zealand waters, the Maoris were not happy the see him or his big ship. In the inimitable Maori way they poked tongues, brandished spears and chanted. One of the crew killed a Maori leader, with a deliberately placed musket ball. 1. The Maoris were a fierce and brave warrior race, frightened of nothing, and from the shore started a chant to show that they meant business. The linguists on board may not have followed the words, but the intent was recognised as a threat: �Kaka kee no Tootwais harre yoota patta pattoo�. �If we come on shore, we will beat you with our patta pattoos�. 2 Banks was convinced that it was a threat to kill, if anyone was to step ashore. He was of course correct. Some time later Cook had a fit of rage when he was informed of the theft of Green�s hangar (sword) and he responded to further taunts and tongue poking with ball from his shotgun and bird-shot from his fowling piece. This response killed a native. Cook was now contravening his orders and the Royal Society �Hints� by breaking Articles of War 28. The Maori paid a high price for a minor theft. When another Maori was felled by his musket ball; a group ran forward to aid and rescue the hapless fallen warrior. At this point Cook was prepared to order bayonets fixed, to run them through.3 Cook continued with the slaughter, and three more Maoris were killed. Chief Tupaia of Raiatea, seeking to bring peace to disorder, spoke to the locals in a language they well understood and restored calm. With an eye on those at Admiralty who may read his logs, Cook recorded that he was full of remorse for his actions. But no amount of sympathy could have undone his over the top actions.4 After these killings, Cook did not stop with his belligerence. He ordered the 4�inch big guns loaded with grape-shot and fired into a gathering group of eighty or so Maoris (Near Portland). Cook needed to bring calm to rising aggression from both sides. Every method was tried to gain friendship, except laying-off at sea, which could have brought an instant calm. But the Maori seemed bent on attack. In order to prevent this, Cook

again ordered a four-pounder loaded with grape to be fired a little wide of them. 5 Cook goes on justifying his vicious actions and over-use of four-pound firepower to quell the actions of the local Maori. The locals did not want to accept the advances of the strange visitors; and they had every right to object. For Cook to claim that the advancing native canoes were placing HM Bark Endeavour in imminent danger was arrant nonsense. Once more, Cook failed to honour his various orders and could very well have faced serious charges under the Articles of War, for which he should have been charged. Three more Maoris were shot dead after they tried to lure Tupia�s servant Taiota into a boat and take him ashore. Two more natives died later from gunshot wounds. The big guns were again loaded with grape-shot and discharged point blank over their heads. Four-inch ball was fired through canoes, sinking them. The eighty or so Maoris intent on scaring away the intruders started waving their �Pikes� (Tewwhatewha � bone, hardwood , stone or greenstone dagger), but after feeling the grapeshot and ball they vigorously paddled away. No deaths are recorded at the spot Cook named �Cape Runaway�. Cook�s anger had not abated when he fired musket and ball and the big guns at Maoris in canoes who again �threatened� the ship as HM Bark Endeavour sailed around the NZ coast. The Maoris chanted in mock defiance whenever the big guns let loose. This chanting was to taunt Cook till the day he left New Zealand �matua�u� i te pa�upa�u� which translates into something like �we are not afraid of the guns� A Maori was caught with a stolen half hour sand glass removed from the bittacle (later in 19th century �binnacle�). The poor man not realizing his crime was flogged with twelve lashes with the cat-of-nine-tails. At least he was spared being shot. Still more mayhem at the Bay of Islands as the big guns loaded with bird-shot blasted into the protesting locals. The crew tried to go ashore to gather scurvy grass, wild cabbage, mustard grass, and water, but the protesters objected to this trespassing. The Maori menacingly surged towards the cautious crew but the locals soon scattered as the musket balls were discharged into the gathering throng. The bower anchor had a buoy attached to help in salvage should the anchor cable be severed and the unattached anchor dropped into the sea. To the Maoris this buoy must have been like blue glass to a bower bird, and they stole it. Lieutenant Cook ordered the marines to fire musket ball into the crowd on shore. The natives seemed not to concern themselves with a little blood but did react when Cook ordered that the big guns discharge birdshot amongst them. The barrage of booming guns must have been terrifying, for it was not long before the bower anchor buoy returned. Cook could show compassion, as he did later on when the crew was being menaced by a war painted group intent on hostilities. Cook issued the order not to shoot to kill but to fire musket shot over their heads, only one or two were hurt! On 16th January 1770 needing to careen the ship and scrape off the grass, seaweeds, shells, or other filth from the iron plates on her foul bottom. Cook dropped the streaming anchor at Snug Cove (south of Queenstown) in preparation for the complex careening manoeuvre. During the preparation the Maoris arrived in canoes and pelted the Bark with a hail of stones. Cook invited the leaders of this fray to board the ship, it was to no avail. They had no interest in trade, but were more inclined to quarrel and as the ship was upon the careen, Cook thought they might give some trouble and perhaps hurt the crew and marines who were in the

boats alongside. For this reason Cook fired some small shot from his fowling piece, at one of the first offenders; this kept the warriors at bay and it was not long before they all went away. At Cape Jackson northwest of Queen Charlotte�s Sound a group of the ship�s company including the Master Robert Molyneaux and five petty officers Hicks, Gore, the two Monkhouse brothers, and the Surgeon William Perry were fishing from the ship�s boats when approached by a group of Maoris in canoes. An argument ensued and muskets discharged leaving one of the Maoris dead and one injured. Cook realised that an early departure would be appropriate but when he ordered the two anchors raised but he was informed that the solid oak wooden anchor stocks had been eaten away by teredo worm. The carpenters set to and shaped the cheeks for binding by the able bodied seamen, however time was consumed and this delayed the departure causing certain uneasiness throughout the ship, the crew wanted to quit this place. From New Zealand HM Bark Endeavour headed north to New Holland (Australia). The first landfall noted was Point Hicks (named after Lieutenant Zachary Hicks) on the coast of New Holland, it was first sighted at 6.00 am. Although Cook intended to call on the north eastern side of Van Deiman�s Land, a gale forced the ship away. Had he been able to continue on this course he may very well have proved that Van Deiman�s Land was an island. However he discovered Bass Strait, leaving Van Deiman�s Land for Furneaux.

Chapter Sixteen The East Coast of New Holland

Chapter 16. Out from New Zealand in the Tasman Sea, Thomas Hardman aged thirty-three years, the boatswain�s mate had issued an order to marine Bowles who in no certain manner refused to cooperate. John Edgcumbe, the sergeant of marines was called and he too took a mouthful of abuse. John Bowles, marine was punished on 7th March 1770 for disobedience, and insolence to an officer, with twelve lashes. 1 Magra 14th May 1768 able bodied seaman, James Mario Magra, who was later promoted to midshipman, aged twenty-six years�was punished with twelve lashes for insolence. The �insolence� was an interesting charge, earlier he had been fished out of the sea when trying to �jump-ship�. He had been trying to ride the ship�s anchor on leaving Otaheite. He was dragged aboard the ship and promised he would not suffer punishment. However within minutes he insolently leapt over the side of the ship again! This time no promise of leniency was offered. Forster believed that Magra later �Matra� who had �Matraville� NSW named after him - had tried to suicide. Closer to the truth was the allure of a dusky maiden, shore-side, that he was reluctant to leave behind. Magra, was an interesting man, he was born in New York in 1746, the second of

three sons of James and Elizabeth Magra. His father was born in Corsica but had fled the island and moved to Dublin in Ireland. After the first voyage with James Cook, Magra now with a changed name �Matra� 1771 had earned his Lieutenant�s certificate. His later life was interesting. He was appointed the British Consul to the Canary Islands based at Tenerife. Magra mixed in influential London society, who he used as a sounding board for his idea of settling and populating New South Wales. He published and widely spread a thirty eight page booklet covering his settlement theory. Magra proposed convicts settle the land, the booklet fell on fertile ears including Sir Joseph Banks; Lord Cork; Lord Craven; James Boswell; Soon the �First Fleet� under Arthur Phillip was assembled the armada had started the transport of 160,663 convicts. 2 After the ship left Botany Bay James Cook�s secretary Richard Orton was attacked and parts of his ears were sliced off. Orton was often drunk and was probably drunk at the time. Cook ordered an inquiry into the incident, and James Magra was at first thought to have been the culprit. But it was later believed to have been Patrick Saunders, a midshipman. Saunders deserted at Batavia/Jakarta, which was taken as proof of his guilt. A proper investigation into the ear slicing incident could have done no better than to inquire of Lieutenant James Cook, for ear slicing was part of his punishment procedure. 3 Continuing his inquiry to find a culprit Cook wrote to Philip Stephens, the Admiralty Secretary stating that with respect to Mr. Orton he �is a man not without faults�. While suspended, the innocent Magra chose not to do any duty aboard the ship. Cook believed that he was: �one of those gentlemen, frequently found on board King's ships that can very well be spared citing him as a �good for nothing�. To Magra the ill feeling towards Cook was mutual, for after the voyage, in September 1771, an anonymous account of Cook�s version of the Bark Endeavour's voyage was published in London. Professor G.A. Wood in his �Discovery of Australia� attributes Magra as the author of this publication, Becket�s Edition �A Journal of a Voyage round the World in His Majesty�s ship Endeavour in the years 1768, 1769, 1770 and 1771�. 4 East Coast of New Holland 11th June 1770 Cook sailed up the East Coast of New Holland, where the voyage was nearly terminated when the ship was holed and stuck on a reef (now named Endeavour Reef near Cooktown Qld). The pumps failed to keep up with the incoming flooding. Cook ordered the ship be lightened, and ordered the dumping of fifty ton over the side including ballast, supplies and cannon. Midshipman Jonathon Monkhouse remembered fothering a ship during a similar incident on an earlier voyage and brought this to Captain Cook�s attention. A sail was wrapped around the damaged hull and into this sail bandage was poured a putty made from sheep dung, wool and oakum. The four corners of the sail were attached to the yard arm and then to the capstan. Thus on the rise of the tide, the ship was fothered (bandage around the hull with a sail). Cook half in jest with young Monkhouse recalled that when he last fothered a ship in distress he used horse manure for the procedure. 4 To aid the Bark Endeavour�s floatation the Captain ordered a number of wooden water casks be tied to the bow, which he thought should provide the desired buoyancy on the incoming full tide. Both the fothering and wooden casks worked and the ship gained sufficient buoyancy to sail off for repair in a little bay since named �Endeavour Cove�. Much discussion ensued as to what have been done if the ship had sunk. They talked about Timor, the port of destination should the crew need to take to the small boats � a frightening thought � a journey to Timor of around 1,250 nautical miles, in the ship�s long boat was not called for.

Cook ran the vessel ashore to stop the leak, but was afraid of neaping her.5 Once on the shore it was obvious that coral had made a way through four planks, and large piece of coral was sticking into a huge hole, minimising the inflow of water. The ship was repaired with nails made by the on-board forge, planks were cut from suitable hardwood trees growing locally. With the ability to manufacture metal fastenings for the ship, hoops for kegs, spikes, and hatchets for trade, Admiralty had ensured HM Bark Endeavour was equipped with a coal fired open hearth forge. With this forge, the armourers produced many trade nails (square shaft with a round head the size of a rail fettler�s spike), as well as the usual ship fittings. The ship was ballasted with iron pigs, which made the need to source raw material for the armourer an easy task. Heroic voyages in little boats. A number of Dutch ships were lost off the Western Australia coast including 1629 Batavia and 1656 Vergulde Draeck when some of the crew rowed and sailed to Batavia for help. The small boat sailors arrived safely and sailed rescue V.O.C. ships back to save the rest of the crew left behind. The crew of another totally wrecked VOC East Indiaman provided enough planks and canvas salvaged by the crew to make a small sloop which sailed to Batavia. This journey was distance of 3,011 kilometres or 1,871 miles or 1,626 nautical miles. Nineteen years later, after suffering a mutiny, Captain Bligh was forced to make a journey by longboat from Tofoa with eighteen non-mutineers to the Dutch settlement at Timor, a journey of 3,618 miles (5,822 km). 6 S.S. Trevessa On 3rd June 1923, survivors of the shipwreck of the S.S. Trevessa which had sunk in the Indian Ocean took to the lifeboats. Two boats were launched leaving the crew of forty-four hoping for assistance, but it never came. The crew in the boat set a course for Rodriguez Island. One boat made it after twenty-six days; the other boat however experienced a tragic passage. Water ran short and despite repeated warnings, four �Indian� members of the crew drank seawater and died. The second engineer fell overboard during rough weather and another crewman died two hours before land was sighted. The second �Trevessa� lifeboat missed Rodriguez Island and sighted Mauritius on 28th June 1923. The survivors were so exhausted by this time that they had to be carried ashore, and the chief cook died soon after arrival. They had sailed 1,700 miles in the open boat (2,735 km). 7 Barque Corypheus of equal endurance but not quite as long as the 3,618 nautical miles undertaken by Captain Bligh, the extraordinary voyage undertaken by Captain Robert Rae in the barque Corypheus owned by Dalgety Blackwood and Co, of Sydney. The ship sank off Ailuk Island, latitude 10� 26� North and longitude 170� 18�, East part of the Marshall Islands, during September 1871. Although the locals were kind, and considerate, the Captain was uneasy. Rather than face an uncertain future with the possibility of cannibals, Rae decided to take to the sea and head for Australia. Five of the crew chose to take their chances with the locals. With slight modifications (covering both ends of the boat with canvas and raising the gunwales by a plank), the life boat cutter and the twenty-three foot gig were stocked with what food and water the crew could gather, and prepared for a long journey. Ten days out the two boats separated, the large cutter finding a passing ship, who rescued the grateful passengers. The little gig sailed on through the Equator on a south-westerly course, and after forty-four days at sea made Keppel Island. Those on board were made welcome by the crew of a lightship anchored off Keppel Bay and �had the luxury of a good wash�. They were given coffee, potatoes, and other foodstuffs a great treat to waifs from the deep. Alas, the crew and brave Captain Rae were unable to stomach the richness of the victuals and regurgitated the lot.

At the Fitzroy River they were received by Captain Westaway of the Upper Lightship, and were given tea and care. The crew stayed a while to replenish supplies and make a cup of tea and a hot meal. The journey continued and the Captain with eighteen crew sailed on to Rockhampton Queensland, and the comfort of the Leichhardt Hotel. The voyage covered 2,700 nautical miles in forty-four days and not one man was lost. The newspaper the �Northern Argos�, Rockhampton Queensland, 2nd October 1871 made good copy of this story. The biggest type font was poured for the headline banner, for such big news. The Captain�s log is available in the National Library. The five men who stayed behind at Ailuk were picked by HMS Barossa in April 1872, eight months later. 8 Endeavour River - �Chaco Harbour� Meanwhile along the Great Barrier Reef at Endeavour River the thought of a long journey by longboat was not on James Cook�s mind, as he knew his little wooden Bark could be repaired even if totally wrecked to a seaworthy condition, he had the equipment and skills to do this. The armourers, set up a coal fired forge on the beach at Endeavour River where they forged an abundance of the long iron nails required to secure the new planks. Long bolts and iron plates for the overlapping sheathing were also made from some of the iron pigs used as ballast. The iron pigs were forged into fittings for the rudder and tiller straps and other fittings. A huge length of gum tree was hewn and dressed to rabbet a new section into the keel and a new false keel made to replace that scraped off and left on the reef. The carpenters could not help but notice the bountiful supply of native tight grained hardwoods, boxwood, spotted gum and red siris cedar (Leguminosae). All of these timbers were alien to the English carpenters, but Banks would have known that they were eminently suitable for shipbuilding. Cook knew there would be no need to rig the small boats for a long voyage. After establishing where to take the ship for careening, HM Bark Endeavour lay off the cove at the place now called Endeavour River or �Chaco Harbour� as it was called by Hicks in his Journal. Cook ordered the port and starboard bower anchors and long hawsers into the ship�s boats for rowing to the shore. The stream anchor was dropped off the stern and the hawser paid out as a safety measure, to haul the ship back into the water when the repairs finished. The flukes of bower anchors were secured on the beach and the slow winding of the windlass hove the ship to the precise position on the shore. The stern cable and anchor ensured that it would be safe to heave off on the neap tide after repair. At the Endeavour River, Mr. Banks noted that the local �Indian� groups had a line of distant fires telegraphing the arrival of the visitors. The first �kanguru� was sighted; it was shot, dressed and proved very good eating. Magra swore that he saw a �wolf� and this was later confirmed by Tupia, but no doubt the �wolf� was in fact a dingo. The �gifts� of clothing and other trinkets left for the local aboriginals were found in a pile, discarded � obviously of little value to the �Indians�. 10th July 1770 Cook noted in the log that a group of naked �Indians� with bones through their noses, and lances tipped with sting-ray barbs came close but were stopped by a �musquest shot�. Lieutenant Cook however three days later shot an �Indian� who was intent of taking a captured turtle which was shown to have a spear inside it. Cook�s musket drew blood from another local, who was intent on starting a fire, too close to the ship. An amazing long distance conversation took place with the �Indians�, of which Sydney Parkinson recorded a small lexicon of the local language.9 Author Ray Parkin states in a casual statement on conversing with the Australian natives: �Later observers found that some of the Aborigines on the Northern Coast were able to speak some Chinese as a result of brief contacts�. 10 This is intriguing as this statement was attributed to the multi-lingual Joseph

Banks who had tried to converse in many languages to no avail but on hearing the Chinese language the Aboriginals at the Endeavour River responded likewise in a similar tongue. This can be explained in one of two ways. Visiting Chinese trepang gatherers had visited the area, now known as Endeavour River and had left the language behind? Alternately the Aboriginals visited a country where Chinese was spoken, but this is highly unlikely. Legends speak of the �Baijini,� who may have been Chinese sailors, known to have reached nearby Timor early in the 15th century, like others to follow they may have visited around the coast gathering trepang for the avaricious Chinese market. Also it is known that Macassan and Buginese trepang gatherers had been interacting with Aboriginal people since at least 1700. In 1804 Flinders noted a Macassan trading fleet near present day Nhulunbuy. Relatively harmonious relations existed, and Macassans traded with and employed local Aboriginal people. Such items as glass thus filtered into Aboriginal tool-making. Macassan words have been incorporated into some Aboriginal languages. Some intermixing occurred, and the all-male crews had sexual associations with the local women. During the wet season Macassan sailors traded for trepang or sea slug with Yolngu people along the Arnhem Land Coast. It is logical that the trepang (sea slug or beche-de-mer) gatherers came in contact with the Guugu-Yimidhirr people around the �Endeavour River� region. Trepang was prized by the Chinese as an aphrodisiac; it was so abundant in the shallow water off the North Australian coastline that the Macassan sailors often stayed for months at a time, to gather and salt dry the delicacy. Over the years strong ties developed between aboriginal and Macassan sailors who even married Yolngu women and took them home with them to live. Today, this area still has an abundance of trepang. Using techniques they had used for centuries, as a method of defence, the GuuguYimidhirr people lit a fire which turned into a conflagration and nearly engulfed those ashore, Pickergill noted this practice in his Journal.11 The GuuguYimidhirr introduced the crew to a local custom when they set fire to all the country around the camp site, the fire flamed with such rapidity that it nearly engulfed Mr. Bank�s marquee, which was rapidly pulled down; the aboriginals continued to make more fires, notwithstanding anxious signs to stop before fire engulfed the camp site. The fires got worse and the Captain ordered musket shots be fired one local was wounded the rest dispersed minus nulla nullahs, spears and bone digging sticks. They returned in a submissive manner. Had the fires happened twelve hours sooner, there would have been a huge bang for all the gun powder was ashore, airing, and nobody could have saved it. Banks and Cook got the message and made notes to prepare the ground with their own fire should they come ashore again, and certainly before off-loading the gunner�s stores and the livestock � which had all been re-loaded on board during the conflagration ashore. The last duty ashore was to gather much grass for the live stock, water, broom brush for the deck brushes, and a gathering of the twisted vines and grasses draped over the warping frames for the making of yarn which is twisted into �soft laid� and �hard laid� hawsers. The aboriginal fires had actually helped with the drying out of the vines. Many turtles were caught to augment the stodgy diet of officers and men. �Cook�s Passage� Based on Master�s Mate Francis Wilkinson�s intelligence garnered from the previous week�s exploration of the reef in the ship�s pinnace, Cook thought better of sailing a course through the Reef. Cook ordered that the pinnace and yawl be rowed ahead on the lookout for shallow coral shelves. It was a very dangerous time, and

at Lizard Island Cook ordered the small boats back on-board and when he found safe way through the reef into the Coral Sea (�Cook�s Passage�). HM Bark Endeavour sailed well outside the reef for two days, but Cook was determined to sail inside the reef again and did so, skirting close to Cockburn Reef, tacking and wearing through Wizard Reef and Boydong Kays and north very close to Wyborn Reef, and around Cape York to �Possession Island� where Lieutenant Cook hoisted his colours and took possession of the Country for the King. (As late as 1977 charts were stamped �considered dangerous� and �not examined�). Once again Cook ignored his orders by taking possession of the land without the approval of the local owners. The little 350 ton HM Bark Endeavour had negotiated part of the East Coast of Australia from the south and anchored at Botany Bay. Joseph Banks made notes to suggest to the Royal Society that they inform the Robert Walpole�s Government that this place would make a splendid penal colony.

Chapter Seventeen Batavia and Home

Chapter 17 Batavia and Home Prior to the great journey to the Thames and home, Cook realised that the old bark would not make the journey without some attention, he could see that the hull�s seams were now dangerously open making six to twelve inches per hour and the pumps were next to useless, decayed within one and a half inches of the bore, and that her larboard side under the main channel was �wounded� causing the greatest leak. This was the advice given to Cook in a letter from J. Satterly the ship�s carpenter. 1 At the VOC base at Batavia (Jakarta), James Cook set up tents ashore to alleviate the insufferable heat that had started to affect the crew. Cook assumed incorrectly that it was the heat and bad air that was responsible for bringing them down with a raft of tropical illness. Once the ship was in the careening dock it was obvious that the hull was in a much worse condition than anyone could imagine, and that Cook and the crew would be at Batavia for at least a ten-week stay. 19th October 1770 at Batavia The Carpenter had earned the respect of Cook, for on the death of Mr. John Satterly, Cook recorded in his Journal that, �the Carpenter had died of the flux after a long and painful illness, a man much esteemed by me and every gentleman on board�. 2 Batavia was known as the home for a multitude of tropical diseases. To make matters worse the Dutch had innocently built new open internal water supply

canals. The builders had no idea that these canals would become the breeding grounds for malaria carrying mosquitoes. The monsoon season was upon them slowing down the work repairing the ship. Only fourteen men presented able to work and the rest were too sick to muster. The bell was tolling for many, but nobody realised that each barrel of water being loaded aboard, contained a lethal concoction destined to kill. The Dutch were conscious of the premature deaths of 1.1 million people between the years 1730-1752, evidence pointed to the sanitation and plumbing. The authorities set out to correct the poor plumbing and drainage in Batavia. They built open �storm water� channels to direct the storm water and sewage out to sea. Inexplicably the fresh water supply of Batavia had accidentally been plumbed into one of these sewers. This mistake was to prove deadly to the crew of HM Bark Endeavour. To add insult to many injuries the Dutch authorities charged Cook six shillings and eight pence per 150 gallon of �fresh water�, the same price he that he would have paid for French Champagne. Deaths between 26th August 1768 and 12th July 1771 The complement aboard HM Bark Endeavour was eighty-five persons including the Commander Lieutenant James Cook. Forty-three did not return from the voyage � more than 50% of those who left England a little more than twenty-four months had earlier had died at sea. James Cook reported no deaths from scurvy during the first voyage, this was a remarkable event for such a lengthy sea voyage, it was however fallacious. A few died from natural causes, other deaths a little more bizarre, with a suicide, two drownings and the two black servants who worked for Joseph Banks freezing to death. John Reading died from drinking three pints of neat rum. However deaths on board the vessel was about to change after a catastrophic event at Batavia when HM Bark Endeavour took on fresh water. Although many other diseases were present amongst the crew, dysentery became the common thread after Batavia. However in the case of three of the crew, scurvy was more than likely the true cause of death, although Cook would not hear of it! Cook was referring to the fact that Tupaia refused malt, portable soup and all the other remedies against scurvy, and that Green's addiction to drink was precipitating scorbutic symptoms. Refusing to countenance the thought that scurvy was the real culprit, Tupaia, Green and Zachary Hicks had been incorrectly diagnosed (by Cook) at Batavia the three people suffering from �complaints occasioned by long continuance at sea� whatever medical condition this was! 3 James Cook was in a state of shock all his hard work in ensuring the crew were free from illness was completely shattered. The number of sick and dying on board at this time amounts to forty or so, most were sick some near death, except the sail maker, an old man about seventy or eighty years of age; he being generally more or less drunk every day. But notwithstanding this general sickness, Cook could only reflect on the pre Batavia situation. The loss of seven souls during the Bark Endeavour voyage: the surgeon, three seamen, Mr. Green's servant, and Tupia and his servant, according to Cook �a sacrifice to this unwholesome climate�. Tupia's death cannot blamed on the �unwholesome climate of Batavia� it was probably scurvy brought on by his long want of a vegetable diet.4 After Batavia Cook did not know what caused the sickness and the ultimate death for many of the crew, he made no comment on this in his journal. Rather than �unwholesome air� it was indeed cholera and typhus, resident in the water butts below decks � an unexpected bacteria resident in the polluted water loaded at Batavia. Sir John Pringle (1707-1782), President of the Royal Society associated dysentery with 'ague� (a fever such as from malaria that is marked by paroxysms of chills, fever, and sweating recurring regular intervals). Pringle also believed that 'bad

air� was a killer. This bad air came firstly from the corrupted water of marshes and secondly from human excrement lying about the military camp sites. In hot weather, Pringle considered that cleanliness was an important preventative against dysentery; he believed that breathing the bad air also caused disease.5 Eightyfour days were to drag on before HM Bark Endeavour was ready to slip her painter, caste off and make way for the Cape, two months away. Most of the crew was very sick with bacillary dysentery and other ailments. Following Dr. Pringle�s earlier pre-voyage advice, Cook had insisted on clean clothes, bedding and cabins, and smoke bombs to debug the ship. The decks were scrubbed with holystones, vinegar and salt water. It was Cook�s intent to prevent illness � but he was unaware of the consequence of the forced stay in Batavia. The E. histolytica amoeba and the shigella bacteria were thriving below decks in the water contaminated by human faeces. Large outbreaks of bacillary dysentery were ensured the moment the cook started to use this water to prepare the crew�s meals. 10th July 1771 the deckboy (probably aged 13) Nicholas Young was first to sight Land's End - The Lizard. He had also been the first to sight the northeast coast of New Zealand and Cook kindly called the place �Young Nick�s Head�. HM Bark Endeavour anchored at the Downs, off Kent where James Cook struck his pennant, disembarked and journeyed to London in order to repair. Cook�s voyage was complete, and he and his crew had been where no man had been before. A pilot came aboard and took the worn-out old vessel to Galleon�s Reach in the Thames. Richard Hutchins remained on the vessel as he was too ill to go home but he was discharged on 4th November 1771. Hutchins had joined HM Bark Endeavour on 17th June 1768 as an able bodied seaman, he was made boatswain's mate on 1st September 1769. Regardless of his delicate nature he was flogged on 16th April 1769 for disobedience, the offence was refusing to eat his greens! This punishment was logged officially as breaking Articles of War 20: If any person in the fleet shall find cause of complaint of the unwholesomeness of the victual, or upon other just ground, he shall quietly make the same known to his superior, or captain, or commander in chief, as the occasion may deserve, that such present remedy may be had as the matter may require; and the said superior, captain, or commander in chief, shall, as far as he is able, cause the same to be presently remedied; and no person in the fleet, upon any such or other pretence, shall attempt to stir up any disturbance, upon pain of such punishment, as a Court Martial shall think fit to inflict, according to the degree of the offence. Casualties of the Voyage. Those known to have died during the First Voyage included: Alexander Weir, quartermaster aged thirty-five years, drowned Madeira, on 14/09/1768. Peter Flower, A.B., aged eighteen years, drowned at Rio, 02 /12 1768. Thomas Richmond, Banks� servant, age unknown, died at Tierra Del Fuego, 16/01/1769. George Darlton, Banks� servant, age unknown, died at Tierra Del Fuego, 16/01/1769. William Greenslade, marine, age unknown, suicided, Pacific, 26/03/1769. Alexander Buchan, artist to Banks, died of a �bowel disorder�, at Tahiti, 17/04/69. John Reading, boatswain�s mate, aged twenty-four years, died in an alcoholic stupor, 28/08/1769. Forby Sutherland, A.B., poulterer, aged twenty-nine years, died at Botany Bay, 01/05/1770. William Monkhouse, surgeon, aged thirty-eight years, died of dysentery at Batavia, 05/11/1770. Taiata, boy servant to Tupia, age unknown, died at Batavia, 09/11/1770. John Reynolds, servant to Mr. Green, age unknown died at Batavia, 18/12/1770.

Tupaia, interpreter, age unknown died at Batavia, 20/12/70. Timothy Rearden, boatswain�s yeoman, aged twenty-five years, died at Batavia 24/12/70. John Woodworth, A.B., aged forty-three years, died at Batavia, 24/12/70. John Truslove, marine corporal, age unknown, buried at sea. 24/01/1771. Thomas Dunster, marine, age unknown, buried in the buried at sea , 25/01/1771. Herman Sporing, assistant naturalist, aged thirty-eight years, buried at sea 25/01/1771. John Ravenhill, sail maker and cook, age 52, buried at sea, 26/01/1771. Sydney Parkinson, botanical artist, age 23, buried at sea, 26/01/1771. Charles Green, astronomer, age 33, buried at sea, 29/01/1771. Francis Haite, A.B., carpenter�s mate, age 42, buried at sea, 30/01/1771. Samuel Moody, carpenter�s mate Joiner, age 40, buried at sea, 30/01/1771. Benjamin Jordan, carpenter�s mate, age 30, buried at sea, 31/01/1771. James Nicholson, A.B., age 21, buried at sea, 31/01/1771. John Thompson, �one-armed cook�, age unknown, buried at sea, 31/01/1771. Archibald Wolf, butcher, aged thirty-nine years, buried at sea, 31/01/1771. Daniel Roberts, gunner�s servant, age unknown, buried at sea 02/02/1771. John Thurman, sail maker�s mate, age 20, buried at sea 03/02/1771. John Bootie, midshipman, age 21, buried at sea, 04/02/1771. John Gathrey, boatswain, age unknown, buried at sea, 04/02/1771. Jonathan Monkhouse, midshipman, age 21, buried at sea, 06/02/1771. John Satterley, carpenter, buried at sea, 12/02/71. Daniel Preston, marine, age unknown, buried at sea, 15/02/1771. Alexander Lindsay, (joined Batavia, died sixty days later). A.B., 19/02/1771. Alexander Simpson, A.B., age unknown, buried at sea, 21/02/ 1771. Henry Jeffs, Butcher, age unknown, buried at sea, 27/02/1771. Manuel Pereira, (joined at Rio) A.B., age unknown, buried at sea, 27/02/1771. Peter Morgan, (joined (sick) at Batavia) A.B., buried at sea, 07/03/1771. Richard Thomas, joined Batavia, Died 27 days later, A.B., Cape Town, 15/03/1771. John Lorrain, joined at Batavia died 47 days later, A.B., Cape Town, 04/04/1771. John Dozey, joined at Batavia died 50 days later. A.B., Cape Town, 07/04/1771. Robert Molyneux, master, aged twenty-two years, buried at Robben Island, 16/04/1771. Zachary Hickes, 2nd Lieutenant, age 29, buried in the North Atlantic, 26/05/1771.

Chapter Eighteen The Search for Cook�s Ship

Chapter 18 - The Search for Cook�s Ship In 1996 my ongoing research into the fate of Cook�s ship, it became obvious that HM Bark Endeavour had been sunk resulting in being broken into bits and now part of the flotsam and jetsam on the bottom of the swirling entrance to Narragansett Bay off Newport Rhode Island. Hopeful of sighting and salvaging the remains of the Bark Endeavour, marine archeologists of the Rhode Island Marine Archaeology Project (RIMAP) dive in vain, hoping to find the �holy grail�! 1 HM Bark Endeavour Lieutenant James Cook left England on 26th August 1768 and in the course of his first voyage of exploration, sailed up the East Coast of Australia charting and filling in the gaps of the unexplored areas. HM Bark Endeavour narrowly avoided a calamity when it went aground on the Barrier Reef and was temporarily repaired after being careened on a Queensland beach. This action alone was to justify the choice of vessel with her �tumble-over� bottom. A more permanent refit was made in Batavia before the vessel sailed to complete the circumnavigation in England in 1771. After returning from his the first voyage, the old Bark was hardly fit for future service, however it is certain that the Admiralty then used the refitted HM Bark Endeavour as a Transport for three voyages to the Falkland Islands. The vessel's naval service life ended when she was finally paid off in 1774 and sold in 1775 for �645. That is the last information Admiralty could provide in answer to a letter in 1899 to the then First Lord of the Admiralty, Admiral Sir John Pakington from Mr. Holt a Member of the New South Wales Legislative Council, who organised the erection of the monument to Captain Cook's First Landing at Botany Bay. 2 There are some published statements that HM Bark Endeavour returned to the coal trade but these proved to be incorrect. The old bark had in fact returned to her role as a transport, in private hands, and was renamed and leased back to Admiralty. HM Bark Endeavour was renamed to Lord Sandwich. This was confirmed in the 1776 Lloyd's Register of Shipping. In the Lloyd�s Register head office copy of the 1776 Register it shows a number of hand-written emendations. One emendation confirms the name change to Lord Sandwich and shows �LO Trnfp�, meaning, out of London as a Transport (under the ownership of Mr. J. Mather). 3 The service career of HM Bark Endeavour, is well known, she was originally built as a collier at Thomas Fishburn's yard at Whitby, Yorkshire as a 368 71/94 ton Whitby Cat (with bluff bow and no figurehead). Originally named Earl of Pembroke, built for and owned by Thos Milner, of Whitby. The bark was put into the coal trade to London during the years 1764-67. In 1768 the Navy Board purchased the Earl of Pembroke, and renamed her HM Bark Endeavour. The vessel was extensively refitted at the King's Yard. A special experimental sheathing was used to preserve the bottom of the vessel in the tropical waters of the Pacific. Fourteen 1'.3� square beams were secured either side of the main wale with 1� thick x 3'.6� long oak dowel treenails or trunnels.4 On return from Cook's first voyage of exploration, HM Bark Endeavour was again refitted, this time for a number of transport voyages for the Admiralty. She began to move troops and equipment from England to and from the Falkland Islands,

consequent upon the British relinquishing the islands to the Spanish. Her cargo into the Falklands was a number shallops. (Collapsible boats used as landing craft to run troops onto the rough Falklands coastline). HM Bark Endeavour sailed for her first Falklands voyage and arrived back 5th December 1771, in the next two years she made two more voyages to these islands, the final voyage returning 23rd November 1773. Bark Endeavour was sold out of naval service to J. Mather and Co in 1775 and entered the Lloyd's Register of Shipping of that year as Endeavour. During that year a further hand emendation in Lloyd's Register shows her further name change from Endeavour to Lord Sandwich with details listed as 350 tons, built at Whitby in 1764 and last surveyed in 1773 at the King's Yard and owned by J. Mather. The shipping movement newspaper of the day �Lloyd's List� published that Lord Sandwich in Mather's ownership under Captain Manners, voyaged to Archangel arriving in Gravesend 27th October 1775. The cargo was probably Russian fir timber to be used by the King's Yard to build navy masts and spars. The 1778 Lloyd's Register still shows an entry for Lord Sandwich ex Bark Endeavour, J. Mather and Son a ship owner. Under this new name she undertook a few more voyages as a transport. Earlier in 1776 Lord Sandwich had been classed as �E1� by Lloyd�s. This classification indicates she was not permitted to carry passengers, but could carry timber, coal, stone, ballast, iron. 5 In December 1775 the old bark was rejected by the Board of Transport for naval service and was refused the coveted �Ships in Pay� classification (chartered to the Navy Board with compensation if the ship was lost). The survey was damming and the ship condemned. Further, the examiners had no idea that the ship they had rejected was James Cook�s old Bark Endeavour as can be seen in the official Deptford survey comments� �The ships mentioned in the margin we have inspected and judge unfit for His Majesties Service for the following reasons ��Lord Sandwich� � age uncertain, she is now under repair her many timbers rotten, and Mr. Watson and Mr. Burton believes she was built in the northward she appears to be old and defective�.6 One would think that the condemning of his ship was a lay down mis�re, and that the owner Mr. Mather had nowhere to go. His ship was a wreck and would not be allowed to enter the Transport Service under pay. But Mr. Mather was not the biggest ship owner in England for nothing, and he had deep pockets. He had his �ways� to get things done, and knew who to contact. John Mather sharpened his quill and drafted a letter to his Transport Agent J. Wilkinson of Wilkinson and Deacon, suppliers of ships to the Transport Service. Over a period of three months, Wilkinson could only find 108 transports for the service. They too were desperate for ships, any ships! The cleverer �Agents for Transports� knew which strings to pull, to have a ship accepted �into pay�. A few dinners and fine claret with the Deptford survey staff Sir Thomas Slade and Mr. John William, charged no doubt to the owner Mr. Mather�s account. A few palms greased, a few favours now cashed-in, the ten year old spongy condemned. �Lord Sandwich� was re-surveyed at Deptford Yard for �entry in to pay�. Not unexpectedly this time she passed survey for entry into the Transport Service and subsequently processed as �fit for service�. A confirmation letter was drafted, an invoice raised and the wheels were set in motion for the old Bark Endeavour to enter the Transport Service, but still she was not signed off as an official �Ship in Pay�. This required more quill sharpening and a few more glassed of Madeira: 5th February 1776 �Hon Sirs, In obedience to your directions of the 21st March (1776) we have surveyed and examined the bottom of the ship under mentioned and find her fit for

the Transport Service and she having been formerly measured, we send an Account hereof, with her age as follows: �Built at Whitby and lately in the River (Thames). Bottom sheathed, has rises to her quarter deck and forecastle, is roomily and has good accommodation; her lower deck laid, and will come down when the weather will permit. We have also in obedience to your directions of the 2nd instant Surveyed the ships under mentioned tendered for the above service and find them as follows � To all appearance, proper ship for the Service; we shall measure and report the tonnage as soon as they are laid on the days�. 7 Ship NameMasterBurthen Tons according to measurementAgeHeight between decks Feet and inches Afore x Mid x Abaft (� = Feet � = inches)SortForm of the bodyLord SandwichJohn Blanchard368 71/9410 yrs7�.6� x 7�.9� x 7�11�BarkFull built A further letter dated 9th February 1776 from the Deptford Yard, indicated that the vessel was signed on as a �Ship in Pay�, she was back under Admiralty command. If the vessel should sink, or lost in service the Government would reimburse Mr. Mather the full agreed value of ?2,602.00.00 a little more than Admiralty had paid when they purchased the vessel as �Earl of Pembroke� ?2,307.00.00 back in 1768. 7 During the period 1775-1783 the Great Britain was involved in numerous wars, and skirmishes. Adding to this turmoil was a colonial empire brooding with discontent. Supporting these outposts caused unprecedented logistical and supply problems. One of these problems - the supply of Transports - to ship livestock, supplies, troops, munitions and all manner of goods, fell to the Navy Board, the oldest arm of the Royal Navy. Towards the end of 1775 the independence movement in America was heating up, Britain intended to quell the upstarts and stamp out any insurrection. The Navy Board was called upon to move troops and supplies to that continent. One agent shipbroker Mr. J. Wilkinson of Wilkinson 8 and Deacon had been contracted to assemble a number of suitable transport ships. Although the 1775 Lloyd's Register of Shipping listed more than 10,000 merchant vessels ranging from less than 100 tons to over 700 tons, transport vessels for the American skirmish were proving difficult to put into service. Over a period of three months an Agent for ship owners Wilkinson and Deacon offered only 108 transports for possible service. December 1775 Lord Sandwich (ex Bark Endeavour) was offered as transport for the American service. The transports chartered were used to for logistics to America, transporting victuals, livestock, arms, ordnance, coal, hay and troops � including a brigade of German Hessian Mercenaries from Hessen-Kassel firstly to New York, then the Hessian's and some British troops were transported to Newport RI. The Hessians were to play a role in the Rhode Island Campaign of 1778.9 In late 1775, the Parliament of Great Britain, under Lord North, First Lord of the Treasury, decided that sterner measures would be taken to subdue the rebellion now underway in the thirteen American colonies. To this end, they decreed a blockade against the trade of the American colonists by passing the Prohibitory Act. �All manner of trade and commerce� would be prohibited, and any ship that was found trading shall be forfeited to his Majesty, as if the same were the ships and effects of open enemies. The goal of the Act was to destroy the American economy by making it incapable of operating by means of prohibiting trade with any country. By 9th February 1776 Lord Sandwich was ready for sea in HM Transport Service it was mandatory however for the vessel to be re-surveyed again by HM Surveyors at Deptford. After this final survey, the Transport Lord Sandwich was officially

�Entered into Pay� fully covered by HM Government in case of loss. 10 The Lloyd�s Register of 1778 still recorded Lord Sandwich ex Endeavour Ss (slipped and sheathed 73�), Captain Blanchard 350 tons; Built Whitby; repaired 1773, built 1764; Owner J, Mather; 16 years old; London, Transport; Lloyd�s class E1 (since 1776); (insured only to carry certain dry-goods like stone, coal, timber etc.) Not only was it essential to structurally survey the vessels destined for the Transport Service but it was vital that accurate measurement be conducted by the Deptford Naval surveyors, the accurate tonnage was the key to the vessel�s earning capacity. The tonnage of a ship in the Transport service was of great importance to both the Navy Board and the shipowners since the freight of a ship was paid on this basis. Also the manning rate of seven crew per one hundred tons was reliant on the correct tonnage. The transformation in four months of a �rotten timbered ship that was also old and defective� is nothing short of a miracle, as one would assume that time would have exacerbated the ship�s problems and not improved them. The acceptance of Lord Sandwich into the Transport Service and �Into Pay� was evidence of just how desperate the British were find any ship to transport troops to America. Lord Sandwich�s last voyage was to deliver Hessian Mercenaries (German Troops) across the Atlantic to help the British revolutionary war against the Americans. Adopting his usual anti-war posture, especially the British use of the German Hessian Mercenary troops, sent Reinhold Forster into a letter writing frenzy, he dashed off letters to Benjamin Franklin in America, and the Earl of Shelburne the Prime Minister 1782�1783. But this was all to no avail the troops were shipped and in Cook�s old Bark Endeavour now under a new name Lord Sandwich. 11 All transport ships were now commandeered, including those unfit for service like the clapped-out �Lord Sandwich�. Although conniving agents managed to include her in the transport fleet to Newport R.I., her sailing days were in reality finished. She was quite useless as a transport ship, but on arrival at Newport, she was refitted as a port-based prison ship riding her anchor at Newport Rhode Island, with her capacious lower decks and hold, no better ship could have served as a prison ship. The Hessian Mercenaries had been lucky to make landfall in James Cook�s spongy leaky old vessel. On arrival Rhode Island Station Commander, Captain Brisbane realised the ship was unfit for sea and had her converted to accommodate prisoners. Prison ships were an inexpensive way of securing ill disciplined troops, recalcitrants and enemy prisoners in a relatively secure way, similar ships were a common sight as hulks in most sea ports of the world. Muck stirrers, drunks, Whigs, revolutionaries, �rebels� were incarcerated aboard the prison ship Lord Sandwich, for varying lengths of time. In the Newport Historical Society archives are two manuscript lists of sixty-two prisoners that were confined to Lord Sandwich prison ship.12 Newport Rhode Island After the regiment of German �Hessians� mercenaries troops arrived at the war zone at Rhode Island the British realised the mistake they had made in using these troops as they contributed little to the British cause, they were ill prepared with too little food, clothes not suitable for the inclement weather, inferior munitions, and too little firewood, they were slovenly and lounged around disinterested in action. 13 Prison Ships Dr. Kathy Abbass Rhode Island Marine Archaeology Project noted one of the transports Lord Sandwich that had been put into service as a prison ship. Dr. Abbass quotes Rhode Island correspondence, written during the War of Independence,

from a Mr. H. Bull, who wrote that his father was confined at Newport RI., on a prison ship believed to be Lord Sandwich. Prison ships between decks there is a strong grated barricade, spiked with iron, is built across the ship at the steerage bulkhead, this gives the officers a free view of all that goes on among the prisoners. Bunks for sleeping are placed on each side all the way to the bows. Each of these will accommodate five persons. There is no outlet but through a door in the steerage bulkhead and this is always guarded by a sentry. Light and air are admitted through the hatches, which are strongly grated. a Captain Brisbane scuttles the fleet Captain Brisbane the British Naval officer in charge of the Rhode Island operations, from his flagship HMS Flora, foresaw trouble, and requested of his Commanding officer Viscount Howe RN, (1726�1799), more troops to defend his position. The British obliged with mercenaries bringing the total to 20,000 including some of the 17,000 German Hessians under British command transported over the course of eight years. Originally scheduled to be sent to Canada in 1776, the Hessian Regiment was sent instead to New York to join the army of General Viscount William Howe, Brother of Earl Howe. The request was answered; German mercenaries fought on the British side during the American Revolution and participated in virtually every major engagement of the war. Although these German auxiliaries came from six different German states, they are commonly known as Hessians because the vast majority came from the principality of Hesse-Cassel. After the war, approximately 7,000 German soldiers remained in North America, becoming the progenitors of many thousands of North Americans living today. b General Sir William Howe An army man, General Sir William Howe (1729�1814), Fifth Viscount Howe after 1799, knighted in 1775, entered the army in 1746, had replaced Lieutenant General Thomas Gage as Commander-in-Chief of the British Army in America when Gage was recalled to England. Howe defeated General George Washington at the Battle of Long Island in the summer of 1776. But Howe's refusal to allow his army to follow up their victory with an assault on Washington's lines on Brooklyn Heights allowed the Continental Army to successfully accomplish a night-time strategic withdrawal across the East River, aided by thick fog the next morning. Had Howe attacked Brooklyn Heights, as his subordinate General Henry Clinton (1730�1795) [who was not related to Bill Clinton] and others urged him, with his full force of 20,000 men, may well have captured Washington's entire army and possibly even ended the Revolutionary War there and then. His failure to do so is generally considered to be the greatest missed opportunity of the war, and certainly altered the course of American history. A When the French Admiral, d'Estaing, assembled offshore to attack Newport in support of the American revolutionaries, the defending British Naval Commander Captain John Brisbane took precautions and ordered ships sunk as a blockade of the harbour entrance. One of the ships was the transport Lord Sandwich. This action was confirmed in a dispatch to Viscount Howe. Brisbane sank five transports in the passage between Goat Island and the Blue Rocks, to prevent the approach of the enemy from coming too close to the North Battery so as to attack it with advantage. And five more transports proceed out, in order to be sunk between Goat Island and Rose Island for the same purpose� Lord Sandwich and the other ships were sunk in an area of fast flowing current under Newport toll bridge between Goat Island and Rose Island. 14 G In August 1778 the French and American's signed a treaty. This union saw the French dispatch an armada of ships with 4,000 troops to America to assist in the war effort. Eventually the French forces arrived at Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. At Newport the cry went out that �Froggy Frigates were off the port bow�. Rochambeau had arrived in Newport with the small army, which he was anxious to

land. Captain Brisbane, the senior naval commander acted quickly, he gathered a fleet transports including the Lord Sandwich and his own ship �HMS Flora and other ships of the line as a blockade of the entrance to the port. This action turned the French away, it was too difficult to tack and wear through the masts sunk across the entrance to the bay. The blockade to Newport, Rhode Island's outer harbour entrance proved successful. The blockade ships sunk during August 1778 included HM frigates Juno 32 guns; Lark 32; Orpheus 32; Cerberus 28; a number of HM galley ships Spitfire; Alarm; Pigot; sloop Flora 12 pounder (later raised by the Americans); and the sloops Falcon (later raised); and Kingfisher, and ten transports: Britannia; Earl of Oxford; Good Intent; Grand Duke of Russia; Lord Sandwich (Ex Bark Endeavour); Malaga; Rachel and Mary; Susanna; Union; Liberty; 11 On sinking the transports and the ships of the line (including his own ship HMS Flora � a 5th rate prize Vestale taken in 1761 � which was to be raised by the Americans who sold it to the French who renamed it Flore). 15 Mather makes a claim. Mr. Mather of London owner of the transport Lord Sandwich sunk at Rhode Island, despatched a letter via the Agent to the Commissioners of HM Navy, the letter requesting that a valuation certificate be issued by the Deptford Naval Yard. Armed with this valuation certificate, Mr Mather could proceed with a claim for compensation. This was issued 9th December 1778, the letter achieved its purpose for a valuation certificate for the vessels sunk. Wilkinson and Deacon, London issued a request for payment, for the transport sunk at Newport R. I. It was approved for payment by HM Deptford Yards 9th December 1770. 16 For surveyed value � Lord Sandwich 368 71/94 tons, �1,752.15.00 for hull spars and yards, �929.05.00 for Furniture and Stores. Total �2,682.00 Ship Name Tonnage Date when entered into pay Value Hull, masts yards Value -Furniture and Stores Total� s d � s d� s dUnion261 66/9420/12/17761,112.08.09 779.03.101,891.12.07Good Intent241 17/9425/01/17771,240.04.11645.15.101,886.00.00 Britannia374 82/9417/02/17771,700.00.00901.00.002,602.00.00Rachel and Mary320 7/94 07/11/17751,280.00.00937.00.002,217.00.00Susanna254 20/9422/02/17761,144.05.00 794.15.001,939.00.00* Lord Sandwich368 71/9407/02/17761,752.15.00929.05.00 2,682.00.00Earl of Orford231 71/9402/11/17751,488.01.00733.19.002,182.00.00Malaga 295 91/9416/02/1776927.00.00660.00.001,507.00.00Grand Duke of Russia671 24/94 16/08/17753,192.10.081,621.09.044,814.00.00Betty235 5/9413/02/17761,057.10.00 720.10.001,778.00.00Rhode Island Marine Archaeology Project Dr. Abbass set out to find out more about the demise of Lord Sandwich by delving through the copious files at the Public Records office London. This search found some suasive evidence that brings the location of the last days of Cook�s Bark Endeavour to an interesting conclusion. For nearly seven years the Rhode Island Marine Archaeology Project and its new sister organization, the �Foundation for the Preservation of Captain Cook�s Ships� have studied the shipwrecks, dived on all, including the remains that may or may not be the remains of HM Bark Endeavour. The divers have identified a number of promising sites but as yet have discovered nothing that can be specifically claimed to be Cook�s HM Bark Endeavour. In order to prove that the skeleton remains of ships currently lying on the bottom of Narragansett Bay include Lord Sandwich (HM Bark Endeavour), some indication of the special and unique fittings of this vessel should be found - gudgeons, rudder

straps and fastenings made of non-rusting wrought iron. Also one should expect evidence of the thousands of flat-headed iron nails used in the peculiar method of mailetage sheathing of the hull. Also the internal fit-out of prison ships included grated barricades, spiked with iron of the period one may expect to find some remnants of these modifications. Also it will be necessary for the marine archaeologists to verify marks, peculiarities and distinctive repairs especially the replacement rabbited joint section of a 20 foot section to the four sectioned 91' x 1' x 2' 10� keel. 17 Probably one of the most suasive documents found by Dr. Abbass was a letter from Captain Brisbane, the senior naval commander at Newport RI., confirming the blockade sinking. Dr. Abbass was quoted in a number of international newspapers, that based on the Public Records office documents, there can be no doubt that Lord Sandwich was HM Bark Endeavour, and was one of the transports sunk in Newport�s outer harbour in 1778. 18

Boston Tea Party

Chapter Nineteen Endeavour Reef Queensland

Chapter 19 Artefacts Salvage from Endeavour Reef Queensland The artefacts salvage from the Endeavour Reef Qld is a significant tangible reminder of Lieutenant James Cook's heroic voyage to the East Coast of Australia. And reminders of the trepidation Cook and the Crew must have felt with the

grounding of HM Bark Endeavour on the coast of far north Queensland. One can imagine the worry of James Cook we he was informed that the vessel was hard aground and likely to sink if she was moved. And the self satisfaction Cook must have felt on advising Midshipman Monkhouse on the fothering procedure. The joy felt by the entire crew on the subsequent re-floating and repair of the ship. These were an important part of the story of the European discovery of Australia, Cook�s Journal states �I gave Midshipman Jonathan Monkhouse direction of this, who executed it very much to my satisfaction�. 1 Of the tens of thousands of ships that have called on Australia since the first European settlement, one ship stands out as iconic, HM Bark Endeavour, under the command of the Lieutenant James Cook RN., for without the visit of this little 350 ton ship to the eastern shore of Australia the course of Australian history would undoubtedly have changed. The value of the Cook artefacts A minimal observation is needed to be made as to how and why an artefact valuer considers certain items valuable yet others similar of little value by comparison. James Cook�s artefacts reflect the value imparted by current social and historic trends and the appetite of serious collectors. To some untrained eyes certain �piles of scrap� may appear to be worthless, yet to me in my capacity as a valuer of Australian marine paintings and prints, naval and maritime artefacts, books, photographs and ephemera, ship and boat models, maritime collections including archival records and documents�. I am able to look beyond the tangible aspect the providence - in order to redefine the intangible of these �artefacts� that are likely to be historically and emotionally charged. 2 Banks Journal Banks noted that orders were now given to lighten the ship which was begun pumping out the ship. Ballast was then thrown over board, as well as six of the big guns (all that we had upon deck). All this time the seamen worked with surprising cheerfulness and alacrity; no grumbling or growling was to be heard throughout the ship. The water had fallen so low that the pinnace touched ground as it laid under the ships bows ready to take in the anchor. After this the tide began to rise and as it rose the ship worked violently upon the rocks so that by two in the afternoon she began to make water which increased very fast. At night the tide almost floated the vessel but she was making more water faster than the three pumps could handle. The fourth pump just failed completely. Banks gave up any hope in saving the ship and packed up what he thought he should save.3 Cook�s Journal �The ship struck the reef and was stuck fast - immediately upon this we took in all our sails, hoisted out the boats and sounded round the ship and found that we had got upon the south east edge of a reef of coral. We sat in about 3 and 4 fathoms of water but about a ships length from us on our starboard side the ship was laying with her head to the north-east were 8 to 12 fathoms. As soon as the long boat was out, we struck yards and topmasts and carried out the stream anchor upon the starboard bow, got the casting anchor and cable into the boat and were going to carry it out the same way, but upon my sounding the second time round the ship I found the most water a-stern and therefore had this anchor carried out upon the starboard quarter and hove upon it a very great strain which was to no purpose the ship being quite fast. We went to work to lighten her as fast as possible. We threw overboard our guns iron and stone ballast, casks, hoops staves oil jars, decayed stores. The Ship made little or no water. At 11.00 am being high-water as we thought we tried to heave her off without success she not being a float by a foot or more notwithstanding by this time we had thrown over board 40 or 50 ton weight, as this was not found sufficient we continued to lighten her by every method we could think of. 4

Ownership of the Endeavour River Artefacts Ownership of the artefacts and guns had been questioned since 1886 when the Cooktown Working Men�s Progress Association asked the British Government to transfer ownership to the Queensland Government. The British Government�s Secretary for State and Colonies agreed to the transfer of the guns if they could be recovered. This is where the first question of ownership is raised � as the Commonwealth of Australia had at this time not been established? Dennis Callegari states in his book �Cook�s Cannon and Anchor � The Recovery and Conservation of Relics from HM Bark Endeavour� 5 The Commonwealth AttorneyGeneral's Department considered the case from several points of view, and came up with six conflicting arguments as to who might own the relics. The Commonwealth of Australia, through the �Receiver of Wrecks�, rightly took possession of the cannon as wreckage under The Navigation Act 1912. 6 By law and statute the Commonwealth is entitled to all unclaimed wrecks found in Australia. The Queensland Government made a claim; however, it had no validity in law. Because HM Bark Endeavour had been a vessel of the Royal Navy, the Navigation Act may not apply, and any relics from the Bark Endeavour would still officially belong to the Government of the United Kingdom. However because the HM Bark Endeavour had not been a Royal Navy vessel since the late 1780s and indeed no longer existed, it was possible to argue that the British Government's claim of ownership over any relics from the Endeavour River had lapsed. The British Government, which had originally offered the guns (if found) to Queensland, had in 1963 made a similar offer to the Exploration Society of the University of New England (in New South Wales) when that body had also expressed an interest in looking for the cannons. Notwithstanding whom the rightful owner of the Bark Endeavour artefacts may be that the expedition from the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences (the discoverer of the relics) was entitled to some kind of salvage fee. The final judgement from the Attorney-General's Department was that the relics should be considered the property of the British Government. From an Australian point of view, this was not as disappointing as it sounds because an informal approach to the United Kingdom had already extracted from that government an agreement to abandon its rights to the relics in favour of the Australian government. On advice from the highest legal authority it was this advice that was accepted and is still in force today! Title salvaged relics can only be transferred by Commonwealth Government of Australia legislation and statute. Recovery Chronology Initial thought of recovery of the guns was made by Lieutenant Cook himself when in June 1770 he threw the guns overboard, fixed buoys to them, intending, if they escaped, to haul them up again; but on attempting it, they found it was impracticable. 7 26th February 1886 Cooktown Town Council to the Governor Sir Anthony Musgrave to correspond with the Lords of the Admiralty for the exact location of the guns. 8 8th July 1886 British Secretary of State for the Colonies, Earl of Granville notified the Governor that Her Majesty�s Government will have pleasure in transferring to your Government the guns thrown overboard from the Bark Endeavour if they can be recovered.9 During 1886 the Admiralty Hydrographer W.J. L. Wharton supplied approximate details of the reef on which the guns lay. He also supplied a tracing of Lieutenant Cook�s chart of the reef.

In 1886 the Working Men�s Progress Association offered a reward of �300 for the recovery and delivery of the guns. Captain Mackay reported to the Government that he had failed to locate the guns. Aboard the schooner �Governor Cairns�, June 1887 he failed again in six months and failed again. By late 1967 diver Ben Cropp made three unsuccessful attempts to locate the guns � he claimed to have found Bark Endeavour ballast! Christmas Eve 1967, Cairns diver Fred Aprilovic located one of�Bark Endeavour�s anchors on a successful expedition led�by a Cairns charter launch operator Vince Vlasoff who had been commissioned by W. G. Douglas, Commonwealth Government �Receiver of Wrecks for Queensland�. This team contacted Virgil Kauffman in the US who proceeded to recover the relics with the aid of sophisticated sonar. The Iron Pig Ballast - Recovered at Endeavour Reef Mr. Walter G. Douglas OBE, Regional Controller of the Commonwealth Department of Shipping and Transport and �Receiver of Wrecks for Queensland� supervised the salvage of HM Bark Endeavour artefacts dumped overboard at Endeavour River when the ship ran aground and started to sink. Sophisticated sonar indicates guns, ballast and other artefacts on 7th January 1969. A six-man team led by Virgil Kauffman�s of the Academy of Natural Sciences Philadelphia expedition commenced the retrieval. The dive team was directed by General Alfred Wolf. Divers J. Anderson; Collin Cook and Peter McIntyre raised gun No 5. Diver Roger Steene raised ballast stones and iron pigs. The eight tons of soft pig-iron had been initially loaded onto HM Bark Endeavour as ballast, and for use by the blacksmith should the occasion arise � the ship carried a coal fired forge and with the pigs and sticks of antimony, keen edged hatchets could be made, as too nails, and other iron fittings. After salvage, the treatments used to stabilise the iron pigs include electrolytic reduction followed by washing in inhibited distilled water before a final wax impregnation, also treatment in an activated molten caustic soda bath followed by heat treatment before wax impregnation. 10 Pig iron is raw iron, the immediate product of smelting iron ore with coke and limestone in a blast furnace. Pig iron has very high carbon content, typically 3.5% which makes it very brittle and not useful directly as a material except for limited applications, unless forged with other materials. The traditional shape of the moulds used for pig-iron ingots was a branching structure formed in sand moulds with many individual ingots at right angles to a central channel or runner. Such a configuration is similar in appearance to a litter of piglets suckling on a sow thus �pigs�. When the metal had cooled and hardened, the smaller ingots (the pigs) were simply broken from the much thinner runner (the sow), hence the name �pig iron�. As pig iron is intended for re-melting, the uneven size of the ingots and inclusion of small amounts of sand was insignificant compared to the ease of casting and handling. Cast iron is made by re-melting pig iron, often along with substantial quantities of scrap iron, and removing undesirable contaminants, adding alloys, and adjusting the carbon content, the result is a useable metal. The Chinese were making pig iron by the later Zhou Dynasty (1,122 BC - 256 BC). In Europe, the process did not become common until the 14th century. Each original pig measured 36� x 6� x 6� with diagonal lifting holes. Analysis and Preservation of the Iron Ballast Ballast iron pigs from James Cook�s Bark Endeavour were found in abundance on Endeavour Reef. The salvage crew believed that it did not merit the careful

handling that was necessary for the six guns. It was assumed (wrongfully) that the ballast was of relatively minor historical value and, besides, some of it had already been damaged by being blasted free from the wreck site. The care and treatment of the ballast seemed somewhat cavalier compared to the care and deliberation in the preservation of the cannons. A diamond saw was used to cut a section through one ballast pig, while not exactly a technique for preserving the sample, this procedure enabled the conservation team to both analyse the composition of the ballast and study what had happened to the iron ballast during its time on the reef. As with the cannon, the metallography of the iron ballast was established by Dr. Len Samuels. The chemical composition of the ballast was determined as follows: Element (excluding iron) Carbon Phosphorus Manganese Sulphur Copper Silicon Vanadium Titanium

Percentage in ballast iron 3.01 1.17 0.25 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.007 0.005

The analysis confirmed the ballast iron as a fairly normal white cast iron, though lower in silicon than would typically be produced in a modern foundry. Other aspects of interest were a low sulphur content and high phosphorus content, indicating that the ballast pigs were cast in a charcoal-fired rather than cokefired furnace.11 Dr. Samuels concluded that different ores had been used for making the cannon and ballast. Whereas specially selected ore had been used in the manufacture of the cannon, the high level of phosphorus in the ballast iron implied that the ore used to produce the ballast is one of the high-phosphorus ores commonly available in England in the 18th century. Dr. Samuels' conclusion was corroborated by the variation in trace elements such as titanium, copper and vanadium found in the cannon and in the ballast; such differences almost certainly reflect the abundance of those elements in the original ore. The white cast iron, named after its white surface when fractured due to its carbide impurities which allow cracks to pass straight through, used in making the ballast pigs would have been much easier to smelt and cast than the grey iron used in the cannon, and consequently would be cheaper and more readily available. However, it would have been unacceptably brittle for use in cannon and would have been difficult to machine by the methods available in the mid-18th century; but neither fault would have been of importance when the foundry was concerned only with the weight of each pig. Dr. Samuels identified three distinct surface layers in the sectioned iron ballast from Endeavour Reef: an outer layer of coral, varying in thickness from three to 10 millimetres; inside that, a thin layer (about 0.5 millimetres thick) composed almost entirely of corrosion products; third was an extensive layer, anything from two to 15 millimetres thick, where corrosion products could be found in a matrix of the base metal. Below these three layers lay the un-corroded base metal itself. A set of experiments was carried out to determine the best method for removing the growth of coral around each ballast pig. The main problem was unlike the cannonwhich had had a relatively soft graphitised surface that had easily permitted the

coral to be removed the corroded layers of the ballast were very hard and bonded firmly to the coral. Attempts to remove coral with a hammer (as had been tried successfully with the cannon) failed, as much of the corrosion layer broke away with the coral. Several other methods were also tried without success. The first was an attempt to dissolve the coral in an inhibited 10 per cent solution of hydrochloric acid. Though this method did remove the coral in about four weeks, it also dissolved the oxides underneath. The second was an attempt to remove the coral by electrolysis in sodium hydroxide solution. The hope was that hydrogen gas evolved at the metal surface of the ballast during electrolysis would help to loosen the coral's grip. This had very little effect over a three-week trial. A third attempt to remove the coral-by immersing the ballast in an activated bath of molten caustic soda succeeded, but left the corrosion products below the coral still heavily impregnated with chloride. In the end, the conservation team concluded that the use of complex methods to try to retain what was basically rust on unmarked pieces of iron was not worth the effort. Eventually Pearson decided that the best course of action would be to heat each pig to about 650�C to loosen the coral's grip on the layers below and then blast it with steel grit to remove the coral and soft corrosion products, leaving the still-hard metal surface below undamaged. The heating experiments was conducted on samples of iron ballast were based on methods that had been proposed for the cannon themselves and were performed at a variety of locations: at DSL itself, at BHP's research laboratories at Clayton in Victoria, and the Lithgow small arms factory in New South Wales. The ballast was heated in furnaces at a temperature of 1060�C: this was done in atmospheres such as air, vacuum, and a reducing atmosphere of nitrogen and hydrogen. Each ballast pig was heated to 650�C for one hour to loosen the layers of coral and corrosion products. 12 Grit-blast blasted the remaining coral and corrosion from the surface. Fresh running water removed the remaining chloride-contaminated surface rust. Warm air blown over the pigs prevented after-rusting. Heated again to 650�C for two hours produced an even film of black oxide, similar to the pig's original condition. Each pig was immersed molten microcrystalline wax and sealed. The final appearance of the iron ballast pigs was close to what it must have been on their delivery to HM Bark Endeavour in 1768. 13 Antimony Ingots Recovered at Endeavour Reef Found amongst the pig-iron ballast and almost discarded as insignificant were a number of ingots of stibium antimony. The ingots were well sand-worn and reduced in size after being in the sea for more than two-hundred years or so. Antimony chemical is the symbol Sb. Latin - stibium, and the atomic number is 51. Antimony has a number of applications including mixing a powdered form with mercury for treatment of venereal disease. Antimony has been used since pre-Roman times as an eye wash (collyrium) or even a hair restorer! As stated in the Abdullah ibn Abbas, who quotes Muhammad, as saying in C. 470 the Prophet (peace-be-upon-him): �Wear your white garments, for they are among your best garments, and shroud your dead in them. Among the best types of collyrium you use is antimony (ithmid) for it clears the vision and makes the hair sprout�. Antimony when forged with iron adds hardness than can be advantageous if an edge is required to the forged item such as the ship�s trade hatchets the blacksmith would make. Antimony can also be used as a soft solder.14

James Cook had a wine goblet made of this antimony material, it was highly toxic. Since the late 20th century it is used less in paint as a hardener, often called �lead paint�. It�s qualities as a hardener was also in use for baked enamel lining cooking utensils � now with lead paint, banned, since it has been isolated as the cause of much poisoning. It is no longer used in pewter drinking vessels, or the once popular printer�s type fonts. The occasional company in the electronics industry still use antimony in the manufacture of semiconductors. Although used less now than in an earlier decade, it was used in the manufacture of colouring in pottery and ceramics. o Antimony and S.I.D.S. At one stage during 1980 until recent years antimony was used as a fire retardant in clothes and bedding. This lead to claims that a child breathing through a treated blanket could suffer possibly fatal consequences, but no medical foundation has yet to be offered that this claim is true. There are some in the medical profession (New Zealander Dr. Jim Sprott, a forensic scientist and consulting chemist, and renowned British chemist Dr. Barry Richardson, with two hundred and forty seven published scientific papers to his credit); who suspect the cause for S.I.D.S., are gasses emanating from treated bedding. The treatment for fire retarding includes arsine from arsenic, phosphine from phosphorus, and antimony from stibine. Britain's Chief Medical officer, Dr. Kenneth Calman discredits both Sprott and Richardson�s theory. Notwithstanding the lack of scientific foundation, the health authorities have banned antimony as the retardant in clothes and bedding. In May 2005, the Institute of Environmental Geochemistry, University of Heidelberg, hosted scientific meeting: the First International Workshop on Antimony in the Environment, a number of the papers presented pointed to the dangers of antimony in our environment especially swamp and marsh gasses heavy with stibine gasses from antimony. a Guns HM Bark Endeavour guns recovered by the American Academy of Natural Sciences are now displayed in London, Wellington, Philadelphia, Cooktown and two guns in Sydney - at the Australian National Maritime Museum. After recovery from the sea floor, the guns were transported in specially made coffins filled with sea water then left to soak in a sea water solution with 10% formalin to kill any bacteria present. Chipping hammers were used to remove hard coral from the surface. Core drilling of the gun bores recovered wadding, gun balls and the residue of powder charge from some of the guns. It was stated by Mr. Douglas that as the gunpowder and wadding dried, it started to smoke ominously! a The guns were then placed in 2% NaOH (Sodium Hydroxide) for a week during which time gas evolved from the surface which was found to be 80% hydrogen, Using the cast iron guns as the cathode and mild steel anodes (including a bar inserted inside the gun bore for good current distribution), electrolytic treatment in 2% NaOH was maintained for many weeks. This required approximately 4 volts across each bath. After a two-week period, during which the baths' chloride concentrations rose from 0.008M (300ppm) to 0.013M (460ppm), the solution was discarded and replaced. 15 d Subsequently, baths were changed weekly the guns were washed with fresh water at each change. It took many weeks before the chloride concentration levelled out at around 5 x 10-4 M (20ppm). During this time brown rust patches were seen to disappear and the surface layers hardened. After electrolytic treatment, prolonged washing was carried out to remove remaining chloride and hydroxide. This took five months with fortnightly changes using distilled water with chromate ions. An iron oxide, chromic oxide surface protective layer forms on the gun surfaces inner and outer. The guns were dried for 48 hours at 120� C. They were then immersed in molten microcrystalline wax which was kept at 135� C for five days until no gas

bubbles were evident. The was allowed to cool to just above melting point (80� C) before the guns were removed, this ensured maximum penetration of wax. This wax treatment was reversible. 16

Chapter Twenty Artefacts

Chapter 20 Artefacts of the Voyages of James Cook Marine historian Michele Laroche stated �People and institutions are prepared to pay whatever it takes to buy a genuine piece of history that points to the collective memory and the emotion of a nation�. Following the death of James Cook at Kealakekua Bay 14th February 1779, even as the choice parts were being consumed, following the long time naval tradition Captain Cook�s personal belongings and clothes were sold off from his cabin. The officers, crew and �gentlemen� were all given equal chance to share. As Joseph Banks was by far the wealthiest by far of those bidding for the lots, it would seem that he acquired anything that took his fancy. James Cook�s sword and clothing worn whilst he was being bashed to death had been handed over to the new Commander Clerke. James Cook�s guns however were returned in a totally useless state. The normal practice of this bizarre some say callous sale is to benefit the dead sailor�s widow, however in this case Mrs. Elizabeth Cook was not given any of the proceeds. The specimens, artefacts, gifts, letters, instruments, arms, ephemera and other items from the three voyages eventually found a way into the British Museum, the UK National Maritime Museum, Admiralty, the Public Records office, London, and many libraries including the Australia�s Dixon and State Library of NSW have artefacts, logs, journals and letters from the three voyages. Bernard Smith and Dr, R�diger Joppien published a fine scholarly work illustrating much of the collected Cook material held in these public places. 1 In June 1933 a small cottage in the North Yorkshire town of Great Ayton was bought at auction by an Australian, Russell Grimwade, dismantled, transported to Victoria, Australia and reconstructed in a Melbourne park, where it stands to this day. The house was a gift to the people of Victoria; however it was not Captain Cook�s House. There is no evidence of Cook ever living in it. The house was purchased Cook�s father at the same time that Cook joined the Royal Navy. Cook probably called at the house to see his parents in 1757. In December 1771 Cook again visited his ageing father and managed to persuade his father to move from the cottage in 1772 and go to live with Cook�s sister, Margaret, at Redcar, where he died in April 1779. The hollow-coconut drinking cup Captain William Bligh used after he had been cast off HM Armed Transport Bounty in 1789. The artefact was sold in 2002 at Christie�s, London. The auctioneer�s hammer fell at $142,000.

A portrait of �Omai� by Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792) was sold by Sotheby�s on 29th November 2001 for �10,343,500, six and a half times more than had previously been paid at auction for this artist. The price is the second highest ever paid for any British painting, just short of the �10.7 million paid for John Constable's �The Lock� in 1990. A rare collection of charts, books, letters and other ephemera came on to the Australian market in 2008, offered by Horden House. It was put together over the past 15 years by an American investment consultant, Robert Parks. Included were a history-making map and a rare handwritten letter by the great navigator. Each was offered at prices exceeding $200,000. Genuine James Cook artefacts with impeccable provenance are exceedingly rare, when they are offered to the market they attract a premium, however, genuine artefacts can be counted on one hand. A low price however does not always indicate dubious provenance. Artefacts from Captain James Cook's at the Australian National Maritime Museum in Sydney include a cannon and anchor from the HM Bark Endeavour. The N.M.M., also have a small wooden board, being one side of the botanical flower press, used aboard HM Sloop Resolution, given by Johann Reinhold Forster to Sir Thomas Frankland (1750-1831) the 6th Baron of Thirkleby Park, Thirsk, Yorkshire. The board was acquired by the Royal Australian Navy. A number bits of oak hull labelled �Bark Endeavour� but if from a James Cook vessel the timber could possibly have been hewn from HM Sloop Resolution under her rename �Libert� after her sinking at Sherman�s Wharf, Rhode Island. The National Museum of Australia in Canberra displays a hand-painted tea cup and saucer which belonged to the explorer. They also have Cook�s magnifier and plane table frame in the �Australian Journeys Gallery�. The magnifier and folding plane table frame have been traced back to an astronomer Bayley who sailed with Cook. Both pieces would have been used in the making of accurate maps, essential for safe navigation. The small magnifying glass is held in a tortoiseshell mount and housed in a silver capstan-style case. The case, which is almost seven centimetres high, dates from 1844. (?) It bears the inscription: �This magnifier was given by Captain James Cook, the celebrated navigator to Mr. William Bayley the astronomer to the expedition during Cook's 3rd voyage and was presented by Mr. Bayley to his Pupil, friend and Executor Mark Beaufoy Esq. F.R.S�. Astronomer William Bayley sailed on Cook's second and third Pacific voyages and later published his observations. It is thought the magnifier may have been bought by Bayley when Cook's effects were sold at the mast, following the explorer's death in Hawaii. The magnifier passed from Bayley to Beaufoy and subsequently descended in the family until it was offered for auction in London and bought by the National Museum. The 18th century surveyor's plane table frame was used to assist in accurate coastal mapping. The frame was used with a plane table, a compass and an alidade. The boxwood frame has brass hinges and measures, 34 x 41 centimeters. A grandson of British naval scholar Dr. William Burney reported his grandfather received the frame from James Cook. The frame was then acquired by Reverend Frederick Johnson from Dr. Burney's grandson. It was later bought from a descendant of Reverend Johnson by a private collector. Jim Elder of Elder�s Fine Art Gallery. Adelaide, acquired a remarkably well priced relic of James Cook RN. November 1974 Leonard Joel�s Auction the hammer fell at $3,200. Elder purchased an 18th century travelling chest, the provenance and documentation clearly traced the history of the chest to the Cook family. It had

earlier appeared in 1967 at Christie�s in London, apparently from Mrs. Elizabeth Cook the widow of James, passed to her cousin a Mrs. Rickman-Adams who first offered it for sale. November 13th 2003 Sotheby's, London, sold Lot 211: Captain James Cook�s memorabilia collection of medals and other items, comprising: Three medals each 43mm diameter, the �Resolution and Adventure� medal and two memorial medals; A Silver dessert-spoon (length 203mm,) old English pattern, hallmarked London 1750, maker's initials �EJ�, the handle engraved with the initials �JC�, a twentiethcentury paper label with the spoon states. Spoon used by Capt, James Cook, F.R.S. on voyages round the world. Passed down by descendants of Margaret Cook, his sister. Sold for �19,200 ($44,640AUD) A handwritten letter sold in New Zealand sold for $57,375NZ purportedly written by Mr. Orton, Lieutenant Cook�s Clerk and signed by Lieutenant Cook, July 1768. The note was auctioned at Webb�s Auckland, New Zealand on the 18th January 2000. The single sheet manuscript was addressed to the Commissioners of the British Admiralty asking for permission to provision the vessel HM Bark Endeavour for its first voyage. A spokesman for Horden House, Sydney who purchased the letter on behalf of a client said the price was fairly hefty - but we would have gone further. Sir William Dixson, Library of NSW own a carved ditty box shaped like a coffin on silver stand, containing a rough watercolour sketch of the death of Cook, including a lock of Cook's hair. The box purportedly carved by sailors on Cook's last ship HM Sloop Resolution. A sliding compartment in the bottom of the case contains a description by Thomas Hart of how the box was made, and a statutory declaration signed by C. Albert Maggs, stating that Thomas Hart was a relative of Mrs. Cook. There is also a roneoed sheet which says that �Lono� was the name of one of the four principal gods of Hawaii, (and the name given to Cook). The box was given by Mrs. Cook to a relation, Mr. John Carpenter, in 1806, and it then came into the possession of her grandson, Mr. Thomas Hart, from whom it was purchased by Sir William Dixson, Library of NSW, Nelson Meers foundation, engraved on first silver plate: �Quebec Newfoundland Greenwich Australis�. And on second silver plate �Lono and the Seaman's Idol�. Engraved on third silver plate inset on the base of the box : Captain James Cook slain at Owhyhee, 14th February, 1779. Carved around sides of the box �made of Resolution oak for Mrs. Cook by the crew�. *It would be interesting to conduct ICP-MS (Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry) tests on James Cook�s hair to confirm my antimony poisoning theory. A spoon bearing the initials �J.C.� was sold on 11th November, 2003 at Sotheby�s Auctions, London Lot 211, Sale L03625 estimate �10,000-�15,000 sold for �19,200 (including buyer�s premium). Christie�s London, auctioned Captain Cook's antimony cup (poculum emeticum). A squat drinking vessel made of antimony alloy. From this, the South Seas explorer consumed red wine that, having reacted with the metal, created a potion �with purgative qualities�. This handy laxative system fetched US $392,392 ($464,000AUD) in 2005. The cup may well have passed down through Viscount Galway's family. Antimony and antimonial tinctures are of a poisonous nature, like arsenic. Notwithstanding these poisonous properties, during his �Voyages of Discovery�, James Cook praised the �hidden� medicinal virtues of his antimony cup (poculum emeticum). Lieutenant James Cook believed he benefited by the use of his antimony purging cup. Each morning, after standing with wine overnight, he would simply take a sip of the wine from the little antimony cup which would purge him �upper and lower�, this was part of his daily ablutions.

20th century science believed that this purging practice would leave traces of antimony in his blood, and caused a deterioration of the mental faculties. This may explain Cook�s uncharacteristic anger that got worse with each day. �Dubious� Artefacts attributed to James Cook. �Half a million dollars�, valued by the BBC �Antiques Road Show�, June 2006, for a block of oak, keel timber purportedly taken from HM Bark Endeavour � this was absolutely not a Bark Endeavour artefact. But the price quoted by the BBC indicates their opinion as to its value � if genuine. Another �Cook Artefact� of dubious origin was sold on 26th March 2006, for �135,000 ($213,332AUD), Sold by Lyon and Turnbull in Edinburgh, A walking stick made from the spear which killed explorer Captain James Cook. Cook was clubbed to death with a stone and dispatched with an iron spike - patta pattoo - and no spear was evident at his demise! In 1975 Mr. W. J. Blundell of Coogee, NSW purchase at a suburban Auction a compass said to have belonged to Captain James Cook, at $4,050 it was a high price to pay for a compass bearing the marks of the maker �Pizzala�, This instrument maker worked 1838-1860 whereas James Cook� died in 1779. By 2002 prices for genuine (and dubious) Cook artefacts started to rise dramatically: A flintlock pistol �reputed to have belonged to Captain James Cook� was auctioned for almost ten-fold its expected price. The Belgian-made gun was sold in Edinburgh. Provenance was purportedly by direct descent from the legendary explorer's eldest sister Margaret. Experts at Lyon and Turnbull, where the pistol was sold, said documentation backed its origins. The holster pistol had been expected to sell for (The estimate was �10,000-�12,000, later revised to �10,000�15,000. (This very low price is a tell-tale from the Auction House that they had no confidence in the provenance). It sold for �319,290 to an Australian collector. The auction company said it had received calls from Cook enthusiasts in New Zealand. Alaska, Australia, America and Malta. John Batty, an expert from Lyon and Turnbull, said the explorer's descendent. Brenda Holder, who lives in Reading, had been very sad to part with the heirloom, which had been in the family for six generations. I am sure the hefty price went a long way to make up for the loss. James Cook�s fowling pieces were a matched pair of flintlock double barrelled pistols by Joseph Manton (1760-1835). When handed over to Captain Clerke by the native Earpo, they were beaten flat! �Earpo brought with him the two barrels of Captain Cook's gun-the one beat flat with the intention of making a cutting instrument of it; the other a good deal bent and bruised, together with a present of thirteen hogs from Terreaboo�. Bonham�s Auction House, London was to offer on 17th December 2002 a recently discovered letter attributed to James Cook in 1771. Estimated at ? 15,000-20,000 (Aud $35,000 to Aud $46,500), the letter was withdrawn before it appeared in the catalogue, and its future is uncertain. (No explanation as to why this letter was withdrawn was given). Cook had trouble writing and spelling, and tended to leave most written correspondence to the ship�s secretary. Described as a �pocket hammer carried by Captain Cook�, (why would anyone especially a ship�s captain, carry a pocket hammer?) Sold at Christie�s �Exploration and Travel� 23rd September, 2004 Estimate: �20,000 - �30,000, however it sold for �71,700. Provenance �A steel hammer 7� inches long dated to late 17th or early 18th century, alleged to have been presented by Cook to Sir George Jackson (1725-1822) and subsequently passed down through the Jackson family, It

was exhibited at an exhibition of �relics and articles of interest� 8th to 15th September 1928 held at Marton Hall, Stewart Park during the celebrations for Cook�s birth bicentenary. �Captain Cook�s Leg-bone Arrow� During November 1823 King Kamehameha II (1797 � 1824) and Queen Victoria Kamamalu (1802-1824) commissioned the famous whaling Captain Valentine Starbuck (1791-1868) of the British whaler Aigle, to carry them to London. They were seeking to complete negotiations for an alliance between Hawaii and Great Britain. The Royal couple were wined, dined and feted like any other visiting heads of state. However early in January 1824 both the King and Queen contracted measles. King George IV sent his royal physicians to attend to them both, alas they had no resistance to this common European disease and both died. A relative of the Cook family subsequently claimed to possess an arrow which he alleged had been brought to England by the King and Queen. This arrow was purportedly made from part of Captain Cook�s leg bone! This has never clarified by fact, only a DNA test will prove the Cook connection and thus its authentication. In 1878 William Adams, a distant cousin of the late Mrs. Cook (Elizabeth Batts) claimed ownership of the arrow as indicated by part of the suasive documentation attached to the Artefact . This document dated 1828 signed by Joseph Henry Green, who became President of the Royal College of Surgeons in London. Another document was signed by Bishop Staley, once Bishop of Hawaii, claimed the source of the bone was most likely true. The arrow is currently part of the collection of the Australian Museum, Sydney. Major Collections relating to the Voyages of James Cook. National Maritime Museum at Greenwich, Exploration Galleries, Trade and Empire, Navigational Section displays artefacts including Cook's sextant from 1770, his Chinese tea service, a tablet of ship's soup, 'K3', Kendall's superb time piece. The Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology at Cambridge exhibits a Tahitian Taumi or breast gorget. The collection was originally held by Trinity College from the family of the First Lord of the Admiralty, The Earl of Sandwich. A large collection of drawings and watercolours from the James Cook�s Bark Endeavour and the later HM Sloops Resolution and Adventure voyages are housed in the British Library, London from Alexander Buchan (?-1769), Sydney Parkinson (1745-1771), Herman Diedrich Sp�ring (1701-1747), the Rarotongan Tupia (?-1770) and William Hodges (1744� 1797) Oxford's Pitt Rivers Museum, holds an equisite Tahitian mourning dress Stewart Park in Marton, Yorkshire, displays a permanent collection of exhibits relating to Cook's time in Whitby. This collection includes paintings, prints, ship-plans and manuscripts is a letter written on 17th August 1771 by Cook to Captain John Walker of Whitby. The Whitby Museum �Cook Wing� has artefacts including a hand-drawn map, signed by James Cook during his survey of the coast of Newfoundland. Cook's handwritten journal is also on display in Whitby. Also displayed is an autographed letter written in 1772 from Great Ayton and four pages of manuscript in Cook's handwriting, the latter describes incidents on his voyage towards the South Pole in 1773-74 and forms the only known surviving part of the original draft of his Journal. The University of Glasgow's Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery houses a major part of the collection of Joseph Banks botanical material and various Cook related artefacts, drawings of Sydney Parkinson, the natural history artist on HM Bark Endeavour. The Cuming Museum in Southwark London

houses the collection of 18th

century

collector Richard Cuming this includes a number of Paicific Island artefacts collected during the voyages of James Cook. The Natural History Museum, London, houses Joseph Banks, works on paper, including the drawings purchased by Banks from the Forsters. The British Museum, Ethnography Department houses a number of fine artefacts from Cook�s voyages including, drums, head dresses and carvings. Skaill House, Skara Brae Orkney Islands, has a few minor items of the James Cook, including a 17th century dinner service used on the HM Sloop Resolution.

Chapter Twenty-one Sir Clowdisley Shovell and The Consequence of His Death at Sea

Chapter 21 Sir Clowdisley Shovell (1650-1707) Navigating a ship at sea during the 15th and 16th century required luck and guesswork, especially estimating longitude. To make an offshore voyage and return home again, the navigator needed a good understanding of the stars, currents and the trade winds. Sometimes a ship was forced to lay-off a coast for days or weeks waiting for the right wind, to allow passage into a port. It all changed on a foul night off the Scilly Isles near the Cornish Coast of

England, when HMS Association a 90-gun second rate ship of the line, the flagship of Admiral Sir Clowdisley Shovell, during the War of the Spanish Succession, a Mediterranean war. Admiral Shovell equipped himself well, in his steady rise through the ranks of the Royal Navy. He rose from deck-boy to �Admiral of the Red� and became an iconic naval figure. The Admiral�s squadron flew a red ensign, the Vice Admiral�s ensign was white, and the Rear Admiral�s blue. As the squadrons grew in size, each was eventually commanded by an Admiral (with a Vice-Admiral and a Rear-Admiral commanding sections) and the official titles became Admiral of the White, et cetera. Admiral Shovell was the right man to command HM ships during many skirmishes. During 1692 the French fleet under Admiral Tourville who had joined with a fleet of the Royal Dutch Navy engaged the Royal Navy. The action �The Battle of Balfleur� took place in the English Channel. Vice Admiral of the Red, Sir Clowdisley Shovell, with a superior fleet administered the coup de gr�ce and sank three capital ships including the great �Soleil Royal� and chased the rest of the French fleet over the Channel, he became a hero overnight. 1 Sir Clowdisley commanded as Vice Admiral of the Red, under Lord Berkeley, he was to command as Admiral of the Blue, in an expedition to Camaret Bay, where Sir Clowdisley again acquitted himself, with his usual credit. 21st July 1704 Vice Admiral Shovell was sent with his fleet to bombard Dieppe and other places of the French coast. His engagements included the capture of Gibraltar. One month later in the same year Admiral Shovell won a further victory at Malaga confirming his brilliance as a fighting sailor and national hero. (Although Comte de Toulouse, fallaciously informed Louis XIV that the French had been the victors). In appreciation and recognition of his fighting prowess, the fleet was put under the joint command of Shovell, and Admirals Killegrew and Delaval. The two latter were Tories - Sir Clowdisley was a Whig. (A staunch Liberal Democrat).2 Sir Clowdisley was promoted to Admiral of the White in September 1707. Sir George Rooke took leave of absence and to temporally fill this post Sir Clowdisley was appointed to Command the grand fleet up the Straits, with instructions to annoy the enemy, assist the allies, and protect the trade. His fleet consisted of twenty-seven ships of the line, having under him Rear Admiral Byng (later to face an Admiralty courts martial and executed by firing squad on the deck of his own ship) and Sir Stafford Fairborne; he was afterwards reinforced by Vice-Admiral Leake with eight ships. The grand fleet was also joined by imposing two hundred and thirty merchantmen � no longer a rabble � but a well armed fighting force. 3 On returning from a skirmish with the French on 26th November 1706, thirteen ships and upwards of fifteen hundred seamen were drowned. It was one of the most violent storms ever seen off England. Sir Clowdisley�s ship was being bucketed by a violent sea, and in fear of disaster, he ordered the main mast chopped down. This deliberate action saved his ship and his men, further enhancing his considerable mounting reputation. 4 Sir Clowdisley luck changed when returning home with the fleet on 22nd October 1707, led by three ships, HMS Association; HMS Eagle and HMS Romney, they struck the shoals at the outer Gilstone Rock, off the Scilly Isles. Sir Clowdisley had no time to strike his colours, his ship sank in three or four minutes, not a soul being saved of 800 men that were on board. In total 1,400 sailors were lost from his squadron.

Myth and sailor-lore had it that the helmsman could smell the burning kelp pits which were so synonymous with the Scilly Isles, and flagged the potential danger ahead, by screaming out to the Admiral � �Rocks ahead Sir�. The myth explodes into absurdity when the �old man� ordered the helmsman hanged from the yard-arm for insubordination. This story is nonsensical on many grounds, the least being the time frame. When did the Admiral find time to hang the helmsman? Those who have sailed passed the Scilly Isles on a stormy night know full well that one can not smell burning kelp; the kelp was never burned on stormy nights. This author has sailed past, in a howling storm, in a French Crabber - you smell salt, and nothing more. Further, there is no sound evidence, of a hanging aboard HMS Association at the time. And what was Admiral Shovell doing interfering with the daily operation of the ship � this was unheard of � the ship was under the command of Captain Edmund Loades, Shovell�s command was the squadron of twenty-one ships. On that stormy night, three of the fleet drifted off course and were wrecked. Shovell was not at fault! To add further injury to the good man�s reputation rumours circulated that he was still alive on 23rd October 1707 until a local woman murdered him, bit off his finger in order to steal his ring. (More arrant nonsense - the ring was actually handed in after being found on the beach) The body of the Admiral Shovell was found Port Hellick beach on St Mary�s, by rescuers a day after the sinking by the purser of HMS Arundel a sixth rater he was identified by a combination of his unique characteristics. Sir Clowdisley by a certain black mole under his left ear, as also by the first joint of one of his forefingers being broken inwards formerly by playing at tables; the second joint of his finger was also small and taper, as well as standing somewhat inwards; He had likewise a scar form being shot in his right arm, another in his left thigh.5 Initially the Admiral was buried in a simple grave which can still be seen in the form of a granite headstone at Port Hellick, however, the body was exhumed and reburied in Westminster Abbey soon afterwards. At Westminster Abby, in the south choir aisle is a large marble monument (about 6.3 m high) by the master wood carver Grinling Gibbons (1648-1721). It is magnificent, erected by order of Queen Anne, to the memory of this distinguished commander. The tragic death of Sir Clowdisley had a knock-on effect, first with the Admiralty, then the Government and finally the Queen. Moves were put in train to ensure accidents like this never happened again. His drowning, after his ship had lost its way, forced the Government of the day with the intervention of Queen Anne, to investigate the cause of the death of Shovell, a court favourite. The reason for the loss of the Admiral, his crew and his ship, is hard to believe today but put simply, they had lost there way, and the ship was off course and ran into a well known pile of rocks, off the Scilly Isles. 6 The Admiralty Court of Inquiry concluded that if the Captains of the three ships had a way of calculating Longitude then the loss may have been prevented. The English hero�s death had a knock-on effect first with the Admiralty, then the Government and finally the Queen who roused the British Parliament to pass the Longitude Act 1714 this established �The Board of Longitude�. 7 In her best selling book by �Longitude� author Dava Sobel treats Admiral Shovell with distain, describing him as bordering on incompetent, he may have appeared a little haughty and full of his own importance and a dandy, but this was only superficial, he was a splendid sailor with runs on the board. The Board of Longitude where a pompous body � the personification of an �old boys club� � would eventually change the course of navigating at sea by ship for ever

more. One of the first to benefit by the board�s dithering and eventual agreement was Captain Cook when he was given a copies of Harrison�s chronometers made by Mr. Kendall �K1� and �K3� taken on the second and third voyages. (Thanks to pressure from the King!) 9 The problem of inaccurate navigation continued in the Royal Navy well after the loss of Sir Clowdisley, his ships and his men. Admiral Sir John Balchin. (1669-1744) The lack of knowing precisely the position of the ship at sea was to cause the loss of Admiral Sir John Balchin. (1669-1744). 10 In 1744 a horrific storm decimated Balcin�s fleet of six ships which battled to keep from being dashed on the rocks. Five of the ships survived the storm, and limped into Spithead, one, the Flagship HMS Victory 110 guns did not fare so well, it simply vanished. Obviously in deep trouble HM Ship of the line Victory was heard firing her guns which it is reported attracted some attention from the coastal residents of Alderney, alas, to no avail, the residents did not send out the lifeboat. The notorious part of the Channel Islands was to claim another ship, eleven hundred sailors, officers and Balchin were never seen again. At Westminster Abby is another superb memorial sculpted by Peter Scheemakers (1691-1781) honours Sir John Balchen Admiral of the White. 11

Chapter Twenty-Two.

Navigation at Sea

Chapter 22 - Navigation at Sea Between the 15th -18th century navigation instruments of the day were primitive and unreliable, often with dire consequence. However navigators and the great East Indiamen ships of the Dutch VOC and English EEIC, Danish East India Company were offered the best and latest in navigation equipment, by instrument makers with an

eye on repeat business. About the only reliable nautical navigation instrument the 15th century sailor could depend on was the mariner's compass. It had been developed by Henry the Navigator in 1420, with a dry card reverse gimballed compass. The compass became the basic navigational instrument on all ships that set out on deep-water voyages. For latitude the sailor used the angle of the sun's elevation above the horizon sighted by the unwieldy back staff and the astrolabe to help in its determination During the voyage on 12th July 1771 Cook had trouble with the swing of his compass, it was most unreliable. He logged his complaint when it became obvious that the instrument was next to useless in a rolling sea. Cook concluded that the compass was not swung so that it could keep a horizontal plane as the motion of the ship always made it incline one way or another. Cook concluded that the supplied compass was far too complex an instrument ever to be of general use at sea. Cook carried two compasses aboard HM Bark Endeavour - the conventional steering compass mounted in the binnacle and an Azimuth compass. Longitude, on the other hand, was another story, initially; this was determined by use of the compass and the speed of the ship, corrected for currents and tides. All of these means were grossly inaccurate and often lead to accidental discoveries or loss of a ship. Later in the voyage Cook was to notice the Polynesian out-rigged canoes were navigated inter-island by the use of shell maps, a lattice of bamboo with a variety of shells strung to it indicating the position of the stars. (Royal Australian Navy Museum Heritage Collection, Spectacle Island, Sydney Harbour own such a chart). The navigators would test the current by squatting off the out-rig and dangle their testicles in the water to �feel� the current flow. 1 This writer has tried the technique to no avail! On the voyage of HM Bark Endeavour, Lieutenant James Cook had no chronometer to take his bearings. He had however an abundance of other instruments. Some instruments were provided for the transit of Venus. These included a pair of two feet focus reflecting Dolland Telescopes with micrometer adjustment. The telescopes had Mr. Short�s wooden stands with swing polar axis suited to the equator. A domestic clock made by Mr. Shelton, a huge astronomical clock, and an alarm clock (now housed in the Royal Observatory). The navigation instruments that Cook relied upon included Hadley�s brass sextant, bespoke by Mr. Ramsden, for Mr. Maskelyne. Ramsden also made the reflecting circle. This instrument calculated the �sensible horizon�, an instrument for this purpose was unknown to earlier navigators. The reflecting circle never really gained popularity on the English side of the Channel. Mr. Ramsden also made a barometer and the dipping needles especially for Bark Endeavour voyage. Cook built his own swinging table trying to create a stable platform for his dipping needle (provided by the Royal Society) the needle was too unstable with the movement of the ship and was abandoned. Cook was also given a number of azimuths to aid in the calculation of latitude. Longitude was a more complex problem however. Longitude is the difference in time between two places. In order to find how far east or west he had sailed. Lieutenant Cook had to know the precise time on board his ship, wherever it was. This could be done by sighting the sun or a star. But Cook also needed to know the time at his place of departure, without an accurate clock this was impossible. What was needed was a clock that would keep perfect time at sea; it was in Mr. Harrison�s workshop undergoing trials. 2 Aboard HM Bark Endeavour on his first voyage. Cook had the latest scientific and technological equipment available, but no sea-watch or chronometer (still under development). The Admiralty supplied copies of the new lunar prediction tables,

�The Nautical Almanac 1767�, as well as sextants to calculate position at sea by the lunar distance method; this was complex and easy to make a mistake. Mr. Bird made the brass stand for the huge brass quadrant (now housed at the Royal Society offices, London). Gemma Frisius (1508-1555) Frisius proposed the use of an accurate clock, set to the time at the prime meridian, compared with observed local time. He published his findings Latin. This work describes how the longitude of a place may be found using a clock to determine the difference in local and absolute times. It is with the help of this clock and the following methods that longitude is found. Observe exactly the time at the place from which we are making our journey. When we have completed a journey, wait until the hand of our clock exactly touches the point of an hour and, at the same moment by means of an astrolabe find out the time of the place we now find ourselves. In this way the navigator would be able to find the longitude of places, even if the ship was dragged off unawares across a thousand miles. The sticking point to this however was that it must be a very finely made clock which does not vary with change of air. 3 Jesse Ramsden (1735-1800) Another scientist Jessie Ramsden applied to the Board of Longitude, for a reward on offer for helping solve the Longitude problem, he reckoned that his machine for accurately cutting scales on quadrants, sextants and reflecting circles, after all thought Ramsden, his rival, John Bird (1709 - 1776) had been rewarded for his treatises on constructing mural quadrants, which had a radius of 8 feet (2.43 metres) and two carefully engraved arc plates. The Board was certainly interested in Ramsden�s machine, in due course and the usual deliberation Ramsden was awarded �200 (equivalent to �15,000 today), and the Board paid him another �215 for the engine, imposing several conditions, �30,000 to �40,000. Unlike poor John Harrison who had to hand his clocks over the Royal Observatory, Ramsden was allowed to keep his engine providing he provided plans to other equipment makers the plans he supplied from 1777. Both Bird and Troughton used Ramsden�s services to cut scales in their instruments. 4 After the death of Admiral Sir Clowdisley Shovell, the Admiralty were desperate for a solution to find Longitude, they pressed the Royal Society to influence the Government to set up a special body to solve this problem, it was known as the �Board of Longitude�, the Royal Society made certain to �stack� the Board with trusted Society Members. 5 John Harrison (1693 � 1776) In 1714 the British Parliament offered a handsome fee of �20,000 pounds (today's equivalent of US$12 million) to the first person to solve the vexing problem of the �longitude problem�.6 Earlier the British Parliament had underwritten a special grant of three thousand pounds for the Board of Longitude and the Lords of the Admiralty, for the invention of the Reflecting Circle, in 1755 by the German Astronomer Johann Tobias Mayer of Gottingen (1723-1762), Mayer had died, when after a seven year protracted negotiation, the British Government acquiesced and paid the reward to his heirs. 7 Another instrument maker to enjoy the largess of Parliament was John Hadley with his two mirrored quadrant, the mirrors moved in an arc to align the sun or heavenly body with the horizon, once aligned a reading is made on the tangent arc to 120� and this reading read on the lunar distance table. 8 The humble yet remarkably inventive John Harrison (1693 �1776), made and perfected

a number of sea clocks � On June 24th 1735, Harrison presented �H1� the first marine chronometer that was offered to the to the Board of Longitude. m Harrison was paid �500 this first clock was a weights, brilliant but thirty eight period of Board of Longitude. 9 B

to perfect and reduce the size of �H1� by later standards monster with four dials, exposed springs and moving far too delicate to take to sea. It was the start of a heartache for Harrison and dogmatic stupidity from the

�H2� Harrison�s second clock, was not totally satisfactory to Harrison�s exacting standards, He was granted time refine it, However nineteen years later he came up with �H3� and believed that he had an accurate clock, but it was still an awkward size, three dials with a hexagonal box, and heavier than the two earlier clocks, the spring balance was not perfect for sea going ships. t In 1759 John Harrison completed �H4�, it was a 13 cm 1.4 kilo large silver cased pocket sized accurate chronometer with 30 hours on a single winding, this was the chronometer that was copied and given to Captain Cook.�10 c Harrison had solved the longitude problem, then the games started, just like they did with family of Johann Tobias Mayer, when his family tried to get the reward money out of the grasp of the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the Royal Navy, the Royal Society, the Astronomer Royal and every man and his dog, eventually the King intervened again and some of the money paid out to the now nearly broken Harrison. Reverend Nevil Maskelyne (1732�1811) and John Harrison (1693 � 1776) Throughout all of the trials of marine chronometers one person objected to the accuracy of the various models, the old curmudgeon Reverend Nevil Maskelyne (1732�1811) who had been ordained into the Church in 1755 but never took up any role within a Church congregation. He may well have been a grumpy curmudgeon but he was brilliant, he graduated from Trinity College, Cambridge, and became assistant to the then Astronomer Royal, Bradley in 1757. Maskelyne had brought the lunar method (using his own tables), into practical use. He had a vested interest in challenging all who proffered an alternate system of navigation. The lunar method was used by James Cook on the first voyage and continued to be used up to 1907 (when inexpensive chronometers came on to the market). The method had its defects. Once the motion of the moon was calculated accurately, tables were drawn up forecasting the angular distance as observed from a standard meridian (e.g. Greenwich). The tables were also calculated from the sun and a number of fixed stars. These distances can also be observed (by means of an octant or sextant) on board a ship; and by interpolation, (the process of determining the value of a function between two points at which it has prescribed values), the Greenwich time corresponding with such distances can be taken out of the tables, Maskelyne with his computations of distances from the sun and seven selected stars computed every three hours at Greenwich, had taken some of the uncertainty out of the �lunar theory�. 11 t On the first voyage to the James Cook used this �Lunar Method� but during the second voyage his primary means of navigation were the sextant and a �time keeper�; Cook trusted the new instrument, and only used the �lunars� to check on the rate of the �time keeper�. t In 1761 Harrison's was instructed to take �H4 �(the watch) on sea trials, organised by the Royal Society to St Helena to observe the transit of Venus, the Reverend Nevil Maskelyne was asked to accompany the ship and test the Lunar Distances system, Once again �H4� proved astonishingly accurate, measuring Bridgetown to within 10 miles, this was unheard of accuracy. Maskelyne's measures were also fairly good, but with 30 miles, but required considerable work and

calculation in order to use, this peeved the assistant astronomer as he declared that the Harrison�s calculations were pure �luck�.12 The same occurred in another voyage this time in �Princess Louisa� for the same purpose it was arranged once more with Maskelyne present this time with astronomer Charles Green, both observed the accuracy of Harrison�s chronometer, Maskelyne stood his ground. At a meeting of the Board in 1765 the results were presented, and once again they could not believe the accuracy and listened instead to the scientific explanation from Maskelyne. Harrison knew it was not �just luck� but a fact that an accurate clock can be trusted to establish longitude. However the humble Harrison lacked the presence of Maskelyne, who was part of the �Old Boy� network and once more he was rejected out of hand. 13 When Harrison presented his St. Helena voyage calculations to Parliament, the initial reaction was to believe Maskelyne and that the more accurate test was a fluke, however with pressure from King George, Parliament offered Harrison �10,000 in advance and the other half once he turned over the design to Larcum Kendall to duplicate (K1). 14 In 1769, K1 was issued to Captain James Cook for his second 1772�75 and third voyages 1776�79 in order to try out the accuracy. At first Cook was a little sceptical but the watch behaved so well he learned to trust it, referring to it in his log as his 'never failing guide'. 15 The James Cook trial was nearly thwarted by Maskelyne. As a member of the board of longitude, and Astronomer Royal, the influential Maskelyne vented his spleen and reported to the Board of Longitude that in his opinion H4 was unstable because of the �drift rate� - the amount of time it gained or lost per day (the �rate of going�), poor Maskelyne could not accept the fact that once the �drift rate� is known it could be taken into consideration when calculating longitude. Based on this �drift rate� but mainly through the negativity of Maskelyne, �H4� failed the needs of the Board of Longitude despite the fact that it actually succeeded in two previous trials. 16 On returning from Barbados and the second tests, Parliament believing that the �10,000 advance gave them proprietorial rights over H4, ordered Harrison to turn over the time keeper and all of the associated drawings, tools and parts to Nevil Maskelyne. This action was to put the Royal Astronomer in a powerful position to keep pushing his �lunar method� and control Harrison�s work. Anyone would have expected Harrison to take umbrage and throw in the towel, but no, he was made of sterner stuff and he was a Yorkshire man. Harrison began working on his �H5�. He would show them just how good his work was and this fact was borne out by James Cook. 17 Nevil Maskelyne published �British Mariner�s Guide, 1763� followed by �Nautical Almanac� in 1770 which he presented results of his studies of the Sun, Moon, the planets and the stars. He was also involved in 'weighing the Earth'. 18 King George III personally tested Harrison�s latest pocket chronometer �H5� by daily observations, over ten weeks during 1772. The King agreed with Harrison that he had indeed found the solution to finding Longitude. The King was so impressed that he insisted that Harrison make a claim and petition Parliament for the full prize after threatening to appear in person to dress them down. 19 Notwithstanding the objections of the old curmudgeon Maskelyne who was still the bane of Harrison�s inventiveness, when during 1773 he was 80 years old Harrison received a monetary award in the amount of �8,750 from Parliament. However Maskelyne ensured that Harrison never received the official reward � this was never paid in full. Once more jealousy intervened and Maskelyne won the day � but

did he? In total, Harrison had received ?23,065 for his work on chronometers. He received ?4,315 in increments from the Board of Longitude for his work, ?10,000 as an interim payment for �H-4� in 1765 and ?8,750 from Parliament in 1773. Thirty years work at about 3/6 (three shillings and sixpence an hour) �768 pa, this was still a small fortune for the period. 20 (See appendix 5) Lieutenant Commander Robert T. Gould RN (1890-1948) After the Harrison clocks were taken from their creator they were stored at the Observatory for �testing� the fifth Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne, this he failed to do. These incredible clocks were rescued from a sad state of decay by Lieutenant Commander Robert T. Gould of the Royal Navy restoring them, and in the process restored him from a breakdown suffered at the beginning of the First World War. 21 Years of search and preparation were spent before his book "The Marine Chronometer" was published. While working on the book Gould was given access to the records of the Board of Longitude and to the Harrison timekeepers which were at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. It distressed him to find these historic timekeepers in a deplorable state, and he immediately asked for permission to undertake their renovation. Upon this being granted he began with the small No.4 and the Larcum Kendal copy, which was in better condition, and soon had this once again on exhibition in good going order. 21 The overhaul of the three larger timekeepers H1, H2, H3 was complicated by their bad condition. They had been stored for many years in the chronometer rating room at the Observatory without attention, they were rusty and corroded and some of the original parts had disintegrated or were missing. The work of overhaul was further complicated because no contemporary time pieces were in existence; Gould had to rely on his own imagination and an instinct as to the functions of the missing pieces. Gould spent nearly thirteen years on this work. H1, H2, H3, and H4 can now be seen on display at the Royal Observatory, H1, H2 and H3 are all working, their huge and intricate mechanisms open for visitors to view, H4, to avoid wear, is never wound up. 22 H5 is held by the Clockmaker�s Company Museum, at the Guild Hall, London, this was repaired by Lieutenant Commander Gould in 1921. It was presented at his lecture in going condition. To calculate longitude the mariner of today uses a ship�s chronometers which evolved from the ground breaking work done by Harrison and his superb time keepers. Longitude is a man-made construct that needs a Prime Meridian point from which all other lines of longitude east or west are calculated, Greenwich provided an unofficial prime meridian.23 In 1884 the International Meridian Conference held in Washington DC made Greenwich official. The Greenwich meridian became the prime meridian of the world. Days begin and end at Greenwich. Greenwich Mean Time even extends into outer space, where it is called universal time, and is used by astronomers to time their observations.24 For the third voyage Cook was given the same copy of Harrison�s (�H4�) marine chronometer built by Larcum Kendall (�K1�) that had proved successful on the second voyage. He was also given two other longitudinal watches, three by John Arnold (which proved inferior by the time the ships reached Cape Town only six months into the journey). 25th January 1779 Benjamin Lyon joined the HM Sloop Resolution for the third voyage as an able bodied seaman; he was given twelve lashes for being absent without leave. However this recalcitrant had hidden qualities as he had previously

trained as a watchmaker, who had served his time to Richard Gibbs of Plumptrie Holborn, Watchmaker. Lyon was soon put to work to repair the Arnold chronometers; this exercise was in vain as the amateur watchmaker was unable to repair the complex movement. 25 James Cook�s Navigational Instruments The new chronometers �K2� and �K3� proved remarkably accurate and were to prove to be most efficient in determining longitude on board the HM Sloop Resolution, During the third voyage Cook was re-issued with �K3� and an even better longitudinal watch Kendall�s �K4� also based on Harrison�s work, it too was stunningly accurate. Sailors could now navigate the world and know with absolute confidence that they would not accidentally get lost because of that dreaded �Longitude�. The Board of Longitude sent two astronomers on the second voyage, William Wales and Francis Bayley (1744-1844) sailed with Furneaux, (Bayley first observed the phenomena that became known as �Bayley's�Beads� observed during a total eclipse of the sun). The Board spared no expense, and also underwrote the cost of providing equipment for the affable William Wales, a highly qualified astronomer; William Wales (1734�1798) contributed to astronomy through his observations of the 1769 transit of Venus, and his studies of latitude and longitude on Captain James Cook's second voyage to the South Seas. During this voyage, Wales was responsible for monitoring the performance of the chronometers. After returning from the Pacific, Wales took charge of the Royal Mathematical School at Christ's Hospital in London and, over the next two decades, he taught a succession of budding officers the principles of navigation. According to the Astronomical Society of Southern Africa, during the second voyage Wales and Bayley set up their telescope in Concordia Gardens, a social club that was behind St Mary's Cathedral in Cape Town, Following the Wales and Bayley readings, (which like many others were far from satisfactory) two visiting astronomers witnessed the Transit of Venus from this same spot, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon were on their way to Bensalem in Sumatra to observe�the 1761 transit of Venus, Their ship was delayed so they did their work at Cape Town instead of Sumatra they too observed the transit from Concordia Gardens. 26 Mason and Dixon became well known for their land survey between Maryland and Pennsylvania (U.S.A.), known as�the �Mason and Dixon line�. This line was surveyed to settle legal squabbles between the two states. During the American Civil War this line came to represent the dividing line between the slave owning and nonslave owning states (Confederates and Yankees). For Cook�s first voyage he took a �portable� one-foot astronomical quadrant for taking readings of the heavenly bodies sighted during the voyage. This clumsy instrument was useless at sea but played some part when set up on land to measure the transit of Venus. The second voyage use at sea the smaller full brass framed Ramsden sextant with the newly designed and calibrated scales by Bird, proved efficient. Cook�s back-up sextant on the second voyage was an ebony framed, brass limbed with accurately divided scales machined by Bird, it was a splendid instrument. Cook chose it again for the third voyage but also took along a refined ebony and boxwood quadrant by George Adams which paled when compared to the superb all brass Sextant made especially by Jesse Ramsden with vernier calibration � this was state of the art.27 The other huge �Transit Instrument� by Bird was made to measure the transit of Venus. It was an elegant looking telescope swung with tapered trunnions. On the left trunnion was a pointer measuring the angle of sight. The telescope had a 3� foot focus and 3� inch aperture, requiring a five foot long by three foot deep trench for set-up; it was used once and discarded, considered next to useless.

John Bird (1709 - 1776) and Jesse Ramsden (1731-1800) went on to produce octants and sextants using the newly calibrated scales from Ramsden�s scale machine. In 1790 Ramsden had improved the scales of the reflecting circle improving accuracy, this instrument was accurately scribed and calibrated with Ramsden�s newly made scale machine but built by John Bird. 28 The state-of-the-art instruments and navigational aids did not stop there. HM Sloop Resolution was fitted out at Deptford with the most advanced navigational aids of the day, including two Dr. Gowin Knight�s �improved� compasses; ice anchors and the latest apparatus for distilling fresh water from sea water, not a lot of water but a few gallons a day. Speed was calculated by a ships log, used with the 30-second glass. Twelve carriage guns and twelve swivel guns were carried. The Gregory Azimuth compass proved superior as the Knights were too difficult to use in rough weather as the dry-cards were erratic and had too much swing � one hundred years later this problem was resolved by the compass card being swung in the bowl filled with alcohol thus dampening the motion of the card. Even using Lieutenant Cook�s homemade swinging table, the Knight compasses were difficult to read in a heavy sea. 29 During the first voyage without a chronometer, Cook�s astronomer, Charles Green (Ex assistant to Nevil Maskelyne the Astronomer Royal), took longitude positions by lunar distance calculations, and one occultation observation at Endeavour River, these proved to be inaccurate. The calculations produced progressively inaccurate longitude estimates in the course of the voyage up the east coast. Other methods of calculating longitude based on astronomical observation, magnetic variation and magnetic dip were proposed, but none was really practical for use at sea as Cook stated on more than one occasion.

Chapter Twenty-three Second Voyage (1772-1775) HM Sloop Resolution and Sloop Adventure

Chapter 23 Second Voyage (1772-1775) HM Sloops Resolution and Adventure In 1772 with the success of the modified Whitby built vessel, HM Bark Endeavour Admiralty looked long and hard before settling on a similar vessel �Marquis of Granby� a bigger collier for James Cook�s second voyage. The term �cat-built� is often used to describe HM Bark Endeavour this is incorrect, she was not �cat built�. She may very well have been a �cat-riggedbark� this was transcribed incorrectly by the Admiralty surveyors. This is borne out by the original drawings of �Earl of Pembroke� detailing the small dead-eyes and the suggestion of pole masts, used by �cat-rigged-vessels. 0 (Pole masts masts were wooden, formed from single pieces of timber, typically the trunks of fir trees. The masts of larger ships have the lower mast sections made thicker by building them up from separate pieces of wood. Such a section was known as a �made mast�, as opposed to sections formed from single pieces of timber, which were known as pole masts). The Navy Board purchased the �Marquis of Granby� from Captain William Hammond of Hull at a cost of �4,151.00 and commissioned into service as HM Sloop Resolution this time to make a complete circumnavigation in the high Antarctic latitudes; this would require a sturdy vessel. Cook remembered well his near disasters and his need to careen the ship at Endeavour River and how this action was possible because of the flat-floored, apple-cheeked hull shape, saving the crew and the ship from a potential near disaster in far-away waters. The Navy Board also purchased the Marquis of Rockingham, a similar vessel to the Bark Endeavour but the new ships were not Barks but sloops with bluff bows and fully round bottom, they were bigger than the old Bark Endeavour. Once modified the ships chosen to take James Cook on his second voyage around the World were classed as ship-rigged sloops-of-war. Both had been built by Thomas Fishburn in 1770 at Whitby. They were initially commissioned under the names of �Drake� and �Raleigh� however the sensible Lord Rockford, Secretary of State, thought the names might offend the Spanish and consulted both the King and the Earl of Sandwich. The Earl advised him they were to be renamed the Sloops Resolution and Adventure the Navy Board acquiesced to this request. Cook was greatly impressed with the Sloop Resolution and he called her �the ship of my choice, the fittest for service of any I have seen�. She was fourteen months old acquired and at 462 tons she was 100 more tons than the Bark Endeavour, but had the same flat-floored, apple-cheeked hull which made for easy running ashore for careening. Her dimensions were: Lower deck length 110 ft 8 inches; Keel 93 ft 6 inches; Maximum beam 35 ft 3� inches and depth 13 ft l� inches. 1 Cook ensured that an adequate supply of scurvy antiscorbutic prophylactics were loaded aboard from the Government Victualling Board Yards at Deptford. The official victuallers ordered that 20 lined firkins of butter be put into tight casks and they be filled up with strong pickle. The Board believed such preservation during Cook�s former voyage been found to keep the butter good to the last. This was far from fact, pickling the butter failed, once in the tropics the butter turned rancid. Inspissated worts, (one of the few genuine antiscorbutics),

malts and sauerkraut were loaded with the usual �hard tack� ships biscuits, fourpound pieces of salt-beef, two-pound pieces of salt pork, tons of beer, gallons of wine, a few thousand gallons of spirits, suet and raisins; portable broth (cakes of meat essence like oxo cubes that could be boiled with wheat), and gallons of carrot marmalade (also a reasonably good antiscorbutic). The next day the Victualling Board wrote to Cook offering six half barrels lined with tin foil have been filled with flour, malt, oatmeal, grottes (a kind of oats); pease and bread by way of experiment� to try whether those species will keep longer than usual in casks so lined. The bread was to fail this special storage, it turned rock hard and mouldy it was fed to the sharks of the Southern Ocean whilst looking for Cape Circumcision in transit to New Zealand. 2 After officially being signed on, Cook raised his command pennant accepted his orders, James Cook the crew and HM Sloop Resolution set out on the 2nd Voyage of discovery. However basic shipbuilding practice had not been carried out properly for the vessel was only out for a few days when major leaks were reported, the seams had been poorly caulked letting in too much water. Six months after the voyage commenced Cook as a matter of urgency had both sloops re-caulked at Cape Town 4th Earl of Sandwich, PC, FRS (1718 �1792) Sir Joseph Banks had suggested a forty-gun ship or an East India Company ship, but the Admiralty had no hesitation in following Cook's recommendations. Cook had memories of his need to careen his ship after it nearly sank in New South Wales, this would not have been possible with an East Indiaman or a ship of the line. The ships chosen for the new voyage had larger holds, more space between decks where the men were berthed. This allowed for a greater amount of fresh air and light and also less damp conditions. Cook supervised the fitting out of the ships with the help of Lord Sandwich, First Lord of the Admiralty, who was a confidant of Joseph Banks. John Montague, Prive Councillor, 4th Earl of Sandwich, PC, FRS (1718 �1792) had served as Postmaster General in 1768, Secretary of State in 1770, and again First Lord of the Admiralty in Lord North's administration from 1771 to March 1782. A damming assessment of the integrity and morality of Lord Sandwich was offered by American writer Jane Polley. Despite the number of important posts that Sandwich held during his career, his incompetence and corruptness was widely acknowledged. John Montague is said to have been immoral in both his private and public life, and gambling was just one of his lesser vices. He was the First Lord of the Admiralty, Privy Counsellor, and a Fellow of the Royal Society, yet, he was highly immoral, incompetent and very corrupt. It is very likely that he indirectly contributed to the success of the American Revolution because of his malfeasance as the chief Admiral of the Royal navy. According to Polley: �Sandwich managed to reduce the Royal navy to a state of total confusion around the time that the American Revolution started�. On the personal side Lord Sandwich was a member of a group of satanic worshippers called �The Friars of St. Francis of Wycombe�, also known as �The Hell Fire Club�. He boasted that he specialized in seducing virgins because he enjoyed �the corruption of innocence, for its own sake.� Sandwich was the executive officer of the Club and was described as being �as mischievous as a monkey and as lecherous as a goat�. At one stage of his career he was also called the most universally disliked man in England 3 At the fit-out stage of HM Sloop Resolution Joseph Banks decided that he had certain proprietary rights. It was originally planned he would sail again with his entourage. But Banks wanted to modify the ship; he ordered a heightened waist, an additional upper deck and a raised poop making her top heavy which interfered with

the stability of the ship. In trying to stabilise the sloop the six pounder cannons were removed at Sheerness and substituted with the smaller lighter four pounders. This action seemed harmless enough but it was the cause of great angst when the ships were fog-bound and lost contact with each other in the icy seas south of the Cape of Good Hope in transit to New Zealand. The smaller four-pound guns were not as loud as the six-pounders and this had a deathly impact upon the voyage. Resolution at Hole Reach, Greenwich. Cook was far from happy with the �Banks modifications� he informed Admiralty that on leaving Greenwich the ship was so exceedingly crank. The sloop could not with safety carry a single topsail even when reefed. Importantly, when rigged the jib and main topmast staysails made her unstable. With all sails up at the same time the ship was not under command, and it became difficult to get her about, she was downright unmanageable, the pilot refused to take the sloop further than the Nore, without hazarding his reputation.4 By 13th May 1772 the Navy Board was furious that a civilian had interfered with one of HM Ships and they issued instruction that the offending structures were to be removed and the ship made stable as designed. Banks was peeved and threw a tantrum and demanded the modifications stay put. Thinking that the trip would not commence without him and his entourage and the Navy Board would roll over and let Banks have his way, he stood firm on his ship modifications. Banks was wrong and had misread the Admirals, in a matter of weeks Banks was replaced by Johann Forster and his son, George. Bank�s interference had cost the Admiralty �15,000. After receiving his instructions, on 13th July 1772 HM Sloop Resolution was commissioned and sailed from Plymouth with a complement was one hundred and twelve, which included twenty volunteers from the HM Bark Endeavour. 5 Unlike HM Bark Endeavour the bigger HM Sloop Resolution was adorned with a stern gallery with the name above the ten stern windows for lighting the great cabin measuring approximately 15` x 18`, with a headroom of 6`6� to 7`0�. It was here that the scientific and geographical work was carried out and housed all the associated scientific and navigational equipment. The upper deck carried the ship�s four boats: a long boat, a pinnace, a skiff and a yawl these small boats were the lifeline of the ship. Below the stern gallery lights were two four-pounder guns poking out of the stern gun ports. The gun deck was fitted out as an Admiralty ship, well armed for her own protection and signalling. All up, her ordnance was twelve, four-pounder carriage guns and twelve swivel guns slotted into the upper gun stocks at various locations. All of this ordnance would be used to bully the New Zealand Maoris as they moved to �threaten� the sloops. The lower deck served as accommodation for the officers, and some storage. It also housed the man-cranked bilge pump and operating gear. There were four cabins to port and five to starboard aft of the pump gear, each accommodating two men. There was also a store room and locker to either side. The central space between the cabins could have been used as a ward room. To the stern of this space was the hatch down into the bread room. Forward of the pump gear was the galley and into the bow were sail rooms, the boatswain�s and carpenter�s store rooms and a hatchway down to the powder magazine. Below this lower deck were two partial decks fore and aft used as storage space and crew accommodation also here were a bilge pump and main hold. The inner faces of the hull frames were planked between decks. The steering mechanism and ships wheel were moved during refit from the main deck to the quarter deck to facilitate space and afford better visibility. 6 With the success of the special armadillo like iron nails used on HM Bark Endeavour, the sheathing on HM Sloop Resolution was similar with huge iron clouts

covering the larch wood sheathing which also had a layer of tarred paper underneath.7 HM Sloop Adventure To accompany Cook on the second voyage a small transport was chose HM Sloop Adventure, which cost the Navy �2,103, was placed under the command of Captain Tobias Furneaux, from Devon who had been Second Lieutenant under Wallis on the Dolphin. Furneaux was an excellent seaman but unfamiliar with Whitby ships, he was however not in the same league as Cook in courage, seamanship, navigation skills. After refitting, the HM Sloop Adventure sailed at 335 tons with a complement of 81 men and one civilian � the native Omai. Furneaux was to lose contact with Cook as they crossed the Pacific at about 50�S, rounded Cape Horn and reached Cape Town. The Adventure was probably the first ship to circumnavigate the world west to east and world in each direction. Cook in the meantime was to travel to the edge of the Antarctic, further south than any man had ever been. By the use of new �timekeepers� Cook was able to calculate accurate longitude for the first time, thus validating the years of work of the humble carpenter and inventor John Harrison (1693-1776). Easter Island and the Marquesas Easter Island was sighted from the mast head, bearing West it was 11th March 1774. By the following morning the sloops dropped anchor off the island. Too ill to step ashore James Cook asked Mr. Pickersgill to lead an exploration party. What the party reported was an amazing sight of huge trachyte stone statues and plantations of potatoes and sugar cane. Three days later the sloops sailed to the Marquesas which was spotted on 7th March 1774, these islands had been first discovered by Mendan in 1595. After a week Cook went ashore, and on return set sail to Tahiti. Cook confirmed the discoveries of the explorer de Queir�s. When the sailed past the Tuamotu Group, but he did not �discover� this group. Portuguese Pedro Fernandes de Queir�s (1563 � 1615) in 1606 was the first, followed by VOC explorers Willem Schouten (1567?�1625), and Jacob Le Maire (1567 � 1625) in 1616; Jakob Roggeveen (1659 � 1729) who also first sighted Easter Island) in 1722; John Byron (1723 � 1786) in 1765; Louis Antoine de Bougainville (1729 � 1811) in 1768. Cook spent time and named the Society Islands, (now French Polynesia), divided into the Windward Islands and the Leeward Islands. The Society Islands were named after the Royal Society by Captain Cook, who visited them in 1769 however they had been pre-claimed by France in 1768, the group became a French protectorate in 1843, and was colonized in 1880. 8 Tonga Cook went on to visit Tonga, whose first contact with the western world came when Dutchmen Schouten and LeMaire came upon the islands in 1616. The Tongans called the visitors �Palangi�, which describes the white clouds of their sails �bursting from the sky.� The Europeans found a socially advanced society which had already extended its influence beyond its own islands. In 1773 James Cook was obviously influenced by the local hospitality when he gave the Tongans their nickname. the �Friendly Islands�. James Cook returned in 1774 and 1777, giving the paramount chief or Tu'i Tonga a tortoise from the Galapagos Islands which roamed the royal palace grounds until it died in 1960. James Cook did not �discover� Tonga, the first Europeans to visit were the VOC with the Dutch explorers Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire in 1616, who called on the northern island of Niuatoputapu when they were on a hunt for spices and sandalwood when Abel Tasman visited Tongatapu to Ha'apai in 1643. The Fiji Islands were first discovered by Europeans when the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman visited in

1643 he was looking for the �Great Southern Continent� Fiji Cook arrived at Vatoa, on 3rd July 1774 an outer part of the Fiji Group of islands, some crew went ashore searching for water and turtles but returned with neither. This was the only occasion Cook visited Fiji. Cook then sailed through the New Hebrides chain chartering and naming many of the islands. He collectively named them the New Hebrides, after the islands off the west coast of Scotland. 9 Sailing south, James Cook first discovered the Loyalty Islands when he sighted Grande Terre in 1774 and named it New Caledonia, after the Latin name for Scotland. 10 Alexander Dalrymple (1737-1808) Prior to the preparation of the HM Bark Endeavor�s voyage of exploration Alexander Dalrymple (1737-1808) volunteered to lead the voyage to the Pacific, he wanted to study the Transit of Venus, but more importantly to him he wanted to prove his �Great Southern Continent� theory. Admiralty would not have a bar of it no matter how many political strings he pulled. This refusal exacerbated the old cartographer, his normal pompous attitude turned to churlishness and he became overbearing and dogmatic about his off the mark theories. Dalrymple thought that he alone was knowledgeable of the Great Southern Land mass for he had gathered every map he could lay his hands on, especially the Dieppe and other maps that outlined some uncharted lands. Some of the maps Dalrymple acquired were given him by his old employer the British East India Company.11 Alexander Dalrymple is credited with having made the reference to one of the Dieppe maps in his pamphlet �Memoir concerning the Chagos and adjacent islands (London, 1786)�, in which he implied that Cook had known of the existence of the map and used it in his charting of the east coast of Australia. He claimed, for instance, that the Coste de Herbiages (Coast of Vegetation) on the Dieppe map corresponded to Cook's Botany Bay, Dalrymple�s own charts of Tierra del Fuego and Tonga was 8� too far to the west. Dalrymple�s imagined �Gulph of St. Sebastian� caused Cook some angst, as it became obvious that this place was not to be found. Errors were noted all too often in the Dalrymple Charts.12 As to the imaginary �Great Southern Land�, this was an expensive waste of time. It was the fact that Quiros (1565-1615), Byron (1723-1786), Wallis (1728-1795), Carteret (1733-1796) and eventually Cook (1728-1779) all had tried in vain to really ram the point home to make their authorities understand that this landmass did not exist, but most would not listen. Prior to Bougainville�s circumnavigation voyage, French interest in the South Land was sparked by the French ship �L�Espoir with a crew of sixty-four men under the command of Binot Paulmier De Gonneville (1473-1520 ?) who, in 1504 claimed to have been swept off course from the Cape of Good Hope and forced to land on an unknown country, which later became known as Gonneville Land. Any claim to De Gonneville landing and being the first to �discover Australia� is stretching the imagination too far. If �L�Espoir was blown off course off the Cape of Good Hope in transit to Brazil there is more chance that Gonneville would have sighted Tristan da Cuna, the Gough Islands or according to Cook, Desolation Island now Kerguelan but this group is in the wrong direction. On the way home via Cape Horn, Cook claimed the Kerguelen Island for the King. In 1738 Bouvet de Lozier set out in search of Gonneville Land but found only the barren island that now bears his name. By then the Dutch, notably Dirk Hartog (1616), Carstensz (1623), Thijssen (1627), Abel Tasman (1642 & 1644) and Willem de Vlamingh (1697) had landed and charted much of the north, west and south coasts the future named �New Holland�.

When Bougainville returned home to St Malo, France he could boast that of the 200 or so crew only seven died during the circumnavigation voyage, during 1769 he also proclaimed that the Gonneville Land or the �Southern Land� mass did not exist.13 All this meant nothing to Dalrymple; he knew they were all wrong. In his inimitable and thorough way, James Cook in his best mode as explorer and cartographer set out to put the nonsense to rest. From December 1773 through January 1774 after traversing the Southern hemisphere Cook concluded that, regardless of the evidence of contrary charts in the possession of Admiralty Hydrographer Alexander Dalrymple, the hydrographer was wrong! Dalrymple believed in Abel Tasman�s theory that New Zealand was part of the unchartered �Southern Continent�. Cook�s circumnavigation during the first voyage absolutely disproved this. Bordering on the edge of fanaticism Dalrymple believed incorrectly that another great land mass existed off Chile, first suggested by the Portuguese Pedro Fernandez de Quiros, both were wrong. Cook�s second voyage put paid to any hint of unexplored land mass off New Zealand. To prove this point, Cook tracked up and down and along the Arctic Circle North to the Easter Island, The Marquesas, Society Islands, New Hebrides, New Caledonia, and across to Chile. He was now certain of the fallacious nature of the land mass claim. Dalrymple still had trouble accepting the fact that a seventh continent did not exist, Cook categorically put to rest the notion of a �Great Southern land�. It did not, and never did exist, all mention of this mythical land on Dalrymple�s charts were supposition and groundless.

Chapter Twenty-Four DEATH and SCURVY DURING THE SECOND VOYAGE Chapter 24 - Death and Scurvy during the Second Voyage Cook had his orders, and he was instructed when going ashore on foreign lands to choose a quiet spot, clear the ground and dig a garden to plant seed for the next season. The garden patch depended for success on the vagaries of weather, animals or local inhabitants. Sometimes the patch was productive and sometimes the patch failed. But once established the gardens would provide fresh vegetables and antiscurvy lemon grass for many crews to follow. Some apple trees currently growing in Tasmania came from seeds planted by Abel Tasman. Cook would have expected that scurvy would take its normal course, amongst any of

the sick or unhealthy members of the crew and officers, usually expected about four weeks after leaving port. Cook was determined that this would not happen on his watch! Cook was never to know which of his antiscorbutics offered the best cure for scurvy. He believed that sauerkraut was the most important, after all King George had told him so. But alas both were wrong. Only when fresh, does sauerkraut contain a significant amount of vitamin C and even then in minimum quantities, but after one month it was useless as a scurvy prophylactic as all vitamin C would have dissipated. 1 Modern analysis suggests that the best of all of antiscorbutic brews Cook were the fresh spruce needle beer followed by celery grass and the rarely grown broccoli; his �worts� also contained enough vitamin C to offer the crew some preventative prophylactic protection. At Dusky Bay New Zealand Cook recorded in his Journal 20th April 1773 that land was cleared everything removed from the shore. Cook set fire to the top-wood, in order to dry a piece of the ground occupied by the camp site, which, next morning was dug up, and sowed with several sorts of garden seeds. The soil gave no hope to the planter, however it was the best Cook could find. The Dutch East India Company, aware of the use of fresh greens to prevent scurvy, tried to grow vegetables off the stern of their ships in order to obtain fresh greens, but had to give up this intriguing idea because the gardens were too often constantly washed away. This could have been solved with swinging boxes, not off the stern but on deck with the animals. Why the Admiralty didn�t insist on portable gimballed vegetable boxes swung in chains stocked with the most efficacious antiscorbutic vegetables and fruit trees all would have been a sure guarantee against scurvy:- 2 Acerola or Barbados wild cherry; Barbados Rosehips; Kakadu Plum, used as food and traditional medicine by indigenous Australian people. The Kakadu plum is a hardy tree widely distributed throughout the wet/dry tropics of northern Australia; Cili berries AKA Sea-buckthorns (Hippophae L.) Deciduous shrubs in the genus Hippophae, �Holy Fruit of the Himalayas�, also considered essential in India's traditional ayurveda. Russian cosmonauts drink it while in orbit; Camu-Camu fruit, (once thought to contain the highest concentration of Vitamin C). It has never been documented as a traditional herbal remedy for any condition in the Amazon region. In fact, it was not widely eaten as a fruit by the indigenous people, due to its sour, acidic taste. In recent years, the fruits have become popular in Iquitos, Peru, where they are made into drinks and ice creams. Fruits including kiwi; oranges; papaya; Vegetables and �greens� including spoonwort; broccoli; spinach; green peppers; sweet potatoes and kale. Some ships did carry �dirt boxes� often housed on the stern gallery, this was to grow greens, sadly this was not a regular practice. Cook had a regular supply of manures from the abundant livestock on board the ship; this would have ensured good quality growing mix. A number of years later Bligh was to prove that bread fruit trees were able to survive on board his ship, although they did not survive being tossed overboard. Lieutenant William Bligh At the age of thirty-three Lieutenant William Bligh was commissioned to conduct the first part of Sir Joseph Banks' experiment to transplant a major food crop from one part of the world to another. Such a thing had never been done before on such a grand scale. When HM Armed Transport Bounty arrived in Tahiti in 1788 Bligh

loaded his cargo � bread fruit trees � but after six months of mayhem, the crew was reluctant to leave paradise, the crew had decided to stay and entertain the local dusky maidens. Mutiny was afoot. It is ironic that neither the breadfruit nor Bligh or HM armed transport Bounty completed the voyage. In 1793 Bligh did return to complete the task and provided bread fruit trees to the Royal Botanical Garden at Kew where they still grow to this day.3 More deaths at sea Thirty years old Henry Smock the carpenter's mate died at sea early on the voyage out on 20th August 1772 before reaching Cape Town. He had been working over the side in the scuttles where he had an accident. Cook recorded in his Journal of the loss of Henry Smock. In the pm we had the misfortune to loose Henry Smock the Carpenters Mate; he was at work over the side fitting in one of the scuttles from whence we supposed he fell into the sea for he was not seen until the moment he sunk under the stern when all assistance was too late. 4 Another work related accident took the life of the ship�s butcher Simon Monk, age thirty years, he died of a fractured skull after a headlong fall down the main hatch on 6th September 1773.5 Forster senior recorded in his journal a number of cases of scurvy being treated and being cured with sauerkraut and other prophylactics. Scurvy was manifest in the carpenter John Jackson. After less than two months out, and ten days from the Cape, the carpenter presented with classical symptoms. James Cook learned that this recalcitrant had not been eating his greens. He recovered as soon as the cause was remedied. However ten days later he reported again with the same symptoms. Several people now had some scorbutic symptoms, there is no doubt it was scurvy, it was far advanced, presenting bad gums, livid spots, eruptions, difficult breathing, contracted limbs, and a greenish greasy scum on the urine. However with the use of wort to about five pints per day, and the bathing of the contracted limbs in wort and the application of grains all aided in a cure for these symptoms, it confirmed Cook�s belief in the prophylactics. Cook wrongly believed that the �sauerkraut� helped in keeping the people healthy and preventing scurvy.6 Disproving the long-held myth that �none of the crew died of scurvy� was the death of the ship�s cook during the NZ visit 26th July 1773. Cook blankly refused to accept that scurvy was responsible for the death, Cook recorded Mortimer (Mortaugh) Mahony �had, been very sick for a long time�.7 Off New Zealand. 27th July 1773 James Burney, age twenty-three years second Lieutenant of the Adventure, rather than admit the true cause of Mahony�s death used a non-existing ailment. �This day, our cook who had long time been bad, died of a complication of distempus�.8 Dusky Sound NZ Mortimer (Mortaugh) Mahony, Adventure�s cook during the second voyage died earlier of scurvy in the South Pacific. Forster recorded the real cause of death after he made contact with Adventure 28th July 1773 when he was told the cook had been buried three days ago. 9 Aboard HM Sloop Adventure Captain Furneaux had been somewhat more cavalier in the administration anti-scorbutics. As a consequence his crew suffered. Second Lieutenant Burney noted that Furneaux was not administering the �greens� to his crew and reported this to James Cook. This contrary attitude of Furneaux towards the health of his crew angered Cook. James Cook was advised on 29th July 1773 that scurvy was prevalent aboard Furneaux�s ship, and one key member of the crew

was dead, this news was very distressing to the Lieutenant. Adventure�s cook was dead, and about twenty of her best men were down with scurvy. At this time Cook believed Resolution had only three men on the sick list, and only one of them attacked with scurvy, when several more however displayed symptoms, it became too obvious to hide. Accordingly they were all put on wort, marmalade of carrots, rob of lemons and oranges. Cook could not account for the scurvy raging more in the one ship than the other, unless it was owing to the crew of the Adventure being more scorbutic when they arrived in New Zealand than we were. The truth was of course Adventure�s crew had not been eating greens and vegetables. Many of Adventure�s crew including officers, refused to eat celery, scurvy-grass, and greens which had being boiled with peas and wheat � they were to pay a penalty. Cook appointed one of Resolution�s seamen to be the cook of the Adventure, and wrote to Captain Furneaux, desiring him to make use of every method in his power to stop the spreading of the disease amongst his people.10 When Forster Senior went aboard HM Sloop Adventure on 29th July 1773 he found Capt Furneaux confined to his cabin, with rheumatism in his foot.11 Cook suffered from the same gout�like symptoms. While traditional thinking was that certain foods caused gout, recent research, indicates that another culprit could be lead or antimony poisoning. James Cook was a stickler concerning the consumption of anti-scurvy antiscorbutics, it was mandatory for the crew to consume an allocated regular supply � refuse and suffer the severe consequence of a dozen lashes. Of the twenty-one who had reported sick on board the sloop Adventure, all were forced to take antiscorbutics, all recovered, but one, he was the ship�s steward Francis Scarnell whose scorbutic unhealthy body, was sick, his legs showed scurvy. 12 He too was momentarily restored by drinking wort, and by having his legs bathed with the grains. In Dusky Bay and at Queen Charlotte�s Sound he appeared to be better, and continued so for some weeks after the ship went out to sea. However, he fell to scurvy again, his gums and teeth bleeding, the breath stinking, the urine quite stringy. The use of wort and grains he once again showed some signs of mending. 13 Five days out from Otaheite on 13th August 1773 Cook accepted Forster Senior�s report concerning the truth of the health of Adventure�s crew. As the sloops passed through the Tuamotou Archipelago, Forster reported that it was now thirty men on the sick list were laid low with scurvy. Captain Cook despatched Lieutenant Burney with thirteen men to offer assistance to HM sloop Adventure. The replacement of the sick able-bodied seamen was a matter of course, but replacing the cook was a different matter altogether. None of the crew on the HM Sloop Adventure had a clue on matters culinary. However on board HM Sloop Resolution one of the crew let it be known that he had the skill to cook for the crew. This was William Chapman age forty years, Cook and Forster referred to him as the �old seaman Chapman�. 14 Scurvy was not wiped out, William Offord the Carpenter, suffered from it, he sat on the deck, with brown livid spots on both legs which were painful; he said wort had done him some good, but that he never laid it on his leg, but the day before he found some relief from vinegar.15 The thirty crew from the sloop Adventure severly affected by scurvy they were next to useless in performing any deck duty, the lack of discipline was paying a toll! 16 Off Osnabruck Island, death and illness prevails. Forster harboured the belief that the best treatment for sick patients especially

�those who are ill of scurvy, the vegetables and the air on the Isle will soon restore them�.17 Forster Snr states that during the voyage on 8th December 1773 his son George showed evidence of scurvy, when his legs started to swell up.18 James Cook also suffered with a return of swollen feet and obstructions (constipation) these and other symptoms, like lower limb oedema, were evidence of the damage being caused to Captain Cook by his self medication with his antimony cup, and the cumulative toxic effect. Marine William Wedgeborough died whilst drunk. After falling down a number of times, he fell overboard and drowned on 22nd December 1774. Earlier in the voyage he had been in trouble with Cook for the killing of a native at Tanna who had advanced in a threatening manner with a bow and arrow. 19 Marine private Isaac Taylor died of a �complication of disorders� whilst the sloop was off Tahiti. Forster went on board as the marine was buried out at sea, Forster believed the marine had died of dropsy, (Oedema (swelling), often caused by kidney or heart disease); Taylor had been feverish, consumptive (tuberculosis) and asthmatic ever since leaving England and had never been well on board. 20 Because they had become used to beer and arrack, the crew staged uproar when Cook had concocted a new beverage he wanted them to drink in place of their beloved grog. With plenty of sugar at hand, Cook instructed the cook to make a strong decoction with dried hops ? cones of the plant humulus. Cook liked this brew, thinking that it tasted exactly like an inspissated malt beer, now running low. It may very well have been a healthy drink but the crew would have none of it. Cook saw no reason whatsoever as to why everyone else should not be happy with his brew � after all it was good for them! Samples of the stuff passed around the crew seemed to accept it. However when a full cask was opened not one sailor would even taste it. Word came up from the fo'c'sle that the sailors had not approved of his brew, and they had initially swallowed it only against their will. This was a complete surprise to Cook; he had imagined his brew had been a smashing success, not quite Nootka beer, but close to it. Cook quelled the mutiny with one dozen lashes each. Whatever got into Cook to introduce this humulus brew is not mentioned in his journal. A researcher at Purdue University believes that humulus lupulus, a variety of hops, can be used in home remedies and folk medicine. Delaware Lenape tribe heated a small bag of leaves to apply to ear-ache or tooth-ache. More interesting was the Delaware use of the hops as a sedative, drinking hop tea several times a day to alleviate nervousness! The Canadian Cherokee, Mohegan, and Fox tribes also used the plant. George III is said to have slept on a pillow stuffed with humulus hops to alleviate some symptoms of his Porphyria. 21 Jacques Cartier (1491-1557) �Nootka Sound Spruce Beer� was miraculous as a scurvy prophylactic but only when made from fresh conifer needles it was comparable to fresh lemon-rob as an antiscorbutic. The Nootka beer was first suggested by Iroquois Indians to Jacques Cartier the French explorer in 1535. This tribe from Stadacona (Quebec) could not help but notice the pitiful state of the French crew with stinking breath, languid and fatigued, nauseated and flopping around the deck waiting to die. Earlier they had complained of muscle and joint pain. Cuts or wounds never seemed to heal properly. Teeth became loose, and gums swelled and bled showing a bluish colour. The hair and skin was dry, and evidence of bleeding into the body�s muscles and joints, such as in the knees and arms. These symptoms were extremely painful. Cartier was so distressed with the deaths he summoned the surgeon to conduct an

autopsy, but when the body was cut open, the poor doctor was none the wiser for he had no reference for the discovery of a white and shrivelled heart surrounded by more than a jug full of red date-coloured water. The internal cavity contained dark tainted blood, while the lungs were black and gangrenous.22 One week after taking liberal quantities of �Nootka Spruce�, many of Cartier�s crew was able to muster for work. The brew made from the fresh pine needles from the �arbor vitae� tree (Eastern White Cedar). The pine-needles were infused into a tea producing vitamin C as high as 270 mg per 100 g 23 What a crime that this pine needle concoction, the great cure for scurvy, was not publicly proclaimed and passed on to the Lords of the Admiralty. In 1593 Sir Richard Hawkins told them how to distil the pine needle beer. He notes that fresh oranges and lemons were also excellent in keeping his crew healthy. Hawkins ensured good food supplies. Spices included including currants, sugar, prunes, cinnamon, ginger, pepper, cloves, green ginger, and wine-vinegar. Drinks included Canarie Sac, (Spanish style red wine from the Canary Islands), aqua-vit�, and the juice of lemons for the scurvy. Stable foods included oil, butter, Holland cheese or �old cheese�, fine wheat flower, rice, white biscuits, oatmeal, gammons of bacons, dried neats tongues. Beef packed up in vinegar, legs of mutton minced and stewed, and close packed up with tried suet, butter in earthen pots and some pickled in tin lined vats. And quirkily �to entertain strangers� - marmalade, suckets, almonds, comfits and such like.24 In 1640 the juice of lemons as a scurvy antiscorbutic was proclaimed by John Parkinson in �The Theatre of Plants� who believed correctly that the juice of lemons is singularly good to use during long sea voyages to keep the crew free of scurvy.25 Even after being made aware of the benefits of the antiscorbutics by the James Cook Admiralty remained stubborn and refused to supply the antiscorbutics of citrus rob, as it was too expensive! One man set out to overturn this he argued that no price was too high to pay to save thousands of sailors from horrendous death from scurvy. This man was Sir Gilbert Blane, a medical practitioner. Blane pressed his case with the Royal Society, who he knew had influence. He also joined the �Sick and Hurt Board� as a Commissioner and was a practising physician at St. Thomas Hospital, London, but quietly and surreptitiously he brought the problem of the stubborn Admiralty to a number of very influential friends including �Prinny� George IV Prince of Wales, later the Prince Regent. 26 It was not until 1782 that the influence of Sir Gilbert Blane was felt. Here was a man who believed that James Lind had the correct formulae for the prevention of scurvy at sea, and Blane was intent on introducing it at any cost. 27 Blane had proved his point in the West Indies when friend Sir George Rodney allowed his fleet of thirty six ships of the line with 21,608 men to trial the antiscorbutics of citrus juice, limes and inspissated worts of malts as a daily dietary supplement, with great success. 28 It took a year to implement Blane�s plan. The late implementation could not prevent the death of 1,518 sailors in the West Indies with scurvy. However once the new regime was established Admiralty could rest assured that Blane and Lind had saved the seamen of England from a scourge as devastating to sailors as the plague. Blane reduced the death rate from one-in-seven to one-in-twenty deaths. By 1795 Blane�s plan was implemented in all Royal Navy ships, a triumph of the dedication of three men with vision � Lind, the discoverer. Gilbert Blane the mover and shaker and James Cook the implementer.29

Chapter 25 The Orders � Second Voyage

The Orders � Second Voyage Cook's �Sailing Orders� were made out in accordance with the programme approved by Cook; the Admiralty allowed him to see the orders before they were actually issued, this gave Cook the opportunity to offer comment. The �orders� were in some ways similar to the French programme for Kerguelen's second voyage � Cook was instructed to travel south to find Bouvet's �Cape Circumcision� and determine if it was part of the imagined continent. Cook was to satisfy himself whether it was a part of the continent which had so much engaged the attention of geographers and former navigators. Cook sailed as instructed to the co-ordinates he was asked to visit 54�S 11� 20' E. It was obvious that there was no land or island. The instructions were wrong. Cook was not happy to be wasting time chasing around looking for a place whose given latitude and longitude simple pointed to a patch of sea. Cook concluded that it was now obvious to him that Dalrymple was wrong and the land was a fiction that no such discoveries were ever made. Bouvet Island was eventually discovered by the German deep sea discovery ship Valdivia on 25th November 1898. The position was fixed as 54�26?S 3�24?E? / ?54.433�S 3.4�E? / -54.433; 3.4. 1 Cook rightfully believed that there was no major land mass left unexplored, and Dalrymple�s �Great Southern Land� was obviously mythical. But Cook in his inimitable way had to prove that Dalrymple had it wrong. After skirting the Antarctic ice cap Cook fanned out from his favourite anchorage Queen Charlotte�s Sound, NZ then sailed north to the Marquesas and Society Island, East to Easter Island, and onwards to the Horn, Cook was now confident that Dalrymple and his Charts were incorrect. Cook�s support ship HM Sloop Adventure was under the command of Captain Furneaux during the voyage around New Zealand Adventure and Resolution lost contact with each other with dire consequences. Although HM Sloop Resolution fired her fourpounders constantly trying to make contact. The exercise was useless as Sloop Adventure and Captain Furneaux were out of ear shot. Cook fired his gun every half hour in vain; it started to concern the Captain. Bank�s interference back in England where he ordered the big guns removed was now being felt. By a pre-arranged agreement Captain Furneaux sailed to Queen Charlotte�s Sound as agreed with Cook, but on arrival all hell broke out forcing Cook to make a complete new plan.

A bottle under a tree Cook had no time for Furneaux, and his lack of discipline. Furneaux treated with distain the need to provide antiscorbutics as a scurvy prophylactic. And his crew paid the price for their captain�s laissez-faire attitude. This tardiness was to prove unfortunate for many of the crew came down with scurvy. Quick intervention not by Furneaux but by Cook who insisted the crew eat and drink his various concoctions including the miraculous scurvy grass spoonwort leaves gathered ashore in New Zealand a plant that abounds in a pungent oil containing sulphur, of the butyric series, this intervention was to save their lives, but no thanks afforded to Furneaux. Queen Charlotte Sound, New Zealand. When HM Sloop Resolution anchored in New Zealand waters on 3rd November 1773 there was no sign of the Adventure, who had broken off contact in a fog coming off the Antarctic. Cook waited until 25th November at Queen Charlotte�s Sound, NZ. On that day Cook sailed, having first buried a bottle under a tree, on which was carved �look beneath� the bottle contained a message for Captain Furneaux telling him where to follow the Resolution. 2 This was the second time the ships had parted company. The first occasion was on the 8th February, 1773, in a fog near Kerguelen Island. They did not meet until 18th May of the same year, at the winter quarters�Queen Charlotte�s Sound, New Zealand. Cook sailed off to the Antarctic, without Furneaux and on 12th December 1773, reaching a latitude 62� 10' when the first iceberg was seen. The sea was very dangerous as the sloop was amongst ice, fog and snow. It was Christmas Day which was spent in bitter weather, nearly a hundred icebergs being round the ship. Still Cook pushed on, chasing any possible skerrick of the carping Dalrymple�s dream, the �Great Southern Continent� which Cook now knew did not exist. In his narrative of the proceedings in HM Sloop Adventure, Furneaux describes this incident on going ashore on 30th November 1773 he discerned the place where the crew of HM Sloop Resolution had erected tents; and on an old stump of a tree in the garden observed these words cut out, �look underneath.� There he dug, and soon found a bottle corked and waxed down, with a letter in it from Captain Cook, signifying their arrival of HM Sloop Resolution on 3rd November, 1773, and departure on the 24th December. Cook indicated that they intended spending a few days in the entrance of the straits looking for Adventure. HM Sloop Adventure departed Queen Charlotte Sound on 17th December 1773, it was to be a most distressing departure. Massacre and Cannibalisation at Grass Cove HM Sloop Adventure Midshipman Rowe and nine of the crew started to gather �greens and broom brush� (celery grass, and millet for brooms) but were interrupted by a group of Maoris who adopted a belligerent stance advancing and poking their tongues as they incanted a well rehearsed chant, the crew were startled. Something went sadly wrong between the seamen and the Maoris, possibly instigated by the huge black James Tobias Swilley the carpenter�s servant gave one of the Maoris a severe blow with a stick for trying to steal from the cutter. The cries of the Maori being heard by his countrymen at a distance, they imagined he was killed, and immediately began the attack the boat crew; who, before they had time to reach the boat, or to arm themselves against the unexpected impending danger, fell a sacrifice to the fury of their savage assailants. The Maoris massacred, and mostly devoured the crew. 3 Furneaux realised that the crew were absent too long and sent Lieutenant Burney with a boat with a crew well armed to investigate. Onshore the local Maoris adopted an aggressive stance, performing the �haka� unlike anything seen before. Burney reported no sightings of his shipmates, he spotted two bundles of celery on

the beach, gathered for loading the cutter, which was not visible and was not found. But what he did see was so awful it was too hard to comprehend but such a scene of shocking barbarity and carnage, as can never be thought on without horror; for the heads, hearts, and lungs, of several of our people were lying about the beach, and the dogs gnawing their entrails.4 The crew realised that their missing shipmates had been cannibalistically butchered and the parts eaten by the Maoris and their dogs. The crew became very angry and wanted revenge at the first opportunity on seeing the first group approaching they discharged their muskets into the gathering Maoris who desisted with their aggressive haka of �utu� (the war haka with weapons). The �peruperu� was traditionally performed before going into battle, it was to invoke Tumatauenga, the God of War, and warn the enemy of the fate awaiting him. It involved fierce facial expressions and grimaces, poking out of the tongue, eye bulging, grunts and cries, and the waving of war weapons: �Tika tonu mai Tika tonu mai Ki ahau e noho nei Tika tonu mai I a hei ha!� �Come forth this way, towards me Come forth this way, towards me To this place where I now stand Come straight this way I a hei ha!� With lead ball and bird shot booming from the crew�s fowling pieces and muskets, the Maoris scattered uninjured into the mangroves and bush to safety. The crew accepted the reality of local custom, although they could not comprehend how any human could eat another human, they realised that all they could do was to gather up the remaining body parts and entrails of comrades and shipmates strewn around the beach, the few skulls and bones would be interred in a �civilised� Christian service. 5 The Rescue party brought onboard several hands, two of which were known one belonged to Thomas Hill, being tattooed on the back �T H� another to Mr. Rowe who had a wound on his fore finger, also retrieved was the head of the James Tobias Swilley the carpenter�s black servant.6 Furneaux was distressed, he�d had enough, rather than traipse around looking for Cook, with HM Sloop Adventure in trouble with a weak and sick crew, now ten short. Furneaux decided to prepare the ship for the long run home. Although intent on returning post-haste to England, Furneaux realised that if anything was to happen to Cook, he could very well face a court martial for abandoning his orders midterm, (a hanging offence) so he concluded it wise that during the period after separation and on the way home he should explore and charter much of the unexplored north-eastern coast of Van Diemen's Land, this he did. Cook must bear some of the responsibility for the butchery and cannibalisation of some of the crew Furneaux�s HM sloop Adventure at Queen Charlottes Sound. From the first contact with the local Maoris, off Admiralty Bay 18th December 1772 Cook had been nothing but aggressive, his constant firing of the big guns into the villager settlements and the killing of a number of the young Maoris carried a cost that was paid by some of Adventure�s company. After arriving at Cape Town, in advance of the pre-arranged meeting with James Cook, Furneaux sent a letter to the Lords of the Admiralty explaining his version of the separation of the ships and the subsequent massacre of his crew. Furneaux did not delay at Cape Town, and with a sense of urgency sailed for home, but also

left a letter to Cook explaining what had happened. Tobias Furneaux Explains the Massacre Furneaux availed himself of the opportunity to write a note of explanation to Admiralty, despatched by the �Valentine�, East Indiaman. He informed their Lordships� of the facts and incidents of his ill fated voyage. Furneaux had arrived at the Cape the 18th of March 1774 and set sail England as soon as the people were perfectly recovered, many of whom were so weak and emaciated a state that obliged Furneaux to send them on shore for their more speedy recovery. Furneaux informed their Lordships with the facts as to how he had parted company with the Resolution during the night of the 29th October 1773, off Cape Palliser, on the coast of New Zealand. He emphasized the dire situation of the ship during a hard gale, where the ship was baffled with strong northerly winds for upwards of a fortnight. It was during this time the sails and rigging suffered so much, and the wind continued to blow, he was obliged to bear away. Furneaux explained to Admiralty that on 6th of November he headed for Tolaga Bay, on the North Island, to repair and refit the sails, and collect fresh water. On 30th November 1773 after beating most of the way back, the ship at length entered the calm waters of Queen Charlotte�s Sound, where he found the sealed up in a bottle left by Captain Cook who had visited on the 3rd November 1773. By the 18th of December HM sloop Adventure was ready for sea, and in the morning of that day a cutter was sent up the Sound to gather a quantity of vegetables to carry to sea. Orders were issued to the officer not to exceed three o�clock in his return to the ship. Not returning that evening, the ship�s company was concerned for their safety, and next morning the launch, manned and armed, went in search of them. At night the launch returned with some remains of the cutter�s crew, who were all murdered by the Maoris and the greatest parts of all had been eaten. A list was enclosed for the record of the names of the victims killed by the Maoris :�John Rowe, Master�s Mate; Thomas Woodhouse Midshipman; Francis Murphy, Quartermaster; James Tobias Swilley Carpenter�s Servant; William, Milton AB; William, Facey AB; Michell Bell AB; James Jones AB; John O�Cavanagh AB; Thomas Hill AB. 7 Furneaux sailed up the Atlantic to anchor at Spithead a year ahead of Cook on 12th July 1774. Furneaux returned home without Cook, bringing with him Omai of Ulaietea who was the first South Sea Islander seen in the British Isles. The elegant Omai returned to his home with Cook in 1776�1777 during the third voyage. Tobias Furneaux was made a captain in 1775, during the American Revolutionary War, he commanded HM 6th rate ship Syren in the British attack of 28th June 1776 upon Charleston, South Carolina. Syren was lost during a skirmish during November 1776 and Furneaux and his crew were taken prisoner. They were released early in 1778. Back home in Britain invalided out of the navy with gout and he died at Swilly on 19th September 1781, as he had had never married he left no heirs. After her voyage with Cook the HM sloop Adventure was converted to a fire ship in 1780, then sold back to her original owners in Whitby in 1783, whereupon she returned to the life of a transport, eventually running between Britain and North America. In 1811 she was wrecked in the Saint Lawrence River.

Chapter Twenty-seven Johann Reinhold Forster � 2nd Voyage

John Reinhold Forster and George Forster, by John Francis Rigaud (1742�1810); (Courtesy of Hans-Jorg Rheinberger), Chapter 27 - Johann Reinhold Forster, 2nd Voyage At the last moment prior to the voyage departure the naturalist Joseph Banks withdrew from the 2nd voyage in a fit of pique packed his bags and stayed home after the Admiralty instructed the great man to forget his over the top modifications of the ship. Forster and his son were appointed to fill the vacant position. During a stop at Cape Town, Forster engaged Anders Sparman to act as his assistant. There were two Forsters on HM Sloop Resolution - Johan Reinhold Forster (1729 1798) and his son George (1754-94) both were employed on the as naturalists on the 2nd Voyage 1772-1775, they were German with Scottish connections. The curmudgeonly, ill tempered Johan Reinhold Forster Snr was trouble for Cook throughout the voyage. The relationship with the captain was to say the least cool, unlike that of Banks and Cook. Banks admired Cook whilst the admiration was not reciprocated the way Banks would have liked, Cook never the less gave Banks the respect he earned. No such relationship developed with the whining Forster Senior, who did not get on with Cook, from the moment the two arrived on board �Senior� bitched and complained principally about his accommodation. �I want a bigger cabin Sir�; �I want the guns moved Sir�; �I want the livestock moved Sir�; �I want the decks caulked Sir�;

�I want the planks sealed Sir�; �The king paid my passage and I want better service Sir�; �I want a cloth to mop out the cabin Sir�1 Forster in a whining entry into his log complained that the last dove of five he owned had died. Forster put the deaths of his birds down to the wretched situation of his cabin, which was cold, full of chinks like a sieve, admitting cold and wind, just as if he were quartered in the open air. He believed that the sailors between decks have a warmer and more comfortable birth. Some of the poor deckpenned animals froze to death on 17th December 1773 but, not the goat it survived all that could be dished out, remaining on the ship to the last day in London. a Johann Reinhold Forster, for scientific reasons but a a formal complaint. His actions were petty and only known himself and his to a brilliant intellect, [of which he was]. One such action was the constantly recording the temperature in his cabin, 38�F; 18th December - 37�F; 19th December- 38�; 20th December 33�F; 21st December - 32�F (�The point of freezing�) �The temperature has never been all summer 5 or 6 � above freezing and frequently below it�. 2 s The bitter old scientist did not like any part of the voyage he logged his complaint to himself whilst sailing in cold latitudes. He complained that his situation every day was more unfavourable, at the increasingly cold weather. If twice ?4,000 were offered to him to go on such a voyage and go through all the scenes he declared that he was obliged to pass it up. 3 How right he was, he was the most useless man that the Admiralty could possibly have chosen, to serve with the down to earth James Cook. Forster was an academic better suited to the halls of Oxford than bobbing up and down in a little wooden ship 12,000 miles from his book lined study. Cook biographer John Reid Muir dubbed Forster �a malignant mediocrity� and a little unfairly �an alleged scientist�; Beaglehole was a little kinder but none the less acerbic with his description of Forster �patiently conspicuous phenomenon � one of Admiralty�s vast mistakes�; Alan Villiers (19031982) referred to him as �incompetent�. All criticism of Forster whilst serving aboard HM sloop Resolution was no doubt well founded; he was a fish out of water. But once on his own turf in academia he was an excellent scientist, author and teacher and was lauded by many in the scientific community. t Looking for Cape Circumcision. By observation of the distance of the moon from the sun by which the longitude calculated Cook was now at 71� 10 of latitude, a higher southern latitude than any one before him had ever reached, he was sailing within the Antarctic ice-cap, it was 21st February 1774.4 w The voyage was nearly terminated when ice, so closely packed and dense that it was not possible to sail any further, nearly rammed the little wooden ship. As far as the eye could see on either side of the sloops as they skirted along the edge, there was nothing to be seen but ice; no open water anywhere, nothing but vast fields and mountains of ice. Cook was well into the Antarctic Circle, he was delighted to be so far south. However, the crew was not impressed, and the old curmudgeon Forster hardly bothered to record this momentous occasion in his log. Hoping to quieten down the rumblings from the crew Cook ensured that they were issued with cold weather kersey clothing. It was still far too cold for the moaning crew, but they did their stuff when called upon in a tight spot. A scream was heard �ice ahead� unheard by Cook who was below decks dining with �the Gentlemen�. A runner delivered the dire situation to the Captain, who was informed that the ship was nearly upon an iceberg. When Cook came on deck he saw a massive wall of ice, and bedlam amongst the crew, the ship was close to nearly crashing into the wall of ice. Cook�s inattentiveness in a dangerous situation nearly lost the ship! All Cook could do was to arm the crew with spars and oars to fend off. The ship mercifully answered the helm and the fending off averted a catastrophe.

This was the closest call to the loss of the ship of the entire voyage; Cook had made a mistake, he had slipped up by not being on deck and on duty in such dangerous waters. 5 d Forster was happier on land in the tropics � but not too hot! His favourite quotation �Wherever we have hitherto been, �omnia Pontus erat�.6 (Everything was sea).6 Cook had no room in his thoughts for this whinger, when once again, he whinged about the cold weather near the South Pole, Cook�s cutting comment summed up the situation. What did the man expect at this latitude, the tropics? u Even in times of danger and bedlam aboard the ship Forster was in a world of his own. Whilst fending off hoards of natives intent on damage, the ship�s guns blazing, the crew anxious to a man, the old curmudgeon Forster was seen sitting on the deck gawping at his son�s drawing of a �Chloephaga picta picta� (Gm) or other such ducks, drawn during the voyage. It went on and on, and Cook simply avoided the German at every opportunity and let him get on with what he was doing. The moaning had started at the lading stage, when Cook had given Forster senior the opportunity to have the same cabin offered to Banks, but Forster failed to turn up for muster and so missed out on the choice cabin George Forster kept detailed diaries of everything he saw on the voyage, and made extensive collections of both natural history specimens and artefacts, at this George Forster excelled, at least he was in his element. . Johann Reinhold Forster paid scant interest in the wonders of science that abounded during the voyage leaving it up to his son. l After the second voyage, Lord Sandwich First Lord of the Admiralty in Lord North's administration suggested Forster Senior publish a scientific volume, but when the author refused to allow it to be �edited�; he was forbidden to publish anything until the official volumes appeared. A controversy ensued; dashing the last of Forster senior�s reputation when on his return to England he published, �Observations made during a Voyage round the World� (1778). For this publication Forster had borrowed the draft of James Cook�s log promising not to copy it, publish it or plagiarise it, this instruction was deviously ignored. Cook was furious, as too the Royal Society and the newspapers of the day had a ball exposing the fraudulent action. The cunning Forster had hatched a plan, Johann kept his word and did not publish Cook�s log but as George who had not given his word, rushed the log to the publisher! However the income from the book was insufficient to clear J. R. Forster�s debts during one of his post-voyage financial crises. Forster found a solution when he chose to sell the bulk of Georg's drawings from the voyage to Joseph Banks. 9th August 1776, at London, Forster wrote to Banks accepting four hundred guineas for the main set of GeorgeForster�s botanical drawings and his zoological drawings. They are now in the Natural History Museum, London. This set of two volumes comprised three hundred and one drawings, including forty seven finished water colours, forty one outlines, ten pen-and-ink drawings, plus two hundred and three pencil sketches. There were thirty three of mammals, one hundred and forty of birds, three of reptiles, eighty one of fishes and fourteen of invertebrates. This sale helped to boost Forster�s bank balance, but hardly cleared his debts. In 1778, back on familiar territory, Forster published some worthy books, of considerable scientific merit, including his own Journal �Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World, on Physical Geography, Natural History, and Ethic Philosophy �� This was supplemented by �Descriptiones Animalium Quae in Itinere ad Maris Australis Terras per Annos 1772 1773 et 1774 �.� : (Posthumously published at Berlin in 1844). Forster eventually returned to Germany and was appointed to the chair at the University of Halle. Before he died there on 9th December 1798, he translated, edited or reviewed many accounts of voyages including those of Phillip, Hunter and White, at this he was really in his element, the world of

academia.

Chapter Twenty-eight JAMES COOK RN � THE ILLNESSES CONTINUE

Chapter 28 � James Cook RN � The illnesses continue Through self medication James Cook RN gradually lost his ability to be rational and suffered from a debilitating mental degradation. Cook�s health and temper declined over the three voyages. The sicker he got the more he would medicate and purge himself, with his little antimony cup. Whilst antimony cups and purging was the accepted procedure of the day, it was not understood that heavy metal poisoning would result. Unfortunately for Cook, this purging practice, where wine and antimony pickle to form an emetic brew, leaches the base metal antimony into the wine which when consumed causes a violent purging action. The by-product of this practice � unbeknown to Cook � was the residual antimony poisoning which enters the body and attacks the vital organs, including the brain. The crew knew to keep clear when Cook had an attack of the �Heevas� (a native dance). Forster senior, stated that Captain Cook fell ill on Sunday night 4th May 1773 with a fever and a pain in the groin which terminated in a rheumatic swelling in the blade of the right foot. Forster believed that this was caused by a cold, contracted by wading too frequently in the water and sitting wet and cold in the boat. This time there were no princesses frolicking on a mattress laid on the cabin floor to tender him with the curative �romee�.1 The foot pain was more than likely gout brought on by the self medication of antimony; Forster junior was to suffer the same problem. Forster showed some concern, hinting of the seriousness of Cook�s illness by contemplating the thought of continuing the voyage without Cook! It rained all afternoon and evening, on the May 9th 1773 and Forster showing uncharacteristic

concern when feeling sorry for the Captain who ventured out in bad weather, whilst ill and with a bad foot. Forster believed that the display of ill health may take a bad turn and become fatal. So concerned were the officers and �gentlemen� that talk was heard of First lieutenant Clerke taking command of the ship if the Captain should die. This was enough to frighten every living soul aboard the ship, as none were a stranger to Cook�s ill temper or his capricious thinking, and curmudgeonly ways, but he was the master navigator and he would get us home! 2 c Now showing signs of a build-up of antimony poisoning in his system, Cook is exacerbating his illness by further purging, as confirmed by Forster, when Cook was ill again. Since February 26th 1774 for a number of days, pain in Cook�s stomach confined him to bed. The Captain was a difficult patient, he ate a little and when he ordered food it was hard, salted, indigestible materials, no greens, no worts or any the antiscorbutics. The pain grew to such a height, that he stayed in bed, he took a purge and vomited; the indication was helped by ipecacuanha 3 and Camomile tea, a tobacco glister was added liberal quantities of castor-oil was not spared. Cook was now dangerously ill and would not stop hiccoughing, that no amount of opiates would stop. Mr. Patten the surgeon prescribed warm bathing to no avail, the Captain was now so weak he was unable to stand on his legs. Surgeon Patten called for Forster, who helped in the Captain�s nursing. Forster administered more purging and plaster of theriac (a hot poultice made from opium laid across the stomach) also tobacco glisters flushed into the anal passage. All of this failed to have any effect. If the hiccough would not cease, Forster was convinced that Cook was in dire trouble. And if he could not flush out the scybalous faeces from his bowels, it would not auger well for the future. Eventually, Cook was flushed out, the over the top ingestion of opium, the additional opium hot poultice, the castor oil and pulverized ipecacuanha stalks the constant antimonial purges all worked shifting the problematic scybalous faeces. The hiccoughs stopped no doubt through the shock of the massive evacuation of his bowels.4 o Off New Caledonia - Tetrodontidae Cook personally approved the consumption of a huge Puffer Fish (Tetrodontidae) and recommended it be skinned and fried. The poison found in the puffer fish, was a tetrodotoxin, one of the most toxic poisons found in nature. Unless the ship�s cook is specially trained to cut the meat in a particular fashion, the dish may contain a large amount of the toxin. Puffer fish poisoning is similar to paralytic shellfish poisoning. The dogs and the little pig picked up at T?n? ate the fish liver and the roe. All who consumed the fish or fish innards were very sick including the Forsters, Sparman and James Cook who was unable to stand or leave his bunk. On 8th September 1774 Cook was purged and purged again but it was to be forty eight hours until Cook recovered, although he still had severe pain in his ankles and wrists. The native Melanesians of New Caledonia came aboard saw the fish declaring �eat and die!� The pig died and the dogs were very sick. 5 f If ever proof was required that the Captain was disoriented it was the fourth attempt to eat poison fish. This time however Cook declared that he knew what he was doing! w Off Norfolk Island. On 6th October 1774 officer of the watch First Llieutenant Robert Palliser Cooper caught a fish of the identical kind which had on 8th Sept 1774 poisoned the Captain, Forster senior and Forster junior. Cooper heard from everybody that the fish was poisonous; but he obstinately refused to give ear to this good advice he ordered the fish to be cleaned skinned, and accordingly it was cooked and dressed. Cooper�s mess-mates fairly laughed him out of the mess. No amount of serious advice could influence his mulish disposition. However a little dog given by the Captain to Mr. Clerke had eaten some of the guts and garbage, and this poor

creature was soon in a state of distress groaning, howling, and having lost entirely use of all limbs, that its sight must move the heart of the most hardened and indolent. Regardless of the advice afforded those who were about to consume it, the poisonous fish was served to both Lieut Cooper and James Cook consumed it with gusto.6 w �At last extinct each social feeling fell, And joyless inhumanity pervades And petrifies the heart��.. Thompson�s The Seasons - Spring A Cook�s madness in eating fish, knowing it to be poisonous was the last straw for Forster. He brooded on it, and in quoting the poet Thompson as he clawed at any reference, regardless of the fact that the poet was referring to mother-nature and not a demonic ship�s captain. But Forster needed a text for his journal that pointed to Cook�s unstable nature. p After consuming poisonous fish Cook was treated with numerous glisters augmented by his daily purge with his antimony cup. b This same procedure was done earlier in February 1796 when Mr. Patten the surgeon and Forster tendered to Cook�s illness. Once again the duo came to the rescue with additional purging with the antimony cup and flushing out the captain with glisters and the old standby ipecacuanha (Psychotria ipecacuanha) a flowering plant, the root of which is most commonly used to make syrup of ipecac, a powerful emetic. Its name comes from the Tupi i-pe-kaa-gu�ne, translated as 'road-side sick-making plant' a native to Brazil. To this were added large doses of castor oil, opiates, warm bathing plaster of theriac (a medical concoction made of opium, and a large number of other ingredients). It was originally invented as an antidote against snake venom and later used as a cure-all. Cook�s purging continued with the emetic antimonial cup and other treatments for three more days. The poor man eventually recovered, how he did is almost beyond comprehension. T Easter Island Cook states in his Journal on 15th March 1774 that he was anxious to go ashore but was not sufficiently recovered from a fit of illness to make one of the party.7 Marra wrote this day February 23rd 1774 the Captain was taken ill, to the grief of all the ship's company.8 Sixteen days out of Easter Island on February 26th 1774 Cook was still desperately ill, which he tried to hide from the crew. The Forsters however noticed the obvious illness and purged Cook a number of times with the antimony cup, medicines and glisters. Cook took to his bunk, took a purge and vomited. Forster recorded that the Captain is easier, having had several stools from repeated glisters and the hiccough is not returned till this noon and there are hopes that he will grow better, if nothing intervenes. t Cook was very sick again this time he recorded the incident in his Journal on 27th February 1774. He was suffering from bilious colic, which was so violent as to confine him to bed. Lieutenant Cooper took over the management of the ship. It was several days before the most dangerous symptoms of his disorder were removed; during which time. Mr. Patten the surgeon proved to be, not only a skilful physician, but an affectionate nurse; and Cook was grateful for the care bestowed on him. Cook�s emetic cup was now being overworked, packing antimony into his system with dire consequences. Forster senior ordered the butcher to prepare the last of his Tahitian dogs, now fully recovered after eating the poison fish innards. 10 There was no other fresh meat on board, and a broth was made of it, although Cook complained that he could not taste the delicate dog-meat. He stated that it gave him nourishment and strength from food which would have made most people in Europe sick. 9 Forster noted that on 1st March 1774 the Captain was much better. �he sits up and eats something but is very weak and quite emaciated

and will continue so for a good while, unless we meet with land and get some refreshments�. r Nearly one month later 26th March 1774 Captain Cook was now much better, but very weak, this was as close as Cook got to death during the voyage. w

Chapter Twenty-Nine Flogging and Punishment During the Second Voyage D

Chapter 29 � 2nd Voyage Floggings and Punishment Punishment was an expected part of the sea-life of a sailor, it was carried out as a solemn ritual, it was a fact of life at sea, but it was nowhere near as frequent an event as is commonly thought. Some ships and Captains gained a reputation for flogging, some of these reputations misconstrued and unearned (Bligh) others rightfully earned like Vancouver, Pigot or Bully Hayes.1 r One punishment which was particularly detested by all because of it was usually cruel, was �keel-hauling�, used in extremis for serious offences, and discontinued in the Royal Navy about 1720. Keel-hauling was still practised by the Dutch and French navies until 1750. To be keelhauled was to have a rope tied around the ankles, and another rope tied to the wrists. The poor soul was thrown overboard without clothes, and dragged under the keel and up the other side of the ship. If the victim drowned, this was to be expected, the alternate was horrific, a body torn to shreds by the barnacles clinging to the hull. More often than not, the crew rostered to drag the victim under the ship were too slow and fumbled the operation, thus ensuring (mercifully) death by drowning. o Captain Hugh Pigot RN (1769 - 1797) Piggott was a cruel vindictive man who made life sheer hell during 1797 on HMS Hermione 32 guns. Finding a solution to his vindictiveness the crew murdered him and all of his officers. Evil deed done, the crew retired with the ship to the West Indies where justice eventually caught up with them. Pigot was a flogging captain, yet his recorded number of floggings for twelve months was seventy nine

men. The previous commander on the same ship Captain Wilkinson flogged thirty men over the preceding twelve months, the crew numbered about one hundred and eighty men. While some of the crew were reefing the topsails, Captain Pigot called out to a number of men on the topsail-yard that he would flog the last man down; as a consequence of this, two men fell to their death. Pigot purportedly said �throw the lubbers overboard� this callous remark enhancing his roguish behaviour but offering the crew the trigger to support their following actions. The men uttering obscenities began throwing double-headed shot about the deck; and on the first lieutenant's advancing to inquire into the cause of the disturbance, they wounded him in the arm with a tomahawk. He retired, for a while, and then returned; when the wretches knocked him down, cut his throat with a tomahawk, and threw him overboard. Captain Pigot, hearing a noise, ran on deck, but was driven back with repeated wounds; seated in his cabin he was stabbed by his coxswain and three other mutineers, and forced out of the cabin windows, was heard to speak as he went astern in the ship�s wake. In a similar manner did the mutineers proceed with eight other officers; cutting and mangling their victims in the most cruel and barbarous manner. The only officers that escaped destruction were, the master, Edward Southcott, the gunner, Richard Searle, the carpenter, Richard Price, one midshipman, David O'Brien Casey, and the cook, William Moncrief : those murdered were, the captain, three lieutenants, purser, surgeon, captain's clerk, one midshipman, the boatswain, and the lieutenant of marines.2 Too few cruel Captains were officially brought into line, Captain the Hon, William Hervey of HMS Superb was relieved of his duties and cashiered by Court Martial, after it was proved that he was unhinged mentally and considered mad! 3 Any verbal complaint against authority was usually ignored, but when a formal complaint was put in writing, this action could not be ignored, and the authorities were bound to act. Cruel disciplinarians like Cook, lost control far too often, inflicting punishment on crew and �natives� alike. Such cruelty would not normally have been officially condoned. Unfortunately neither the Admiralty nor Cook could control his actions. Cook�s problem remained undiagnosed; officers and crew could see that the Captain was obviously very sick. His mind was slowly unhinging, manifesting itself in uncharacteristic cruelty. The problem was an overloading of antimony poison from his purging cup, yet he had no idea what the problem was and what was causing it. After Pepys restructured the Royal Navy, in 1661, the rules of discipline were laid down and codified by statute. 4 Punishment could be administered for a range of perceived offences: sleeping on watch; murder; theft; desertion; buggery; striking an officer; the lash being the only option available, however for mutiny and spying the punishment was usually death � hanged at the yard arm. 5 The alternate to being strung-up from a yard-arm, but reserved for officers only, was the firing squad, this privilege was offered to Admiral John Byng (1704�1757) executed on the quarterdeck of his own ship on the deck of HMS St. George in Portsmouth harbour. A court martial found Byng of breaching the Articles of War, which had recently been revised to mandate capital punishment for officers who did not do their utmost against the enemy, either in battle or pursuit. The order to �carry out the punishment� was conducted in the fore-noon- watch. All seamen other than those engaged on the duty watch would be piped to the quarterdeck to either witness the punishment or form a double line for the �gauntlet run�. The punishment station was prepared with a hatch-cover grate tied to the mainmast pin rack or often no structure other than the ratlines was

required. The Marine drummers would beat the �call to deck�; the marines would understand the command was to gather on after deck. The crew would answer the boatswain�s call to assemble for the same ritual. The recalcitrant would then be marched before the assembled crew by the boatswain, the sergeant at arms and the officer of the watch, accompanied by two or more marines and drummers. The officer of the watch would read aloud to the assembled crew the charges against the offender, who by now was tied face down; stripped with back bare spread-eagled on the hatch cover or otherwise the rigging. With ceremony the �cat was let out of the bag� and administered with gusto. The �cat o-nine-tails� was a standard issue whip, supplied by the Victualling Supply Department at Deptford, it was made up of nine-tailed ropes knotted at the end, spliced to a rope or wooden handle some were �modified� with lead tips, (this lead tip practice however was not officially condoned). After the offender had received his punishment lashes, the ship�s surgeon or surgeon�s mate examined the victim and treated the welts or resulting lacerations with a salve containing mercuric oxide. The problem with flogging a crewman was not taken lightly by the ship�s Captain who generally did not order men to suffer the formal and relatively severe punishment of flogging without coolly judging how seriously the offence threatened the discipline and safety, and whether his reasoning would be accepted below deck. Complicating matters, the staging of a flogging was not only time consuming, for a flogging by the cat saw the seaman out of action for a many days, depending how many lashes administered. The more severe the offence, the more lashes administered, and the longer the watch was short of a man. Prior to a major charge, the crewman was gagged, bound hand and foot and placed in irons. For a less severe offence the crewman was brought on deck four hours before the lash was to be administered and was made �toe the line� marked on the deck. Should the recalcitrant fail accept the lashes prescribed, the number was increased. Should the master-at-arms fail to flog with gusto, then he too would be flogged under Article of War 25 �negligently to perform his duty�. Floggings 2nd Voyage Another practice usually reserved for the inebriated was forcing the drunken sailor to run �the gantlope� (spelling of the day) - a tunnel of sailors armed with knotted ropes striking the recalcitrant as he attempted to �run the gauntlet� to ensure the �runner� took his time an officer with drawn hangar walked in front of the victim, the drawn sword also prevented an easy escape. History rarely recorded that Cook was bigger tyrant than Bligh, although Bligh had the perceived reputation of being a bully. Bligh would never have countenanced the outrageous behaviour demonstrated by Cook during all three voyages. Bligh had the reputation of being a flogger and a bully, this reputation was unearned. To the contrary Cook was a bully, a flogger and a vicious brute when he severely wounded natives. Cook had limbs sliced to the bone, ears cut off and heads shaved. Natives were peppered with shot (one in the face), and many more were shot dead by Cook or on his orders. The malicious destruction of native villages, canoes, and property by Cook, were all contrary to his standing orders � he was a tyrant. The cat was the only legal physical punishment permitted to Cook, except in extremis: Then under certain Articles of War the Courts Marshall had the obligation by statute to resort to capital punishment and the death penalty for the following offences: 6 Article 3 � Entertain intelligence with the enemy Article 4 � Send a message to the enemy Article 5 � Spying Article 6 � Give supplies to the enemy

Article 10 � Failure to fight Article 11 � Refuse an order, Article 12 � Refuse to fight Article 13 � Withdraw help to a friend Article 16 � Failing to stand by a convoy Article 21 � Strike an officer Article 24 � Set fire to a ship or stores Article 27 � Murder Article 29 � Buggery During the first voyage Cook used the lash many times (officially confined to two dozen lashed for theft; one dozen for getting drunk; one dozen for ignoring an order of an officer; one dozen for stealing from the natives and six more for complaining that they were �only savages�. Regulations did not lay down specific punishment for natives encountered during the voyages. But during the second voyage, Cook upped the lash rate, this was contrary to Cook�s standing-orders that limited the use of the lash to twelve per offence. But now Cook was to break the Article 32 in the Articles of War and started to flog the natives. Extracted from the various Journals is the following summary of the 2nd voyage floggings: Irishman John Marra, Gunner�s Mate, age twenty-six years, was punished with twelve lashes for insolence on 3rd August 1772. Marra was to become the most flogged seaman on board the sloops. He had served aboard HM Bark Endeavour during the first voyage; Marra sold a narrative of the second voyage to John Newberry who published it anonymously in 1775. A second edition of Marra's work published at Dublin by C. Jenkin in 1776. 7 No doubt still on a high after �crossing the line� shenanigans two days earlier on 11th September 1772 when many consumed a quantity of brandy, three of the crew were summoned to �toe the line�. Richard Lee able bodied seaman age twenty years, punished with twelve lashes for insolence. � He was flogged on three separate occasions. Marine private Francis Taylor punished for insolence � twelve lashes, this was the second occasion.8 John Elliott wrote in his memoirs 7th February 1773 that the recalcitrant Mr. Loggie was discharged from his station for having had a dispute with the boatswain. Eighteen year old Loggie was considered one of the most troublesome of the midshipmen, he was called for punishment on six occasions. John Coghlan the sixteen year old midshipman was sent before the mast for quarrelling with the captain's servant. Two days later he was restored as a midshipman. Coghlan, regardless of his tender years was a nasty piece of work, regarded as a drunk and �wild� he was to be punished twice. On 18th March 1775 Coghlan, was confined in irons after threatening violence to the ship's cook with a knife.9 In the Antarctic Circle in transit to New Zealand, on 16th February 1773 Furneaux on HM Sloop Adventure was not answering the half-hour gun signals or acknowledging the night-time flares. The spectacular Aurora Australis was observed for the first time.10 Now as far south as was possible, it was very cold, icebergs threatening every moment, yet there was still time for ship-board chores like the discipline of the crew. This day saw a record number of unfortunates presented before the Captain for punishment, all who were charged with theft were sentenced to twelve lashes

each.11 Twenty-two years able bodied seaman Peter Briscoe but acted as the ship�s tailor; Francis Taylor, marine, age thirty-three years; William Atkinson AB, age thirty-one years; John Buttal, marine age unknown; Philip Brotherson, marine drummer, age unknown. HM Sloop Adventure at Queen Charlotte Sound, NZ Furneaux records 15th April 1773 punished the carpenter David Lewis with twelve lashes for theft.13 Not all saw an evil side of James Cook, some reserved comment to complimentary remarks, as they joined Cook in his flogging beliefs. At the �Friendly Islands�, Tonga on 23rd May 1773 John Henry Martin a midshipman on the Discovery, wrote 14 �punished one of the Indian chiefs with fifteen lashes for theft, had we made an example of every one of these people that deserved it, punishments would have been endless, for their skill in pilfering is almost past conception, and had any man of less Humanity than Captains Cook and Clerke Commanded, many of these people must have lost their life, from the daring attempts they were hourly making on us�. Not withstand these compliments within two weeks James Cook�s temper was totally out of control, he was in a foul mood when during June 1773 he decided to stamp out thieving amongst the �Indians� � not one of these floggings or savagery was logged in his official Journal but others could not ignore the madness they witnessed. Not in the official recordings were the statistics of the appalling toll inflicted on indigenous native populations especially during the second and third voyage. In a pique of madness Cook flogged one poor native soul with six dozen lashes � six times Cook�s legal limit � as if this fit of inhumanity was not enough Cook scored both arms of the hapless victim with a seaman�s knife carving deep � �longitudinally and transversely to the bone�. To add disfigurement to his crimes Cook ordered a cross to be carved into the Tongan�s shoulders. The Tongan�s crime was protecting a sacred tree from being felled. The crew intent on felling the tree, fired muskets to scare away those protecting it, the defender threw a stone in defence. According to Captain Cook, the logic for his cruelty was �to deter the rest from theft or using ill onshore�. Only Edgar�s Journal has this account. 15 First lieutenant on the Resolution Robert Cooper wrote on 20th July 1773 punished able bodied seaman John Keplin Seaman with one dozen lashes for throwing an old chew of tobacco amongst victuals dressing. �This has frequently been practiced by persons unknown�. 16 At Tahiti, Keplin was at it again, the able-bodied seaman was one recalcitrant who would taunt the officer of the watch to the point of frustration, he deserved all he got. On 22nd August 1773 punished with twelve lashes for insolence, and stealing from the natives. 17 Tahiti On 30th August 1773 marine George Woodward, age unknown, was punished by eighteen lashes and confined in irons. Marine, John Duttal, age unknown punished with eighteen lashes and confined in irons. Able bodied seaman age unknown, Emmanuel Peterson punished with eighteen lashes and confined in irons.18 All charged with being absent from duty and for rioting and quarrelling with the natives ashore, over women! Cook ordered them punished �according to their deserts�. 19 Gunners Mate John Marra, age twenty-eight years punished with six lashes for insolence.20 Joseph Gilbert, the Master, wrote 6th November 1773 that the sergeant at arms punished John Keplin with a dozen lashes for leaving the ship when on duty and declaring he would go with the �Indians�. He thought proper to come back of himself�. Gilbert would go on to record the most damming and forthright description of the cruel actions of James Cook, if Admiralty had taken notice of Gilbert, Cook would certainly have been charged with multiple breaches of the

Articles of War.21 New Zealand, 22nd November 1773 under specific instruction from the Captain, able bodied seaman Richard Lee age 20 years was punished with twelve lashes for stealing from the Maoris. 22 Charles Loggie, age nineteen years the disrated midshipman was punished again with twelve lashes for fighting. The Articles of War were read on 2nd January 1774, by Charles Clerke prior to administering punishment to Logie for abusing, drawing his knife upon and cutting two of the midshipmen, again! 23 Loggie had formally a midshipman, for his repeated ill behaviour the Captain thought it proper to dismiss him from the quarter deck. For the common safety of the ship�s company the captain rendered it necessary to disgrace Loggie with corporal punishment on a number of occasions 24. Although demoted from the quarterdeck, Loggie (who was liked by Cook) was allowed back as Midshipman. Loggie went on to become a First Lieutenant in another Command. Loggie was of naval stock being the son of James Loggie, a post captain in the Royal Navy. Whilst restrained in irons on the quarter deck, and still under the influence of alcohol, Loggie abused Captain Cook, in a language that the captain approved not, but understood. Loggie stayed drunk and abusive for many hours still uttering foul obscenities at the Captain, who, fed up with the abuse then ordered him to be taken away. Mr. Maxwell (of whom Cook was to call a �whining hypocrite�) came to the Captain on the Quarter Deck, in distress and complained that Loggie had attempted to stab him with a knife, and the tiny cut on his hand was proof of this skirmish. Loggie had been drunk again at dinner, and was baiting Maxwell thrusting his dirk in exaggerated gestures Maxwell foolishly tried to take the knife from him, and received a minor cut for his trouble. But Cook, probably recollecting his conduct to himself earlier, instantly ordered Loggie up to the gangway, and there flogged him like a common sailor, and then turned him before the mast. Midshipman John Elliott recorded the drinking habits of Loggie in his memoirs. 25 A few days later, Loggie was ordered to be released and demoted to able bodied seaman. 26 Loggie never lost his aggressive nature however, this came to an abrupt termination when he was killed whilst duelling at another place at another time. Clerke was fed up with drunks on his watch, a sanguine message was sent to the entire crew when he ordered the cat out of the bag for three of the worst drunks. 19th February 1774, able bodied seaman John Innell age twenty years was punished with twelve lashes for drunkenness and neglect of duty. (Clerke spelling the name �Ennel�). Able bodied seaman John Leverick age twenty three years punished with six lashes for the same offence of drunkenness and neglect of duty. Twenty two years old seaman Richard Lee six lashes � drunkenness and neglect of duty. 27 The crew willingly gathered to assist the officer of the day by forming a gauntlet to punish William Wedgerborough, age unknown, marine, 37th Company, Chatham Division he was confined on 18th March 1774 as there was strong presumptive proof of uncleanliness; he was caught easing himself between decks. It was also proved that he drunk too often. The next morning, the people and crew were ordered to turn-out aft in order to punish him. John Edgcumbe Marine Second Lieutenant objected to running Wedgeborough through a gauntlet and stopped the run, preferring to confine the prisoner. Wedgeborough was a nasty bit of work, with revolting personal toilet habits when drunk, which was often; he would defecate outside the allocated places. Earlier he had caused angst when he killed a native at Tanna, in full sight of Cook. Wedgeborough, while drunk fell overboard at Erromanga and was saved by young Forster who revived him with a glass of brandy, much to the delight of patient.28

Midshipmen Maxwell and Charles Loggie were twenty-one years old and seventeen years old when they had joined, were at it again. John Elliott, midshipman, recorded March 1774 that Mr. Maxwell Mr. Loggie and some other gentlemen, having made an agreement amongst themselves to make merry; A quarrel arose between the two and Mr. Maxwell hit Mr. Loggie. Loggie in return opened his knife and swore that he would stab Maxwell, seemingly these two were constantly threatening each other! For which Loggie was punished with a dozen lashes after having done his duty before the mast. 29 Off the Marquesas Islands, on 6th April 1774 John Innell able bodied seaman age twenty years, was punished with twelve lashes for insolence. Forster may have found the answer to Innell�s �insolence� he thought Innell was starving, and Forster assumed that the thought that within twenty four hours Innell was due to visit the dancing wahines and a feast of roast pork and taro roots. Innell and some of the crew messed in the gunroom eating chiefly bread, their stomach loathing all kinds of food they can afford and they are weak, thin and emaciated, the had scurvy!30 Tahiti At Tahiti, Cook gave orders that if a stolen musket was returned, nothing further would be said. He was now told that the gun had been stolen by a native of Tiarabou, and therefore the chief Otoo was unable to get it back, so after a little discussion Cook decided to put up with the loss, and sent word to the king of Tiarabou that he would say no more about it, to the King that is. As for the marine who permitted the loss this was a different matter altogether. During the evening of 7th May 1774 after much angst and the (questionable) loss of one life, the musket was returned with a number of other articles that had not been missed, and the men who brought them were duly rewarded. Cook says it was remarkable how many had been actively engaged in their recovery. One man in particular described most vividly how he had followed up, attacked and killed the thief of the musket, but at the same time everyone was well aware that this hero had never been away from his own house throughout the day! 31 The loss of a musket is a cardinal sin for a marine. Cook authorised the upping of the rate to twenty four lashes, the offence considered so serious that Baldie could have paid with the loss of his life on 8th May 1774. Richard Baldie, marine age unknown of the middle watch, through the negligence on shore, gave one of the natives an opportunity to carry off his musket. Second Lieutenant Charles Clerke, read the Sixth Articles of War and punished Baldie with a dozen for neglecting his duty.32 The next day Clerke gave Baldie the other dozen for his very extraordinary carelessness and neglect. That afternoon, according to Forster, Captain Cook came ashore and soon after there came several men who returned the musket and a bundle of clothes belonging to one of the marines, they also returned a huge two-hour glass, stolen out of the tent. Charles Williams the coopers mate age twenty-two years was punished on 28th May 1774, with twelve lashes for loosing his tools.34 Williams was another candidate lucky to be treated leniently under the Sixth Articles of War. On 18th August 1774 on the island of Tanna, New Hebrides (Vanuatu) the volcano �Yasour� was erupting lava and rumbling in a threatening manner. William Tow, marine, 28th Company, Chatham Division, age unknown was tethered to the ratlines and punished with twelve lashes for trading with the natives while on duty. 35 Marine Private William Wedgeborough, age unknown punished by confinement for shooting a man on Tanna on 18th August 1774.36 Wedgeborough was excused a flogging when he argued that he was acting under orders of Lieutenant John Edgecombe. On 22nd December 1774 alas no amount of brandy could revive Wm Wedgerborough at Christmas Sound, Tierra del Fuego, where he fell overboard again but this time he

drowned.36 As the ship had slipped the painter cable, catted the anchor and set its sails on 3rd November 1774 to Huahine, Magra slipped over the side hoping to swim to the arms of a dusky maiden ashore. Alas this amorous reprobate was caught and brought back on board to face his punishment. This was the second time Magra had tried to desert his post! And he would try again later. James Mario Magra Gunner�s mate, age twenty-six years, was punished with twelve lashes for going ashore without permission. 37 Joseph Gilbert, the master, wrote of the punishment administered to able bodied seaman aged twenty-six years John Keplin on 6th November 1774, a dozen lashes for leaving the boat when on duty and declaring he would go with the �Indians�, he was to return of his own accord. 38 Confinement - �Bilboo-irons�. �Confinement� meant restrained in irons which were a nasty form of punishment known since mediaeval times as �Bilboo-irons�. Once in irons the prisoner was laid on his back unless athletic was unable to sit. Irons were a simple but effective restraint; a very long heavy bolt or bar of iron having two sets of sliding shackles, something like handcuffs, and a lock. The offender�s ankles were clamped then locked in with a padlock. For very difficult prisoners their wrists were also secured in the shackles, between their legs. The bar and shackles being no more than 30 cm off the deck. The prisoner once tethered to the deck had nowhere to go; the only way out of the restraint was with a key! Otherwise the prisoner was prevented any form of locomotion. 39 The cruelty aspect comes from the fact that the prisoner was forced to conduct bodily functions were he was restrained. The earlier bilboes were not tethered to the deck but to get the prisoner �laying by the heels� the end of the bar was tethered high to the bulkhead, with the prisoner�s feet point upwards and the shoulders touching the deck. The bilboo irons were eventually replaced with the more common �leg irons�, large handcuffs for the ankles joined by a short chain forcing the victim to shuffle. The �full set� included a neck iron, but these were used more in the slave trade than in the Royal Navy. In later years by far the most usual form of restraint was common leg-irons, also known as �fetters�. When these were worn for long periods, the rough edges of the iron rings lacerated the raw flesh, making every movement agonising and infection soon set in. The royal navy of two hundred years ago was indeed a cruel institution, much more so than the Army. In fact, one of the most feared punishments in the army was to be transferred to the navy. Not only were seamen flogged mercilessly for minor infractions, but, as described by Scott Claver, �Under the Lash� individual commanders actually designed their own instruments of torture to keep crews in line.40 In the British Navy during the age of sail, flogging was the most common of all punishments.� In his book, Sea Life In Nelson's Time,�John Masefield writes:�� �One blow was sufficient to take off the skin, and to draw blood wherever the knots fell.� Six blows were enough to make the back positively raw.� Twelve blows cut deeply into it, and left it a horrible red slough, sickening to look upon�. Realising that the lash was being used in a cavalier manner by too many officers, and that some Captains were taking punishment to the extreme, in 1750 Admiralty issued new instructions in a paper �Printed Instructions� limiting the legal limit of the lash to twelve strokes for summary offences, committed outside those laid down by the �Articles of War�. The flogging captains soon got around this by administering the lash � a dozen at a time! Thus, to give the appearance of conforming to the regulations the count of floggings no longer singular but in �dozens�. However the old standby Article of War 35 could always be used with the

Captain�s discretion! �All other crimes not capital committed by any person or persons in the fleet, which are not mentioned in this act, or for which no punishment is hereby directed to be inflicted, shall be punished by the laws and customs in such cases used at sea�. The �wild drinking set� were at it again on 18th March 1774. They were a bane constantly bickering and squabbling with each other. Midshipmen Maxwell; Loggie; and Coghlan were all confined in irons after once more threatening violence to the ship's cook with a knife. They were released on 20th March after promising to behave in future. 41 Charles Loggie, with the trepanned head and proved somewhat enigmatic to Cook who thought that Loggie was only drinking �from misfortune�. Two of the others in the group were disliked by Cook who described them as the �hypocritical canting fellow Maxwell�; �The �Jesuitical� Whitehouse, sensible but an insinuating litigious mischief making fellow�. 42 The junior in the group who was to rise to fame as an explorer, George Vancouver�, age �18 years was described as quiet inoffensive young man, (who would go on in later life to become a vicious flogger � about as bad as one could get in the Royal Navy).43 Flogging Abolished Flogging was abolished in 1881 in response to strong public opinion. Many Royal Navy captains chose to ignore the flogging regulations laid down in �Printed Instructions�. Floggings of one hundred lashes or more were still not unheard of, in fact, as late as 1807, George III saw fit to intervene in Navy affairs by setting an upper limit of one thousand lashes! Neither Cook nor Bligh is known to ever have punished any member of his crew with more than five dozen lashes � and that was for desertion, for which the sentence was often death by hanging. A popularly held misconception concerning the flogging reputation of Captain Bligh of HM Armed Transport Bounty, was that he was ruthless. There is compelling evidence suggesting that this reputation was a Hollywood myth. The frequently reviled Bligh was actually not as harsh a commander as the widely respected Cook. In the seventeen months that Bligh was in command of the HM Armed Transport Bounty, he ordered eleven floggings with a total of twenty dozen lashes in all! Cook flogged at the rate of once or twice a week. (Even when we take into account that Cook had a larger crew, it is still clear that he authorised flogging more frequently than Bligh). One can take the comparison to extremes by claiming that Bligh was not in command for half of the official voyage! James Cook thought better of recording all of the floggings he authorised, very few mentions in his own journals however other officers recorded Cook�s cruel administration in their journals. Ships # of crew# of crew lashed# of Lashes% lashed# of Dozens# Days of voyageAve floggings per day3rd VoyageCapt William Bligh HM AT Bounty4656010.875 doz492.0131st VoyageHM Bark Endeavour9430360 31.9%30 doz1,095.3282nd VoyageHM Slops Resolution and Adventure21237 +48317.46%40 doz1,113.4333rd VoyageResolution and Discovery19387 *1,18945.07%99 doz1,237.936+ includes natives * includes natives Ship-board homosexuality. There is no evidence of Cook resorting to the lash for homosexuality aboard his ships. Like many Royal Navy Captains, Cook thought it was easier to turn a blind eye to the offence of buggery or homosexuality and recorded these offences as a �summary offence� with a dozen lashes or a run through the gauntlet. Although as can be seen in the Articles of War. Admiralty and those in the naval corridors treated homosexuality in the same vein as spying or murder. Notwithstanding the

lack of official censure for the practice homosexuality on Cook�s three voyages, it was not uncommon and was undoubtedly practiced by a few on a regular basis. One way Captain Cook could have prevented the spread of venereal disease was to stamp out the homosexual coupling regularly practiced by his crew. Homosexuality was practiced for the many months the crew was at sea, this sexual contact kept the gonorrheae virulent for many months. Had the crew been restrained from sexual intercourse gonorrheae at least, could not have lain dormant for the months of the sea voyage. However regular contact within the crew ensured the disease remained virulent, to be spread amongst the innocents on the Pacific Islands. Preventing homosexual sex on board the ship however would not have overcome the latency that syphilis presents. A member of the crew with third or �latent� stage syphilis may show no symptoms. This stage may occur two years after the initial rash is gone and may last for as many as 20 years. Although symptoms may be few, some may have lesions in bones, nervous tissue, and the heart. Although at this point, syphilis is not spread through sexual contact. During the final stage of syphilis, which is not infectious, the serious effects of the latent stage appear. Damage to facial cartilage, paralysis, blindness, heart disease and mental incapacity may develop, depending on which organs the bacteria have attacked. If left untreated, syphilis may cause death. Today if treated during the first three stages it can be easily cured with penicillin or other antibiotics but no modern medicines were available to Cook or any of the physicians until the improbable chain of events that led Alexander Fleming to discover penicillin in 1928. The evidence that places the blame of the spread of gonorrheae is to be found by its rampant spread around the Pacific Islands and other places where Cook and his men called. The diseases that can remain dormant for a number of years include HIV, syphilis and herpes, venereal warts but none of these caused the devastation that gonorrheae caused to the Pacific Island nations. The symptoms of gonorrhoea usually appeared 2 to 10 days after sexual contact was made with an infected partner, although a small percentage of the islanders could have been infected for several months without showing symptoms. During the second voyage Forster was bewildered scratching his head looking for others to blame for the spread of gonorrheae in the Pacific and refusing to recognise where the problem started and more importantly how it was carried through the stage of latency. It could only have been carried by regular homosexual practices amongst the crew, and this practice was conducted regardless of the threat of severe punishment under Article of War 29. Between 1755 and 1762 of the hundreds charged with buggery only four persons were found guilty under Article 29 or the old Article 2 (1749) and sentenced to the full penalty of death by hanging. The others with the clever use of semantics and good representation by fo'cs'le lawyers escaped the ultimate penalty. It is fascinating to note the delicate way various captains and officers charged these culprits and rarely if ever they would refer to the practice as �buggery�. This was a capital offence whereas the lash could be used for �unnatural crime�; �uncleanliness�; �indecent practices�. 45 The Nail Trade. The girls on Tahiti realized that they could easily obtain an abundant desirable commodity � iron nails � much treasured by their families. Trade was easy for the native girls � for ten minutes of satiating the carnal desire of over-sexed crewmen she could earn an iron nail. This was a sensible commercial agreement, the girls had what the sailors desired and the sailors had abundance what the girls wanted in exchange. Deals were struck around the clock, until it became obvious that the nails were not from the trade stock, which was all but extinguished, the crew had started to extract the nails from the hull of the ship, and Cook put a stop to the trade. 46

The ladies would signal acquiescence and willingness to cavort by a clenching of their hands, a signal understood by all Pacific Islanders and very soon learned by the visitors. Armed with a pocket full of nails and a few choice words the British sailors were in paradise. Their beautiful native partners however, would find their own �paradise� later off this mortal coil. The Paybook of HM Sloop Resolution shows that of the crew of one hundred and twelve men, sixty-six were infected with venereal disease. 47

Chapter Thirty Thieving, A Pacific Island Way of Life.

Chapter � 30 Thieving, a Pacific Island Way of Life. Cook knew that the practice of the islanders was to thieve whatever they could lift or paddle or sail. There was not a thing that Cook could do about it, but he still set out to reform the �thieving Indians�, alas his actions would lead to the �Great Navigators� death. During the first voyage the ship�s boats and cutters were stolen on more than one occasion, but Cook would always retrieve them. The oven rake from the fort, the iron hoops from a water butt, the wooden staves stolen then were rejected and left, the iron hoops retained by the natives. A marine lost a musket, a pair of pistols belonging to Joseph Banks, a sword from Monkhouse. The cheekiest steal was when Lt Cook lost the stocking from under his pillow, whilst he slept! The quadrant to be used to track the transit of Venus was a very serious theft, it was returned after much angst and a great deal of trouble. Cook was determined to �educate� the thieves in no uncertain manner. Between 2.00 am and 4.00 am on 14th June 1769, one of the natives stole an iron rake out of the fort, it was used to rake coals from the oven. The rake stood against the wall, and was visible from outside of the fort. The rake was spotted by a quick-fingered native lurking about the fort some hours before the thing was missed. Lieut Cook was informed by other natives that the thief watched for an opportunity to steal the rake. He cunningly struck when the duty marine�s back was turned; he hooked the rake with a long crooked stick, and hauled it over the wall. When Cook was informed of the theft, he lost all reason and set out to recover it by some means or other. Firstly by taking possession of twenty two canoes. Cook informed the natives that unless the principal things they had stolen including the rake were restored he would burn every one of the captured canoes. About noon the rake was returned, it was obvious to all that Cook was very serious. Suddenly the stolen things mysteriously appeared, the musket, a pair of pistols belonging

to Mr. Banks, a sword belonging to one of the petty officers, and a water cask, with some other articles not worth mentioning.0 Polynesians thieved enthusiastically with deliberation and with the utmost skill, by day, by night, surreptitiously, brazenly, they couldn�t help themselves and could not understand why someone who had so much, and was not using it, would not share what they had, this was the custom that they understood. The Tongans, Maoris, Hawaiians, were no different to other Pacific islanders they stole tools, muskets, a watch or two, food, boats, animals, a quadrant, much to the vindictiveness of Cook. Whoa-betide the seaman or officer who removed his clothes when visiting a dusky maiden, he was likely to have to his walk back to the ship naked. One of the Discovery's anchors was saved only because it got hooked in a chainplate and could not be disengaged by hand. Although the locals would, out of kindness, give many pigs without a care, the moment they were seen to claim Sloop Discovery�s cat, this was unacceptable and earned the errant local a number of lashes. Trivial thefts�a pewter basin, a memorandum book, a tarpaulin, a dagger snatched from Omai�s side, four hatchets being delivered to a Chief, the courier absconded prior to delivery, a sentry's ramrod�were minor items, none the less irritating. Anything left lying loose about the ships by a working party was likely to be purloined. When Chief Kepa�s son tried to steal Clerke�s cats, the boy was put in irons, and subsequently flogged, with a dozen and to really ram home the point he was asked to pay up with a hog. 1 In a speech given by Beaglehole he tried to put the thieving problem into perspective he stated that Polynesians thieved enthusiastically and would thieve with the utmost skill�by day, by night, surreptitiously, brazenly, by way of highway robbery mingled with assault or with a bold insouciance that almost calls forth admiration.2 Whilst dining with Captain Clerke, one young Prince thought it an innocent and appropriate act to take three tumblers from the dining table. Clerke ordered him detained and flogged with five dozen lashes. Clerk�s action was despicable. 3 During the first voyage Surgeon William Monkhouse complained that a pick pocket had relieved him of his snuff box and Dr. Solander complained that he too had been relieved of opera-glass in a shagreen case. The case was soon found and returned but not the glasses. 4 One daring thief canoed up to the ship and entered the vessel via the quarter light, his trophy, the bread and fish laid out for the Captain�s lunch. The rate of thieving increased and so did Cook�s intolerance. Another marine sentry had a musket stolen, which caused midshipman Jonathon Monkhouse (young brother of the Surgeon) to order, with Cook�s authority the marines to open fire into the gathering crowd, this accounted for one dead, the body was later dispatched on a pyre. Gun noise terrified the natives be it from the ship�s cannon, from a musket or personal fowling pieces. On 15th April 1769 a hunting party had just crossed the river when Mr. Banks shot three ducks with one shot, which surprised the natives so much that most of them fell down as though they had been shot likewise. Sometimes the thieving was done as a dare, as was the case when one of marines was pushed over and his Musket was snatched out of his hand, and then made off. In an

instant the officer ordered the party of marines to fire their muskets, and the man who took the musket was shot dead before he had got too far away.5 With so much punishment being meted out to the natives, murmurings and unrest became apparent. For simple theft, Cook adopted plan �A� and invited all of the chiefs to spend time with him on board the ship. Cook then sent word ashore that the captives would be released when the stolen items were returned. Two days later the goods were returned, the canoes released and the Chiefs somewhat worse from too much alcohol, were also released (some reluctantly). Plan �B� was less benevolent, if stolen goods were not returned, a party of marines would be asked to round-up as many canoes as they could find. If the stolen goods were returned the canoes were returned unharmed. If the stolen goods were not returned the order to burn the canoes was to be carried out. Plan �C� was put in place if the stolen good still were not returned. This was as an outrageous and barbaric act; James Cook ordered the grass and bamboo homes torched, with little or no warning to the occupants. Plan �D� was even more outrageous � the big guns were rolled out and the hot cannon balls fired directly into the houses, killing the inhabitants, men, women, children and live stock. Is it any wonder the natives took umbrage and at every opportunity enforced their own anger on Cook and the crew. Joseph Banks noted a bashing incident on Mr. Monkhouse the surgeon. As the surgeon was pulling a wild orchid growing in a tree on sacred ground, at the local cemetery, a local came from behind Mr. Monkhouse, he was joined by two more natives, to the consternation of Monkhouse who had difficulty fending off three in the attack. 6 Stealing was not a unique past time to the Pacific Islanders, at �King George's Sound� (Nootka Sound) James Cook found the Nuu-chah-nulth people, were also very deft and exceedingly light fingered when his gold watch was dexterously purloined, but was recovered; however this was small fry, at Prince William Sound the local thieves tried to steal the entire Sloop �Discovery�. Later from the same ship they nearly had their best bower anchor stolen, but for the flukes fouling they would have succeeded. The tipping point for James Cook�s vindictiveness was more than evident when a kid goat was stolen from the deck pen. Cook snapped, firing his fouling piece, loaded with shot, right into the face of the poor Tahitian thief. Cook had no idea about the local custom of thieving. Pilfering was not looked on as criminal by the Tahitians; they even had a God of thieves � �Hiro�. 7 Moorea is the sister island of Tahiti, only eleven miles away and visible from Tahiti, has a large mountain, �Moua Puta�, which means split rock, is a 2,739 foot mountain on Moorea with a volcanic vent-hole piercing it. Legend tells us the hole was made with the spear of Pai, a favourite son of the Polynesian gods, Pai was warned that Hiro, the god of thieves, planned to take the sacred mountain Rotui home to Raiatea, Pai threw his spear from Tahiti to the top of Moua Puta. The sound was so loud it woke up the roosters on Moorea. Their crowing caused the thieves to flee, saving Moua Puta, and leaving the huge gaping hole at the top. As the thieving continued, �Hiro� or not, Cook�s ability to be reasonable started to vanish, he became even more vicious breaking the �Rules of War� numerous times. He presently discovered that they were as expert at thieving as tricking in their exchanges. It was with some difficulty the �gentlemen� could keep the hats on their heads; but hardly possible to keep anything in their pockets, even goods just purchased or exchanged with the local. The cunning natives would watch for the opportunity to snatch the purchased goods back, so the na�ve Europeans sometimes bought the same thing two or three times over.8

After breakfast on 10th September 1773, Captain Furneaux and Captain Cook paid the island chief a visit; and they were entertained with a visit to a comedy performance or dramatic heava, commonly acted in the isles. The music consisted of three drums, the actors were seven men, and one woman, the chief's daughter. The only entertaining part in the drama, was the acting out of a theft committed by a man and his accomplice acted in such a masterly manner, by experts. 9 During the 2nd voyage of HM Sloop Resolution, Clerke�s musket was stolen at Rotterdam, Friendly Islands (Nomuka, North Tonga Islands). In the now expected manner when the natives came aboard the ship on 22nd June 1774, they stole the lead depth-sounding line. All fifteen of the shore party also had something stolen. The theft was too much for Cook, in a fit of �Heevas� (mockingly named by the crew after the expressive Tahitian heeva dance) he ordered the big guns fire into the village on shore, this had the desired effect. The Gods had spoken and had their goods were returned, Cook often referred to the big guns as �the instruments of death�. Cook�s anger was now recurring more often. After stealing an adze Cook fired his double barrels into the culprit who was declared �dead� by his cohorts, the surgeon was called and magically the man �Lazarus like� rose from the �dead� thus enhancing Cook�s reputation, �Lono� was a powerful God! 10 �Lono the rolling thunder, the heaven that rumbles; the disturbed sea�

Chapter Thirty-one Cook�s Mayhem and �Heevas� Continue

Chapter 31 - Cook�s Mayhem and �Heevas� Continue Cook and the poisonous fish During July 1774 natives at the South West Bay Malekula (Vanuatu) came in hordes and threatened the crew and the ship. Cook ordered the big guns rolled out again and primed, when a number of locals from the shore-side threatened with bows and arrows tipped with poison. Cook fired his fowling piece with both barrels to no avail. The 3rd lieutenant however managed one barrel of buckshot directly into the face of one poor soul, as he dived over the side of the ship.1 On shore, drums sent out an ominous message, ignored by Cook, who ordered the pinnace lowered. Cook was going ashore for wood and water, and he would show the savages who was in charge! Crowds amassed in canoes and ashore, most were armed with clubs, spears and bows with poison arrows ready to Cook, they were the most disagreeable creatures I ever saw. 2

The locals stole a mooring buoy. One brave soul managed to climb aboard into the ratlines and while hanging on to the mizzen shrouds, an angry Cook fired his gun and squeezed the trigger the ball missed as the culprit fell back into the sea. All of the natives scarpered to the safety of the shore, Cook ordered the big guns follow them. They could not ignore the four-pounder guns. Natives scattered, leaping off the ship everyway possible, making haste to safe ground. One native had the audacity to show his backside to Captain Cook, posing a cheeky target for Cook, alas his musket pan failed to flash. Within the hour the drums started to beat they were angry. But so was Cook and he needed to re-supply water and wood.3 Once ashore, no further argument developed between the parties, who thought that it was time for a parley. Cook got his water and the natives smiled knowingly as they noticed a lovely red tropical fish (Snapper or Lutjanidae) the crew had caught in the harbour bay. The natives knew that it was taboo to eat the red fish when the fine algae were under attack from large shoals of bait-fish. The smaller fish, now toxic from the ciguatera, (micro-algae Gambierdiscus toxicus) were in turn gobbled up by the red snapper turning it toxic for a certain period of time. The poison from this fish has a similar toxicity to that of rattlesnake venom. (Cigua toxin is very heat-resistant, so cigua toxin-laden fish cannot be detoxified by cooking).On at least five previous occasions involving poisonus fish one would have thought intelligent people would have learned a lesson. All of the officers and petty officers who ate the fish subsequently developed severe food poisoning, as recorded by Forster. With the red fish other fish were caught, several people ate the nine-foot shark others ate the rock fish and others ate the sucking fish but were not at all affected, but those who ate the red fish gut the next evening, night and morning suffered the most violent symptoms. Several of the red fish eaters violently vomited, purging upper and lower. They suffered great heat in the face and all had a head-ache; others felt a numbing pain in their arms, knees and legs so that they could scarcely stand or walk; the saliva glands swelled causing too much saliva, that it ran out of the mouth; all had gripes in the intestines, and a painful erection of the penis. The dogs and hog had the same symptoms, alas, the hog died next night. 4 Three weeks later a similar episode with poison fish took place when Cook and Forster soothed angry natives with a gift of pigs and a dog in exchange for water and a tree (for the new tiller). The tree by all accounts was a very special tree, revered by the locals as an ancestral holy tree, but offered no respect by Cook or the crew intent on felling it. With absolute reluctance the natives co-operated with Cook and gave grudging permission for the sacred tree to be, chopped down, to be used as a replacement mast. As part of the food exchange Cook accepted a large supply of fish. On consummation of the fish livers, Cook, Sparmann, Forster and his son were very ill for many days and these foolish men required multiple purges, no doubt saving Cook from death, but adding more antimony to his overloaded system. A few days later Forster mentions that several locals came aboard and noticed the fish skin still in the gash bin, the sight causing a number to look alarmed, this proved that they knew of the dangers the eating of red fish would cause. They all made signs that if this was eaten it was bad and could cause death. Judging by the drawing (no 244) of GeorgeForster they had consumed PufferSun fish. Scraps of the fish fed to the ship livestock � another pig died, another dog died as did the parrot � all thanks to the drum beaters ashore, they knew not to eat the innards of the big Sun Fish. 5 Stupidity was now reigning supreme, Cook and his servant, Forster Jnr and Snr, and Sparman did not learn from the earlier gifts of poison fish. Cook accepted a Bonito, suspected by Johann Forster as being deliberately poisoned. After heartily devouring it, all four were violently ill. Cook instantly adopted his purging procedure and thus eliminated long term poisoning, or did he? 6

By the end of the second voyage Cook had charted more of the Pacific including March 1773 � Tasmania (Adventure), May-June, 1773 � New Zealand (corrections to chart of 1769-70). October 1773 � Friendly Islands and Tongabtabu Group, March 1774 � Easter Island, April 1774 � Marquesa Islands, June 1774 � Friendly Islands, Nomuka Group, December 1774 to January 1775 � Tierra del Fuego and Staten Island, January 1775 � South Georgia and part of Sandwich Islands, HM Sloop Resolution finally anchored off Spithead on July 30th 1775, after a voyage of three years and eighteen days which covered 60,000 to 70,000 miles. Three men had been lost by accident and one by disease, but the Captain recorded none had died of scurvy. The voyage would understandably rank amongst the most remarkable feats of seamanship and navigation the world had ever seen.

Chapter Thirty-two James Cook�s Third Voyage 1776-1780

Chapter 32 - Third Voyage Secret Instructions July 1776. In the usual way Sandwich, Spencer and Palliser of the Admiralty Board issued Cook with �Secret Orders�, these instruction sexplained the �real reason for the voyage. Earl of Sandwich indicated that it was His Majesty's pleasure that an attempt should be made to find out a northern passage by sea from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean. Admiralty could not resist the opportunity to ask the Cook to check up on purported French discoveries. He was instructed to proceed to the southward in search of some islands said to have been lately seen by the French in the latitude of 48� 0' S and about the meridian of Mauritius. If the islands did not exist Cook was instructed not to spend too much time in looking for them. Dalrymple was still making noises about the non existing continent, even though Banks had argued to the contrary. By now the penny had dropped with those in authority on matters exploratory; Admiralty, the Royal Society, the Board of Longitude all concluded that all of Dalrymple�s carping had been in vain, no matter what he believed there was no �Great Southern Land� so it was pointless looking, but, just in case keep an eye open!1 Sensitive of diplomatic turmoil that may arise if the English explorers were to

visit a Spanish possession Cook was specifically instructed to be very careful as not to touch upon any part of the Spanish dominions on the western continent of America, unless driven there by some unavoidable accident; in which case he was instructed to stay no longer there than shall be absolutely necessary, and to be very careful not to give any umbrage or offence to any of the inhabitants or subjects of His Catholic Majesty (Carlos III). 2 James Cook was given another impossible task � find the �North-West Passage, a sea route through the Arctic Ocean, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, offering a potential, weather permitting, trade route. However the Arctic pack ice prevents regular marine shipping many months throughout the year and Admiralty had its own idea as to how Cook should find it. He was given specific instructions upon arrival on the coast of New Albion, (Comox, British Columbia, located on Vancouver Island in the Strait of Georgia Cook was instructed to observe the genius, temper, disposition, and number of the natives and inhabitants should he find any. 3 Further instructions issued as to taking possession in the name of the King of Great Britain. A specific clause was constantly ignored: �With the consent of the natives, you are to take possession of them for His Majesty, by setting up proper marks and inscriptions as first discoverers and possessors�. (This of course never happened!) 4 Today, contrary to the opinion of many nations including the United States, EEC, and Russia, the Canadian government considers the Northwestern Passages part of �Canadian Internal Waters�. Importantly, as global warming loosens up the ice making passage more attractive, this claim will face many challenges. As with previous voyages James Cook was given his Official Orders. Admiralty was intent on finding a way from the East Coast to the West Coast of America, a �Northwest Passage�, a quick way from Europe to the Orient � so they believed. The elegant Omai (c.1751-1780), commonly known as �Omai� in Britain, was the handsome young Ra'iatean prince convinced by Banks to become the first Pacific Islander to visit Europe. Omai, arrived at London in October 1774 and was presented to Court. Omai soon became the darling of London Society. Sir Joshua Reynolds painted Omai�s portrait. In 1776 �The Morning Post� declared it a strong likeness and finely painted. Walpole, often a stern art critic, judged it �very good�. Reynolds exhibited twelve other portraits that year. Sir Joshua was at the height of his powers. The Omai portrait was not a commissioned work, as it remained in the artist's studio until his death and formed part of the studio sale at Greenwood's on 16th April 1796, where it was bought by the dealer Michael Bryan, for 100 guineas, who sold it a few months later to Frederick Howard, 5th Earl of Carlisle, a notable collector and connoisseur. It remained in the family at Castle Howard, Yorkshire, however after a divorce settlement by Honourable Simon Howard the family sold the portrait at Sotheby�s on 29th November 2001 for �10,343,500 a world record. Upon arrival at Otaheite or the Society Isles, Cook was further instructed to land Omiah at an island of his choice and leave the native prince there.� Once the drop-off was final and the crew refreshed, fresh water and stores taken on board, they were to proceed to the coast of Albion. (Alaska). The key to the �Instructions� however was to find existing passage through the ice. The North-West Passage was not to be fully explored until Roald Amundsen (18721928) made the first successful complete path from Greenland to Alaska in the Gj�a. In 1903 he was the first to sail through the Northwest Passage and around

the northern Canadian coast. The journey ended at Herschel Island in the Yukon in 1905). Cook�s �Instructions� continued � 8th June 1776 first, the sloop Resolution to sail to the Cape of Good Hope to re-victual take in provisions, wine and water. On leaving the Cape �Proceed to some Islands said to have been seen by the French in Latitude of 48� 00� south and about the meridian of Mauritius. (Marion, Crozet and Kerguelen Islands?) There were no islands at the suggested co-ordinates. Cook was instructed to explore from New Albion (Alaska) such rivers or inlets as may appear considerable, pointing towards the Hudson�s or Baffin�s Bays. He these bays, and try and pass into any waterway if the sloops were not too big, if they were then Cook was to use the on board the �boats in frames� (shallops tucked below decks � never used). If there was no navigable passage through to the abovementioned bays, weather providing, Cook was to repair to the port of St. Peter and St Paul in Kamtschatka. Then sail north as far as prudence may think proper, in further search of the North East or North-West Passage, from the Pacific Ocean into the Atlantic Ocean or the North Sea.5 James Cook (aged 47 years) had been promoted to post-captain, he was given a sinecure at the Greenwich Hospital where he lived and worked for a few weeks prior to setting off on the last voyage. On return from the third voyage, he was promised a life-long pension. James Cook was not comfortable with the thought of retirement. However the thought of having husband James home was principal in the thoughts of his long suffering wife Elizabeth. 6 Unlike the earlier voyages when he was so attentive at the lading of vital supplies for the voyage, for the third voyage James Cook was not on hand to supervise. At lading at the Deptford Victualling Yards, Cook had instructed that the supplies included plenty of axes, adze, hatchets chisels, and knives long and short be included in the goods for trade with the natives. Importantly, for the crews predilections were 1,740 cwt of �spikes, nails and sorts� - nails of all sizes from longer spike a foot long to �penny nails� this was currency well known to the Pacific Island ladies. And a guarantee that venereal disease would continue to be spread far and wide. 7 As with the previous two voyages, James Cook requested the victualling depot load anti-scorbutics, now proven to ward off the dreaded scurvy. To this was added the basics bread, flour, brandy, wine, vinegar, wheat, raisins, suet, and sugar water. To ensure a regular supply of drinking water, Cook requested the loading of both Irving apparatus and Lieut Orsbridge�s machine for rendering stinking water sweet. 8 Cook wrote to the Navy Board on 2nd April 1776 requesting a large supply of clothing, both as trade goods and to supplement the crew in cold weather. Whilst nails were in big demand in the Pacific, the Russians and North Americans had no need for metal. For this voyage into the cold climbs Cook requested his ship be supplied like a small haberdashery. Cook requested special clothing required for the North-West Passage to the northward of California. 100 kersey jackets, 60 kersey waistcoats, 40 pairs of kersey breeches, 120 linsey waistcoats, 140 linsey drawers, 440 check shirts, 100 pair check draws, 400 frocks, 700 pairs of trousers, 500 pairs of stockings, 80 worsted caps, 340 Dutch caps and 800 pairs of shoes. 9 Chosen as the support vessel to HM Sloop Resolution was the 298 ton collier brig Diligence eighteen months old, built by the Langborn yard at Whitby, after she had been sheathed and filled (against ice and teredo worms) and converted from a brig (two masts) to a ship (three masts), and renamed HM Sloop Discovery. A �sloop� indicates that she is carrying her guns on the upper deck only. A visit to the to HM Ordnance Depot at Deptford, HM Sloop Discovery was loaded with eight-four pounders, eight swivel guns, and eighteen musquetoons (mounted to the gun stocks

like the swivel guns). In case of having to abandon ship a small collapsible �shallop� was loaded, although never used. (HM Bark Endeavour was to use her shallops to land troops at the Falklands). The full compliment for two vessels: HM Sloop Resolution was 112 men and HM Sloop Discovery was 70 men. Discovery proved to be a faster ship than the bigger HM Sloop Resolution. Cook commented that the old Bark Endeavour was a better vessel for taking ground, for careening. Cook could see the qualities of the large West India ship with capacious accommodation with her a finer body than a bark. He could see that this fine sloop would hold a better wind and claw off a lee shore when a bark could not. He was not altogether assured however that her high build would render her as leewardly as the Bark, and prevent her carrying sail so long. He also recognized that this new ship would not allow him the same opportunity to careen. As she would prove top heavy and overset when the bark would sit upright. Plymouth Sound, UK, HM Sloop Resolution with HM Sloop Discovery, busy being equipped, rigged and victualled. Captain Charles Clerke still delayed by his incarceration in the Debtor�s Prison at London. Captain Clerke had signed as guarantor for his brother's (Sir John Clerke) debts. Cook departed 12th July 1776 Cook sighted the western coast of North America on 7th March 1778 and noted so in his log. Earlier at Deptford Cook was not present during the preparation of the sloops; many short cuts were taken in ship preparation. This lack of diligence was to cause the ship to spring a butt joint, causing a major leak. The Resolution�s bread-room flooded when the sea poured in after starboard butt joint between two planks on the outside of a ship became loose at one end, sailors called it springing a butt; to prevent which, ships were usually bolted at the butt-heads, that is, at the plank's end. The next week was to be very tricky trying to nurse the ship along to the Sandwich Islands. The sprung board was just above the waterline, when the vessel was on an even keel, things were good, and however any roll or pitch which is the way of all ships, would exacerbate the problem. The carpenters were anxious to stem the flow when they were informed that the vessel was heading into inclement weather, it soon became obvious that the weather was more than inclement when a gale blew up just as the carpenters had temporarily blocked the leek with nailed dunnage. The main problem for the carpenters was the damage was external and below the waterline. To properly repair the damage the ship would need to be run ashore and careened. At Sandwich Sound (later named Prince William Sound) on the south coast of the U.S. state of Alaska, it was to become the place of the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Cook ordered the vessel careened on a sandy shore it was 15th May 1778. After two days work removing the internal dunnage, the sprung butt joint was repaired with trunnels made of white oak, and trimmed for a tight fit. The oak trunnels were installed in their green state so they would take on moisture and swell in the holes as they dried out. This provided an extremely tight connection. Trunnels were greased with beeswax to aid driving them in. After a quick sea trial to test the repairs the voyage to find the North-West Passage re-commenced. The sloops found an entrance to a bay that looked interesting. They followed a northerly route with the foothills of the Alaska Range in view. After sailing for fifteen days to the 1st June 1778 the vessels reached a point where Anchorage is now, they found a prominent but shallow river named by Cook �Turnaround River�. In this shallow river HM Sloop Resolution ran aground and was firmly stuck. As the tide turned the sloop was released. Cook was forced to recognize that this was another dead end. (Now called Cook Inlet). The sloops turned around and before heading back, Cook ordered King to go ashore plant a flag, and take possession of

the land in His Majesties name, King noted that a number of friendly natives made their presence felt. The explorers then travelled south to the open North Pacific and followed an eastern course along the Aleutian Trench past Kodiak Island. Sailing west off Trinity Islands, Gulf of Alaska (Kodiak Island group) the first Aleuts paddling in kayaks were seen, it was 14th June 1778 that the crew started to barter with the local Inuit, for fur � a few beads preferred to nails for arctic pelts, Arctic martin; fox; sea beaver; bear the trade seemed a good deal to the officers and crew. A number of the crew remembering the ease of this business and plotted to jump ship to continue in this trade! 10 While HM Sloop Resolution was sailing along the Alaskan Peninsula ahead of Captain Clerk in HM Sloop Discovery, Cook realised that Clerk was firing his cannon three times. On 19th June 1778 fearing trouble, an accident or a sprung plank, as this was the signal to come and talk, Cook sent the pinnace to investigate the signal. It was a strange state of affairs that stopped Discovery when a number of Inuit paddled out and handed Captain Clerk a note written in Russian After much discussion it turned out to be a chit dated 1778 drawn on the Russian Government to repay the bearer for services rendered in 1776 to some stranded Russian Traders in that year. Thinking Clerke and Cook were Russians the Inuit saw it appropriate to request the visitors to honour the debt. On 26th June 1778 while HM Sloop Resolution was sailing through a thick fog heading for imminent danger, the look-out screamed out that there were breakers ahead. Danger was averted the sloop managed to stop only a few hundred meters from rocks off Unalaska Island (Cook aptly named it �Providence Island�. Alaska). Midshipman George Gilbert recorded the incident and noted that he and others could not help being struck with horror at the sight of the dangers they had escaped. It was afterwards found on comparing the track on the charts, that Resolution had gone too near the rocks. The sloop Discovery placing the ship�s track to the northward and sloop Resolution incorrectly to the southward, just averting a disaster. 11 Edgar writes more at length after they found themselves in the bay surrounded with rocks and breaker's and realised the terror and the danger they had narrowly escaped with two rocks lying off the middle of the bay, which they had passed so dangerously in the night time fog. Had it been daylight the danger they had encountered and the outcome may have been different! Which is why, when safely anchored they called it �Providence Bay� 12 The sloops sailed through the narrows off Umnak and Aleutian Islands on 2nd July 1778, they sailed to the northeast back along the Alaskan Peninsula before turning north entering the island of Samgoonoodha Harbour anchoring the vessels and contrary to orders, going ashore, meeting the local Aleuts. On 18th July 1778 HM sloops were now at Cape Newenham, near Hagemeister Island, Alaska, and heading north towards Nunivak Island, the second largest island in the Bering Sea, a permafrost-covered volcanic island lying about 48 km (30 miles) offshore from the delta of the Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers William Anderson the expedition's surgeon died on 3rd August 1778 Cook names the place Anderson Island, but later Bering�s 1728 original name was re-instated �St Lawrence Island�. Cook and Clerke crossed to Siberia on 10th August 1778 the land at Zaliv Lavrentija (St. Lawrence Bay) and once again in contravention of their orders met the Chukchi people. Cook enters the Bering Sea and crosses the Arctic Circle, on 14th August 1778 many ice-bergs are present, and they are entering an extremely dangerous situation, but the sloops pressed on. By 3rd September 1778 the sloops sailed up into the Arctic Sea, walls and compacted ice now becoming a

problem, by the end of the week both vessels pass Cape Darby entering Norton Bay. The sloops leave Norton Sound, passing Cape Denbigh, on 12th September 1778 Cook lands at Bessborough Island and trades with the natives, disregarding his standing orders on trade. One week later Cook passes Stuart Island off the present location of St. Michael then sailed west by the end of September the sloops return to Anderson (St. Lawrence) Island. Voyaging south the two vessels entered Unalaska Bay, for the second time where they stayed for two weeks on 2nd October 1778 once again repairing sprung planks and open seams. Despite orders to avoid contact with other Europeans during this expedition, Cook meets Russian fur traders. Cook and Clerke studied several charts which the fur traders showed them. 13 By 26th October 1778 like all before him and most afterwards, Cook could not break through the great ice flows north of the Arctic Sea, and after eight months of looking he was to realise the folly of banging his head against the cabin door, he turned to warmer climes and his ultimate demise. On track to Hawaii, starting 20th November 1778 Cook was confined to his bed for a week with a burst blood vessel in his foot possibly another of the side effects of the heavy metal poisoning brought on by his antimonial purging which is known to cause elevated blood pressure. Mow�ee, O�why�he (Maui, Hawaii) 22nd November 1778 The ships were buzzing with excitement; the word was out that they were nearing paradise � The Sandwich Islands, (Hawaii) dusky maidens, tropical climes, fine food. The crew made sure they had an abundance of nails, the only acceptable trade-goods in demand by the wahines or young mahus for those of the crew who preferred boys. Somehow the ship�s black cat got mixed up with the excitement and fell overboard. Providence intervened and a canoe happened to spot the swimming cat two miles or so astern of the ship, it was retrieved from the drink. It was dried off and returned to the ship. 14 Edward Riou (1762-1801) In anticipation of the crew wanting to couple up with the locals, as soon as the sloops had dropped their anchors in the bay, both Cook and Clerke ordered the Surgeons personally inspect all officers and crew for venereal disease. Journal entries by Edward Riou, Midshipman of the Discovery noted this event. Riou believed that the communicating of venereal disease on to poor harmless and innocent people would be to condemn them to an eternal and everlasting curse � it did! Riou also noted that many of the natives had been complaining, as they clambered aboard the Resolution, of the venereal disease, one or two of them were examined by the surgeon who confirmed that they were indeed suffering from it. When they were asked about it they said a great many men and women were afflicted with it ashore, they believed that this horrible disease was left here by some Spaniards.15 Riou describes the locals as being remarkably honest; for as they came aboard they did not attempt to steal anything. Many of the women were very desirous to come on-board and grant favours to anyone but this was strictly forbidden for all women to enter the ship. Naked voluptuous bodies prancing and dancing was too much for the crew. The decks were crowded with the natives expressing the greatest joy and pleasure at the most trivial things the women still scrambled up the ship's side. It was sensuality out of control. Cook and Clerke ordered the ship cleared, as they left the ship the dusky maidens and agile young men abused the crew in no uncertain manner. 16 Midshipman Edward Riou served under Clerke, in later times in his career during the Battle of Copenhagen Riou was severely wounded in the head by a splinter and then killed when cannon-ball cut him in two. Nelson wrote he was to die a hero, �in my poor dear Riou the country has sustained an irreparable loss�.

Earlier Lieutenant Edward Riou was given command of the HMS Guardian a 44 gun frigate used as a storeship with orders to sail to Port Jackson (Sydney) with stores, cattle, and twenty-five convicts. At Santa Cruz she took aboard 2,000 gallons of wine for the new colony off Prince Edward Island 1,300 miles out from the Cape, Rio was desperate for water as the cattle were consuming huge amounts of it. In attempting to obtain fresh drinking water from a passing iceberg, the ship was holed, fearing total loss of his ship, Lieutenant Riou sent the small boats away with as many men as they could hold aiming for Cape Town, they were picked up by a French merchant ship and delivered to the Cape on 18th January 1790. 17 Lieutenant Riou, his crew and some convicts nursed the holed ship back to the Cape, it was beyond repair, and it was towed into False Bay before being run onto the beach and broken up on 21st February 1790. Of the twenty-one convicts who stayed with Riou on the HMS Guardian, fourteen of them were issued with a conditional pardon by Arthur Philip, one had died at the Cape. Lieutenant Riou returned to Britain, where he was hailed as a hero and promoted to Commander.18 A court martial completely exonerated him for loosing HMS Guardian. He was promoted to Captain of HMS Rose and joined the battles of Martinique and Guadeloupe in 1794. In 1795, he transferred to HMS Beaulieu. However, his health was failing forcing his return to Britain. When Captain Riou recovered he commanded HM Royal Yacht, Princess Augusta. 19 In 1799, Captain Riou was given command of HMS Amazon, a new 5th rate thirty-eight gun ship of the line. HMS Amazon joined the Baltic Fleet in 1801 and took part in the Battle of Copenhagen on 2nd April 1801. Two days before the battle, Captain Riou took Hyde Parker, the British commander-in-chief, and Lord Nelson inshore to examine the Danish defenses around Copenhagen. Riou remained in close attendance to Nelson and all the frigates and small craft were placed under Captain Riou's orders to perform such service as he is directed by Lord Nelson. Although praised by Lord Nelson, Captain Riou was not considered a member of Nelson�s closed �Band of Brothers�. Nelson radiated a charisma unknown in the Royal Navy; his magnetism was felt by all, placing him in command well ahead of his time. He trained his captains, by example, persuasion and sometimes with an iron fist, for he was a believer of �Duty�. Under Nelson, it was the Captain�s duty to keep their ships seaworthy and never ask permission to go to a dockyard unless damaged beyond repair. The Band of Brothers. In honour of Lord Nelson the salute 'The Immortal Memory', is always toasted in silence is celebrated on the anniversary of the Battle of Trafalgar, acknowledges all those whose duty was to serve the crown and Lord Horatio Nelson RN. The Band of Brothers:Sir Alexander John Ball, (1759� 1809) HMS Alexander; Sir Benjamin Hallowell, (1761� 1834) HMS Swiftsure; Sir Thomas Foley, (1757� 1833) HMS Goliath; Sir Samuel Hood, (1724 �1816) HMS Zealous; Sir Thomas Troubridge, (1758�1807) HMS Culloden; Lord James de Saumarez, (1757-1836) HMS Orion; Davidge Gould, (1758�1847) HMS Audacious; Ralph Willett Miller, (1762� 1799) HMS Theseus; Sir Edward Berry, (1768�1831) HMS Vanguard; Thomas Louis, (1758�1807) HMS Minotaur; John Peyton, (1760?�1809) HMS Defence George Blagdon Westcott, (1745?-1798) HMS Majestic; Thomas Boulden Thompson, (1766�1828) HMS Leander; Thomas Hardy, HMS Mutine Henry D�Esterre Darby, HMS Bellopheron; Rio has a splendid memorial in St. Pauls Cathedral, London, the only member of Cooks company to be awarded this honour. 20 A Rising Storm

By 12th December 1778 the crew of the James Cook�s two sloops had not yet been allowed on shore, and Cook noted that there were murmurings. The newly made sugar cane beer decoction was rejected in no uncertain manner. Sharks were a common sight swimming round the ship. A native was taken by one of the sharks. This had a sobering effect on the crew; there would be no slipping over the side to visit the dusky maidens. Sexual desires or not sharks proved to be a sobering influence quelling all desires. Gradually the natives came aboard, both male and female. The crew had solved their cravings, and satiated their carnal desires. After two and a half weeks of feasting and replenishing the larders of two ships the islanders made it clear that they had provided all they could offer. King Terreeoboo and Koa who had now changed his name to High Priest Bretannee ensured that �Lono� would want for nothing on his great journey. Cook ordered the anchor be raised and set sails for home. It was not to be, thirty six hours in, the weather turned inclement and then very nasty, The weather caused havoc, HM Sloop Resolution foremast broke and HM Sloop Discovery needed re caulking as she was badly leaking, Cook realised that it was imperative to return to Kealakekua Bay.

Chapter Thirty-three Third Voyage The Rate of Flogging Increases

Chapter 33 The Rate of Flogging Increases. A summary of the punishment administered during Cook�s three voyages is telling. The rates of flogging seemed to keep pace with the deterioration of the Captains mind. The aggression shown by Cook during the third voyage, by any standard, was unacceptable and over-the-top and could have been subject to charges by a naval court martial. These floggings were not formally logged by Cook but many of the officers, men and midshipman did make note of Cook�s actions. John Henry Martin on

HM Sloop Discovery made sure it was noted in his journal, according to Martin, Cook and Clerke went berserk and set out to �to teach the �Indians� a lesson� (what platitudinous bombast this was � the natives knew no better, it was no crime for them to take pretty things � would Cook have destroyed every bower bird for taking pretty things into it�s bower. These natives knew no different). The lash was administered to the natives starting with a one dozen then upping the rate incrementally 15; 24; 36; 48; 60; and 72 strokes of the cat for minor pilfering! It did not stop there Cook told the crew to barbarically carve the flesh of the native victims it they were caught stealing. However outside of the constraints of the rules and regulations especially the �Printed Instructions�, which governed punishment outside the �Articles of War.� Cook increased his vindictiveness when punishing the natives. Feeling no obligation to honour either document, the punishment meted out to six poor bewildered souls was horrific. Punished John Herrold (so named by Cook) the muster role has him as William Herold, with six lashes for drunkenness, neglect of duty and assuming a character he was not able to support. 0 The was the first recorded punishment during the third voyage, William Herold, age forty-three years, ship�s cook who doubled up as an able bodied seaman Herold was discharged on 4th November 1776 at Cape Town as �unserviceable�. Marine, Moses Smith tried to abscond on 30th June 1776 but he was apprehended and flogged Midshipman Rio recorded that Smith was given twelve lashes for absenting himself from the ship and selling his clothes.1 George Harrison Marine Private Corporal, Plymouth Division, 36th Company � HM Sloop Discovery drowned in the South Atlantic. The log has this event in more detail on 23th September 1776 �while sitting carelessly on the bowsprit, diverting himself with the sporting of fishes fell over-board and drowned, although the ship hove to, boats lowered to no avail�. 2 Cape Town The business of flogging started in earnest, on 21st October 1776 the first during the third voyage were a group of seamen decided not to return to the HM Sloop Resolution whilst at Cape Town. The Captain sent the marines to round them up and had them all pay a penalty for trying to �jump ship�. Twenty-one year old able bodied seaman James King, absent without leave was punished with six lashes�. Twenty-two years old able bodied seaman and armourer�s mate Thomas Price, absent without leave punished with six lashes. Eighteen years old able bodied seaman Evan Evans, absent without leave punished with six lashes. The carpenter�s mate, age twenty-one year old Richard Irvin was also summoned to toe the line for punishment with six lashes for being absent without leave. Twenty-four year old able bodied seaman Joseph Smith, was punished for neglect of duty with six lashes� on 31st October 1776 and another able bodied seaman, twentyone year old William Nash, also punished with six lashes for neglect of duty on the same day. The officers and crew had set up a campsite on shore at Cape Town on 6th November 1776 the Captain unable to attend, James Cook was off dining and sharing a glass of Madeira with Governor Gysbert Hemmy who offered the �great explorer� a cocktail party with great pomp and ceremony, gun salutes, brass bands and a great deal of toasting. Now released from the grip of his brother�s creditors and allowed to leave

England, Captain Charles Clerke joined James Cook when HM Sloop Discovery arrived at the Cape. The ship�s armourer, twenty-seven year old William Hunt was punished with twelve lashes for attempting to pass counterfeit money and defrauding the natives by coining bad money. Hunt was dishonourably discharged with his papers stamped �voyage not complete�. He was sent home on HMS Hampshire on November 1776 from Cape Town. Cook was reluctant to hang the forger from the yard arm, as laid down by the Articles of War�, it was much easier to send the prisoner ashore for the local authorities to deal with. However the Cape Governor Mr. Hemmy, was reluctant to get involved as the currency was forged on board a foreign ship, and he was happy to quit himself of a British problem. He recommended that the prisoner be handed over to HM Royal Navy, who afforded the prisoner a quick voyage back to �the old dart�. 3 The Governor was happy, James Cook was happy and the prisoner was �over the moon�, he was going home! John Perkins, marine private, 42nd company, Plymouth division, age unknown, was punished for neglect of duty with twelve lashes on 14th November 1776 2nd Lieut Williamson records two events on this day 2nd November 1776. They relate to two of the most notorious rascals that ever stepped aboard a ship, Isaac Carly marine private 42nd Company, Plymouth Division, age unknown, punished with twelve lashes for sleeping on his post and William Bradley able bodied seaman and gunner�s mate, twenty-five years old was flogged for insolence and contempt punished with six lashes. To hang him from the yard arm would have served the Pacific Islanders better, before he put his foot ashore. This nasty grubby man was an original source of the venereal disease that was to wipe out tens of thousands of innocent natives in the Pacific.4 As the sloops were preparing to leave Cape Town on 14th November 1776, a problem with the livestock occurred. While grazing in a paddock in the Cape Town suburbs, four of the flock of sixteen English sheep that had been loaded aboard the ship at Plymouth, were destroyed by dogs. The dogs got amongst them ripping into four of them and dispersing the rest. Only a few were rounded up, Cook set about to replace them. But dramas with the livestock did not end with the sheep. The cut grass loaded onboard was toxic from penguin dung, this dispatched many more of the animals, however some were saved including one cow and one bull. A new lot of animals were subsequently purchased. After the penguin dung had dispatched the farm stock, Cook thought it prudent not to give those that remained any opportunity to succumb to the same poisoning, so he ordered that they join the cattle on board the ship without delay. To which Cook added two young bulls, two heifers, two young horses, two mares, two rams, several ewes and goats and some rabbits and poultry, all of them intended for New Zealand, Otaheite and the neighbouring islands, or any other place we might meet, where there was a prospect that the leaving of some of them might prove useful to posterity. 5 Thomas Harford marine private, 9th Company, Plymouth Division, age unknown was punished with six lashes for selling his necessaries. Harford was another miscreant who was punished on four separate occasions during the voyage. John Jackson marine private, 18th Company, Plymouth Division, age unknown, was punished with six lashes for fighting on 23rd December 1776. He may well have been flogged for fighting but his biggest fight was trying to defend Captain Cook at Kealakehua Bay. Jackson was injured with a stone to the head; he was dragged into a pinnace and saved by the �officer of marines�. 6 Wary of a similar incident that befell the ships during the second voyage when they lost contact with each other off the Arctic Circle, Cook took precautionary

steps by sending Captain Clerke a note giving him a place to rendezvous in case of separation before the ships reach the meridian of Van Diemen's Land. Clerke was instructed to make the best way to Adventure Bay on the east coast in latitude 43' 22' South (southern tip of Tasmania). Clerke was warned that if he should happen to arrive there before Cook, he was diligently to employ the crew in wooding and watering the sloop and in cutting grass to make into hay for the livestock that HM sloop Resolution had on board; Clerke was instructed not to spend more than eight days on this task. Cook stated that if Resolution does not arrive in time, Clerke was to take on board all the hay that can conveniently be stowed and proceed to Queen Charlotte's Sound in New Zealand. 7 In transit to Van Diemen�s Land on 3rd January 1777 Lieutenant James King recorded, abed bodied seaman Edward Cawn, age nineteen years was punished with twelve lashes for leaving his bed out on the deck John Allen age unknown, marine private 58th Company, Plymouth Division, was punished on 12th September 1777 with six lashes for drunkenness and neglect of duty. Although Allen was a drunk and a thief, he was to be punished three times, he was to die after his head was smashed with stones as he fell with James Cook at Kealakekua Bay on 14th February 1779. On the same flogging day Allen was joined by William Doyle, James Dermot both punished with twelve lashes for theft. 8 HM Sloop Resolution arrived at Adventure Bay, Van Diemen's Land on 26th January 1777. An early task was to fell a gum tree to make a new spar; Cook spoke of the timber as being good but too heavy. A few natives were seen, but did not create a favourable impression, still Cook put ashore a couple of pigs in hopes of establishing a colony of the breed, a hope doomed to be unsatisfied. The Marquis de Beauvoir relates that in 1866 he saw in Adventure Bay a tree on which was cut with a knife: �Cook, 26th Jan. 1777�. At anchor at Bruny Island, Van Diemen�s Land on 26th January 1777 according to ship�s master Thomas Edgar�s journal, Cook and Clerke sent parties ashore, one to cut wood and the other grass; They made themselves so paralitically drunk that they were put motionless in the ship�s long boat, and when brought on board were they were hoisted by the yard arm tackle on to the sloop.Clerke wrote of this incident the guard of marine privates from the Plymouth Division from HM Sloop Discovery stole some liquor and made themselves exceedingly drunk, for which they received a dozen lashes each in the Morning. Hamlet Thompson � twelve lashes. (Age unknown 6th Company) George Moody � twelve lashes. (Age unknown 70th Company) Marine Ben Harriott � twelve lashes. (Age unknown) 12th Company,) Marine James Pool � twelve lashes. (Age unknown 33rd Company) Marine William Broom � twelve lashes. (Age unknown) 36th Company) Off New Zealand on 7th February 1777 marine private George Moody 70th Company, Plymouth Division fell overboard, he was probably drunk again! The incident was sighted and reported by HM Sloop Resolution gunner Robert Anderson (age thirtyfive years) who came across to HM Sloop Discovery to assist in the finding the marine, it was a lost cause, as Moody never seen again. 9 Queen Charlottes Sound, New Zealand 13th February 1777, on landing at this fearful place, all were full of nervous apprehension both the crew and the local Maoris where fully alert when Cook ordered arms broken out. He wanted no repeat of the massacre that had occurred on the previous voyage when ten of HM Sloop Adventure�s men were cannibalised by the Maoris of Queen Charlotte�s Sound. This fascinating insight into the voyage was noted by the Surgeon�s Mate, David Samwell in �The Journals�, he remarked as they anchored at the Sound and disembarked the grazing animals that survived the Cape Town toxic poisoning. The final place for the animals was to be Otaheite, but Cook had visions of introducing beef into the

Maoris diet to change their cannibalistic habits. 10 Samwell observed that the hogs and fowls left behind on the earlier voyage were not to be seen. Plodding, waddling or scurrying from the pens of the �Noahs Ark� (so termed by the wags on board HM sloop Resolution) were an abundance of fowls, peacocks, turkeys, geese and ducks, to the great astonishment of the Maoris, who had never seen such a menagerie. Astonishment turned to awe when the big beasts came off the ship, the horses and horned cattle causing the most excitement; all began feeding and wandering around the tents. It was truly an incongruous scene of rural England transplanted into a savage scene of barbarous people. A brewery was erected close to the tents for making spruce beer both for present use and for a sea stock, which no doubt was of infinite use to the ships companies by keeping them free from the scurvy. All thanks, and great honour on the Commander who paid due attention to this important article, was the word from the physician. Spruce trees abound in New Zealand and after brewing provided a quality essence to be stored in the firkins and casks for later consumption. 11 Forty-four year old quartermaster and able bodied seaman Patrick Whelan was charged with insolence and contempt, resulting in punishment of six lashes. He was another truculent character that was to be punished twice during the voyage; he had also served during the second voyage. James King, Second Lieutenant on the Resolution, recorded on 3rd March 1777, twenty year old Edward Cawn was flogged with twelve lashes for leaving his bed out on deck, all night. Comango (Mango) Tonga, 30th April 1777 eighteen year old Midshipman Charlton recorded twenty six year old was punished with six lashes for neglect of duty. Earlier on board HM Sloop Resolution�s Second Lieutenant John Williamson was of the opinion that this was another case of miscarriage of justice, he reported the natives displayed their happy genius in the art of pilfering, by stealing a hatchet out of the galley, for which, able bodied seaman and cook's mate, Richard Young, a quiet and good man was punished with twelve lashes. He was to be punished twice during the voyage. Twenty-eight year old carpenter�s mate, Robert Barber was punished for disobedience with six lashes on 1st May 1777 on the same day twenty-six year old boatswain�s mate the twenty-six year old John James was also punished with six lashes for neglect of duty. Cook logged an entry on 5th May 1777, T. Garratty, marine was punished with twelve lashes for neglect of duty. No person of this name is listed on the Muster Roles it might be Thomas Girley, marine private. 30th Company, Plymouth Division. Another innocent native (a chief) was dragged into the madness of European morality, when caught with an iron bolt from the spun yarn winch, which he concealed under his clothes. On 9th May 1777 Cook ordered that he be punished with a dozen and also to hand over a hog for his liberty. To add further embarrassment to the poor man, James Cook ordered that his head be shaved, looked on as a mark of infamy by the locals.12 The maritime author Richard Henry Dana Jr.�(1815�1882) describes the �spun yarn winch� thus �all the small stuff used on board a ship�such as spun-yarn, marline, seizing-stuff, etc., etc.�are made on board�. The ship owners buy up incredible quantities of �old junk,� which the sailors unlay, after drawing out the yarns, knot them together, and roll them up in balls. These �rope-yarns� are constantly used for various purposes, but the greater part is manufactured into spun-yarn. For this purpose every vessel is furnished with a �spun-yarn winch�; which is very simple, consisting of a wheel and spindle. This may be heard constantly going on deck in pleasant weather; and we had employment,

during a great part of the time, for three hands in drawing and knotting yarns, and making, spun-yarn. At Lifuka, Tonga William Anderson, surgeon on the Resolution, wrote three of marines were punished on shore for negligence on 11th May 1777. Ha'apai Group of Islands (Friendly Island), on 22nd May 1777 Captain Clerke logged three lots of floggings when the punishment of marine private, Plymouth Division, 24th Company, Chris Kerwin was flogged with one dozen lashes for losing his ramrod which was believed to have been stolen by the locals during the time he was on guard duty. This was doubly upsetting because as a security guard, Kerwin was appointed to prevent their committing any thefts, and adding insult to injury they stole the ramrod from Kirwin himself! Young nineteen year old able bodied seaman Thomas Tretcher was punished with six lashes for suffering the �Indians� to steal his boathook. Tretcher had earlier caused great worry, whilst on Christmas Island looking for turtles. After three days Tretcher was discovered missing. He had nearly died of dehydration resorting to plunging his body into the sea and drinking turtle blood that made him violently ill. He was found near death but was revived and restored to health aboard the ship. Midshipman Martin without a skerrick of compassion vented his spleen when describing the cruel punishment inflicted on a local Indian chief. The �Indian� was punished with fifteen lashes for theft on 22rd May 1777 this disturbed Martin, when he noted �had we made an example of every one of these people that deserved it, punishment would have been endless, for their skill in pilfering is almost past conception and any man of less humanity than Captains Cook and Clerke commanded many of these people must have lost their life, from the daring attempts they were hourly making on us�. 13 At Lifuka Tongan Islands James Cook underwent an incredible period of insanity during June 1777, caused no doubt by his �black dog� illness exacerbated by continuing self medication, this illness was to manifest itself in a record number of floggings of the crew and more unacceptably inflicting pain on the local inhabitants. Innocent wonderfully child-like Polynesians did not have any understanding of theft, or proprietorial ownership and when the picked up things that took their fancy they paid an unacceptable price. Even an accident spared not the lash, but one can imagine the angst it caused Captain Cook knowing full well that he was no longer able to play his French Horn! On 11th June 1777, twenty year old able bodied seaman William Butler was flogged with twelve lashes for �accidentally� dropping overboard the mouthpiece of Captain Cook's French horn. Drunkenness was the most common reason for punishment, which did nothing to change the practice. James King twenty two year old able body seaman was punished with six lashes for drunkenness and neglect of duty. George Gilbert, midshipman, aged twenty-years old, recorded the actions of Captain Cook and noted the despicable acts inflicted under his authority upon the local Polynesians. During June 1777 two chiefs behaved in the most friendly manner imaginable; and supplied the two ships with an abundance of supplies; in all their proceeding they showed a noble generous and disinterested spirit; and although their manners were considered rude and unpolished they displayed minds that would do honour to the most distinguished European. The officers let off some fireworks which were viewed with acclamations of admiration and awe. The locals were permitted to use the ship as a viewing platform. In the inimitable style they

stole several things that took their fancy. Here midshipman George provides the evidence to hang the Captain in a formal court martial. Captain Cook punished in a manner rather unbecoming of a European viz: by cutting off their ears; firing at them with small shot, or ball, as they were swimming or paddling to the shore. Suffering the people and as he rowed after them to beat them with the oars, and sticking a boat hook into them wherever he could; Cook now started to order a new form of brutality on the locals, when he started to order cuts down the arms to the bone, and in one case included slashes across the shoulders. Not done with surgical instruments but with an able bodied seaman�s side knife, not known for being ever sterilized.14 Cooks actions continued when he punished one of the �Indians� on 13th June 1777 with three dozen lashes for theft of a gun and one day later at ten in the Morning on 14th June 1777 punished another with two dozen lashes for theft of a turkey cock, and turned the thief out of the ship. On the same day at half past two in the afternoon punished another with thirty-six lashes for theft. 15 The rate of lashing was now on a steady incline. At half, past one in the afternoon of 17th June 1777 Cook ordered punished an Indian with four dozen lashes and turned him out of the Ship, which no doubt he was glad to leave. 16 Showing discrimination and ensuring no legal repercussions, when twenty-two year old T. Griffiths, the ship�s Cooper, was punished on 19th June 1777 for disobedience and neglect with six lashes, his punishment brought the rate back to normality. His name does not seem to be on the muster roles as this name but most likely William Griffin. The thirty-nine year old Quartermaster, John Brown, was punished with twelve lashes for striking an Indian chief on 23rd Jun 1777. On the same day thirty-two year old Thomas Edgar, master of the sloop Discovery recorded at noon that Captain Cook shot an Indian in the side with small shot as he was escaping from the ships having committed theft. It was about this time that the officers noted that Captain Cook was consuming far too much kava on a daily basis. He had only recently been introduced to the drink kava at Raiatea, Society Islands. Kava was �liquid horseradish� declared Williamson. No doubt befuddled by the narcotic effect of the kava and the ever present antimony poisoning Cook was now totally irrational, not only flogging the natives but shooting ball or shot directly at them as they swam from the ship, accused of pilfering some insignificant bauble. Thomas Edgar, could not overlook an act of brutal barbarity as punishment for a minor theft. What was good for Captain Cook was now adopted by Captain Clerke. At three in the afternoon on 24th June 1777 Captain Clerke punished an Indian chief with five dozen lashes for having stolen one tumbler and two wine glasses during the time he was at dinner with him. 17 Thomas Edgar recorded that all rational action was now gone, Cook was at the peak of his ruthless behaviour, gone was any semblance of civility, disregarding his standing orders, his �Hints� and breaking the Articles of War. About ten in the morning on 28th June 1777 those of the old offenders who had stoned the marine security guards and wood Cutters were taken prisoners. Captain Cook punished one with three dozen lashes, another with four dozen and the third with six dozen lashes. After this a barbaric punishment was inflicted on the man who had received six dozen lashes, to deter the rest of the natives from also thieving Cook ordered the flogged native�s arms scored both with a common knife longitudinally and transversely, into the bone. 18 T. Garratty, marine administered twelve lashes for neglect of duty on 6th July

1777. Although punished twice during the voyage, no person of this name is listed on the Muster Roles he might be Thomas Girley, marine private. 30th Company, Plymouth Division). Ooh?, Friendly Isles. Marine Private, 9th Company, Plymouth Division, age unknown, Thomas Harford, was punished with twelve lashes for disobedience on 14th July 1777. He was punished of four different occasions. The cook's mate age forty-two years old years Job Clay, punished with twelve lashes on 16th July 1777 for neglect of duty he was to be punished three times during the voyage. At Ooh?, Friendly Isles, marine private. 9th Company, Plymouth Division , age unknown, Thomas Harford, was punished with six lashes, for neglect of duty, he was punished for the second time during the week of 17th July 1777. On the same day marine private 30th Company, Plymouth Division, age unknown William Scruse was flogged with six lashes, for neglect of duty. Also punished this day with six lashes was the twenty-one year old marine private, 15th Company, Plymouth Division, John McDonald, for neglect of duty. On leaving Tahiti, Williamson logged in his journal on 10th Sept 1777 that the twenty-one year old boatswain's mate, William Doyle was punished with twelve lashes for neglect of duty and breeding disturbances with the natives. Although rarely complying with the regulations Cook chose not to administer more than twelve lashes at the same time, unless the person to be punished was a native. William Doyle was half heartedly punished with six lashes for striking an Indian chief. Otoo the chief of all Tahiti lodged a formal complaint with Cook who was now compelled to punish Doyle again. Marine Private. 58th Company, Plymouth Division. John Allen, was punished with twelve lashes for theft on 12th Sept 1777 although Allen was a drunk and a thief, going on to be punished three times, he was to stand and die with James Cook at Kealakekua Bay on 14th February 1779. On this same day Williamson noted in his Journal that able bodied seaman, age unknown James Dermot, was punished with twelve lashes for theft. Emeritus Professor of Anthropology at Princeton University, Gananath Obeyesekere writes that James Cook exemplified the bad whites in extremis. He made himself into a god, he had sex with a Hawaiian chief that in turn led to wholesale fornication, and he also introduced the deadly venereal disease into these islands. After fifteen years of trawling through the various logs and journals of those who sailed with James Cook, I find no conclusive evidence that James Cook personally introduced any disease into the Pacific Islands. 19 Cook explains his sexual relationships differently to Gananath Obeyesekere. Cook believed that on 20th September 1777 numerous princesses with female courtiers wanted passage to Matavai, the passengers included Otoo's mother, his three sisters and eight more women. Once on the sloop the ladies made it obvious that they intended passing the night on board. Cook invited them into his cabin for the express purpose of undertaking the cure the rheumatic pain extending from the hip to the foot. This may way have been Intractable Plantar Keratosis brought on by years of antimony poisoning. Cook had a bed spread for them upon the cabin floor, and submitted himself to their directions. He lay down amongst the females. They started as one to �massage him� and squeeze him with both hands, from head to foot, but more particularly on the parts where his pain was lodged, till they made his bones crack, and his flesh became a perfect mummy. Cook�s attempt to relieve the �rheumatic� pain was to say the least interesting. This they call �romee�; an operation which, according to Cook far exceeds the flesh-brush or anything of the

kind that we make use of externally. It is universally practised amongst these islanders, being sometimes performed by the men, but more generally by the women.20 Tahiti Cook�s �romee� and night time mattress activities in his cabin did nothing for his temper for only one week later on 28th Sept 1777 able bodied seaman and armourer�s mate the twenty three year old Thomas Price was tied to the lower main ratlines and flogged with twelve lashes for theft. Eimi, (Moorea). Once more midshipman George Gilbert recorded a horrific incident pointing directly at the cruelty of James Cook. On 6th October 1777 The natives having stolen a small goat belonging to the lieutenant�s mess of the sloop Resolution. Upset with this theft Captain Cook demanded its return ��or else�. Cook departed the ship and set out with marines of both ships and some of the �gentlemen�, in all about thirty five people all well armed, marched across part of the Island in search of one small goat! Likewise three boats manned and armed with marines set out to join up with the party. Absolute mayhem followed wherever the European punishment parties ventured. The House and canoe, that belonged to the thief�s family were burnt which every one executed with the greatest reluctance except Omai, who was very officious in this business and wanted to fire his gun upon the natives. The goat was not returned, Cook ordered twenty houses burned, twenty four more canoes destroyed, livestock, crops and food supplies were destroyed or torched. The innocent souls fled in panic so that none of them were killed or hurt. Several women and old men, still remained by the houses whose lamentations were very great, but all their tears and entreaties could not move the demonic Captain Cook who, without a skerrick of compassion continued with his cruel ravages; which he continued till the evening, when he joined the boats, and returned onboard having burnt and destroyed about twelve houses and as many canoes. The next morning he went round again with three boats where he completed the devastation he had left undone the day before; and all about such a trifle as a small goat which was that evening brought onboard by the natives. Gilbert showed no understanding of the outrage, and saw Captain Cook�s proceedings on this occasion as being so very different from his conduct in like cases in his former voyages! 21 It was cruel punishment meted out to the unfortunate people of Moorea after they had failed to return a wretched goat that had been stolen from the ship. The penalty inflicted by the rampaging Captain Cook was to burn many houses, and far worse, he incinerated twenty-five great war-canoes and destroyed the villager�s livestock. This may seem extreme and an immoderate measure to take, but not to Cook, he recorded in his Journal 10th October 1777 that this was �a troublesome and rather unfortunate affair�. 22 Edgar believed the destructive actions of Captain Cook during the �goat affair� was to affect the residents of whole island and it�s infrastructure for many years to come. Huahine, Society Islands James Cook was suffering a serious mental breakdown and even mundane matters were now getting out of control. Obviously more compassionate and of sound mind, on 14th October 1777 2nd Lieut James King successfully convinced Cook not to slice off the ears of a native. Cook�s outrageous behaviours flushed out much of that stolen prior to the goat incident. Just before the sloops dropped anchor in the harbour, an Indian from Eimaio who had been confined below decks, his crime, returning stolen goods. Not withstanding this decent act, Cook ordered the barber to shave his head and cut off his ears. After the barber had shaved half of his head, and shaved off one eybrow he began to execute the other part of his orders, and would in a short time have completed it; luckily for this fellow�s ears,

Lieutenant King stopped the barber being brutal, and made him go and receive fresh orders. The order was mitigated and the fellow escaped with only the lobe of one ear cut away, and was then made to swim on shore. 23 Earlier at Moorea, Hawaii it was a scene to behold, there were hundreds of canoes surrounding the arrival HM ships Resolution and Discovery an unbelievable festoon of colour and naked bodies. The crew thought it was paradise, their paraventricular nucleus releasing oxytocin into their one-track brains, no erectile dysfunction here! Those of the crew with other predilections knew that their appetites would be accommodated by the young effeminate �aikane� men ashore. Cook knew the signs the crew must be let off the leash. The crew scampered to the store for trading goods especially nails, and crowded onto the cutter for a trip ashore. At the first meeting after enjoying the welcome from the flotilla Cook enjoyed the hospitality of a local dignitary Cook heard his name �Taire-eaboo� but apparently did not realize at first who this imposing man was. The journal keepers always did their best at spelling his name, which appears variously as �Kariopoo� and �Teereeoboo,� This important chief was Terreeoboo, King Kalani�op�u of the island of Hawaii). The King gave Cook the courtesy one would expect but the Kings companion the impressively attired High Priest Koa believed that Cook was the reincarnate �Lono� a God much expected to arrive from the sea. The word soon spread to the natives �Lono� had returned it caused great excitement. With ship-stores being pilfered, especially nails, Cook decided to lay down the law. On 12th October 1777 he punished twenty year old able bodied seaman Michael Spencer with twelve lashes for theft of stores. Spencer did not complete the voyage, Edgar reported on 13th January 1780 that Spencer had jumped ship after stealing the ship�s great cutter at Macau China he was joined by thirty-one year old quartermaster�s mate John Cave, both it would seem, intent on entering the Alaskan fur trade where they expected to make a fortune. To replace the two absconders the commanders of HM Sloop Resolution and HM Sloop Discovery James King; John Gore and James Burney met up with the 6th rater HMS Seahorse 24 gun, at Macau and took on additional crew: John Thompson, able bodied seaman aged twentynine years; Robert Morrison, AB age twenty-two years; (Bengali) Abraham Mahomet, age twenty-one years; Christopher Aires, AB age twenty-five years and William Watson, AB age twenty-two years. 24 Astronomer William Bayley commented on 14th October 1777 that a native was detected in picking a nail out of a crewman�s pocket, the thief was seized and carried on board and as soon as he was on board he was made to lay on the deck Mr. Williamson the 3rd Lieutenant attempted to jump on his head, but the man avoided him. Williamson once again stamped his foot on the side of the �Indians� face in the most inhuman manner and broke several of his teeth, bruising the �Indian�. On the same day the surgeon�s mate David Samwell noted that one of the marines was punished for leaving his post without permission he was put in irons and before he was released he received two dozen lashes. 22nd and 23rd October 1777 at Huahine Cook was livid and showed certain irrationality when astronomer Mr. Bayley�s sextant was stolen from the observatory. Captain Cook demanded the chiefs return the sextant, but the chief�s paid no heed which exacerbated Cook�s rage to the extreme. Cook took umbrage and stormed ashore interrupting a theatrical soir�e at the heevas house. Cook demanded the return of the instrument, but no one came forward till Omai was told where the thief was to be found. Eventually the thief was pointed out, and the wretch was seized, and taken on board the ship. He was a native of Borabora. Many of the large canoes that were near the ship were detained, (no doubt to be burned if the sextant did not turn up.) The poor thief was placed in irons and punished. Cook set out to leave a lasting impression on the Borabora native. The punishment meted out was barbaric and contravened Cook�s

standing orders and Articles of War. The punishment inflicted under Cooks instruction included the shaving of the head and the removal of both ears of the unfortunate victim. 25 Two days later the earless Borabora native was no longer confined, this was a stunning piece of Houdini like ingenuity, as he had been restrained in bilboo irons, but managed to escape. The escape spelled trouble as Cook was of the opinion that Omai would be in danger if the prisoner was let loose, as it was Omai who had identified the thief. When the Borabora native slipped out of custody not only did he make good his escape (minus his hair and both of his ears) but he had purloined a nice supply of iron with his leg irons and the long bilboo bolt. The iron could be forged and beaten into fighting irons, as was done to Cook�s two guns later. Cook had intended to remove the thief from the island out of Omai�s way, this plan was never put into place, as the prisoner had broken his bondage, he stole the keys to the bilboo iron shackles from a sleeping guard and made his escape. The guard was to suffer for three days with multiples of lashings and made to stay in the similar irons that he had let the thief escape from. 26 Carpenter's mate, age 38 years Benjamin Whitton was flogged with eighteen lashes for theft on 28th October 1777. The next day punishment of the guards who let the earless Borabora native escape. 50th Company, Plymouth Division Marine private John Harrison, was flogged with twelve lashes for neglect of duty. Also punished was marine private, 6th Company, Plymouth Division, Thomas Morris who was flogged with twelve lashes for sleeping on his post. The tardiness of the guards in letting the prisoner escape festered inside Cook who remained angry and he set out to make an example of the poor miscreants who had fallen asleep on the job. Twelve lashes would not suffice so Captain Cook punished the marine over a three day period � he would never sleep on watch again! According to George Gilbert midshipman on 31st October 1777 the Borabora native was re-arrested for damaging Omai's vines in the garden and trying to set fire to the house, and threatening to kill Omai. Once more he was restrained in bilboo irons. Cook had visions of dropping the miscreant off on another island, but this plan was cancelled on appeal by the chiefs, who promised to protect Omai. With the Borabora native now on the loose, all of Omai�s friends including Cook looked to see how they could resolve the danger the situation posed. Captain Clerke concerned himself with the Borabora man proclaiming him as a consummate and most impudent rascal, he abused everybody about him, without exception, and frequently declared he was determined upon the destruction of Omai. Cook was now desperate and hinted of murder with a solution to shoot the Borabora native dead. This statement was logged by able bodied seaman twenty-two year old William Griffin, the ship�s cooper and corporal. He kept a voyage narrative of his time with sloop Discovery during the period May 29th 1776-Oct 6th 1780. 27 Cook had devised with Omai a method of signalling should he get into trouble. If he was happy he was to send two white beads, if he was indifferent two brown beads, and if he felt that he was being compromised he was to send two blue beads. The beads would be sent to Cook prior to departure from Uliatea. Still at Huahine, Cook would not let the guards of the Borabora native get away with only twelve lashes, the Captain ordered that Thomas Morris, be flogged with twelve lashes for letting the bilboo bolt of his prisoner be unlocked. He was to be punished again and also on 1st November 1777. Charlton reported further flogging for the Borabora escape. Thomas Morris was punished again with twelve more lashes for letting the native prisoner escape from the bilboes. Same offence but a different charge to that of 30th October 1777. 28

Marine private, 42nd Company, Plymouth Division Isaac Carley was punished on 2nd November 1777 with twelve lashes for sleeping at his post. The twenty-six year old Gunners mate, William Bradley once again tried to inflict himself upon the innocent local female population knowing full well that he was the carrier of venereal disease. He tried to argue his way off the ship to go ashore but the sergeant-at-arms was under instruction to detain him aboard the ship. Bayley noted the punishment as six lashes for insolence and contempt, a mere slap on the wrist for such a crime. Now conscious of the origins of the venereal James Cook prohibited all sexual intercourse and the local women. Interestingly Cook even not being free from the fowl (foul) disease,

disease amongst local populations between crew, officers, gentlemen� stated that a �number of our people they got at the Society Islands�.29

Edgar noted that none of the dusky maidens were permitted to come on board the sloops and every precaution was taken to prevent the men from contacting them on shore. This required the utmost vigilance of the officers for the women used all their arts to entice them into their houses, which even extended to force. Cook believed that nobody left the ships with the �dreadful distemper�. Yet with the eagerness of the women it became impossible to keep the men at bay. Some of them had connections with woman, both on board the ships and on shore, notwithstanding every precaution that was taken to prevent it. It took Cook twelve months to issue Clerke with a regulation to severely punish any member of the crew with or suspected of having venereal disease to make contact with any women ashore.30 Edgar realises that the problem of sexual contact between the crew and the islanders was like a bush fire, it was getting out of control. Cook found it nearly impossible to keep them apart. The men finding so many schemes to deceive the officers including dressing the women up as men and calling them their �Tio's�, what deceptive steps could be taken, were taken. William Bradley slipped through the security cordon; the filthy wretch was once again punished, but this time with more gusto with two dozen lashes for disobeying orders, and having connections with women knowing himself to be injured, with the venereal disorder. 31 Marine private 24th Company, Plymouth Division, Theophilus Hinks, was punished on 4th November 1777 for sleeping at his post. He was flogged with twelve lashes. Hinks heroically died with Cook at Kealakekua Bay on 14th February 1779. His single shot musket was no defence against a hail of stones and the stabbing of the lethal pah�hoo�ah Marine private, 50th Company, Plymouth Division John Harrison, confined on 6th November 1777 and flogged with twenty four lashes for desertion. Harrison attempted to jump ship and run at Raiatea, Society Islands. Kauai and Niihau. Mayhem and murder again, this time over the theft of an inexpensive steel meat cleaver. On 3rd January 1778 both ships sent out marines to run the thief down. After a volley of ball made the fleeing natives abandon their canoes to swim ashore, the marines gave chase. Lieutenant Williamson urged his men not to be indiscrete in firing. However he led the chase with more ball and bird shot than was necessary for the loss of a worthless meat cleaver! As Williamson approached the shore, the thief and a few accomplices challenged the armed troops, grabbing the boat hook, being used as pike to stab the natives. Williamson fired his musket at point blank range, the native let go of the boathook and rolled over in the water dead, the ultimate price was paid for a minor theft, but this was another

example of the arrogance of the officers who had acted under instruction of Captain James Cook. Niihau, Sandwich Islands According to Astronomer William Bayley on 10th January 1778, once again Captain Cook laid down the law forbidding sexual contact between the crew and the locals. The thirty-two year old master of the Sloop Discovery Thomas Edgar, commented that none the promiscuous women were permitted to come on board the ships and every precaution was taken to prevent the men from meeting women this was a battle that Cook knew he had no hope of winning! On arrival at the Kauai, Sandwich Islands during January 1788 Cook�s medical officers conducted daily physical examinations for �venereal complaints� amongst officers and crew. Threats of punishment kept the carriers from presenting themselves to the physicians. Cook at last started to understand that his crew were carriers of some venereal complaints. 32 The crew were off the leash, spending more than the allocated time visiting the dusky maidens. Any thought of returning to the sloops to a duty watch was overlooked, why bother going back to the drudgery of shipboard life. The wahines were alluring and all sense of decorum with the crew was disposed of with the thought of a sexual liaison. Punishment would follow, commonly �neglect of duty�; �insolence� usual words used for arguing with the officer of the watch who would arrive at the dusky maiden�s house with a patrol of marines to round up the visiting crew. Salty language would ensue resulting in the charge of �insolence� Trawling through the various journals and logs of officers, gentlemen and crew one can follow the crew flogging pattern which was now on the increase. Twenty one year old butcher's mate, Samuel Bishop was punished with six lashes for neglect of duty on 21st January 1778. The cook's mate and able bodied seaman, age 42 years, Job Clay, received six lashes for neglect of duty on 7th February 1778. Midshipman William Charlton (spelt Charleton in the Muster book) kept a series of notes on the punishments administered during the voyage. No other officer or gentlemen with the possible exception of midshipman George Gilbert on the sloop Discovery reported the flogging and killing madness. Quartermaster Patrick Whelan, aged forty four years, was punished on 4th April 1778 and again was punished with six lashes for refusing to take goods into his care. Twenty-two year old quartermaster John Davis, charged with mutiny and neglect of duty � his punishment was moderate with a minor flogging of twelve lashes. Able bodied seaman, age unknown James Dermot, flogged with twelve lashes for theft, he was punished on three occasions, age unknown. Able bodied seaman twenty-eight year old William Crotch, punished for theft - six lashes. Crotch had joined the ship at Cape Town 19th October 1776�. Nineteen year old, able bodied seaman John Boyd, was punished with six lashes for theft. He was to be punished twice during the voyage. 27th August 1778 able bodied seaman Mathew Dailey, six lashes for theft. 29th August 1778 the ship�s butcher twenty-five years old Richard Lee, punished with twelve lashes for drunkenness and neglect of duty. Marine private 58th Company, Plymouth Division 3rd Lieutenant John Williamson recorded the punishment of marine private John Allen, on 28th September 1778 flogged twelve lashes for theft. Although Allen was a drunk and a thief, going on to be punished three times, he was to stand and die with James Cook at Kealakekua Bay on 14 February 1779). Forty-one year old cook�s mate Job Clay was punished on 1st June 1778 for insolence, he was flogged with twelve lashes. On 31st August 1778 nineteen year old able bodied seaman Mathew Beach was punished for insolence with twelve lashes, and on 7th September 1778 Marine Private. 15th Company, Plymouth Division John McDonald was punished for insolence with twelve lashes. Twenty-one year old able bodied seaman John Fisher punished on 14th September 1778 with twelve lashes for

drunkenness and insolence. Floggings of one hundred lashes or more had not been unusual in the Royal Navy. As late as 1807, George III saw fit to intervene in Navy affairs by setting an upper limit of one thousand lashes! Neither Cook nor Bligh ever punished any member of his crew with more than four dozen lashes � and that was for desertion (for which the sentence was often death by hanging), however Cook showed no such reservation towards the Polynesians. If one was to believe popular fiction and cinema entertainment, the popularly held reputation of Captain Bligh of HMS Bounty fame was a ruthless flogging Captain. The frequently reviled Bligh was actually not as harsh a commander as the widely respected Cook. In the seventeen months that Bligh was in command of the Bounty, he ordered eleven floggings with a total of twenty dozen lashes in all! Cook flogged at the rate of once or twice a week, (Even when we take into account that Cook had a larger crew, it is still clear that he flogged more frequently than Bligh). James Cook thought better of recording the all of floggings he authorised, there are very few mentions in his own logs and journals; however other officers recorded Cook�s cruel administration. HM Sloop Resolution only had a complement of 112 men and boys. In considering whether James Cook was unreasonable in his attitude with his over the top punishment, with these floggings, one might consider the killings; beating; branding; ear slicing and removal and his regular ranting and ravings. On 11th December 1778 Cook was in trouble with the crew after he came to the realisation that his ship had a minimal supply of grog in the hold. The only solution left was to ration that which was left of the grog. James Cook�s substitute for �grog� was milk from cocoa-nuts, this was treated with the contempt it deserved. Cook submitted to them, rather than to run the risk of having no spirits left, he would substitute the excellent liquor of cocoa-nuts being unanimously approved of, without any objection. Captain Clerke put the proposal to his people; which they also agreed to. Accordingly, the serving of grog ceased except on Saturday nights, when the companies of both ships had full allowance of it, to toast the health of their friends in England. With an eye on the last keg of brandy in the hold and the rejection of the silly cocoa-nut idea the crew planned to destroy the kegs of home-made brewed �deconcoction� also in the hold. It was left to the ship�s cooper to crack open the cask and try to ruin it. Cook was in no mood to cope with insurrection and mutinous behaviour below decks, in his brooding he referred in his Journal Midshipman John Watts noted that the men baulked at the sugar cane beer, alleging that it was injurious to their health: Cook fumed that the crew was mutinous and turbulent who refused even so much as to taste it and demanded their grog� off the Hawaii Islands, Midshipman John Watts who had been promoted from the lower deck when an able bodied seaman with HM Sloop Resolution noted in his Journal that since being among the Islands the beer dried up and the Captain substituted bought a quantity of sugar cane and made a new decoction. One brandy cask was left in the hold. Mutiny was festering which drew an unprecedented written demand from the crew, demanding the brandy, this threat was the wrong thing to do to the unstable Captain. Punished the twenty two year old cooper and ship's corporal William Griffiths (could be William Griffin) with twelve lashes for starting a cask of deconcoction which was sour. Midshipman William Charlton age nineteen years on HM Sloop

Resolution recorded on 25th January 1779 at Hawaii, Grant, Lyon, Nash, and Bradley were all punished again for having intercourse with native women knowing full well that they were carrying venereal disease, the punishment of these three took a few days! The quartermaster, twenty-eight year old, John Grant was lashed for absenting himself from the sloop when on shore in a lengthy dalliance with a wahine. Punished with one dozen and with another dozen for disobeying orders. Forty-two year old able bodied seaman Benjamin Lyon punished for absenting himself from the sloop when on shore, also in a prolonged relationship in with a local lovely, punished with a further dozen for disobeying orders. The third of the paramours who preferred the warmth of embrace from a brown eyed wahines to the strict regime of ship-board life was twenty-two year old able body seaman, William Nash. He was punished for absenting himself from the sloop when ashore. He was flogged with one dozen and another dozen for disobeying orders. A Very Sick Captain Cook During the 3rd Voyage, Cook was starting to show the impact of the poison in his body. His Heevas were more noticeable as was his �bilious colic� noticed first by Forster and Marra during the second voyage. This time it was put down to �a little indisposed� by Astronomer Burney. The locals offered Cook trade goods like vegetables, fish, tappa cloth and pigs, in return pieces of iron. Metal was highly prized by the Society Islanders despite the fact that they didn't have any mining or metal working skills. They were extremely adept at forging iron into tools of war. The most revered of the trade goods were the steel marlin spikes, without any alteration they were transformed into a handy and very dangerous Pah'hoo'ah � a killing dagger to be used with lethal effect on February 14th 1779 at Kealakekua Bay Hawaii � there the false God �Lono� was dispatched. There is a suggestion that Omai, who had collected a phalanx of nine young men, possibly dwarf �menahune� from New Zealand and other Islands during the voyage home, was homosexual, an acceptable practice in Hawaii. Cook stated that Omai did not seem at all disposed to take himself a wife. Omai now on home turf found that many of the articles given to him by London society were practically useless to him. So prior to the departure of HM Sloops, he very wisely changed them for hatchets and other useful articles. James Cook left him presents of a horse and mare, a heavily pregnant goat, an English boar with two sows. Also the crew built a small house 24� x 18� x 10 feet high, to accommodate all of the stuff�, pots, pans, porcelain china and large box of toys Omai collected in London. Along with an armoury including a musket; bayonet; cartouche box; a fowling piece; two pair of pistols; two or three swords; and a cutlass.33 Anchors were raised, painters slipped, buoys heaved on board and sails unfurled. On 2nd November 1778 after firing a salute of five guns, the ships sailed. Omai accompanied them for a short way in his canoe, crying and lamenting the departure. Mr. King says that when he parted from Cook, the elegant Omai completely broke down and cried all the way ashore. Cook speaks well of him, saying he seldom had to find fault with him, that he had many good qualities, but, like the rest of his race, he lacked powers of observation, application, and perseverance. Alas Omai was to die a natural death thirty months after the sloops left Otaheite. Twenty-six year old John Henry Martin, master's mate on the HM Sloop Resolution recorded on January 1779 of the punishment administered to James Dermot with twelve lashes for passing tin as iron on the natives.

On 13th February 1779 a Kealakekua native took a fancy to the HM Sloop Discovery�s armourer�s tongs, he was unfortunately caught in the act and he was tied to the main shrouds and flogged with forty lashes. Some of James Cook�s malicious actions puzzled his officers who surreptitiously recorded witnessed actions and asked why he caused such needless damage. However the contrary opinion as to Cook�s humanity was written of by Cook�s biographer Sir John Barrow who started the myth of the �Imortal James Cook the humanitarian, the greatest explorer the world had ever known�. Alas only one of these claims could be substantiated. All too often in a moment of crisis, James Cook lost control, and the reason for this loss must lie partly in his own character. He had lost control on an earlier occasion at Poverty Bay in New Zealand, and his loss of control increased as voyage progressed. The vindictive side of Cook was not so evident during the early part of the first voyage. October 1769 he had attempted to stop a canoe-load of fishermen, to make their closer acquaintance, but had miscalculated his means. Maoris had been killed, Cook had suffered much from remorse; and from that time forward he doubled and redoubled his guard against bloodshed. When driven to hostilities, he preferred to inflict fright rather than death. He preferred to use small shot rather than ball. Cook knew that ball usually killed; generally speaking, his men were under the most stringent orders in this matter, disobedience incurred his rage, and his wrath.

Chapter Thirty-four THE DEATH OF JAMES COOK FRS RN

Chapter 34 The Death of James Cook - The Last Days Kealakekua Bay. It was 1st February 1779 and who was to know that James Cook was to loose his command in two weeks time. Seeing an area surrounded by wooden palings, and needing firewood on board the sloop, in a somewhat cavalier manner Cook told King to pick up the paling fence that surrounded a sacred Morai, no amount of protest was heeded. As the sailors collected the palings they also picked up a number of ancestral effigies and another little statue of the God Ku. This consecrated ground meant nothing to the crew, King or Cook. They were to pay for this desecration! 1

This heiau was also the burial ground of able bodied seaman forty-seven year William Watman was considered an �old man� by the crew, he had died after a stroke.2 The memorial board over the grave was secured with wooden pegs (trunnels) to save the sign from the native�s intent on acquiring iron nails.3 �Georgius tertius Rex 1779 Hic Jacet Guilelmus Watman� The crew were most reluctant to depart Kealakekua, with an abundance of amorous locals, one can hardly blame them. The warmth and friendship bestowed on Cook and Clerke by the King Kalani �opu�u his family and chief priest Kao and some the local population of Kealakekua was genuine. However the locals were glad to see the back of the visitors and �Lono�. The two sloops departed Kealakekua Bay, sailing north in the direction of Maui hugging the coastline. Three days out the barometric pressure in the glass took a nose dive, no amount of tapping would make it rise. The weather turned into a violent storm shaking HM Sloop Resolution causing her fore-mast to split. With a sprung mast Cook realised he has no choice but to return to Kealakekua Bay to execute repairs. On the second entry into the Kealakekua Bay, on 9th February 1779 there was no triumphant entry into the bay, no adulation, no naked wahines or manhus offering their lovely bodies. This was a complete reversal of the excitement witnessed during the first visit. The King and priests thought that �Lono� was greedy and was back to take more valuable supplies which the locals could now ill afford to offer. Murmurs started and soon turned into an excited uncontrollable rabble, the natives were not happy to see the return of the ships, crew, and God or not, even the great �Lono� was now not welcome � the people of Kealakekua Bay had paid their dues and it was unfair of �Lono� to come back for more. Between the 11th to 13th February 1779 the carpenters set about shaping and tapering heel of the new lower fore-mast, the able bodied seamen tarred the small stuff needed to seize and lash the mast. Shearlegs were made to step the fore-mast into the keel plate. The new lower main-mast was set in place with girt lines and blocks attached to the shearlegs trestle trees thimbles and blocks. Shrouds hoisted over the mast head and paired off to port and starboard. The swifters were swayed over the mast head to carry the sails. The stays secured to support the mast once rove tight. The cross trees were hoisted and secured by bolts to the trestle trees. Next the top-mast was set and secured in the same way as the lowerfore-mast. The masts are then rigged, with standing and running rigging, with blocks, deadeyes, and huge banjo blocks to the fore-stays and ratlines both port and starboard. Finally the yards were rigged and hoisted into position. The ship was now ready to depart.4 On the 13th February 1779 the thieves had been at work. This time no minor trifle, it was a serious theft. Captain Cook was furious when it was reported that during the preceding night that the sloop Discovery�s cutter had been stolen. The boat had been emersed near the shore, having her planks swelled by submersion. The natives saw the boat as an easy steal, no doubt with a covetous eye on the nails, bolts, copper and iron fittings. As this was a serious loss, Cook decided, as he had many times previously to �invite� a chief on board to be held as a hostage till the stolen cutter was returned. However for the first time Cook changed his plan. With this kidnap in mind he decided to go shore-side with a patrol of marines, he would soon fix this matter! He had never taken so many armed marines ashore to sort out a problem in the past. The wily Captain was now irrationally angry, and commenced a tactic contrary to his normal pattern; by instructing all of the Marines follow his action and load ball in one barrel and shot in the other. Any shooting with ball could very well prove lethal. 5 According to Lieutenant King�s Journal of the events the mortally ill Clerke suffering from consumption (Tuberculosis) was far too weak to make the trip to the

village of Kaawaloa (Kowrowha) where King Terreeoboo, was in residence. Cook decided to go ashore with a patrol of marines including Lieutenant Phillips, Sergeant Gibson, Corporal Thomas and seven others, They used the pinnace and launch, under the command of Lieutenant Williamson; the former boat was the smaller, normally used by the Captain in going between ship and shore; the latter was the largest of the ships boats, carrying perhaps two dozen men and supplies.6 Lieutenant King took a group ashore further up the coast, Cook was in an evil mood, first he seized the natives canoes and then set about to secure his hostage, a Royal hostage! Cook had taken hostages before, repeatedly, peacefully, successfully; it was standard and proven practice with him, he had done it earlier on this voyage, but he had never armed the Marines with ball normally bird-shot was the charge. Kealakekua Bay � The Death of Cook For an instant, James Cook and Marine Lieutenant Phillips were left standing alone in the mounting horror, then Phillips was struck down, wounded in the shoulder by a long iron spike (pah�hoo�ah) followed by a volley of stones and barely escaped to the pinnace with his life. Bravely he rescued a marine from certain death. Cook was last seen alive standing on the rocks and waving to the boats, some say to cease fire and to come in closer.7 Master�s Mate Lanyon attempted to help, he came into shore with the smaller cutter but he was too late to save the battling Captain Cook. During the fray Second Lieutenant John Williamson was laying-off the shoreline in the ship�s launch a few hundred meters from the action and a few too many meters away to assist his Captain. Williamson made no attempt to assist Cook. His lack of action was looked on by Master�s Mate William Harvey as �discreditable�.8 During the battle of Camperdown, on 11th October 1797, Captain Williamson Agincourt disgraced himself, his country and his Flag by running from a similar situation to that faced by Cook. Williamson was branded a coward! He took to the bottle and never served at sea again. He had been tried by court martial for not closing with the enemy in accordance with Duncan's signals and was sentenced to be placed at the bottom of the list of post captains and to be rendered incapable of serving again in the Navy The charges were brought with indignation by Captain Thomas Hopper, Royal Marines, who was serving on the HMS Agincourt and was so mortified by the failure of his captain to come to grips with the enemy that he exclaimed loudly: �This is the second time that I have seen the British flag disgraced by the cowardice of my captain!� 9 Cook now alone, was in trouble after he fired his musket ball into the wickerwork ta?mi (a gorget breast plate) worn by an aggressive on-comer, it did not kill him, the word soon spread. Chief Kalimanouka�aha, had beaten �Lono�. Although slightly wounded the chief composed himself and came up on a different tack from behind the unguarded Cook. The chief hesitated once or twice as he approached, and struck Cook on the back of the head with a club, and finished him off with an Admiralty supplied iron marlin spike � now a lethal pah�hoo�ah! Soon stones crashed down and many spikes entered Cook. This could not be the great God �Lono� - he was bleeding like humans do! 10 James Cook was dead, killed at Kealakekua Bay, Hawaii on Sunday14th February 1779. Four of the marines witnessed the death of Cook, but they were never able to report the incident. Corporal Theophilis Hinks was dispatched with a lethal pah�hoo�ah into his bowels, his mortally wounded body dragged onto the rocks where his head was crushed with stones and clubs, all inflicted by the angered mob.

Obviously dead, the bashing continued, with savage deliberation. Three other marines were killed. James Thomas also dispatched with a pah�hoo�ah into his stomach; Thomas Fatchet and John Allen had their heads stoved in with stones. The marines and the unfortunate Cook were all overwhelmed by the sheer numbers of an angry mob! Whilst the body of James Cook was not recovered in its entirety, the bodies of the marines were handed over with no evidence of cannibalism. Some of the Cook�s body parts were returned. Local custom was not followed with �Lono� his skull was not to be mounted on a pike for all to see. Some body parts were returned. All the bones showed marks of fire. Captain Clerke ordered body parts packed in salt for preservation. No one doubted that the remains were from Captain Cook when a known scar was found between the thumb and index finger of the complete right hand was returned. (The scar was caused by the explosion of a powder horn on 6th August 1764 at Noddy Harbour, Newfoundland). Although the scalp had an inch-long gash on it, the skull was not fractured; the officers decided that the first blow with a club had not been mortal, he must have been dispatched with the pah�hoo�ah, thrust by Chief Kalimanouka�aha. 11 The next day the jaw and feet were returned. The rest of the flesh had been cooked and consumed, �Lono� was a God and by consumption some of his powers would be passed to the expectant consumers. 12 To add absolute insult to the killing of Cook, was the cheeky young native who bared his backside at the ship and the crew who were on board at the time. To really rub in the insult the bare back sided native was wearing Captain Cook�s hat. 13 Another custom that may have been observed was to turn the penis into a nguru nose flute. The better flutes were left to dry over many months exposed to the sea breezes, the salt air curing the gruesome curio. Clerke recorded upon examining the remains handed back to him of his �late honoured and much lamented friend, I found all his bones, excepting those of the back, jaw, and feet, the two latter articles Earpo brought me in the morning� the former, he declared, had been reduced to ashes with the trunk of the body. As Carnacare (Kerriakair) had told us, the flesh was taken from all the bones, excepting those of the hands, the skin of which they had cut through in many places, and salted, with the intention, no doubt, of preserving them; Earpo likewise brought with him the two barrels of Captain Cook's guns, beaten flat with the intention of making cutting instruments of them. The return of the flattened guns makes a mockery of the sale of the 2002 Lyon and Turnbull, Auction where the �Captain Cook� pistol was sold, without a blemish! As appeasement was a present of thirteen hogs from Terreaboo. The hands, as has been mentioned before, were identified by the scar left by the explosion of his powder flask in Newfoundland, which almost severed the thumb from the fingers. 14 On hearing of the death some wept; others alas, remembered him for his cruelty and his acts of outrage, some of his officers said naught but made mental notes for later Journal recording, which they did. The big guns fired and kept firing till houses on shore were flattened. With the twenty-eight year old Captain Clerke now nearing death, ship-board decisions were taken by Lieutenant John Gore, as if inheriting the late Captain Cook�s �heevas� Gore first instructed William Bligh to take troops ashore and shoot every native he came across. This Bligh did, until the compassionate Lieutenant King issued a cease fire.15 Although he had eaten the best cuts of Cook, old King Terreeoboo still enquired tearfully after �Lono�. �When will �Lono� return ?� Lieutenant King thought and replied wisely

�Very soon, very soon� The old King smiled knowingly. If James Cook had not used his little antimony cup to purge himself upper and lower, one wonders if he would have retired to the comfortable sinecure of Superintendent of Greenwich Hospital, London. There he could have worn his lovely handmade waistcoat made by his faithful wife Elizabeth for the day �he came home from the sea�. I do not believe for one moment that the old curmudgeon, the greatest navigator the world has ever known, could have ever settled down behind a desk. No, not Cook � this was no job for �Lono�. The third voyage of HM Sloop Resolution and her escort HM Sloop Discovery took three years and eighteen days, they sailed seventy thousand miles with the loss of only four men through sickness � but no losses to scurvy. However during the voyage, the two Captains, James Cook and Charles Clerke did not return. James Cook died here

Chapter Thirty-Five HM SLOOP RESOLUTION and THE FRENCH

Chapter 35

Resolution and the French

Admiral Pierre Andr� de Suffren The Resolution was responsible for some remarkable sailing feats and was to prove to be one of the greatest ships of history. She was the first ship to cross the Antarctic Circle (17th January 1773) and crossed twice more during the voyage. The third crossing on 3rd February 1774 was the deepest penetration into the Antarctic ever sailed to that date - Latitude 71� 10' South, Longitude 106� 54' W. As a consequence the Resolution was instrumental in proving Dalrymple's �Terra Australis Incognita� (Southern Continent) to be a myth. On his third voyage, Cook in the Resolution crossed the Arctic Circle again on 17th August 1778. Charles Clerke, who took over the command after Cook's tragic death again, crossed the Arctic Circle on 19th July 1779. The HM Sloop Resolution was back in England in 1780. She was converted to serve as an armed Store ship and sailed for the East Indies in March 1781. The sloop is shown by David Lyon as being used as an armed transport in the East Indies in 1781.1 HM Transport Resolution was taken as a prize in 1782 by Vicomte, de Laroche of the Sphinx part of the French squadron commanded by Admiral Pierre Andr� de Suffren against Sir Edward Hughes in Indian waters. Du Chilleau replaced Laroche half way through the voyage after a disagreement with Suffren. The Resolution remained in French service until 1783. She was captured by De Suffren�s Sphinx on June 9th 1782 off Trinquemale, Suffren�s Journal states: Pour r�parer cette saut� le Commandeur a expedi�sur le champ le Spihinx, le petit Annibal and la Bellone. Ils ont croise pennant sep jours, and ils ont pris deux b�timens doubles en cuivre du convoi du San-Carlo, destin�s pour Trinquemale, L�un d�eux s�est trouv� ?tre cette fameuse R�solution qui a fait le tour du monde avec le Cook� 2 Extract from Suffren�s diary translated as: �� the Commander sent out �Sphinx� (94 guns); and the small �Annibal� (74 gun) and Bellone� (39 guns). They have crossed during seven days, and they took two �ships of the line� with copper bottoms from the convoy out of San Carlo, destined for Trinquemale. One of them is the famous �Resolution� that was known to tour the world with Cook�. One can imagine the excitement bubbling inside the old French Admiral, not only had he beaten Admiral Hughes and the Royal Navy but taken a prize, a very prestigious prize, HM Store ship Resolution, which was detached from the French convoy and returned to France under sail. So impressed with the capture of Cook�s famous vessel �Resolution� the French Admiralty presented the captured ship to King Louis XIV who had her renamed Marie Antoinette. Thierry Du Pasquier, the acknowledged authority on French whaling, tracked Marie Antoinette and her voyages in the whaling trade under the ownership of Aget, Kenny and Coffin from 1785, Marie Antoinette is shown first as 418 tons but the later records show 490 tons. The vessel sailed to arctic waters in 1785, 1786, and 1787, but made no voyage in 1788. On 1st January 1789 Marie Antoinette was sold to Captain J. Haydon by an intermediary, J. Champion of Dunkirk, and renamed Libert�. 3 Du Pasquier found evidence of a name change from Resolution to Marie Antoinette while the old ship transferred into French service he notes in his fine book on French whaling ships, that the American whaleman, William Haydon, purchased a vessel in Dunkerque named Marie Antoinette in January 1786 he took the ship whaling off the coast of Groenland, Captain Fourmentel returned with three whales,

valued around 2,500 livres. 4 The French Revolution was developing, and any ship named Marie Antoinette was destined for trouble, the time was not right for a ship bearing a French royalist name so the American whaleman Hayden renamed it Libert� and appropriate name in the Revolutionary France this was obviously very prudent. Details of the subsequent voyages are given by Du Pasquier. Libert� was fitted out for further whaling voyages, returning with 8,000 livres value in whale oil on 30th June 1790. However Libert� did not return from the voyage after leaving Le Havre on 15th September 1792. On 23rd September 1793 under Captain Nathanial Churchill Libert� ran aground on Brenton�s Reef, Newport, Rhode Island. Her cargo of Brazilian whale oil, whale bone ivory and the extremely valuable spermaceti, all destined for delivery to Messrs Gibbs and Canning of R.I. 5 was now in the hands of the Customs Revenue office held for evading and non payment of tonnage import duties. On 15th September 1792 �Libert� departed, under Captain Nathaniel Churchill, for the coast of Brazil, On this voyage 26th September 1792 John Barrow the future Under Secretary to the Admiralty, whilst a cadet in the diplomatic service, was on his way to Cochinchina by ship. He recorded his feelings after spotting Cook�s Resolution under French colours as Libert� sighted off Cape Verde Islands. 6 It was from this 1792 voyage that Libert� returned in 1793 to Newport. The reason for going to Newport Rhode Island was the prevalence of privateers in the eastern Atlantic operating under official letters of marque and preying on French registered vessels. There were armed private vessels under English and Dutch flags and the British Navy also played a part in these acts of piracy. Haydon had already lost one ship the Necker which was taken as a prize by the British. A return to an American port along the western coast of the Atlantic would have seemed a prudent move. On entering Naragasset Bay a patrolling British revenue cutter spotted the French Flag of Libert�, suspecting (correctly) that they were chasing a whaler that had supplemented its income by piracy, a chase ensued. The chase came to a crashing halt on Brenton�s Reef at the end of Sherman�s Wharf; Libert� was a total wreck. The Revenue Department extracted its dues in whale oil, whale bone and other chattels. The ship was left to rot until a development of the wharf engulfed the ship in concrete in what is now a public car park. 7 John Barrow (1764-1848) In 1804 John Barrow was appointed Second Secretary of the Admiralty by Viscount Melville, a post which Barrow held for forty years (apart from a short period in 1806-07 when there was a Whig government in power). In particular, when Lord Grey took office as Prime Minister in 1830 Barrow was especially requested to remain in his post, starting the practice that senior civil servants stay in office on change of government and serve in a non-partisan manner. Indeed, it is during his occupancy of the post that it was renamed Permanent Secretary. In his position at the Admiralty, Barrow was a great promoter of Arctic voyages of discovery, including those of voyages of exploration conducted by Sir John Ross, (1777�1856) Sir William Edward Parry (1790�1855), James Clark Ross, (1800-1862), and John Franklin (1786�1847) who was forced through starvation to eat his boots. Sir John Barrow is reputed to have been the initial proposer of St Helena as the new place of exile for Napoleon Bonaparte. Barrow also ensured it was naval officers who �cared� for Napoleon. Barrow sent out teams of elite naval officers on many disastrous exploration trips around the world. �Barrows boys�, as they were to become known, ultimately opened Africa to the world, discovered Antarctica, and explored the Arctic. Most of the teams perished however, being under-nourished and with stupid method of paying their way � with an Admiralty �chit� which the natives failed to value or exchange for supplies. Point Barrow in Alaska is named

after him.8 John Barrow had first-hand experience aboard a Greenland whaler before he joined the British Navy as an instructor at Greenwich. He subsequently published several travel books about his experiences in Africa and China (1801-04). His writings include 195 articles in the Quarterly Review12 and Encyclopaedia Britannica. He wrote biographies on John Macaulay (1792-1857), Lord Anson (1697-1762), Lord Howe (1726-1799) and Peter the Great (1672-1725). Other books include Mutiny on the Bounty; The Voyages of James Cook; A Chronological History of Voyages into the Arctic Regions; The Life, Voyages, and Exploits of Admiral Sir Francis Drake; A Description of Pitcairn's Island and its Inhabitants and Sketches of the Royal Society and Royal Society Club. John Barrow in his writings on Cook went out of his way to laud and praise the deeds of the great navigator; he was principally responsible for placing James Cook firmly on a pedestal and starting the myth that was to last into the twenty first century. Resolution flies the Tricolore as Libert� Confirmation of the old Resolution under French colours was confirmed in an intriguing reference from a future biographer of James Cook. John Barrow, who had been on his way to his first public service job at the British Embassy, (Vietnam) with the Ambassador for Britain, Lord Macartney. Barrow sailed into Port Praya where he spotted the renamed HM Sloop Resolution as Libert� under the French flag. John Barrow who was Chinese speaking was appointed official interpreter to Lord Macartney's mission, McCartney spoke not a word of Chinese. On withdrawing his Commission with the Chinese Court, Macartney became the Ambassador for Britain in South Africa. Barrow took up the offer to join him at the African Embassy. John Barrow, on sighting Cook�s ship, emotionally declared that the French ships out of Dunkirk were chiefly manned by English seamen, who were strongly suspected as fitted out on English capitals as smuggling whale-ships. One of them was the old Resolution of Captain Cook now transformed to a smuggling whaler under the French name of Libert�; and what was still worse, bearing the French republican flag. Barrow was not ashamed to confess that his feelings were considerably hurt in witnessing this degradation of an object so intimately connected that great man. Such a feeling, though excited by an inanimate object, is not, either uncommon or unnatural. The Resolution was the house of the immortal Cook and out of respect to his memory, Barrow would have laid her up in a dock, till she had wasted away plank by plank.9 Now that it is understood that Libert� was Cook�s Resolution, abandoned at a dock in Newport�s inner harbour in 1793. Newport was the final port of call for two of the four vessels that took James Cook around the world. How serendipitous is it that two of the 18th century�s greatest vessels of exploration should end their days within a few cable lengths of each other � one, no doubt washed away in the swift currents between Goat Island and the Blue Rock, in Naragasset Bay and the other sunk at Sherman�s Wharf, now under tons of concrete that form a Rhode Island condominium car park. Based on the evidence gathered it can now be stated with confidence that Cook�s HM Sloop Resolution became Libert�, sunk off Sherman�s Wharf after striking Brenton�s Reef, Newport Rhode Island, and is now buried under the concrete of the public car park, The other Cook vessel HM Bark Endeavour later renamed Lord Sandwich was scuttled at Naragasset Bay, Rhode Island, its remains are yet to be discovered. Any hope of salvaging Cook�s ship is almost futile after 230 years. However the Australian National Maritime Museum Archaeology Team and the astute Dr. Kathy Abbass, Project Director, Rhode Island Marine Archaeology Project (RIMAP) have

sent divers into the fast flowing soup of Narragansett Bay to dive on the Brisbane�s scuttled fleet. After ten years or so of exploration they have found no evidence of Cook�s renamed ship Lord Sandwich. Like people chasing a dream, the marine archaeologists have been diving near the Toll Bridge at Newport Rhode Island with a great deal of conviction that one day they may find one vessel � HM Bark Endeavour � the holy grail of James Cook�s ships. It would be easier and more certain of an outcome if the RIMAP team were to look under the concrete of the car park and the block of flats now standing where Sherman�s Wharf once stood. It is there they will find the remains of HM Sloop Resolution. The Mistake of the British Consul History inaccurately recorded HM Bark Endeavour as Libert� we now know thanks to John Barrow�s sightings and the diary of French Admiral Suffren, that the rename for HM Sloop Resolution was Libert� 10 it can also be stated with some certainty that thanks to Lloyd�s Register of the time, the rename of HM Bark Endeavour was Lord Sandwich The mistake in names had started around the 1820 when inadvertently John Bernard Gilpin, (1754-1851) the British Consul of Newport (1802-1832) wrote to his employers in London, referring to a conversation with Mr. Gibbs a local Merchant who had pointed at the skeleton of a ship stuck in the sands off Sherman�s Wharf and declared to the Consul �there, Sir, is the immortal Cook's Ship� 11 Gilpin assumed that he was looking at the remains of HM Bark Endeavour, but he was mistaken, what had been pointed out were the remains of �Libert� the rename for HM Sloop Resolution. And so it was from that point on for the next one hundred and eighty years, this mistake would misconstrue the course of history for two of James Cook�s ships. This then was start of the myth that confused the final resting place of Cook�s ships of exploration. The after-history of the ship that stuck Brenton�s Reef and rotted away at Sherman�s wharf R.I. was first uncovered in French whaling history records citing the various voyages of Marie Antoinette and later the re-named Libert� but thanks to the capture off Trincomalee we now know that these two vessels were Cook�s old sloop Resolution. .11 The Australian National Maritime Museum and Dr. Abbas�s and her team at the Rhode Island Marine Archaeology Project, Newport Rhode Island set out to chase dreams and to plunge into the murky waters off Newport Harbor, looking for �Cook�s Ship�. N.M.M. Director Mary Louise Williams stated: �It is amazing both the Endeavour and the Resolution - two of history's most revered vessels of exploration - should have had such ignominious ends, just a few kms from each other. But we shouldn't be over-romantic about ships'' she says. �Our idea of the Endeavour today is very different from what it was in the 18th Century. Then it was just a tired old ship, today it is an Australian icon�.

Chapter Thirty-Six Attempts on the North West Passage

Chapter 36 Northwest Passage John Cabot (1455-1499) The first recorded attempt to discover the Northwest Passage was the east-west voyage of Italian, Giovanni Caboto anglicised his name on moving to England to John Cabot (1455-1499) when he was appointed to explore under the English flag of King Henry VII. In 1496 he set out on a voyage of exploration but a mutinous crew forced an early return. A year later the King granted him funding and a ship for a second voyage. There is no doubt that he made landfall on the North American Continent probably landing on Cape Bonavista, Cabot snr made a number more voyages but made no great additions to history. The King was delighted and granted him the rank of Admiral with a handsome bonus on retirement.1 Sebastian Cabot (1474 - 1557) John Cabot�s son, Sebastian Cabot, (Sebastiano Caboto) (1474 - 1557 ) later in 1508 he made a fruitless voyage to North America, looking for the Northwest Passage, evidence on this voyage is hard to establish however. Sebastian Cabot appointed commander of a Spanish expedition to the New World to find a sea route to China. In 1525 he reached Brazil and sailed towards the Straits of Magellan. The expedition sailed as far as River R�o de la Plata between Argentina and Uruguay in South America. Alas he succumbed to the thought of great wealth and spent three fruitful years exploring (1525-8) for silver and gold. Cabot blames hostile natives, lack of food, failure to find any gold or silver and a depleted expedition force Sebastian Cabot to return to Spain to an unhappy reception.2 Jacques Cartier (1491-1557) In 1535 Jacques Cartier's explorations of the Saint Lawrence River wrongly assumed St. Lawrence was the access to the Northwest Passage. But at Montreal, he came to fast flowing rapids, and a waterfall, Cartier thought that this was all that was keeping him from China (Lachine Rapids). He soon realised his folly. His crew were sick, very sick, only ten of the one hundred were not stricken with scurvy and the rest were too weak to continue. Cartier spent the winter in Stadacona but while camped here he was fearful of the local �Huron �Indians�. The expedition might terminated there and then but for Cartier noticing that a local called Dom Agaya had a miraculous cure from scurvy, which was manifest ten days earlier. When Cartier saw him healthy and well, Dom Agaya showed him how to brew a tea of fresh white cedar pine needles a guarantee against scurvy. It worked on the sick one hundred of Cartier�s crew. The Hurons told him stories about a land in the north, called Saguenay, (Saguenay�Lac-Saint-Jean region of Quebec) full of gold and other treasure. Cartier and crew set off to chase the dream of vast wealth � another foolish dream that ended in failure.3 Sir Humphrey Gilbert, (1537?-1583) First Attempt Sir Humphrey Gilbert, English adventurer, explorer, soldier, and Member of Parliament, for Devon, in 1535 he claimed the territory of Newfoundland for the English crown. Humphrey Gilbert was one of the strongest believers that the

Northwest Passage was possible. In 1566, Sir Humphrey approached Queen Elizabeth for approval for the rights of governance any newly discovered lands, in her Royal name of course. Gilbert stated that his pay-off was to be a total monopoly on trade there. Naturally the Queen objected, how could she cede the rights to a territory that was already held by the crown, it was a sound point. The miffed Gilbert saddled his horse and joined the Queen's military forces, in France, Ireland and the Nederlands; for this he was knighted (1570), however he never gave up the thought of exploration. 4 Second Attempt Eventually in 1578 the Queen acquiesced and signed the requested charter, Gilbert turned his attention to establishing a colony in St. John�s Newfoundland, he was licensed by Royal Charter to discover, take possession of, and govern any lands not already under the rule of a Christian Prince. The Fateful Voyage Gilbert�s voyage enabled him to establish the first English colony in North America (Newfoundland) in 1583. Unfortunately, he and his ship were lost at sea on the return voyage to England. 5 Martin Frobisher (1539 � 1594) In 1576 Frobisher first charted and tracked towards the Northwest Passage. He had the area of exploration named after him near Resolution Island (named after Cook�s ship) and Frobisher Bay. During a second voyage with three ships Frobisher explored the area looking for the mythical �Passage�. Like Cabot before him, Frobisher was smitten by �gold fever�, unlike Cabot however Frobisher actually opened up a number of �gold� mines. The newly established company was influenced by a favourable assay report after gold was assayed after the first voyage. Alas the two hundred of tons taken out and shipped back to England showed no profit it was �fools gold� the first assay had been incorrect. Frobisher had been hooked on a dream and followed it to the top of the world, alas it was just that a dream in �earthly paradise�. 6 John Davis (1543�1605) (First Voyage) John Davis had visions of the Northwest Passage and managed to gain the attention of Queen Elizabeth�s Courtier Francis Walsingham, who true to his word approached the Queen, who liked the idea and authorised the Privy Purse to underwrite the expedition to explore the North West Passage. To this he failed but in 1583 he found Greenland and huge walls of �loathsome view of the shore, and irksome noyse of the yce� (ice) which he renamed �Desolation�.7 John Davis (1543�1605) (Second Voyage) Davis fully equipped his expedition under the Royal warrant and in 1585 headed out and made Baffin Island (in the today�s territory of Nunavut the largest member of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago). Though he tried to navigate his way through Cumberland Sound, which he hoped was the Strait leading through the Northwest Passage, when he too met walls of ice. Annoyed that his failure would upset Queen Elizabeth I of England but more importantly it would upset Secretary of State Sir Francis Walsingham (c. 1532 �1590) When Davis realized that his voyage was going nowhere, although assured that the sea beyond was large, he wisely sailed for home in his tiny 30 ton bark. 8 John Davis (1543-1605) (Third voyage) The Queen and Walsingham did not give up, and permitted Davis two more attempts during 1586 and 1587. He sailed with three ships through Davis Straits (now named) into Baffin Bay, along the coast of Greenland almost to Upernavik, but realized that the passage to America was too difficult to locate. He was nearly there, but he kept pushing north, had he have turned due west at Upernavic, he would have

found an opening between Arctic Bay and Devon Island, that leads to the �Northwest Passage�. (Today�Devon Island is among the largest members of the Arctic Archipelago, forming part of the Queen Elizabeth Islands group. The island is located northwards across the Lancaster Sound � itself forming the eastern portions of the North West Passage) Politically astute, Davis was wise and canny enough to name some important landmarks after his backers - Cumberland Sound, Cape Walsingham, Exeter Sound; these places in the artic circle retain these names today. Davis although closer to the Passage than any explorer todate, he declared that once again he had failed but caused much excitement when he declared he had found abundant fishing grounds. The locals indicated to Davis that ahead lay vast tracks of ocean and massive walls of ice. Once again the intrepid explorer realised that he had no way of penetrating the ice walls, no matter what lay on the other side. 9 Henry Hudson (1561? � 1611) - First Voyage. The Muscovy Company of London hired Henry Hudson to find a shortcut across the Arctic to shortcut the voyage to the East Coast of America and a quick passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific and onwards to the Orient. In 1607 he failed and returned to London. 10 Henry Hudson � Second Voyage. Not easily put off, the VOC � The Dutch East India Company � hired Hudson to find the Northwest Passage they held a monopoly on the Far East trade and a short-cut to the East was the order of the day. His ship was the �Half Moon� which sailed from Amsterdam on 1609, however there was an undercurrent of mutiny in the air when off the coast of Yonkers New York. In fear of his life, after loading stores Hudson packed up and returned � not to Holland but to England where he was arrested for flying a foreign flag. The VOC Ship sailed on with the Dutch crew and returned to Holland, the captain remaining in safe hands in England. 11 Henry Hudson � Third voyage Backed by the Virginia Company (A commercial trading company, chartered by King James I of England in April 1606 with the object of colonizing the eastern coast of North America), Henry Hudson set sail from St Katherine's Pool, below the Tower of London aboard the English East India Company �Discovery� to look for the Northwest Passage however if should find gold, all well and good. By sailing virtually up the (now named) �International Date Line�) in from the Northern Pacific, up the Bering Sea to the Chukchi Sea off Point Barrow. He reached closer to the North Pole than any explorer before him. Unfortunately on 22nd June 1611 his crew mutinied, and transferred Hudson with his son John, and seven loyal crewmen into a tiny shallop sail boat and set them all adrift they were never seen again. His name is synonymous with the Canadian North with the Hudson Bay Trading Company, Hudson�s Strait and Hudson Bay named in his honour.12 Vitus Bering (1681-1742) A Danish officer in Russia�s Tsarist navy, Vitus Bering, in 1728 sailed up the passage earlier named by Semyon Dezhnyov in 1648 was honoured with the rename �Bering Sea� confirming the separation of America and Russia. Vitus Bering and Alexei Chirikov in 1741 discovered several of the Aleutian Islands while Bering charted parts of Alaska unfortunately with a crew overcome by the dreaded scurvy Vitus Bering died, the ship wrecked off Kamchatka. 13 Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra, (Cuadra) (1743-1794) In 1779 Cuadra undertook a voyage to find Bucareli Sound, Alaska with the frigate Favorita, He sailed to Alaska in the expedition of Ignacio de Arteaga. Following naval duty, Cuadra was given command in 1789 of the naval department of San Blas,

which controlled Spanish activities up the Northwest Coast. The journal of Francisco Antonio Mourelle, the second officer serving with Bodega y Quadra was given to James Cook in his attempt to find the passage, neither of the two found clear passage, finding the task impossible. 14 Cook would have been better off with the Journal of John Davis. Dubious credit for the first to find the passage through to the North West, goes to the English ship Octavius was on a voyage from China but was looking for the Northwest Passage. She was found by the whaler Herald with all on board Octavius were frozen solid in sea ice off Point Barrow. But sea-lore continues with the far-fetched tale of the ice melting and the ship, with no living soul aboard, sailed on to come to rest at Alaska, this is arrant nonsense. Octavius was devoid of food and supplies to last the winter. The point where the ship was found would suggest that this was the first ship to voyage to the edge of the North West Passage. With a pen in one hand the captain was found sitting at his chart room table, the ship�s log in front of him. The boarding party took the log before quitting the vessel. The last entry in the log was from 1762, which meant that the ship had been lost in the Arctic for 13 years. Octavius must have sailed up from the Bering Sea turned due East at the junction of the Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean at Point Barrow and entered the channel at Prudhoe and Mackenzie Bay, there is no evidence suggesting she went further towards Victoria Island. 15 Many more were to follow. The Northwest Passage was not fully conquered by sea until 1906, when the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen aboard his 47-ton herring boat Gj�a, arrived at Eagle, Alaska, and sent a telegram announcing his success. However the waterways he sailed were too dangerous and too shallow for commercial shipping. 16 In the first half of the 19th century, some parts of the Northwest Passage (north of the Bering Strait) were explored separately by many expeditions, including those by John Ross, William Edward Parry, and James Clark Ross; overland expeditions were also led by John Franklin, George Back, Peter Warren Dease, Thomas Simpson. Captain Frederick William Beechey R.N. (1796-1856). Captain Frederick William Beechey R.N., (later Rear Admiral) explored the north coast of Alaska, between 1825-1827 discovering and naming Point Barrow, the northern most point of the United States and native Inupiat Eskimo people for over 1,000 years under the name Ukpeagvik or "place where snowy owls are hunted". Beechey commanded HMS Blossom an 18-gun Cormorant-class sloop-of-war on the voyage of exploration to the western Arctic. Beechey was appointed President of the Royal Geographical Society (first founded by Sir John Barrow). A number of geographic places have been named in his honour: Beechey Lake (on Back River, NWT). Beechey Point (in Alaska) and Cape Beechey (on Ellesmere Island); Beechey Island (NWT) is named after his father.17 Dr. John Rae MD. (1813-1893) John Rae was a medical practitioner at Moose Factory, a community in the Cochrane District, Ontario. He was born an Orkney Islander, and was employed by the Hudson Bay Company. During 1853-1854 he went exploring in the great arctic wastelands, his mode of transport was by dog-sled, although he once made a journey 700 miles in snow shoes. He had native cunning the native Inuit having a major impact on his igloo building techniques, attire and diet. Rae travelled light, with less than ten people in his team. Only one man was lost during his great 1854 expedition. Rae made four separate expeditions and returned with information about the outcome of the ill-fated Franklin expedition. In 1851 Rae had found the Northwest Passage; the route linking the entrances of Lancaster Strait; Dolphin and Union Strait, he discovered that Boothia Felix was a peninsula and not an island. Rae found

remnants of the missing Franklin and evidence of cannibalism during the last days of this tragically ill-fated expedition.18 Robert John Le Mesurier McClure (1807 - 1873) It is believed that the finding of a commercial route through the Northwest Passage was found in 1851 by Irishman Captain Sir Robert McClure. RN. (Later Vice Admiral) He tracked up the Melville Passage to the Northwest Passage, however; this strait was not navigable to deep draught ships at that time, only since global warming has larger ships been able to navigate this passage.19 S. S. Manhattan. On 24th August 1969, the S.S. Manhattan the largest non military ship flying the American flag, set sail from Chester, Pennsylvania, in the hope finding a safe way through the Northeast Passage from the East Coast United States of America to the West Coast Canada and the Arctic Ocean. The ship was a monster, the hull of the 1,000 foot / 305 meter long super tanker was covered with a thick protective steel belt and it had an armoured bow like an icebreaker. S.S. Manhattan left Chester, Pennsylvania, headed up the Atlantic coast, travelled around Newfoundland, and passed through Davis Strait between Greenland and Baffin Island. In Baffin Bay the ship entered Lancaster Sound, the entrance to the Northwest Passage. The ship smashed her way through the ice clogged Canadian islands on September 9th 1969. Off Melville Island she ran into trouble and the accompanying icebreaker was called on to clear a passage so she could continue. After smashing her way over 100 miles into McClure Strait, she finally was forced by heavy ice to turn around, the path blocked. Taking another route through Prince of Wales Strait, she made her way past Banks Island. On September 14th from Prince of Wales Strait into Amundsen Gulf in the Beaufort Sea, she at last entered some open water, and a relatively easy passage to Point Barrow, Alaska. The 4,500 mile result proved the East-West passage was possible but absolutely impractical. With global warming now inevitable, a clear passage may one day prove easier. 20 Royal Canadian Mounted Police launch �St. Roch� (1928- 1954) This little 80 ton auxiliary schooner launch made a number of historic voyages through the Northwest Passage, taking eighteen months 1940-42. In 1944 another trip was made from Halifax to Vancouver in 86 days. After leaving Vancouver, the �St. Roch� rounded Alaska, entered Beaufort Sea, touched Baillie Island, went on to Cambridge Bay. She turned back to winter in Walker Bay, on the Midwest coast of giant, icebound Victoria Island, went on in the spring. In August 1941, the �St. Roch� and her crew nosed their indomitable way from Cambridge Bay into the unknown water wasteland of Pasley Bay. The journey to conduct the Eskimo census took twenty-seven months! In the summer of 2000, the �St. Roch II� made the same journey in just three weeks, the global warming had commenced.21

Chapter Thirty-Seven THE STRUCTURE OF THE ROYAL NAVY IN JAMES COOK�S TIME

Chapter 37 � Naval Structure During Cook�s Time Sailors Pay. 16th April to 15th May, 1797 the Channel Fleet refused to sail, the crews were fed up with promises, and no increase in pay for nearly one hundred years. The seamen downed tools disabling the Channel Fleet. For two weeks the mutineers � for that is what was called by the over paid Admiralty � tried to convince the authorities that their claim was just. The seaman elected delegates who tried, in vain to deal with the Admiralty, but talks broke down starting minor insurrection. The situation was calmed and Admiral Lord Howe, who negotiated an agreement that saw a Royal pardon for all crews, together with a pay rise and better living conditions. Because of the relatively peaceful way in which the sailors handled themselves there were no reprisals against the mutineers. However a second, more serious mutiny occurred at the Nore. Discontent amongst the sailors at the Nore, the naval anchorage in the Thames Estuary, was led by Richard Parker, a former officer who had been voted �President of the fleet� by the mutineers. The list of complaints with sensible solutions was drawn up by the delegates and signed by Parker: That every indulgence granted to the fleet at Portsmouth (Spithead) is granted to His Majesty's subjects serving in the Fleet at the Nore and places adjacent. That every man, upon a ship's coming into harbour (a certain number at a time so as not to injure the ship's duty) to go and see their friends and families; a convenient time to be allowed to each man. That all ships before they go to sea shall be paid all arrears of wages down to six months, according to the old rules. That no officer that has been turned down by any of His Majesty's ships shall be employed in the same ship again without consent of the ship's company. That when any of His Majesty's ships shall be paid, that may have been some time in commission, if there are any pressed men on board, that may not be in the regular course of payment, they shall receive two months advance to furnish them with necessaries. That an indemnification be made any men who have run and may now be in His Majesty's naval service and that they not be liable to be taken up as deserters. Which a more equal distribution is made of prize money to the crews of His

Majesty's ships and vessels of war. That the articles of war, as now enforced, require various alterations, several of which to be expunged there from; and if more moderate ones were held forth to seamen in general, it would be the means of taking off that terror and prejudice against His Majesty's service, on that account frequently imbibed by seamen from entering voluntarily into service. The Committee of Delegates of the whole fleet assembled in council on board HMS Sandwich have unanimously agreed that they will not deliver up their charge until the appearance of some of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to ratify the same. Given on board HMS Sandwich by the delegates of the fleet, 20th May, 1797. Admiralty immediately rejected the requests with a curt message stating that all that could reasonably be expected by the seamen and marines has already been granted them. Their Lordships cannot accede to any further requests. Parker, along with his co-conspirators, faced swift justice from the vengeful Admiralty and after a brief trial conducted on the quarterdeck of HMS Neptune under the presidency of Vice-Admiral Thomas Pasley. Parker was hanged for treason and piracy. Several other leading mutineers also swung from the yard arm, while other key offenders were either jailed or flogged. Facing death by hanging from the yard-arm Parker showed that he was a gentleman by his last words - �I most sincerely hope that my death may atone to the country and that all the rest of the fleet may be pardoned and restored to their former situations. I am convinced they will return to their duty with steadiness and alacrity.� 30th June 1797 the yellow flag of execution flew from the gallows ship HMS Sandwich. Admiralty had put down the uprising. After the mutinies, the wages rose by five shillings and sixpence per month for Able Seamen and 4 shillings and sixpence for the lower rates. Therefore, in 1805, a seaman was paid a shilling a day around $18 per annum (plus prize money). The Navy Board The Navy Board was established in 1546, under Henry VIII to administer the Royal Navy. The principal function of the Navy Board was to organise the business of the Navy and advise the Lord Admiral of extraordinary matters. After about one hundred years specialist departments were established. The Navy Board concentrated on building and maintaining HM ships. In 1832 the Board�s duties were absorbed by the Admiralty. 1 The Admiralty The president of the Board was known as the First Lord of the Admiralty, or sometimes First Lord Commissioner of the Admiralty, he was a member of the Cabinet. After 1806, the First Lord of the Admiralty was always a civilian, while the professional head of the navy came to be (and is still today) known as the First Sea Lord. From 1805 the various Naval Lords were assigned specific duties, The Board of Admiralty, made up of seven members, was first commissioned to perform the functions of the Lord Admiral (later termed Lord High Admiral) Board members were responsible to the public for obtaining finance from treasury via Parliament and disbursing them efficiently. Acting on the advice of the Navy Board, the Admiralty could only carry out a broadly supervisory role since (apart from the Admiralty Secretary) it was not permanent and often changed with a new political ministry. The Admiralty was not responsible for naval operations or senior appointments.

Operations were handled by the senior Secretary of State. Operations and senior appointments were discussed in Cabinet, which included the First Lord of the Admiralty, and often with the monarch. Orders and instructions were issued through rather than by the Admiralty. But the Secretary of State sometimes dealt directly with Commanders in Chief, for speed and secrecy. 2 Admiralty House, Whitehall, was the nerve centre of the world's largest and mightiest navy. The Lords of the Admiralty dispensed power from a mahogany table, seating ten, in the Sheraton-style, with fluted pilaster legs, the surface of light-green leather. In this room, in 1804, John Barrow took his position as Second Secretary of the Admiralty (1804�6, 1807�45).3 A position he was to hold for forty-one years, although seemingly not a position of importance, the position of Second Secretary was in deed the most powerful position in the Admiralty. Made so by a very politically astute figure, Barrow himself. Barrow was to a great extent responsible for trimming the number of officers and men employed by the Royal Navy. In fact, their numbers increased until the navy, reduced to a core of some 23,000 men from a peak of more than 130,000. The ratio of men to officers had been one officer for every four men. But ninety per cent of these officers had nothing to do, so they were placed on half-pay. Their only hope of advancement was if someone higher up the Navy List died, this they did rarely. Twenty years after the Napoleonic Wars, the average age of an Admiral was seventysix. Below them on the list hundreds of grey-haired captains on half-pay. In 1846, of the 1,151 officers, only 172 were in full employment. The Victualling Board From 1654 The Victualling Board was based at Tower Hill, London. During the 1742 it moved to Deptford. It was instructed to provide quality provisions to HM Ships. In the 1660s Samuel Pepys reformed the system of having a Purser assigned to each ship to oversee the lading and distribution of supplies. Pepys system where the captain or pursuer was required to lodge a cash surety and to keep complete accounts of every item issued, or purchased. This practice helped stamp out corruption. 5 The Victualling Board built breweries, slaughterhouses, and bakeries near to Navy Yards to provide beer, salted meat and ship's biscuit, and modern research has shown that during the period of the Napoleonic Wars only about 1% of supplies were actually condemned as unfit to eat. In Cook�s day, the Deptford Yard had two docks that could repair up to three vessels at a time. However, victualling was the main function of the Deptford yard. During the course of the eighteenth century, naval wars resulted in the building of larger, more heavily armed vessels. Sailing these warships up river to Deptford was difficult because of the meandering course of the Thames, strong tides and what were often unfavourable winds. By the early 1770s, silting in the Thames had made it impossible for vessels larger than frigates to dock safely at the Deptford yard. In 1832 the Victualling Board as a separate entity was abolished and its functions were assumed by the Board of Admiralty. The Sick and Hurt Board From 1653, the Sick and Hurt Commissioners (AKA Sick and Wounded Commissioners) held office only during wartime. In peacetime its duties came under the Navy Board. In 1740, the Sick and Wounded Board was created. Until the Seven Years War (1755�63), there was no permanent medical organization and invalids were put in the care of private contractors. In the 1740s and 1750s hospitals at Haslar and Stonehouse were developed. James Cook was appointed as fourth Captain with a sinecure at the Greenwich Hospital in London was founded in 1694 as the Royal Naval Hospital for sailors. On retirement from the

sea Cook was expected to take up the position on a full time basis. 6

Appendix 1 The Amended Articles of War 1757 The Articles of War were read when a punishment warrant and offence was read to the ship's company by the captain or officer of the watch. The offender stood to attention in front of the formally mustered ship's company, once the offence and punishment had been read out the offender was tied to a hatch grate or the rigging; punishment was administered with a cat-o-nine-tails. The Articles of War were the law observed and practiced upon His Majesty's the laws relating to the government of his Majesty�s ships, vessels, and forces by sea. The Articles of War were originally established in the 1650s, amended in 1749 (by an act of Parliament) and again in 1757. All commanders, captains, and officers, in or belonging to any of His Majesty's ships or vessels of war, shall cause the public worship of Almighty God, according to the liturgy of the Church of England established by law, to be solemnly, orderly and reverently performed in their respective ships; and shall take care that prayers and preaching, by the chaplains in holy orders of the respective ships, be performed diligently; and that the Lord's day be observed according to law. 1. All flag officers, and all persons in or belonging to His Majesty's ships or vessels of war, being guilty of profane oaths, cursings, execrations, drunkenness, uncleanness, or other scandalous actions, in derogation of God's honour, and corruption of good manners, shall incur such punishment as a court martial shall think fit to impose, and as the nature and degree of their offence shall deserve. 2. If any officer, mariner, soldier, or other person of the fleet, shall give, hold, or entertain intelligence to or with any enemy or rebel, without leave from the king's majesty, or the Lord High Admiral, or the commissioners for executing the office of Lord High Admiral, commander in chief, or his commanding officer, every such person so offending, and being thereof convicted by the sentence of a court martial, shall be punished with death. 3. If any letter of message from any enemy or rebel, be conveyed to any officer, mariner, or soldier or other in the fleet, and the said officer, mariner, or soldier, or other as aforesaid, shall not, within twelve hours, having opportunity so to do, acquaint his superior or a commanding officer, or if any superior officer being acquainted therewith, shall not in convenient time reveal the same to the commander in chief of the squadron, every such person so offending, and being convicted thereof by the sentence of the court martial, shall be punished with death, or such other punishment as the nature and degree of the offence shall deserve, and the court martial shall impose. 4. All spies, and all persons whatsoever, who shall come, or be found, in the nature of spies, to bring or deliver any seducing letters or messages from any enemy or rebel, or endeavor to corrupt any captain, officer, mariner, or other in the fleet, to betray his trust, being convicted of any such offense by the sentence of the court martial, shall be punished with death, or such other punishment, as the nature and degree of the offence shall deserve, and the court martial shall impose. 5. No person in the fleet shall receive an enemy or rebel with money, victuals, powder, shot, arms, ammunition, or any other supplies whatsoever, directly or indirectly, upon pain of death, or such other punishment as the court martial

shall think fit to impose, and as the nature and degree of the crime shall deserve. 6. All the papers, charter parties, bills of lading, passports, and other writings whatsoever, that shall be taken, seized, or found aboard any ship or ships which shall be surprised or taken as prize, shall be duly preserved, and the very originals shall by the commanding officer of the ship which shall take such prize, be sent entirely, and without fraud, to the court of the Admiralty, or such other court of commissioners, as shall be authorized to determine whether such prize be lawful capture, there to be viewed, made use of, and proceeded upon according to law, upon pain that every person offending herein, shall forfeit and lose his share of the capture, and shall suffer such further punishment, as the nature and degree of his offense shall be found to deserve, and the court martial shall impose. 7. No person in or belonging to the fleet shall take out of any prize, or ship seized for prize, any money, plate, or goods, unless it shall be necessary for the better securing thereof, or for the necessary use and service of any of His Majesty's ships or vessels of war, before the same be adjudged lawful prize in some Admiralty court; but the full and entire account of the whole, without embezzlement, shall be brought in, and judgment passed entirely upon the whole without fraud, upon pain that every person offending herein shall forfeit and lose his share of the capture, and suffer such further punishment as shall be imposed by a court martial, or such court of Admiralty, according to the nature and degree of the offense. 8. If any ship or vessel be taken as prize, none of the officers, mariners, or other persons on board her, shall be stripped of their clothes, or in any sort pillaged, beaten, or evil-entreated, upon the pain that the person or persons so offending, shall be liable to such punishment as a court martial shall think fit to inflict. 9. Every flag officer, captain and commander in the fleet, who, upon signal or order of fight, or sight of any ship or ships which it may be his duty to engage, or who, upon likelihood of engagement, shall not make the necessary preparations for fight, and shall not in his own person, and according to his place, encourage the inferior officers and men to fight courageously, shall suffer death, or such other punishment, as from the nature and degree of the offence a court martial shall deem him to deserve; and if any person in the fleet shall treacherously or cowardly yield or cry for quarter, every person so offending, and being convicted thereof by the sentence of a court martial, shall suffer death. 10. Every person in the fleet, who shall not duly observe the orders of the Admiral, flag officer, commander of any squadron or division, or other his superior officer, for assailing, joining battle with, or making defense against any fleet, squadron, or ship, or shall not obey the orders of his superior officer as aforesaid in the time of action, to the best of his power, or shall not use all possible endeavors to put the same effectually into execution, every person so offending, and being convicted thereof by the sentence of the court martial, shall suffer death, or such other punishment, as from the nature and degree of the offence a court martial shall deem him to deserve. 11. Every person in the fleet, who through cowardice, negligence, or disaffection, shall in time of action withdraw or keep back, or not come into the fight or engagement, or shall not do his utmost to take or destroy every ship which it shall be his duty to engage, and to assist and relieve all and every of His Majesty's ships, or those of his allies, which it shall be his duty to assist and relieve, every such person so offending, and being convicted thereof by the sentence of a court martial, shall suffer death. 12. Every person in the fleet, who though cowardice, negligence, or disaffection, shall forbear to pursue the chase of any enemy, pirate or rebel, beaten or flying; or shall not relieve or assist a known friend in view to the utmost of his power; being convicted of any such offense by the sentence of a court martial, shall suffer death.

13. If when action, or any service shall be commanded, any person in the fleet shall presume or to delay or discourage the said action or service, upon pretence of arrears of wages, or upon any pretence whatsoever, every person so offending, being convicted thereof by the sentence of the court martial, shall suffer death, or such other punishment, as from the nature and degree of the offense a court martial shall deem him to deserve. 14. Every person in or belonging to the fleet, who shall desert or entice others so to do, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as the circumstances of the offense shall deserve, and a court martial shall judge fit: and if any commanding officer of any of His Majesty's ships or vessels of war shall receive or entertain a deserter from any other of His Majesty's ships or vessels, after discovering him to be such deserter, and shall not with all convenient speed give notice to the captain of the ship or vessel to which such deserter belongs; or if the said ships or vessels are at any considerable distance from each other, to the secretary of the Admiralty, or to the commander in chief; every person so offending, and being convicted thereof by the sentence of the court martial, shall be cashiered. 15. The officers and seamen of all ships appointed for convoy and guard of merchant ships, or of any other, shall diligently attend upon that charge, without delay, according to their instructions in that behalf; and whosoever shall be faulty therein, and shall not faithfully perform their duty, and defend the ships and goods in their convoy, without either diverting to other parts or occasions, or refusing or neglecting to fight in their defense, if they be assailed, or running away cowardly, and submitting the ships in their convoy to peril and hazard; or shall demand or exact any money or other reward from any merchant or master for convoying any ships or vessels entrusted to their care, or shall misuse the masters or mariners thereof; shall be condemned to make reparation of the damage to the merchants, owners, and others, as the court of Admiralty shall adjudge, and also be punished criminally according to the quality of their offences, be it by pains of death, or other punishment, according as shall be adjudged fit by the court martial. 16. If any captain, commander, or other officer of any of His Majesty's ships or vessels, shall receive on board, or permit to be received on board such ship or vessel, any goods or merchandises whatsoever, other than for the sole use of the ship or vessel, except gold, silver, or jewels, and except the goods and merchandisers belonging to any merchant, or other ship or vessel which may be shipwrecked, or in imminent danger of being shipwrecked, either on the high seas, or in any port, creek, or harbour, in order to the preserving them for their proper owners, and except such goods or merchandisers as he shall at any time be ordered to take or receive on board by order of the Lord High Admiral of Great Britain, or the commissioners for executing the office of Lord High Admiral for the time being; every person so offending, being convicted thereof by the sentence of the court martial shall be cashiered, and be for ever afterwards rendered incapable to serve in any place or office in the naval service of His Majesty, his heirs and successors. 17. If any person in or belonging to the fleet shall make or endeavor to make any mutinous assembly upon any pretence whatsoever, every person offending herein, and being convicted thereof by the sentence of the court martial, shall suffer death: and if any person in or belonging to the fleet shall utter any words of sedition or mutiny, he shall suffer death, or such other punishment as a court martial shall deem him to deserve: and if any officer, mariner, or soldier on or belonging to the fleet, shall behave himself with contempt to his superior officer, being in the execution of his office, he shall be punished according to the nature of his offence by the judgment of a court martial. 18. If any person in the fleet shall conceal any traitorous or mutinous practice or design, being convicted thereof by the sentence of a court martial, he shall suffer death, or any other punishment as a court martial shall think fit; and if any person, in or belonging to the fleet, shall conceal any traitorous or mutinous words spoken by any, to the prejudice of His Majesty or government, or any words,

practice, or design, tending to the hindrance of the service, and shall not forthwith reveal the same to the commanding officer, or being present at any mutiny or sedition, shall not use his utmost endeavors to suppress the same, he shall be punished as a court martial shall think he deserves. 19. If any person in the fleet shall find cause of complaint of the unwholesomeness of the victual, or upon other just ground, he shall quietly make the same known to his superior, or captain, or commander in chief, as the occasion may deserve, that such present remedy may be had as the matter may require; and the said superior, captain, or commander in chief, shall, as far as he is able, cause the same to be presently remedied; and no person in the fleet, upon any such or other pretence, shall attempt to stir up any disturbance, upon pain of such punishment, as a court martial shall think fit to inflict, according to the degree of the offence. 20. If any officer, mariner, soldier or other person in the fleet, shall strike any of his superior officers, or draw, or offer to draw, or lift up any weapon against him, being in the execution of his office, on any pretence whatsoever, every such person being convicted of any such offense, by the sentence of a court martial, shall suffer death; and if any officer, mariner, soldier or other person in the fleet, shall presume to quarrel with any of his superior officers, being in the execution of his office, or shall disobey any lawful command of any of his superior officers; every such person being convicted of any such offence, by the sentence of a court martial, shall suffer death, or such other punishment, as shall, according to the nature and degree of his offence, be inflicted upon him by the sentence of a court martial. 21. If any person in the fleet shall quarrel or fight with any other person in the fleet, or use reproachful or provoking speeches or gestures, tending to make any quarrel or disturbance, he shall, upon being convicted thereof, suffer such punishment as the offence shall deserve, and a court martial shall impose. 22. There shall be no wasteful expense of any powder, shot, ammunition, or other stores in the fleet, nor any embezzlement thereof, but the stores and provisions shall be careful preserved , upon pain of such punishment to be inflicted upon the offenders, abettors, buyers and receivers (being persons subject to naval discipline) as shall be by a court martial found just in that behalf. 23. Every person in the fleet, who shall unlawfully burn or set fire to any magazine or store of powder, or ship, boat, ketch, hoy or vessel, or tackle or furniture thereunto belonging, not then appertaining to an enemy, pirate, or rebel, being convicted of any such offence, by the sentence of a court martial, shall suffer death. 24. Care shall be taken in the conducting and steering of any of His Majesty's ships, that through willfulness, negligence, or other defaults, no ship be stranded, or run upon any rocks or sands, or split or hazarded, upon pain, that such as shall be found guilty therein, be punished by death, or such other punishment, as the offence by a court martial shall be judged to deserve. 25. No person in or belonging to the fleet shall sleep upon his watch, or negligently perform the duty imposed on him, or forsake his station, upon pain of death, or such other punishment as a court martial shall think fit to impose, and as the circumstances of the case shall require. 26. All murders committed by any person in the fleet, shall be punished with death by the sentence of a court martial. 27. If any person in the fleet shall commit the unnatural and detestable sin of buggery and sodomy with man or beast, he shall be punished with death by the sentence of a court martial. 28. All robbery committed by any person in the fleet, shall be punished with death, or otherwise, as a court martial, upon consideration of the circumstances, shall find meet. 29. Every officer or other person in the fleet, who shall knowingly make or sign a false muster or muster book, or who shall command, counsel, or procure the making or signing thereof, or who shall aid or abet any other person in the making or

signing thereof, shall, upon proof of any such offence being made before a court martial, be cashiered, and rendered incapable of further employment in His Majesty's naval service. 30. No provost martial belonging to the fleet shall refuse to apprehend any criminal, whom he shall be authorized by legal warrant to apprehend, or to receive or keep any prisoner committed to his charge, or willfully suffer him to escape, being once in his custody, or dismiss him without lawful order, upon pain of such punishment as a court martial shall deem him fit to deserve; and all captains, officers, and others in the fleet, shall do their endeavor to detect, apprehend, and bring to punishment all offenders, and shall assist the officers appointed for that purpose therein, upon pain of being proceeded against, and punished by a court martial, according to the nature and degree of the offence. 31. If any flag officer, captain, or commander, or lieutenant belonging to the fleet, shall be convicted before a court martial of behaving in a scandalous, infamous, cruel, oppressive, or fraudulent manner, unbecoming the character of an officer, he shall be dismissed from His Majesty's service. 32. Every person being in actual service and full pay, and part of the crew in or belonging to any of His Majesty's ships or vessels of war, who shall be guilty of mutiny, desertion, or disobedience to any lawful command, in any part of His Majesty's dominions on shore, when in actual service relative to the fleet, shall be liable to be tried by a court martial, and suffer the like punishment for every such offence, as if the same had been committed at sea on board any of His Majesty's ships or vessels of war. 33. If any person who shall be in the actual service and full pay of His Majesty' ships and vessels of war, shall commit upon the shore, in any place or places out of His Majesty's dominions, any of the crimes punishable by these articles and orders, the person so offending shall be liable to be tried and punished for the same, in like manner, to all intents and purposes, as if the same crimes had been committed at sea, on board any of His Majesty's ships or vessels of war. 34. All other crimes not capital committed by any person or persons in the fleet, which are not mentioned in this act, or for which no punishment is hereby directed to be inflicted, shall be punished by the laws and customs in such cases used at sea.

Appendix 2 � Select Bibliographical Reference Newspapers The Evening Post Wellington New Zealand/ 6th March 1999. Front page The Weekend Australian 6th-7th March 1999 The Nation Harris, Samela, Adelaide Advertiser. 3rd March 1999. Issues Riddle of the Deep Deepens The Sydney Morning Herald. 16th June 2006 page 13 �Insight� - Murky History of the Sunken Endeavour Steve Meacham. London Gazette, Number 117 Monday August 19th 1768. Secret Voyage Lieutenant Cook waits Fair Winds London Gazette, Number 118 Monday August 26th 1768. Adventure in the South Pacific Newport Rhode Island Gazette January 30th 1777. Boston Evening Transcript 14th August 1834 Providence Journal - 17th Morris, E.E.

December 1834 The Mariners Mirror Vol 53 No 2 May 1962

Letter to Melbourne Argus - 22nd April 1899

Sunday Telegraph Sydney - Insight. Story of Dr Andrew Thomas and his NASA voyage aboard the shuttle USS Endeavour 19th May 1996. Printed Works 18th Century Secrets in Arts, Trades, and Crafts. Primary source information - An original work of 1809, transcribed by Anne Post. A H. and A. W. Reed. Captain Cook in New Zealand. A.G. Bagnall; John Cawte Beaglehole. A Bibliography.

1972

Abbas, Cathy. Rhode Island Marine Archaeology Project, Newport Rhode Island ADM 106 / 3402 � Navy Board from Deptford Yard surveyors. 5th February 1776 Alexander Turnbull Library Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius [fifth century AD] World Map After Macrobius. 12.3 cm diameter Venice: Joannes Rubeus Vercellensis, 1492. State Library of New South Wales Amundsen, Roald. The North West Passage Being the Record of a Voyage of Exploration of the Ship Gj�a 1903-1907 Supplement by First Lieutenant Hansen, Vice-Commander of the Expedition .London: Archibald Constable and Company Limited, 1908. Anno Vicesimo Secundo George II. Appendix in this book Cost of living in Harrison�s Day Apsley Cherry-Garrard. The Worst Journey in the World Antarctic 1910-1913. Constable and Company Limited. London 1922

Astronomical Society of Southern Africa Audio Broadcast (American) National Public Radio (NPR) All things considered. Dec 6th 2005 (5.33 mins). Bagnis, Dr. R. Fish Poisoning in the South Pacific. South pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia 1973 Balchin Family Society. Biographical Magazine of 1776 as recorded in Mariners Mirror Vol 80 No 3 August 1994 pages 332-335 Banks, Joseph, Sir, (1743-1820) : The Endeavour Journal of Joseph Banks, 25 August 1768 - 16 September 1769 Barrow, John A Voyage to Cochinchina in the Years 1872 and 1793 London. Barrow, John F.R.S., F.S.A. (Ed) Captain Cooks Voyages of Discovery. J. M. Bateson, Charles. The Convicts Ships 1787-1868 69-71

A.H. and A.W. Reed, Sydney 1969 Pp

Bayley, William. Extract from the Journal kept by William Bayley, Astronomer, on H.M.S. Adventure, Captain Furneaux, during Capt. Cook�s Second Voyage. Reprinted in McNab Historical Records of New Zealand Vol 2 Beaglehole, J. C. (Editor). (1961). The Journals of Captain James Cook on his Voyages of Discovery: the voyage of the Resolution and Adventure 1772-1775. Volumes one and two. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and the Hakluyt Society. Beaglehole, J. C. The Geographical Journal Vol CXXII Part 4 December 1956. Character of Captain James Cook

On the

Beaglehole, J.C. The Death of Captain Cook. Alexander Turnbull Library, 1979. Beaglehole, John.Cawte. The Life of Captain James Cook. XXI � New Zealand to Tonga. Adam and Charles Black. London, 1974 Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. Part two, page 1499 Beaglehole. J.C. Cooks Journal 1768-1761 1st Voyage CD Rom Version Beatson, Robert. A Political Index to the histories of Great Britain and Ireland. A Complete Register. Beckwith, Martha Hawaiian Mythology, Yale University Press. 1940. The God Lono Beddie, M. K. (Editor) Bibliography of Captain James Cook RN,. F.R.S. The Library of NSW, Sydney 1970. (Incorrectly attributes the antinomy cup Artefact ) Fallaciously said to be the Communion Cup used by Captain Cook on his voyages, and its leather case. Ref 3648-9 Besant, Sir Walter. English Men of Action - Captain Cook,

Macmillan. London 1890.

Beschrijving : Journaal Zeewolf 6/1/1618 - 28/1/1618 ARA VOC 1066.

Best, George. The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, in Search of a Passage to Cathay and India by the North-West, AD 1576-8. Facsimile of the Hakluyt original. Published by Adamant Media Corporation, 2001 Blackwell, Elizabeth, A Curious Herbal Published: London. Printed for Samuel Harding, 1737-1739 Blackwell, Elizabeth. Curious Herbal containing five-hundred cuts of the most useful plants, which are now used in the Practice of Physik. John Norse, London 1734. Plate 81 Garden Radish Blaeu, W. J. 1619 world wall map updated by Joan Blaeu, 1646. Maritiem Museum Prince Hendrik, Rotterdam. Blaeu, Willem. Map India qu� Orientalis dicitur, et Insul� Adiacentes Amsterdam: J. Blaeu. First issued in 1634. Blair, Thomas S. M.D. A Practitioners Handbook of Materia Medica and Therapeutics. The Medical Council Philadelphia Pa. 1907 Bloomfield, Noelene. How Australia Almost Became La France Australe. Research Fellow in European Languages and Studies at the University of Western Australia. Blunden Godfrey. Charco Harbour 1968. Weidenfeld and Nicholson. Bougainville, L.A. De Voyage autour du Monde par la fr�gate du Roi La Boudeuse et la Fl�te L Etoile; en 1766, 1767, 1768 and 1769. Paris, Saillant et Nyon, 1772 Bougainville, Louis Antoine de. A Voyage Round the World. Performed by Order of His Most Christian Majesty, In the Years 1766, 1767, 1768, and 1769. By Lewis de Bougainville, Colonel of Foot, and Commodore of the Expedition, in the Frigate La Boudeuse, and the Store-ship L Etoile. Translated from the French. By John Reinhold Forster, F.A.S. London: J. Nourse, and T. Davies, 1772 Bown, Stephen Scurvy - How a Surgeon, A Mariner and a Gentleman solved the Greatest Medical Mystery of the Age of Sail Summersdale Publishing. Chicester, West Sussex. 2003. Brett, Oswald, Marine Artist and Historian, Levittown N.Y., Private correspondence from Godfrey Blunden, author of Charco Harbour 1965 Burney, James. With Captain James Cook in the Antarctic and Pacific. The Private Journal of James Burney. Second Lieutenant of the Adventure on Cooks Second Voyage 1772 1773. Canberra, National Library of Australia, 1975. Callegari, D. Cooks Cannon and Anchor. The Recovery and Conservation of Relics from HMB Endeavour. Callegari, Dennis Cooks Cannon and Anchor Kangaroo Press, Dural, NSW, 1994 Cambell, Vice Admiral Gordon V.C. D.S/O Captain James Cook R.N F.R.S. Hodder and Stoughton, London 1936 Captain James King Journal of HMS Resolution 1778 98

Mitchell Library

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Captain Riou service record. www.angelfire.com/trek/guardian/images/service.htm

Claver, Scott Under The Lash. Torchstream Books London, 1954. Clune, Frank. Captain Bully Hayes - Blackbirder And Bigamist Angus and Robertson. Sydney 1970. Connell M. and Liddy, D. The Great Circle Journal of the Australian Association of Maritime History Vol 19 No 1 � Did Captain Cooks Ship Bark Endeavour end her days at Newport Rhode Island? Connell � Letters Vesalius Official Journal of the International Society for the History of Medicine. Vol XV No 1 June 2009 Conrad, Lawrence. Neve, Michael. Nutton, Vivian. Porter, Ray. Wear, Andrew. The Western Medical Tradition 800 BC to AD 1800. University of Cambridge Press. 1995. Constance H. D. Giglioli. An Account of The Revolution of 1799 and of the Rise and Fall of the Parthenopean Republic. John Murray, Albemarle Street 1903. Cook, James. A voyage to the Pacific ocean. Undertaken, by the command of His Majesty, for making discoveries in the Northern hemisphere, to determine the position and extent of the west side of North America; its distance from Asia; and the practicability of a northern passage to Europe. Performed under the direction of Captains Cook, Clerke, and Gore, in His Majesty�s ships the Resolution and Discovery, in the years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779, and 1780 Publisher: London, W. and A. Strahan, for G. Nicol, and T. Cadell 1784 Cook, James. The Voyages of

Captain James Cook. William Smith 1842. 2 two vols

Cook, James: The Voyages of Captain James Cook, Illustrated with Maps and Numerous Engravings on Wood...With and Appendix. London William Smith 1842. Cooper, James Fenimore. The Red Rover. A Tale by the Author of the Pilot and c Philadelphia, Carey, Lea and Carey 1828. Cordingly, David. Capt. James Cook Navigator. Exhibition Catalogue. Captain James Cook Exhibition of Navigation 1988. National Maritime Museum, Greenwich. UK Cotter, Charles H. Master Mariner. A History of the Navigators Sextant Brown Son and Ferguson, Glasgow. 1st Edition. 1983. Craven, Aaron. Online essay

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Earle, Alice Morse Curious Punishments of Bygone Days � The Bilboes. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Chicago, Ill., 1896 Eder, Markus. Crime and Punishment in the Royal Navy of the Seven Years War 17551763. The Patterns of Crime and Punishment Edgar, Thomas. The Edgar Journal of Captain Cooks Third Voyage 1776-1778. Beaglehole, John Cawte Raleigh Ashlin Skelton, J. W. Davidson.Editors The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery. Published for the Hakluyt Society at the University Press, 1955 Edwards, Philip (Ed) Cook, James. The Journals from the original Manuscripts by J.C. Beaglehole for the Hakluyt Society 1955-67. Penguin Books 2003 Egon H. Kodicek and Frank G. Young Captain Cook and Scurvy the Royal Society of London, Vol. 24, No. 1 (Jun., 1969).

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Elliot Log Nov 23rd 1772 to March 3rd 1775. P.R.O. Admin 51/4556/208 Elliott, John. Memoirs of The Early Life of John Elliott, of Elliott House, Near Ripon-Yorkshire, Esqre and, Lieut: of the Royal Navy: written by himself, at the request of his Wife, for the use, and amusement of his children only. British Library collection Emsley, John The Elements of Murder A history of Poison. University Press; 2005

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Foster, Chief officer Smith. The Story of The Trevassa�s Boats. The logs of the First Mate. Reprinted from Lloyds List and Shipping Gazette, August 27th , August 28th and September 5th 1923. London. Friedenberg, Zachary. B Medicine Under Sail Naval Institute Press, Annapolis Maryland. 2002. Based on R.S. Allen Sea Diseases. John Bale Medical Publications. 1943. Friedheim EA, Da Silva J.R. Martins A.V. Treatment of schistosomiasis mansoni with antimony-a, a-dimercapto-potassium succinate (TWSb) American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 3: 714-727, 1954 Galen of Pergamum. On the Natural Faculties continued in the belief of purging. Piii para 13 Great Books of the Western World. Ed. Robert Maynard. Page Section III, 11-13 page 209 Gananath Obeyesekere. The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific. Princeton University Bishop Museum Press. 1992 Geleynszoon De Jongh, Journal of Commander Wollebrand Geleynszoon De Jongh Gemma , Frisius On the Principles of Astronomy and Cosmography, with Instruction for the Use of Globes, and Information on the World and on Islands and Other Places Recently Discovered. It was a work in three parts published in Antwerp by Johannes Grapheus - Gemmas original Publisher Glynn, Ian and Jennifer. The Life and Death of Smallpox. Cambridge University Press 2004. P 34 Gould, Rupert T. Lieutenant-Commander. The Annual Lecture for 1935 February 21st. At the Drapers Company. John Harrison and his Time Keepers. Published in The Mariners Mirror Vol XXI No 2 1935 Green, Jeremy N. Curator of Marine Archaeology Western Australian Museum. Treasures From The Vergulde Draeck (Gilt Dragon). Western Australian Museum. Information Series No 5. First published as The Wreck of the Dutch East Indiaman the Vergulde Draeck on the International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration (1973) Guizot, M. History of Oliver Cromwell and the English Commonwealth. Blanchard and Lee 1854. Hartig, O. John and Sebastian Cabot. The Catholic Encyclopaedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. (1908). Hawkesworth, John An Account of a Voyage round the World, Bande London 1773 Heeres, J. E. of the Dutch Colonial Institute, Delft. The Part Borne by the Dutch in the Discovery of Australia 1606-1765. London, Luzac and Co, 46 Great Russell Street W.C.1899. Hessel Gerritsz (1581�1632) Caert vant Landt van dEendracht uyt de Iournalen ende afteykeningen der Stierluyden tsamengestelt Chart of Eendracht Land based on the Journals and drawings of the ships officers. Amsterdam: Hessel Gerritsz, 1627. State Library of New South Wales Hill, J.R. (Ed) The Oxford Illustrated History of the Royal Navy. Oxford University Press 1995.(Hattendorf, John, The Struggle with France. 1689-1815)

Hippocrates Great Books of the Western World. Ed Robert Maynard Hoare, Michael E. The Resolution Journal of JohannForster 1772-1775. Hakluyt, London. Holmes, Christine (Editor) Captain Cooks Final Voyage : The Journal of Midshipman George Gilbert. Brian Clouston, Manuka, ACT 1982. Horn, D.B and Mary Ransome. English Historical Documents 1714-1783. Routledge, London, 1983 Hough, Richard. Captain James Cook A Biography. A John Curtis Book Hodder and Stoughton, London.1994. Houtman Letter to Prince Maurice . October Managers of E.I.C.

7 1619 and A further letter to the

Howgego, Raymond John. Encyclopedia of Exploration : a comprehensive reference guide to the history and literature of exploration, travel and colonization from the earliest times to the year 1800 2003, Hordern House (Potts Point, NSW) Huijdecoper van Maarsseveen en Nigtevecht J.E. copy of Abel Janszoon Tasman's Journal of his voyage of 1642-43 (Huydecoper Manuscript) Huxham, Doctor (John) Medical and Chemical Observations on Antimony. London, John Hinton, 1756. Jacques Dominique Histoire Abr�g�e de la Parallaxe du Soleil Cassini, Paris, 1772. Translated from the French. James A. Duke. 1983. Purdue University Handbook of Energy Crops. Unpublished. Humulus lupulus L. Cannabinaceae Common hops James Cook (1728�1779). A Chart of New South Wales, or the East Coast of New Holland, discovered and explored by Lieutenant J. Cook, Commander of his Majesty's Bark Endeavour, in the year MDCCLXX [1770 London: W. Strahan and T. Cadell, 1773 James Cook, John Cawte Beaglehole, Raleigh Ashlin Skelton. The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery. Hakluyt Society at the University Press, 1955 James William. Naval History of Great Britain - Vol II - Mutiny on Board the British Hermione 1797. Macmillan and Co., Limited. New York. 1902 Janszoon. Jan Zeeuw. Instructions for the officers of the Yacht den Leeuwerik. June 27, 1648. Jave La Grandes East Coast: from Nicholas Vallards atlas, 1547. Jeffrey G, Williamson. The Structure of Pay in Britain, 1710-1911, Research in Economic History, 7 (1982). Jenkin, R. and Cooper, M. Mysteries of New Zealand

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on his voyage to Nova Guinea. 1623.

Ledyard, John and James Kenneth Munford. Journal of Captain Cooks Last Voyage, Oregon State University Press, 1964 Journal of Environmental Monitoring. The Royal Society of Chemistry Publishing. 2005 Vol 7. Issue 12 J?tte, Robert Translator: Russell, V. Contraception A Publishers. UK 2008

History. Blackwell

Kaart van de Noordzijde van t Zuidland (Chart of the North side of the Southland), 1678 Kaart van het Zuidland, bezeild door Willem De Vlamingh, in 1696-1697 door Isaac De Graaff (Chart of the South-land, made and surveyed by Willem De Vlamingh in 1696-1697) Kelly, Leslie, G. Marion du Fresne at the Bay of Islands and Dumas Alexandre. Captain Marion Translated by F.W. Reed. Christchurch. The Caxton Press. 1949. Kerckring, Theodor. �Spicilegium Anatomicum Continens Observationum Anatomicarum Rariorum Centuriam Unam: Nec Non Osteogeniam Foetuum Amsterdam: Andreae Frisii. 1670. Kerr, Robert F.R.S. and F.A.S. A General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels. Vol XIV James Ballentyne Edinburgh, 1815. Keynes, M. Isaac Newton and his Madness of 1692�1693.

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Kitson, Arthur Title: The Life of Captain James Cook London. John Murray. 1911 Letter from the Governor General and Council to the Managers of the E.I.C. 6th September 1622. Letter of the Governor General , Council to the Managers of the E.I.C, December 4, 1656. Lewis, Michael. Professor of History, Royal Naval College, Greenwich. The Navy of Britain A Historical Portrait George Allen Unwin, London. 1948. Pages 158. Lind J (1753). A treatise of the scurvy. In three parts. Containing an inquiry into the nature, causes and cure, of that disease. Together with a critical and chronological view of what has been published on the subject. Edinburgh: Printed by Sands, Murray and Cochran for A Kincaid and A. Donaldson.

Lloyds Register of Shipping 1778. Number 222 L Gregg Press UK Lloyds Register of Shipping, London. Correspondence with Connell Lowell. Edward J. The Hessians and the other German Auxiliaries of Great Britain in the Revolutionary War. New York : Harper and bros., 1884. Lyon, David, the Sailing Navy list. All the Ships of the Royal Navy Built, Purchased and Captured 1688-1860. Conway Maritime Press. 1993. Storeship Resolution Mackanass. George. The Life of Vice Admiral Bligh Farrar and Rinehart. New York. 1931 Manley, David The Battle of Camperdown, (Kamperduin), 11 October 1797. Mannering, T.D. Captain, and Walker C.F Commander British Warship Names Putnam, London 1959. Marquardt, Karl. Anatomy of the Ship - Captain Cooks Endeavour Conway Maritime Press. London 1995. Marra, J. M. A Proposal for establishing a settlement in New South Wales � intended to atone for the loss of the American Colonies Maynard, Robert. Ed

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McCallum, R. Ian. Antimony in Medical History The Pentland Press, Edinburgh. 1999 McClure, Sir Robert John Le Mesurier The Discovery of the North West Passage By H. M. S. Investigator Capt. R. MClure, 1850, 1851, 1852, 1853, 1854. Edited By Captain Sherard Osborn, C. B. Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans and Roberts, London, 1856 McGoogan, Ken. Fatal Passage: The Untold Story of John Rae, the Arctic Adventurer Who Discovered the Fate of Franklin. Harper, Canada 2000 McNab, Robert (Editor) Historical Records of New Zealand, Vol. I . John Mackay, Government Printer, 1908, Wellington. Letter from Captain Furneaux to Secretary Stephens. McNab, Robert (Minister of Lands and Agriculture.) Historical Records of New Zealand. Vol. I. Wellington. By Authority: John Mackey, Government Printer. 1908. Medical Mysteries: George III - Mad or Misunderstood. July at 2004.

Broadcast on BBC One 14th

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Cook 1770. Publisher: Antipodean Publishers, NSW. 1974 National Geographic (March, 1970). S. S. Manhattan National Geographic December, 1974 an excellent four-part series on The Isles of the Pacific including a map The Pacific Islands and Their Discoverers. National Library, Canberra Hints National Library, Canberra. Transcript of James Cooks Journal. CD Rom Nautical Almanac from the first edition (1767) until 1905. Obeyesekere, Gananath. The Apotheosis of Captain Cook Princeton University Press 1992. Ongeluckige voyagie, vant schip Batavia nae de Oost-Indien. Vytgevaren onder den E. Francoys Pelsert. Amsterdam: J. Jansz., 1647. Osborne, George E, Lipman Arthur G. Medicine and Pharmacy aboard New England Whaling Vessels Publisher: Lipman AG and Osborne, G.E. Nov 1979 Parkin. Ray. H.M. Bark Endeavour Her Place in Australian History. The Miegunyah Press Carlton. Vic. 1997. Pasquier, Thierry du, Les Baleiniers Francais de Louis XVI A Napoleon. Henri Veyrier, Kronos. Paris 1990 Pearson, C. Report 508 Restoration of Cannon and other Relics from H.M. Bark. Endeavour. June 1971 Pearson. C. (1972) Report 419 Department of Supply Australian Defence Scientific Service � The Preservation of Cannon after 200 Years Under the Sea Polley, Jane, ed. Stories Behind Everyday Things. Pleasantville, New York: The Readers Digest Association, Inc., 1980. Price, Grenefill (Ed). The Explorations of James Cook in the Pacific as Told by Sections of His Own Journals 1768-1779. Dover Books, New York 1971 Pringle, Sir John, Baronet, President A Discourse Upon Some Late Improvements of the Means for Preserving the Health of Mariners. Pringle, Sir John. Observations on the Diseases of the Army London: A. Millar, D. Wilson; T. Durham; and T. Payne, 1765. Quinn. D.B. The Voyages and Colonizing Enterprises of Sir Humphrey Gilbert. Oxford University Press for London: Hakluyt Society. Read, John, Meredith. A Historical Inquiry Concerning Henry Hudson, His Friends, Relatives and ... Historical Society of Delaware - Merchants - 1866 Reece Dr. Richard

(Ed) Gazette of Health Issue No 81 September 1st 1822

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Scott, Robert F. Captain R.N., C.V.O. The Voyage of the Discovery. John Murray, Albermarle St., London 1905 Scurvy. How a Surgeon, A Mariner and a Gentleman solved the Greatest Medical Mystery of the Age of Sail. Summersdale Publishing. Chicester, West Sussex. 2003. Shackleton, Ernest South. The Story of Shackleton's Last Expedition, 1914-1917. London, Heinemann, 1919 Skelton, R.A. Captain James Cook as a Hydrographer. Annual Lecture the Society for Nautical Research. Published Vol 40 1954 page 91-119. Cambridge at the University Press. MCMLIV Smith, John, Captain. Sea-Mans Grammar and Dictionary, Explaining all the difficult Terms in Navigation: and the Practical Navigator and Gunner. Randal Taylor, London, 1691 Hawkins. Sobel, Dava. Longitude - The Story of a Lone Genius who solved the greatest scientific problem of his time. Walker and Company. New York.1995 Spear. James. (Editor) Dampier, William. Voyage to New Holland - The English Voyage of Discovery to the South Seas in 1699. Alan Sutton Gloucester UK 1981 A Voyage to New Holland was originally published in two parts by Knapton. London in 1703 the first and second part in 1709 Spinney. J.D. The Hermione Mutiny. Reprinted in, The Mariners Mirror Vol 41 No 2 1955 Stannard, David, E. Before the Horror: The Population of Hawaii on the Eve of Western Contact. University of Hawaii Styret, David, Shipping and the American War 1775-83. 1970. University of London. The Athlone Press Suffren, de. M. Le Commandeur. Relation D�taill�� de la Campagne, de Suffren Dans LInde 1 er Jnin 1732 au 29 Septembre fuivant. Port Louis, MDCCLXXXIIL Cornmarket Press Reprint. Syrett, David Shipping and the American War 1775-83. University of London Historical Studies. XXV11 Athlone Press 1970.

Tasman, Abel Janszoon �Abel Janzsoon Tasman�s Journal of his Discovery of Van Diemens Land and New Zealand in 1642, with Documents relating to his Exploration of Australia in 1644�. Los Angeles N. A. Kovach 1965. Teuira, Henry. Ancient Tahiti

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Watt, James. Medical Aspects and Consequences of Cooks Voyages the author attended Lord Lewin lecture in London James Cook: the man and his achievements. Wegner E (ed): The Health of Native Hawaiians. Social Process in Hawaii 32:1 1989. Blaisdell K. Historical and cultural aspects of Native Hawaiian Health. Wharton, Captain W.J.L. R.N., F.R.S. Hydrographer of the Admiralty, Cook, James. Captain Cooks Journal during his First Voyage Round the World made in H.M. Bark Endeavour 1768-71 A Literal Transcription of the Original MSS. Elliot Stock, 62 Paternoster Row, London 1893. June, 1769 Whitmore, Robbie New Zealand in History - The Discovery of New Zealand JeanFran�ois-Marie de Surville France. 1717-1770 Wider, Ben and Hapgood, David

the Murder of Napoleon Robson Books London 1982.

William Ellis, �James Cook. An authentic narrative of a voyage performed by Captain Cook and Captain Clerke, in His Majesty�s ships Resolution and Discovery during the years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779 and 1780: In Search of a North-West Passage Between the Continents of Asia and America : Including a Faithful Account of All� ... Published by G. Robinson, 1783 Williams, Glyndwr, Captain Cook Voyages 1768-1889. Astronomical Observations made, by Appointment of the Royal Society, at King Georges Island in the South Sea; by Mr. Charles Green, formerly Assistant of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, and Lieut. James Cook, of His Majesty�s Ship the Endeavour. The Folio Society. 1997

Appendix 3 - Transports to America: 'Adamant'; 'Aeolus'; 'America'; 'Ann' (with Hessians aboard); 'Annabella' �Antigallican'; 'Apollo'; 'Argo'; �Britannia�; �Betty�; 'Betsey'; 'Fanny'; 'Cato'; 'Chatham'; 'Cleveland'; 'Content'; 'Countess of Darlington'; 'Earl of Oxford'; 'Enterprize'; 'Father's Desire'; 'Favourite'; 'Felicity'; 'Fortitude'; 'Free Britain'; 'George'; 'Friendship'; Henry; 'Good Intent'; 'Grosvenor'; 'Grand Duke of Russia'; 'Green Island'; 'Harcourt'; 'Hartford' compensation paid to a Mr. Hawke; 'Hercules'; 'Hopewell'; 'James Dawkins'; 'James and William'; 'Jane'; 'John (2)'; 'John and Bella'; 'John and Christopher'; 'John and Jane'; 'Juliana'; 'La Sybille' (Prize); 'Lord North' , �Lord Sandwich� (Owner J, Mather) compensation

paid to Transport Agent Wilkinson and Deacon, London for loss these two vessels; 'Margery' compensation paid; �Malaga�; 'Mary'; 'Mellish'; 'Mercury'; 'Northampton'; 'Ocean'; 'Pallas'; 'Peace and Plenty'; 'Polly'; 'Preston'; �Rachel and Mary�; 'Resolution (1); 'Richmond'; 'Robert and Elizabeth'; 'Royal Britain'; 'Royal Club'; 'Russia Merchant; 'St. Ann'; 'Sally'; 'South Carolina' (Prize); 'Springfield'; �Susanna�; 'Thompson'; 'Unanimity'; 'Union' (Exact same specifications as 'Bark Endeavour'); 'Valient'; 'Venus'; 'Vernon'; 'Whitby'; 'William and Elizabeth'; Ordinance Transport: 'Brilliant'; 'Nancy'; Victuallers: 'Ana'; Baltik Merchant; 'Betsey'; 'Ester and Ann; 'Jason'; 'Neptune'; Pomona'; 'Saville'; Collier: 'Molly' Galleys: 'Arwin'; Storeships: 'Lioness'; 'Recovery'; Merchant Ships: 'Brown Hall'; 'Darling'; 'Friendship'; 'Glasgow' (Charter); 'Lady Hope'; 'John' (1); 'Liberty'; 'Resolution' (2) (Not Cook�s); 'Speedwell'; 'Unity'; East Indiamen; 'Prime'. Appendix 4

Vitamin �C� Content of some fresh Fruits & Vegetables

VITAMIN C Fruit in this list MUST be fresh NOT processed Fruit Latin namemg vitamin C / 100 grams (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)Barbados RosehipRosa rugosa Thunb.,6,977MIT - Unripe fruits Barbados cherryMalpighiaceaeto 4,676 mgAustralian �Bush Tucker�Kakadu PlumTerminalia ferdinandianato 3,150Amazon Area Super fruit Camu CamuMyrciaria dubia2,700Found only in high mountain ranges of southwest China,CiliRosa Roxburghii Tratt2,585Rosa pomiferahave RosehipRosa sp, cv,2,500 Barbados cherry���� Acerola�Malpighia glabra1,677Other Species in the buckthorn family JujubeZiziphus jujuba500Fruit pulpBaobabAdonsonia digitatato 499 BlackcurrantRibes nigrumto 215Guava, tropicalPsidium guajava183Green Kiwi has less Vitamin �C�Kiwifruit, yellowActinidia chinensis to 180 �superfruit� highest when freshGoji (Wolf Berry)Lycium barbarumto 148African aromatic, similar to an apricot Kei appleDovyalis caffra117Closely related to the lychee LonganDimocarpus longan84 Highest when freshly picked,RedcurrantRibes sativumto 81Glademallow, Jam Tree, Jamaican CherryMuntingiaMuntingia calabura80Highest when fresh � not cannedLychee Litchi chinensis72Belongs to the same family as the mango, cashew�������� Marula Sclerocarya birrea68�Persimin Oriental has less Vitimin �C� Persimmon. Diospyros virginiana66Kwa Zulu-Natal named Amatumgulu (Zulu),Natal plumCarissa macrocarpa38 Lesser Vitamin �C� for Tangerine/MandarinOrangeCitrus sinensis53Lemon juiceCitrus limon46Collected on Bligh�s �Bounty� �BreadfruitArtocarpus altilis��29Placed on ships as scurvy antiscorbutic liquefied in bottles! � next to uselessLime juice Citrus aurantifolia29�super fruit� with supposed higher Vitamin �C�GacMomordica Cochinchinensis17 Vegetables on this list MUST be fresh to release the maximum Vitamin �C� mg vitamin C / 100 gramsHawthorne Berriesto 800Fresh Spruce Pine Young Shoots and Leaves to 270Fresh Spruce Pine Needlesto 200Scurvy Grass ( Sea Kale) Used by Captain James Cook as a defence against scurvy but thought to be near extinct has been found on an islet off New Zealand's North Island in 2006, protected by strong currents and sharks. Conservation department officers found a substantial colony of the grassy plant called nau by the Maori. 200Freshly Sprouted Barley Seed Shoots100Kale60.0Green Pepper66.0Broccoli58.0 Sweet Potatoes 28.0 Cauliflower27.5 Tomato25Peas22.72 Potatoes 20Avocado15.9Squash - Summer9.9 Squash - Winter5.4Spinach8.43

Appendix 5 - Cost of living in Harrison�s Day Barometer: London, Patrick's shop, an instrument with mercury, cheapest version 2 guineas, top model 15 guineas �2,2 to �15,15 (Vol 3 page 192) Moreland's Arithmetic Instrument: London, Rohly's shop: The instrument is described in a book on the subject published in 1679 the instrument itself has to be produced on demand, 5 guineas, �5,5,00 (Vol 3, page 223) Ruling Pen: London. Cool Pepper's shop, � Crown 2/6, (Vol 3, page 192) Binoculars to be used at the Comedy Theatre: London, Cool Pepper's shop, 6 shillings, (Vol 3, page 192) Telescope, with extensible tubes and five lenses, London, Praun's shop, �1 Watches: London, Christoph Holsom's shop: An instrument to be joined with your own watch in order to produce an alarm clock, 12/- (Vol 3, page 219-20) Watchmaker's Instruments: An instrument to cut the fusee, London, Pardin's shop: 2 guineas, �2,2, (Vol 3 page 226) Reference Uffenbach, Z.C. Von �Merkw�rdige Reisen durch Niedersachsen Holland und Engelland� Ulm, Memmingen, auf Kosten Johann Friederich Gaum, 1753-1754., 1754. 3 vols. Zacharias Conrad von Uffenbach (1683-1735), was from his youth addicted to books and science, he travelled through Europe to meet with scientists and buy books for his growing collection. In his travel journal Von Uffenbach kept a minute account of all interesting things and persons he saw or met with, and of the various museums and libraries he visited, he kept data on prices, formulas, library collections

Appendix 6 � Salaries Paid in England during 1781 Occupation Able Bodied Seaman (plus prize money) 16.08.00 Agricultural Labourers 21.00.09 Clergymen 182.06.05 Clerks (exc. govt.) 101.05.07 Engineers. Surveyors 170.00.00 General Labourers 23.10.03 Government high-wage 104.05.05 Government low-wage 46.00.02 Messengers, Porters (exc. govt.) 33.05.04 First year Midshipman (13 pence per day) 19.07.07 Miners 24.03.07 Police. Guards. Watchmen 48.00.08 Skilled in Building Trades 35.05.07 Skilled in Engineering 50.08.03

� Per Annum

Skilled in Printing Trades Skilled in Shipbuilding Skilled in Textiles Solicitors and Barristers Surgeons. Medical officers Ship�s Captain Teachers

54.00.03 45.02.06 41.09.03 242.06.07 88.03.05 175.00.00 16.05.03

Looking at the comparison between the Able bodied and a general land based labourer at ?23.00.0 per those at sea who were grossly underpaid. Not only comparison but the labourer stood every chance of which was more than could be said for the British

Appendix 7 Mather and Family owned vessels

seaman at ?16.08.00 per annum annum one can only side with was the salary pathetic by returning home to his family seaman.

serving in the Pacific Trade

Extracted 'Ships Employed in the South Seas Trade 1775 - 1859' A.G.E. Jones. And Lloyd's Register of Shipping Note - Variations to the spelling of proper names are as published. ServiceName/Prior NameMasterTonsPort of BuildYear of buildOwners NameRun1755St. George/OttwayW.Machel/F.Meyrick 200Liverpool1755J. MatherLo-StrBra1775 Dragon/PennBen Barnett 200 Philadelphia 1765Jas MatherLo-SF1776Dragon/PennBen Barnett 200 Philadelphia 1765Jas MatherLo-SF1777CarcaseJ. Marshall140Leith1765J. MatherLo-transp1779Dragon/PennA Sheffield 200 Philadelphia 1765J. S. MatherLo-SF 1780Arabella/DragonHamilton/Sheffield 200 Philadelphia 1765J. S. MatherLo-SF1787 Benjamin/AntelopeJohn Mather 150America1772Jas. MatherLo-SF1789BenjaminJ. Mather 148American1772J. MatherLo-SF1789BellisariusAnderson300S. Carolina1762J. MatherLoSF1789UlyssesAnderson254Picat1771J. MatherLo-SF1790BenjaminJ. Mather 148American 1772J. MatherLo-SF1790BellisariusAnderson300S. Carolina1762J. MatherLo-SF1790 MercuryAnderson246S. Carolina1779J. MatherLo-SF1790UlyssesAnderson/Munro254Picat 1771J. MatherLo-SF1791BenjaminJ. Mather 148American1772J. MatherLo-SF1791 BellisariusAnderson300S. Carolina1762J. MatherLo-SF1791FriendshipT. Melvin/H.Burton217N. England1780S. Enderby/J. MatherLo-SF1791Prince of Wales F.Bolton300Sidmouth1779J. MatherLo-SF1791UlyssesM. Munro254Picat1771J. MatherLo-SF 1791BellisariusAnderson300S. Carolina1762J. MatherLo-SF1791FriendshipH.Barton 217 N. England1780J. MatherLo-SF1792MentorW. Ramsay240Philad1758J. MatherLo-SF1792 MercuryAnderson246French1779J. MatherLo-SF1792Prince of WalesF.Bolton300Sidmouth 1779J. MatherLo-SF1793BenjaminJ. Mather 148American1772J. MatherLo-SF1793 BellisariusAnderson300S. Carolina1762J. MatherLo-SF1793FriendshipH.Barton 217N. England1780J. MatherLo-SF1793MentorW. Ramsay240Philad1758J. MatherLo-SF1793Mercury Anderson246French1779J. MatherLo-SF1793Prince of WalesF.Bolton300Sidmouth1779J. MatherLo-SF1794BellisariusAnderson300S. Carolina1762J. MatherLo-SF1794Mercury Anderson246French1779J. MatherLo-SF1794MentorW. Ramsay240Philad1758J. MatherLo-SF 1794Prince of WalesF.Bolton300Sidmouth1779Jas MatherLo-SF1796BellisariusAnderson 300S. Carolina1762J. MatherLo-SF1795FriendshipH.Barton 217N. England1780J. Mather Lo-SF1795MentorW. Ramsay240Philad1758J. MatherLo-SF1795TobagoW. Fitch271French1790 J. MatherLo-SS1796BellisariusAnderson300S. Carolina1762J. MatherLo-SF1796Brothers

Anderson242French1792J. MatherLo-SS1796MercuryAnderson246French1779J. MatherLo-SF 1796MentorW. Ramsay240Philad1758J. MatherLo-SF1796TobagoW. Fitch271French1790J. MatherLo-SS1797BellisariusAnderson300S. Carolina1762J. MatherLo-SF1797Brothers Anderson242French1792MatherLo-SS1797MercuryAnderson246French1779J. MatherLo-SF1797 MentorW. Ramsay240Philad1758J. MatherLo-SF1797New EurphratesAnderson250French1780 J. MatherLo-SF1797TobagoW. Fitch/Melville271French1790J. MatherLo-SS1797Triumph Anderson240Philad1780J. MatherLo-SS1798Bellisarius300S. Carolina1762MathersLo-SF 1798BrotherAnderson242French1792MathersLo-SS1798New EurphratesGlaspoole250French 1780MathersLo-SF1799TriumphAnderson240Philad1780MathersLo-SF1799New Eurphrates Glaspoole250French1780MathersLo-SF1799TobagoMelville271French1790Mathers and CoLoSF1800ButterworthL.Frazer/Glaspoole390French1722Mather and CoLo-Trans1800New EurphratesGlaspoole250FrenchMathersLo-SF1800TobagoMelville271FrenchMathersLo-SS 1801ButterworthGlaspoole390FrenchMather and CoLo-Trans1801New EurphratesL. Frazer 250Fr. Prize 83MathersLo-SF1801TobagoMelville271FrenchMathers and CoLo-SF1801Du BucM.Day286Fr. Prize1797Mathers and CoLo-SF1802ButterworthGlaspoole/Folger390 French Prize1781Mather and CoLo-Trans1802HarriotChace217SpainMathersLo-SF1802Du BucM.Day286Fr. Prize1797MatherLo-SF1802New EurphratesL. Fraser250Fr. Prize 1783 MathersLo-SF1803HarriotChace217SpainishMathersLo-SF1802New EurphratesL. Fraser250 Fr. Prize 1783MathersLo-SF1803VultureGlaspool320FrenchJ. Mather & CoLo-SF1803 CharletonS. Chace276AmericanMather'sLo-SF1803ScorpionWm. Dagg350ShorehamT. Mather Lo-SF1803Du BocW. Davie267Fr. Prize1797Mather and CoLo-SF1803FavouriteR. Keith180 BermudaMather and CoLo-SF1804CharletonS. Chace270AmericaMathersLo-SF1804CyrusWest 288SalemMathersLo-SF1804Du BocW. Davie267Fr. Prize1797Mather and CoLo-SF1804 FavourteR. Keith/L. Fraser180BermudaMather and CoLo-SF1804HarriotChace217Spain Prize1797MathersLo-SF1804New EurphratesL. Fraser250Fr. Prize 1783MathersLo-SF1804 ScorpionWm. Dagg350ShorehamT. MatherLo-SF1804VultureGlaspool320FrenchMatherLo-SF 1805BrothersW. Perry242FrenchMather & CoLo-SS1805CharletonS. Chase276American MathersLo-SF1805CrescentW. Chapman233RiverMatherLo-SF1805CyrusWest288SalemMathers Lo-SF1805Du BucW. Davie267Fr. Prize1797Mather and CoLo-SF1805New EurphratesL. Fraser250Fr. Prize 1783MathersLo-SF1805ScorpionWm. Dagg350ShorehamT. MatherLo-SF 1805VultureFolger320French PrizeMather and CoLo-SF1805FavourteL. Fraser180Bermuda Mather and CoLo-SF1805HarriotChace217Spanish Prize1797MathersLo-SF1805ScorpionDagg 350ShorehamMatherLo-SF1806BrothersW. Perry/Russell242FrenchMather & Co/ ElliottLoSS1806CrescentHooper262RiverMatherLo-SF1806HarriottT. Coffin/Glasspool217Spain MathersLo-SS1806BackhouseH. Weyer/W. Kelly286HullMatherLo-SF1806CyrusWest288Salem MathersLo-SF1806Du BucW. Taylor286Fr. PrizeMather and CoLo-SF1806FavourteL. Frazer 180BermudaMather and CoLo-SF1806VultureFolger320French PrizeMather and CoLo-SF1807 CrescentHooper262RiverMatherLo-SF1807CyrusPinkhen288SalemMathersLo-SF1807Du BucW. Davie/Chase286FrenchMather/Blyth and CoLo-SF1807New EurphratesL. Fraser253Fr. Prize MathersLo-SF1807ScorpionT. Bunker305ShorehamMatherLo-SF1807VultureFolger320 French PrizeMather and CoLo-SF1807PandourS. Chance306French PrizeMather and CoLoSF1807CyrusPinkhen/West288SalemMathersLo-SF1808ScorpionT. Bunker305ShorehamMather Lo-SF1808VultureFolger320French PrizeMather and CoLo-SF1809CyrusWest288Salem MathersLo-SS1809ScorpionT. Bunkin344ShorehamT. MatherLo-SS1809VultureChristie320 French PrizeMatherLo-SF1809CharletonO. Folger274AmericanMatherLo-SF1810CyrusP. West288SalemMathersLo-SF1810VultureChristie320French PrizeMatherLo-SF1810Charleton O. Folger274AmericanMatherLo-SF1811CharletonFolger274AmericanMatherLo-SF1811Cyrus West288SalemMathersLo-SF1812SarahDavey290HartleyMather and CoLo-SF1812CyrusWest288 SalemMathersLo-SF1813ArabHill/Brown500FrenchMatherLo-SS1813CyrusWest/W. Davey288 SalemMather/JarvisLo-SF * Captured Years of ownership by various Mather Companies Mather's/and Co. (* denotes Society of Merchants Register) Tobago. 1799. 1800. 1801. Butterworth. (390) 1800. 1801. 1801*. 1802. 1802*. New Euphrates. 1799. 1800. 1801*. 1803. 1804. 1805. 1807. Du Buc. 1807*. 1802*. 1803. 1804. 1805. 1806. 1806* 1807. 1807*.

Harriot. (217) 1802. 1803. 1804. 1806. Favourite. (180) 1803. 1804. 1804*. 1805* 1806*. 1807*'. Charleton. 1803. 1804. l804*. 1805. 1806*. 1807. 1807*'. 1809*. 1810. 1810*. 1817* Cyrus. 1804. 1805. 1805*. 1806*. 1807. 1808. 1809. 1810. 1810*. 1811*. 1812*. 1813*� Harriet. (226) 1804*. 1805*. 1806* Brothers. 1805. 1805*. 1806*. Crescent. 1805. 1806. 1806*. 1807. 1807* Backhouse. 1805*. 1806*. Pandour. 1807. Vulture. 1808. 1809. 1810. 1811. Sarah. 1812*. 1812 Arab. 1813 Mather. Jas British King. 1764. Friendship. 1764. Dragon/Penn. 1775. 1776. 1778. 1779 (now Arabella). 1784. St.George/Otway. 1775 Benjanin/Antelop. 1787. 1789. 1790. 1791. 1793. Bellisarius. 1789. 1790. 1791. 1792. 1793. 1794. 7795. 1796. 1797. 1798. Ulysses. 1789. 1790. 1791. Mercury. 1790. 1792. 1793. 1694. 1796. 1797. Friendship. 1791. 1792. 1793. 1795. Prince of Wales. 1791. 1793. 1794. Mentor. 1792. 1793. 1794. 1795. 1796. 1797. Tobago. 1795. 1796. 1797. 1798 (see Mather(s) and Co). Brothers. 1796. 1797. 1806. New Euphrates. 1797 (see Mather(s) and Co) 1798. 1807*. 1821. Triumph. 1797. 1798. Mather. T. Scorpion. 1803. 1804. 1804*. 1805. 1805*. 1806. 1807. 1807*, 1808. 1809 (captured) 1810, Mather Family Chronology 1775-1802. Owned 32 ships in the Pacific Trade 1780-1786. James Mather. 12 Birchin Lane. Cornhill. London 1764. James Mather. Master British King. 208 tons London. Built at Plantation. Thos Mather. Captain 1786. James Mather owner First Fleet vessel Prince of Wales. Built Thames Yards. under Capt John Mason 1787-1793. John Mather. Master Benjamin (renamed Antelope) 1790. John Mather, whaler, line coiler on Mary 1793. John Mather, whaler, line coiler on Mary 1796. James Mather, merchant. 3 Mark Lane, London 1796. John Mather master Swift 1797. John Mather, master Sparrow 1799. James Mather, master Charming Kitty 1799. Samuel Mathers, harpooner 1801. John and James Mather. Merchants. Finsbury Square. London 1803 -1810 Timothy Mather, master of Scorpion when it was captured 1813. Mather family's last vessel sold Cyrus to Jarvis. Other Vessels owned or involved with Mather:

First Fleet to New South Wales. Vessel - Prince of Wales was owned by Mather and Co. Cornhill A number of the company�s crew and harpooners (including, Dagg) were exempt from the Press Gangs.

Appendix 8. Mather Interest In South Sea Whale Fishery VesselServiceMaster TonsBuilt at Build year OwnerTradeSt.George/Otway 1775-1775W. Machel/F.Meyrick 200Liverpool1755J. Mather Lo-Str Brazil Dragon/Penn1775-1780 B. Barnet200Philadelphia 1765J. MatherLo-SFBenjamin17871793J. Mather148America1772J. MatherLo-SPBellisarius1789-1798T. Anderson 300 South Carolina1762J. Mather Lo-SFUlysses1789-1791M. Hunro 254Piscat1771J. Mather Lo-SFMercury 1792-1797Anderson246French1779J. Mather Lo-SFFriendship17911795H. Barton 217New England1780S. Enderby J. MatherLo-SFPrince of Wales1791-1794F. Bolton300Sidmouth1779J. MatherLo-SFMentor 1792-1797W. Ramsay240Philadelphia1758J. MatherLo-SFTobago 1795-1801 Fitch/Melville 271French1790Mathers and CoLo-SFBrothers 1796-1798Anderson 242French1792J. MatherLo-SFNew Euphrates1797-1807Anderson/Glaspoole250French1780J Mather Lo-SFTriumph 1797-1799Anderson 240Philadelphia1780J. MatherLo-SF Butterworth1800-1802L.Frazer/Glaspoole390French1722Mather and CoLo-TransportDu Buc 1801-1807M.Day/W.Davie267French1797Mather and CoLo-SFHarriot1802-1806 Chace/Glaspoole 217Spain-MathersLo-SFFavourite1803-1807R. Keith/L. Fraser180 Bermuda1792Mather and CoLo-SFVulture1803-1811Glaspoole/Folger320FrenchMather andCo Lo-SFCyrus1804-1813West/Pinkhen288Salem1799MathersLo-SFScorpion1803-1810W. Dagg/Bunker350Shoreham- T. MatherLo-SFCharlton 1803-1811S. Chase/O.Folger 276 American- MathersLo-SFCrescent1805-1807W. Chapman/Hooper233River ?-MathersLo-SF Backhouse1805-1806H. Weyer/W.Kelly286Hull1799MatherLo-SFPandour1807-1808S. Chance 306French1806Mather and Co.Lo-SFSara1812-1812Davey290Hartley1800Mather and CoLo-SF Arab1813-1813Brown500French-MatherLo-SSLO � S. F � London to South Pacific Fisheries LO Transport � Port of London Transport Lo-Str Brazil � London to Southern Trades, Brazil LO � SS � London to Southern Seas References:

References: Chapter 1. It started with a Block of Wood 1. The Sydney Morning Herald. 16th June 2006 page 13 �Insight� �Murky History of the Sunken Endeavour� Steve Meacham.Library of New South Wales 2nd Ed. Sydney 1970. Chapter 2. John Cawte Beaglehole. 1. A.G. Bagnall; John Cawte Beaglehole. A Biography. 1972 Alexander Turnbull Library Chapter 3. Articles of War. 1 Lewis, Michael. Professor of History, Royal Naval College, Greenwich. �The Navy of Britain A Historical Portrait� George Allen Unwin, London. 1948. Pages 354-359 2. Beaglehole, J.C., �James Cook The Journals� Penguin Books 2003. Articles of War� Page 14 (See Appendix 1 last section of this book.) 3. Thirty-six - Articles of War [Sets out all the rules, regulations and punishments. They were part of an Act of Parliament �The Act for amending, explaining and reducing into one Act of Parliament, the Laws relating to the Government of His Majesty�s Ships, Vessels and Forces by Sea�. Passed into law 1749 as �Cap.XXXIII of Anno Vicesimo Secundo George II� commonly known as �The Articles of War�, the Act itself specifically stated that the Articles and Orders �shall be duly observed and put in execution as well in time of peace as in time of war] 4..

PRO Admiralty.

1/5368

5. Constance H. D. Giglioli. An Account of The Revolution of 1799 and of the Rise and Fall of the Parthenopean Republic. John Murray, Albemarle Street 1903. Page 80-84 6.

Ibid Page 341

Chapter 4. Transit of Venus 1. Jacques Dominique �Histoire Abr�g�e de la Parallaxe du Soleil� Cassini, Paris, 1772. Translated from the French. 2. Price, Grenfell Cook Journal : The Explorations of Captain James Cook in the Pacific As Told in his Own Journals 1768-1779 Page 21 3. Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Endeavour 1768-1771, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1968. page CXLIV 4. XLIII. Astronomical Observations made, by Appointment of the Royal Society, at King George's Island in the South Sea; by Mr. Charles Green, formerly Assistant of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, and Lieut. James Cook, of His Majesty's Ship the Endeavour. p. 397. [Read to the society in 1771; text reproduced from C. Hutton,G. Shaw and R. Pearson, The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, from their Commencement, in 1665, to the Year 1800; abridged, with Notes and Biographic Illustrations..(London: C. and R. Baldwin, 1809), XIII, pp. 173-78.]� Chapter 5. HM Bark Endeavour 1 Careening - To roll the ship on its side for repairs. First tie a line to the topmast truck, and run it ashore. With absolute care run the ship on to the beach well short of the neap tide line or the ship may well be stuck. When in position, get the crew to pull the line from the top of the mast heaving it on the opposite side of the repair, secure the line. Repair the ship and wait for the high tide. 2. Parkin, Ray. �H.M. Bark Endeavour�. The Miegunyah Press Melbourne University. Number 13 in the second numbered Series 1st Edition. 1997. Two volumes. Volume one covering the text and Volume two the Parkin drawings of the Bark Endeavour. By delving into the London Public Records office the author found new information concerning Cook by studying the journals, manuscripts and logs from Cook, Hicks, Gore Pickersgill, Wilkinson, Forster, Bligh, Banks, Clerke, Green, Briscoe, Roberts and Munkhouse. The drawings of the Bark Endeavour are absolutely stunning. Page 467. 3.

PRO 106 3315

4. Rev. Geo Young. �A Picture of Whitby and It�s Environs� R.Rogers, Whitby. 1824 page 203-208 Chapter 6. Orders 1. XXXIII of Anno Vicesimo Secundo�, George II. 2 Lieutenant

London Gazette, Number 117 Monday August 19th 1768.�Secret Voyage Cook waits Fair Winds�

3 London Gazette, Number 118 Monday August 26th 1768. �Adventure in the South Pacific� 4 Secret Orders. Price, Grenefill (Ed). The Explorations of James Cook in the Pacific as Told by Sections of His Own Journals 1768-1779. Dover Books, New York 1971. Pages 17-20

5.

MS9/113 National Library, Canberra �Hints�

6.. Hawkesworth, John �An Account of a Voyage round the World�, Bande London 1773 Chapter 7. Scurvy 1. Lind, J. (1753). A Treatise of the Scurvy. In three parts. Containing an inquiry into the nature, causes and cure, of that disease. Together with a critical and chronological view of what has been published on the subject. Edinburgh: Printed by Sands, Murray and Cochran for A.Kincaid and A. Donaldson. First Edition Preface. 2. Miegunyah

Parkin. Ray. H.M. Bark Endeavour Her Place in Australian History. The Press Carlton. Vic. 1997. Chap 4. Page 85-95.

3. Conrad, Lawrence. Neve, Michael. Nutton, Vivian. Porter, Ray. Wear, Andrew. The Western Medical Tradition 800 BC to AD 1800. University of Cambridge Press. 1995. Page 228. 4. Bown, Stephen �Scurvy - How a Surgeon, A Mariner and a Gentleman solved the Greatest Medical Mystery of the Age of Sail� Summersdale Publishing. Chicester, West Sussex. 2003. Page 5.

ibid p35

6. Blackwell, Elizabeth. �Curious Herbal� Containing five-hundred cuts of the most useful plants, which are now used in the Practice of Physik. John Norse, London 1734. Plate 81 �Garden Radish� 7. Symposium Proceedings I953. 22nd May, Academic Opening Ceremony. James Lind : Laudatory Address, By Surgeon Vice Admiral Sir Sheldon Dudley, K.C.B., Hon. LL.D. (Ed,) F.R.S., Late Medical Director General, Royal Navy, 109 Kinross Road, Leamington Spa, Warwickshire 8 �Scurvy. How a Surgeon, A Mariner and a Gentleman solved the Greatest Medical Mystery of the Age of Sail� Summersdale Publishing. Chicester, West Sussex. 2003.Page 264 Appendix C. 9. Parkin. Ray. H.M. Bark Endeavour Her Place in Australian History. The Miegunyah Press Carlton. Vic. 1997. Chap 4. Page 91 10 Bown, Stephen. �Scurvy.- How a Surgeon, A Mariner and a Gentleman solved the Greatest Medical Mystery of the Age of Sail� Summersdale Publishing. Chicester, West Sussex. 2003 Page 207 11.

Ibid Page 215

12 1914-1917.

Shackleton, Ernest South. The Story of Shackleton's Last Expedition, London, Heinemann, 1919 Page 141

13

Ibid 141

14. Friedenberg, Zachary. B �Medicine Under Sail� Naval Institute Press, Annapolis Maryland. 2002. Based on R.S. Allen �Sea Diseases�. John Bale Medical Publications. 1943. Page 41 Table,

15.

Ibid Page 41 table

16. Apsley Cherry-Garrard. �The Worst Journey In The World Antarctic 19101913�. Constable and Company Limited. London 1922 with Panoramas, Maps, and Illustrations by fhe late Doctor Edward A. Wilson and other Members of The Expedition. Vol 2 17. Scott, Robert F. Captain R.N., C.V.O. The Voyage of the �Discovery�. John Murray, Albermarle St., London 1905 Page 453 18 1913�.

Apsley Cherry-Garrard. �The Worst Journey In The World Antarctic 1910Constable and Company Limited.London 1922

19 Delivered at the Anniversary Meeting of the Royal Society, November 30, 1776. By Sir John Pringle, Baronet, President �A Discourse Upon Some Late Improvements of the Means for Preserving the Health of Mariners. 20.

Royal Society http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/

21. Cook was elected after Banks� nominated him as a Fellow of the Royal Society who awarded Cook it�s prestigious �The Copley Medal� A number of people associated with Cook were members of the Royal Society, they included. Joseph Banks, (1743-1820) was President of the Society from 1778-1820, other member included James Cook (1728-1779) and Alexander Dalrymple, (1737�1808) John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich (1718-1792). Reverend Nevil Maskelyne (1732 1811); John Barrow (1764-1848). 22. McNab, Robert (Minister of Lands and Agriculture.) Historical Records of New Zealand. Vol. I. Wellington. By Authority: John Mackey, Government Printer. 1908. Letter Perry to Cook. Pages 79. 23 Williams, Glyndwr. Captain Cook Voyages 1768-1779. The Folio Society, London 1997. Page 144 Chapter 8. Melancholia Madness and Mayhem - Cook�s Poison Chalice 1. Christies Auction catalogue Captain Cook's antimony cup, a squat drinking vessel made of antimony alloy. From this, the great South Seas explorer consumed red wine that, having reacted with the metal, created a potion �with purgative qualities.� This handy laxative system fetched �220,800 $392,392 Sale 7073, 21 September 2005 Exploration and Travel with the Polar Expedition. 2.

Ibid Auction catalogue

3.

Ibid Auction Catalogue

4 Beddie, M. K. (Editor) Bibliography of Captain James Cook RN,. F.R.S. The Library of NSW, Sydney 1970. (Incorrectly attributes the antinomy cup Artefact) Fallaciously said to be the �Communion Cup� used by Captain Cook on his voyages, and its leather case. Ref 3648-9 Page 621 5 McCallum, R. Ian. �Antimony in Medical History� The Pentland Press, Edinburgh. 1999. Page 66 6

Friedheim EA, Da Silva J.R. Martins A.V. �Treatment of schistosomiasis

mansoni with antimonya,a'-dimercapto-potassium succinate (TWSb)� American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 3: 714-727, 1954 7 �Hippocrates� Great Books of the Western World. Ed Robert Maynard Section 1 para 2. Section II para 37 8. Friedheim EA, Da Silva JR, Martins AV. Treatment of schistosomiasis mansoni with antimony-a,a'dimercapto-potassium succinate (TWSb). American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 3: 714-727, 1954 9 Thomson, Sir St. Clair MD, President of the Royal Society of Medicine. Section of the History of Medicine Antimonyall Cupps: Pocula Emetica or Calices Vomitorii. 1824. Page Chap 19. 123-128 10 J.C. Beaglehole. �Cook�s Journal 1768-1761 1st Voyage� CD Rom Version National Library, Canberra. Transcript of James Cook�s Journal. 11 1772-1775

Hoare., Michael. The Resolution Journal of Johann Reinhold Forster Hakluyt Society, London 1982. Pages 456-7

12 Bayly, William. Extract from the Journal kept by William Bayly, Astronomer, on H.M.S. Adventure, Captain Furneaux, during Capt. Cook's Second Voyage. Reprinted in McNab Historical Records of New Zealand Vol 2 pp 201-18 13 Putrid Fever (Med.), typhus fever; so called from the decomposing and offensive state of the discharges and diseased textures of the body 14. Issue No 81 September 1st 1822 �Gazette of Health� Edited by Dr. Richard Reece 15. Mythmaking Page 133

Obeyesekere, Gananath. �The Apotheosis of Captain Cook �European in the Pacific. Princeton University Press, Princeton N.J. 1992

16. Maynard, Robert. Ed Section 1 para 2. Section II

�Hippocrates� Great Books of the Western World. para 37

17. Thomson, Sir St. Clair MD President of the Royal Society of Medicine. Section of the History of Medicine Antimonyal Cupps: Pocula Emetica or Calices Vomitorii. 1824. 18. Galen of Pergamum. On the Natural Faculties continued in the belief of purging. Piii para 13 Great Books of the Western World. Ed. Robert Maynard. 19 Joachim Tanckivs, De Oleo Antimonii Tractatus. Roger Bacon. Philosophi and Chemici. 1731 20 The Parnassus plays put on by St. John's Collage, Cambridge in 16th Century. The Pilgrimage to Parnassus, The First Part of the Return from Parnassus, and The Second Part of the Return from Parnassus, written between 1598 and 1602 21. McCallum E. Ian Antimony in Medical History - Antimony Cups. The Pentland Press, Edinburgh. P48 22. Connell. Letters. Vesalius Official Journal of the International Society for the History of Medicine .Vol XV, No 1 June 2009

Chapter 9. People Affected by Antimony Poisoning Napoleon Bonaparte (1769 1821) 1. Weider, Ben and Hapgood, David. �Murder of Napoleon� , Robson Books 1982. The medical analysis was based upon tests on Napoleon�s hair conducted at the University of Glasgow by Scientist Hamilton Smith, requested by Sten Forshufvud of Goteborg, Sweden who helped with the research for this book. Page 224 2.

Ibid page 246

3.

Ibid Page 230 April 9th 1821. Longwood House St. Helena.Forshufvud.

4 Emsley, John. The Elements of Murder A History of Poison. Oxford University Press. Oxford UK. 2005. Page 128 5. Wider, Ben and Hapgood, David London. 1982 Page 171.

�The Murder of Napoleon� Robson Books

King George III (1738 - 1820) 6 �Medical Mysteries: George III - Mad or Misunderstood� BBC One, 14 July at 2004. 7

Ibid

8

Ibid

Broadcast on

Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) 9.

Keynes, M. �Isaac Newton and his Madness of 1692�1693�. Lancet 1980

10 Glynn, Ian and Jennifer. The Life and Death of Smallpox. Cambridge University Press 2004. P 34 Ludvic van Beethoven (1770 �1827) 11 Emsley, John Oxford University Press; 12 Craven, Aaron. Music� Online essay

�The Elements of Murder A history of Poison�. 2005 pp 294-296

New York:

�Beethoven�s Medical Ailments and their Influenceon his

13 http://home.adelphia.net/~acraven/Essays/Craven%20Online%20Essays %20Papers%20Beethoven.htm 14. Audio Broadcast (American) National Public Radio (NPR) �All things considered�. Dec 6th 2005 (5.33 mins). Louis XIV (1638�1715) 15. John Emsley, �The Elements of Murder A history of Poison� Oxford University Press; 2005 Pages 296-300. 16.

New York:

Ascaris lumbricoides, the large roundworm, is one of six worms listed

and named by Linnaeus; its name has remained unchanged ever since. One billion people are now estimated to be infected with this worm. The adult worm lives in the intestine, and the female produces eggs that pass out with the faeces, and the larvae within the eggs develop to the infective stage in soil. Humans become infected when food contaminated with infective eggs is eaten and the larvae emerge in the intestine. The worms do not mature immediately but migrate around the body, reaching the lungs, from which they are coughed up and swallowed and then develop into adults in the intestine. Ascariasis is an ancient infection. i 17. Trichinellosis, also called trichinosis, is caused by eating raw or undercooked meat of animals infected with the larvae of a species of worm called (meat-eating) animals but may also occur in domestic pigs. Dorozynski A. Parasites likely to have Plagued Louis XIV�. Fasciola hepatica (liver fluke) live in the bile ducts, produce eggs which are passed in the faeces when the eggs separate from the faecal material in wet areas, they will hatch, releasing the larvae or miracidia. The miracidia invade the lymnaeid snails in which they develop and multiply as sporocyst, rediae and cercariae. The tadpole like cercariae, leave the snails and swim until they encyst on vegetation, forming metacercariae, which are the infective stage of the fluke. The entire cycle of the liver fluke in the snails takes 2 - 3 months under favourable if ingested by sheep, cattle or other hosts, including man, the metacercariae are found in the small intestine and the released immature flukes penetrate the intestinal wall and enter the abdominal cavity. The young fluke penetrate the liver capsule and migrate through the liver tissue for 6 to 7 weeks before entering the bile ducts to become adult fluke. t 18

Roper, Trevor �Documents of Ophthalmology�, 1989 R

19. Huxham, Doctor (John) �Medical And Chemical Observations on Antimony�. London, John Hinton, 1756. pp. (viii), 78 (Like James Cook) Huxham was awarded the Copley Medal by the Royal Society in 1755 for this treatise. In this work he gives directions for the preparation and use of antimony and briefly discusses its medical uses. Paracelsus is credited with the introduction of antimony, chiefly as an emetic and purgative; it was banned in France in the 16th century by royal decree as a dangerous poison; however, Louis XIV overturned the decree in 1666 after a cure by tartar emetic containing antimony.� e George Frederick Handel (1685-1759) G 21 Huxham, Doctor (John) � Medical and Chemical Observations on Antimony� publisher John Hinton, 1756. pp. (viii), 78 1 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756�1791) W 22 Did Mozart die of a kidney disease? Journal of the American Society of Nephrology�. Edward N. Gulliery. G Chapter 10. C

Venereal Disease.

1. Walter, Richard. �Anson�s Voyage round the World in the Years 1740-44: Lord Anson written as part of the introduction. Heron Books 1911. p 2. Osborne, George E, Lipman Arthur G. Medicine andPharmacy aboard NewEngland Whaling Vessels Publisher: Lipman AG and Osborne, G.E. Nov

1 1979 3. Blair, Thomas S. M.D. A Practitioner's Handbook of Materia Medica and Therapeutics Based Upon Established Physiological Actions and the Indications in small doses to which is added some pharmaceutical data and the most important therapeutic developments of sectarian medicine as explained along rational Lines. The Medical Council Philadelphia Pa. 1907 Page 35 P 4. Blackwell, Elizabeth, �A Curious Herbal� Published: London. Printed for Samuel Harding, 1737-1739. P Plate 267 5. Price, Grenfell The Explorations of Captain James Cook in the Pacific as told by selections of his own Journals 1768-1779 . Dover Publications, New York 1971 Page 32 N 6. Cook, James: �The Voyages of Captain James Cook, Illustrated with Maps and Numerous Engravings on Wood...With and Appendix . London William Smith 1842. Two volumes. text plus map plates. Page 218. m 7. J?tte, Robert Translator: Russell, V. Contraception A History. Blackwell Publishers. UK 2008 Page 1 103 8. J.C. Beaglehole The Journals of Captain James Cook. The Voyage of the Endeavour 1768-1761�s page 98-99 Hakluyt Society Cambridge University Press. London. 1968. P 9. Cook, James: �The Voyages of Captain James Cook, Illustrated with Maps and Numerous Engravings on Wood...With and Appendix . London William Smith 1842. Two volumes. text plus map plates. Page 498. m 10. J.C. Beaglehole The Journals of Captain James Cook. The Voyage of the Endeavour 1768-1761. Hakluyt Society Cambridge University Press. London. 1968. Page 98 1 11. Hough, Richard. �Captain James Cook A Biography�. A John Curtis Book Hodder and Stoughton, L London.1994. pages 91and 104 12.

W W.H.O.

13. David, Samwell. �A Narrative of the death of Captain James Cook to which are added some particulars, concerning his life and character, and observations respecting the introduction of the venereal disease into the Sandwich Islands. London, 1786. Surgeon Samwell was on the third voyage, HM Sloop Resolution and subsequently on the HM Sloop Discovery, his account of Cook�s death is considered the most reliable of all contemporary accounts and was printed or excerpted in numerous formats including magazines and Andrew Kippis �Biographia Britannica�. The major portion of this account was also reprinted by Kippis in �The Life of Captain James Cook�, the first biography of Cook printed in 1788. C 14.

Encyclopaedia Britannica E

1911

15.

C. F. Schmitt, New Estimates of the Pre-Censal Population of Hawaii; C

16. Stannard, David, E. Before the Horror: The Population of Hawaii on the Eve of Western Contact. University of Hawaii Page 2

17.

Statistique de Polyn�aise (I.S.P.F.) S

18. Beaglehole, J.C. (Ed) The Journals of Captain James Cook. The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery, 1776-1780. Cambridge University Press for the Hakluyt Society. 1967. Part two Appendix III King page 1368; p 19.

ibid. 222n; 223n; 224n. i

20. Bougainville, Louis Antoine de. A Voyage Round the World. Performed by Order of His Most Christian Majesty, In the Years 1766, 1767, 1768, and 1769. By Lewis de Bougainville, Colonel of Foot, and Commodore of the Expedition, in the Frigate La Boudeuse, and the Store-ship L�Etoile. Translated from the French. By John Reinhold Forster, F.A.S. London: J. Nourse, and T. Davies, 1772 page 274 N 21. J.C. Beaglehole The Journals of Captain James Cook. The Voyage of the Endeavour 1768-1761. Hakluyt Society Cambridge University Press. London. 1968. Page 138. 1 22. Tasman, Abel Janszoon Abel Janzsoon Tasman's Journal of his Discovery of Van Diemen's Land and New Zealand in 1642, with Documents relating to his Exploration of Australia in 1644. Los Angeles N. A. Kovach 1965. L 23. W. J. Blaeu's 1619 world wall map updated by Joan Blaeu in 1646. When Joan Blaeu revised the copper plates first engraved for printing Willem Blaeu�s 1619 world map he was forced to carry out major changes to make room for Zeelandia Nova. In the earlier map a boxed inscription is present in the New Zealand area. He also removed a line representing part of the northern coast of the mythical southern continent as well as some lettering. Names in the New Zealand area in the revised map follow: Zeelandia Nova,�Clippige hoeck, Moordenaers Baij, C. Maria va[n] Diemens, �T. Eylant dri Coningen�. Maritiem Museum �P Prince Hendrik�, Rotterdam. 24. Kelly, Leslie, G. �Marion du Fresne at the Bay of Islands� and Dumas Alexandre. �Captain Marion� Translated by F.W. Reed. Christchurch. The Caxton Press. 1949. T 25. Whitmore, Robbie. New Zealand in History - The Discovery of New Zealand Jean-Fran�ois-Marie d Surville France. 1717-1770 de 26. The Making of John Ledyard: Empire and Ambition in the Life of an Early American Traveller. Edward G.Gray. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007. Facsimile page from HM Sloop Resolution Paybook � The bound copy has a list of the crew treated by the Surgeon William Anderson between July 1776 and August1788. This list shows that of the crew of one-hundred and twelve, sixty-six were treated for venereal disease. Page 52 PRO ADM34/651 d Chapter 11. C

Lieutenant James Cook�s Charts

1. James Cook. A Chart of New South Wales, or the East Coast of New Holland, discovered and explored by Lieutenant J. Cook, Commander of his Majesty�s Bark Endeavour, in the year MDCCLXX [1770]. 34.5 x 77.4 cm. London: W. Strahan and T. Cadell, 1773

2.

I Ibid

3. Skelton, R.A. �Captain James Cook as a Hydrographer� Annual Lecture The Society for Nautical Research .Published Vol 40 1954 page 91-119. Cambridge at the University Press. MCMLIV C 4.

Jave La Grande's East Coast: from Nicholas Vallard's atlas, 1547. J

5. Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius [fifth century AD] World Map After Macrobius. The inhabited world north of the equator balanced by a southern continent and divided from it by water. 12.3 cm diameter Venice: Joannes Rubeus Vercellensis, 1492. State Library of New South Wales J 6. Noted on �van Laurens van der Hem (1621-1678) Atlas�. The National Library of Austria in Vienna owns a copy of the map, made around 1670. Apart from the route Jansz took, it also show the location of the first landfall in Australia by the Duyfken. The map is part of the �Atlas Blaeu-Van der Hem�, an atlas consisting of 50 books and has more than 2000 coloured copper engravings and hand drawings. The atlas was brought to Vienna in 1730 by Prince Eugen v. Savoyen. b 7. The �Hendrik van Langren (1586-1625) Globe� around 1625 shows New Guinea and South of the Insulae Salomonis!�the Baia de S. Philippo y S. Jago and Porte Vera Cruz on the north coast of a continental Terra Australis. Van Langren Snr engraved terrestrial and celestial globes; many were made up by his son, Arnold Florent van Langren. m 8. Howgego, Raymond John. �Encyclopedia of Exploration : a comprehensive reference guide to the history and literature of exploration, travel an colonization from the earliest times to the year 1800� 2003, Hordern House (Potts Point, NSW) H Chapter 12. The First Explorers C 1. Murdock, Priscilla. Duyfken and The First Discoveries of Australia Jansz 1606 to Cook 1770. Publisher: Antipodean Publishers, NSW. 1974 Those vessels that followed William Jansz aboard the Duyfkin (Little Dove) into Australian waters whist on voyages of exploration 164 years prior to James Cook were numerous and included Dutch and British explorers, Dirck Hartogs Eendracht, Willem de Vlamingh commanding three vessels Geelvinck, the hooker Nyptangh and the galliot Het Weeseltje. Haevik Claeszoon on the Zeewolf. Frederik de Houtman with his vessels Durdrecht and Amsterdam. The vessel Tryal under Captain John Brook arrived in 1662 as too the Leeuwin and the following years saw the visits of Dirck Meliszoon and Jan Carstenz with their vessels Arnhem and Pera. The Dutch East India Company sent other vessels Gulden Zeepard and Vyanen and in 1629 the murderous voyage of the infamous Batavia under Pelsaert. Many others followed Klyn, Amsterdam, Heemskirk and Zeehaen were notable as was Dampiers visit to Shark Bay in Roebuck 1699. D 2 Dirk Hartog was the first confirmed European to sight Western Australia. On 26 October 1616 in his ship, Eendracht he landed at Cape Inscription on the very northern most tip of the island. Before departing, Hartog left behind a flattened pewter plate, nailed to an oak post and placed upright in a fissure on the cliff top. The plate bears the inscription: AO 1616, den 25sten October, is hier vangecommen het schip de Endracht van Amsterdam, den Oppercoopmen Gilles Mibais van Luyck;

schipper Dirk Hartog, van Amsterdam, den 27sten, dito t' zeijl gegaen na Bantam, den Ondercoopman Jan Stoyn, Opperstierman Pieter Dockes, van Bil, AO 1616. B The English translation reads: T 1616. On the 25th October the ship Eendracht of Amsterdam arrived here. Upper merchant Gilles Miebais of Luick(Liege); skipper Dirck Hatichs (Dirk Hartog) of Amsterdam. On the 27th ditto we sail for Bantum. Under merchant Jan Stins; upper steerman Pieter Doores of Bil (Brielle). In he year 1616. y 3

Beschrijving : Journaal Zeewolf 6/1/1618 - 28/1/1618 ARA VOC 1066. B

4 Heeres, J. E. of the Dutch Colonial Institute, Delft.�The Part Borne by the Dutch in the Discovery of Australia 1606-1765�. London, Luzac and Co, 46 Great Russell Street W. C.1899. Page 14. Letters from Houtman to Prince Maurice . 7th October 1619. A further letter to the Managers of E.I.C., Same date. o 5 Hessel Gerritsz (1581�1632) Caert van't Landt van d'Eendracht uyt de Iournalen ende afteykeningen der Stierluyden t'samengestelt Chart of Eendracht Land based on the Journals and drawings of the ship�s officers. Amsterdam: Hessel Gerritsz, 1627. State Library of New South Wales L 6. Heeres, J. E. of the Dutch Colonial Institute, Delft.�The Part Borne by the Dutch in the Discovery of Australia 1606-1765�. London, Luzac and Co, 46 Great Russell Street W W. C.1899. Page 18. 7. Ibid. Chapter XII Letter from the Governor General and Council to the Managers of t the E.I.C. 6th September 1622. Page 18. 8. Ibid Journal kept by Jan Carstensz Pages 23-49 P

on his voyage to Nova Guinea..1623.

9. Ibid. XV. (1623) Voyage of The Ship Leyden Commanded By Skipper Klaas Hermansz (Oon) From The Nederlands to Java; Further discovery of the West-Coast of Australia. Journal kept on board the ship Leyden from the Texel to Batavia, 1623. Page 49 t 10. Hessel Gerritsz (1581�1632) Caert van't Landt van d'Eendracht uyt de Iournalen ende afteykeningen der Stierluyden t'samengestelt. Chart of Eendracht Land based on the Journals and drawings of the ship�s officers. Amsterdam: Hessel Gerritsz, 1627. State Library of New South Wales L 11. Heeres, J. E. of the Dutch Colonial Institute, Delft.�The Part Borne by the Dutch in the Discovery of Australia 1606-1765�. London, Luzac and Co, 46 Great Russell Street W. C.1899. Copy of the Journal kept Daniel Janssen Cock, Captain of the ship �Leijden�, which set sail on the 17th of May 1625. Page 51. P 12. This is shown on the Chart of the Malay Archipelago, which contains all the Dutch discoveries to 1628, including the coastlines of western and southern Australia. Scale calculated from one degree of latitude equaling 9.8 mm on the map. The State Library of NSW copy is bound with J.E.

Huijdecoper van Maarsseveen en Nigtevecht's copy of Abel Janszoon Tasman's Journal of his voyage of 1642-43 (Huydecoper Manuscript) Colour facsimile also in J.E.Heeres' The part borne by the Dutch in the discovery of Australia 1606 - 1765. London: Luzac, 1899. The discoveries after 1618 were added to the engraved plate between 1628 (�G.F. de Wits landt, ontdekt AO. 1628�) and 1632, as Gerritsz ceased to be the Cartographer in Ordinary to the Dutch East India Company on 3rd January 1633 3 13. Hartog sailed north to chart part of the Western Australia coastline. As a result, this part of the coastline appeared on world maps for the first time, replacing the mythical southern continent of Terra Australis Incognita A 14. Heeres, J. E. of the Dutch Colonial Institute, Delft.�The Part Borne by the Dutch in the Discovery of Australia 1606-1765�. London, Luzac and Co, 46 Great Russell Street W. C. 1899 XIX. (1627) voyage of The Ships Galias, Utrecht and Texel, commanded by Governor-General Jan Pieterszoon Coen. Further Discovery of The West-Coast of Australia. Letter of Jan Pieterszoon Coen to the Directors of the E.I.C. Page 52 t 15. Ibid. XX. (1627) Voyage of the Ship Het Wapen Van Hoorn, Commanded by Super Cargo J. Van Roosenbergh. Further Discovery of the West-Coast of Australia. Letter of Supercargo J. Van Roosenbergh to the Directors of the E.I.C., November 8, 1627. Page 53 o 16. Map - Willem Blaeu. �India qu� Orientalis dicitur, et Insul� Adiacentes� Amseterdam: J. Blaeu. First issued in 1634. Besides the places named along the Cape York Peninsula, Blaeu also shows the results of the explorations, along the northwest coast, of Dirck Hartog (�Landt van d'Eendracht�) in 1616 and Gerrit Frederikszoon de Wit (�G.F. de Wits landt�) in 1 1628. 17. Ongeluckige voyagie, van't schip �Batavia� nae de Oost-Indien. Vytgevaren onder den E. Francoys Pelsert. Amsterdam: J. Jansz., 1647. The catastrophe on the Houtman Abrolhos. (Disastrous Voyage of the Vessel �Batavia� to the East Indies). t 18. In 1629 the west-coast of Australia in the neighbourhood of Dirk Hartzog Roads was touched by Dutch vessels, and in 1632 the Trialls were passed ships on the outward voyage. What we know about these two points is of no interest as regards our subject - Journal of Commander Wollebrand Geleynszoon De Jongh. Pages 63-64 W 19. VOCC �Instructions for Commander Gerrit Thomasz Pool and the Council of the Yachts Cleen Amsterdam and Wesel, destined for the discovery of the lands situated east of Banda, and furthermore of the Southland, thence extending to the South-west.� l 20. Finkel, George. �The Dutchman Bold: Abel Tasman�. Publisher: Angus and Robertson Sydney 1975 R

1 1648.

21.

I Ibid

22.

VOCC Instructions for the officers of the Yacht den Leeuwerik. June 27,

23. Green, Jeremy N. Curator of Marine Archaeology Western Australian Museum. Treasures From The Vergulde Draeck (Gilt Dragon). Western

Australian Museum.Information Series No 5. First published as �The Wreck of the Dutch East Indiaman the Vergulde Draeck� on the International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration (1973) N 24. EIC Records. Letter of the Governor General , Council to the Managers of the E.I.C, December 4, 1656. 1 25.

Heres pages 75 - 77 H

26.

Ibid Heres pages 76 - 80 I

27.

Ibid Heres page 81 I

28. Kaart van de Noordzijde van 't Zuidland (Chart of the Northside of the Southland), 1678 S 29 Estensen, Miriam. Discovery: the Quest for the Great South Land, Allen and Unwin, 1998. John Daniel, de Houtman and Abrolhos Islands ship �London� Page 141 P 30. �French maritime history in WA - wait, there�s more - and it�s sensational!� The Australian Association for Maritime History, Quarterly Newsletter (no. 79) : June 2000 Q 31. Spear. James. (Editor) Dampier, William. Voyage To New Holland - The English Voyage of Discovery to the South Seas in 1699. Alan Sutton Glouester UK 1981 A Voyage to New Holland was originally published in two parts by Knapton, London in 1703 the first part and the second part in 1709 t 32. Kaart van het Zuidland, bezeild door Willem De Vlamingh in 1696-1697 door Isaac De Graaff (Chart of the South-land, made and surveyed by Willem De Vlamingh in 1696-1697) D 33. November and December 1695 the Managers of the E.I. Company Resolutions of the Heeren XVII of November 10, December 8 and 10, 1695. Resolved to dispatch a flotilla to the South-land or the land of d'Eendracht, this time starting from the Cape of Good Hope. Willem De Vlamingh was appointed commander-in-chief of the expedition. He was also instructed to inquire into the fate of the ship de Ridderschap van Holland, which had miscarried on her voyage from the Cape to Batavia in 1694 t 34. Spear. James. (Editor) Dampier, William. Voyage to New Holland - The English Voyage of Discovery to the South Seas in 1699. Alan Sutton Glouester UK 1981 A Voyage to New Holland was originally published in two parts by Knapton. London in 1703 the first part and 1709 the second part. t 35.

Heeres, J. E H

Pages 87 - 88

36. Sigmond, J.P. and Zuiderbaan. L.H. Dutch Discoveries of Australia Shipwrecks, treasures and early voyages off the West Coast. Rigby, Ltd, Adelaide. 1st English language edition. 1979. As far back as the early 1600's, the Dutch East India Company, instructed its merchant ships to strike out eastwards after the Cape of Good Hope on their way to the East Indies. This brought the company ships close to the west coast of Australia. Even though there was much danger for the Indiamen in these uncharted waters, the company thought the risk worth taking because the long voyage was almost halved. Gradually these early Dutch seafarers charted accurate maps of the region, but not until after long

years of hardship, heartbreak and tragedy. The story of this extraordinary history of exploration by piecemeal chartings and feats of sheer expert seamanship during this high period of Dutch seafaring superiority is one of the most neglected chapters of Australian history. The eventual and successful navigation of the west coast was not the only legacy of early Dutch discovery of Australia. The remains of at least four shipwrecks have recently been discovered off the west coast-those of the Batavia, the Vergulde Draeck, the Zuytdorp, and the Zeewijk, with their stories of deprivation, of rape and murder, and of death and despair. a 37.

Ibid �Zeewijk� I

38

Heeres, J. E H

Pages 92 - 100

39. Bougainville, L.A. De �Voyage autour du Monde par la fr�gate du Roi �La Boudeuse� et la Fl�te �L'Etoile�; en 1766, 1767, 1768 and 1769�. Paris, Saillant et Nyon, 1771. 1 Chapter 13. Flogging During the 1st Voyage C 1. Barrow, John F.R.S., F.S.A. (Ed) Captain Cook�s Voyages of Discovery. J. M. Dent and Sons Ltd, London 1860. Page 30 footnote. L 2. Cook�s Journal, 16th September 1768. Beaglehole, J C. Editor. (1955). �The Journals of Captain James Cook on his Voyages of Discovery: the voyage of the Endeavour 1768-1771�. vol 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and the Hakluyt Society.Page 16 Articles of War XXIIWasteful use of Stores. W 3.

ibid 216 i

4. Sydney Parkinson Journal of a Voyage to the South Seas in HMS Endeavour. Chas Dilly, London M MDCCLXXXIV Page 32 5. Chapter 14. C

ibid p 32 i Tahiti, First Voyage.

1. Beaglehole, J C. Editor. Cook�s Journal �The Journals of Captain James Cook on his Voyages of Discovery: the voyage of the Endeavour 1768-1771�. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and the Hakluyt Society. (1955) Page 46. ( 2. �The Journals of Captain James Cook on his Voyages of Discovery: the voyage of the Endeavour 1768-1771�. vol 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and the Hakluyt Society. 1955 Charts No X XI 3. Sydney Parkinson Journal of a Voyage to the South Seas in HMS Endeavour. Chas Dilly, London MDCCLXXXIV Page 209-210 M Chapter 15. New Zealand First Voyage. C 1. Pp 29-33 P

Williams, Glyndwr. �Captain Cook Voyages� 1768-1779. Folio Soc. 1997.

2. Vice Admiral Gordon Cambell V.C. D.S/O �Captain James Cook R.N� F.R.S. Hodder and Stoughton, London 1936 Page 98 has this as �Haromoi Larenta a patoo ago! (Come here come ashore with us and we will kill you with our patoo pattos� p 3.

A H. and A. W. Reed. �Captain Cook in New Zealand�. Page 34-36.

4. Ibid page 36.Cook �I am aware that most humane men who have not experienced things of this nature will censure my conduct in firing upon the people in their boat, nor do I myself think that the reason I had for seizing upon her will at all justify me; and had I thought that they would have made the least resistance I would not have come near them; but as they did, I was not to stand still and suffer either myself or those that were with me to be knocked on the head� w 5. Chapter 16. C

Cook�s Journal - 14th October 1769 C East Coast of New Holland First Voyage.

1. Beaglehole, J C. Editor. Cook�s Journal �The Journals of Captain James Cook on his Voyages of Discovery: the voyage of the Endeavour 1768-1771�. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and the Hakluyt Society. (1955) 295n ( 2. Marra, J. M. A Proposal for establishing a settlement in New South Wales � intended to atone f for the loss of the American Colonies 3. The real culprit responsible for Orton�s loosing part of both ear was probably Cook himself. In later voyages Cook was recorded as cutting off the ears of those who stole, or offended him on more than one occasion. Orton drunkenness infuriated Cook no doubt the crew had left the clerk with cut clothes, but none of the crew would have dared to mutilate Mr Orton. But Cook had no such reservations. Cook was on very safe ground when he offered a reward of fifteen guineas and fifteen gallons of arrack to any person who would disclose the culprit. The reward remained with Cook as did the guilt. Sydney Parkinson Journal of a Voyage to the South Seas in HMS Endeavour. Chas Dilly, London MDCCLXXXIV Page 138 M 4. Beaglehole, J C. Editor. Cook�s Journal �The Journals of Captain James Cook on his Voyages of Discovery: the voyage of the Endeavour 1768-1771�. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and the Hakluyt Society. (1955) cclv1-cclxiv ( 5. Neaping - Neap tides are those tides where there is least difference between the heights of high and low tide. They occur twice a month, in the first and third quarters of the moon, and are caused by the position of the sun and the moon in relation to the earth being such that the gravitational pull of the sun counteracts the pull of the moon. o 6. Mackeness, George. The Life of Vice-Admiral Bligh. Farrer Rhinhart, N.Y. N.Y. 1931 Chapter XIV N 7. Foster, Chief officer Smith. The Story of the Trevassa's Boats. The logs of the First Mate. Reprinted from Lloyds List and Shipping Gazette, August 27, August 28 and September 5th 1923.London. After sinking in

the Indian Ocean 1,200 miles off the coast of West Australia the Master, Mate and Crew of the ship S.S. Trevassa rowed for 23 days landing on the Mauritius. In all 33 of the original crew of 44 saved. 4 8. S.S. �Corpheus� Brisbane Courier 26th October 1871. Captain�s Log Natioanl Library, Camberra. Mjm P PMB81. 9. Sydney Parkinson Journal of a Voyage to the South Seas in HMS Endeavour. Chas Dilly, London MDCCLXXXIV Page 138 D 10. Parkin Ray. H M Bark Endeavour. The Miegunyah Press. Melbourne University Publishing, Carlton, Vic. Chapter 10 �Endeavour River July 1770 Page 390. J 11.

Ibid Page 368 I

Chapter 17 C

Batavia First Voyage.

1. Edwards, Philip. (Ed) Cook, James. �The Journals� from the original Manuscripts by J. C. Beaglehole for the Hakluyt Society 1955-67. Penguin Books 2003 Letter to Cook from J.Satterly the Carpenter. Page 181 t 2. Beaglehole, J C. Editor. Cook�s Journal �The Journals of Captain James Cook on his Voyages of Discovery: the voyage of the Endeavour 1768-1771�. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and the Hakluyt Society. (1955) Page 450 ( 3. Edwards, Philip. (Ed) Cook, James. �The Journals� from the original Manuscripts by J. C. Beaglehole for the Hakluyt Society 1955-67. Penguin Books 2003 Page 190 P 4.

Ibid Page 212 I

5. Bookseller Photo Pringle, Sir John. Observations on the Diseases of the Army London: A. Millar, D. Wilson; T. Durham; and T. Payne, 1765. Pringle is seen as the founder of Military Medicine. Under the patronage of the Earl of Stair, commander of the Army in Flanders, he was made Physician to the Army. He served on campaign from 1742 down to the Peace of Aix-la-Chappelle in 1748, including at Culloden, having been made Physician General in 1744. Pringle's great innovations encompassed both administration and epidemiology. Page 84. e Chapter 18. C 1 Quoting

The Search for Cook�s Ship

Meecham, Steve. Sydney Morning Herald, �Insight� Friday June 16th 2006. Mary-Louise Williams, Director, National Maritime Museum. Sydney W

2.

Morris, E.E. M

Letter to Melbourne Argus - 22nd April 1899

3.

Lloyd�s Register of Shipping 1778. Number 222 �L� Gregg Press UK L

4. Parkin, Ray. �H.M. Bark Endeavour�. The Miegunyah Press Melbourne University. Number 13 in the second numbered Series 1st Edition. 1997. Two volumes. Volume one covering the text and Volume two the Parkin drawings of the Bark Endeavour. By delving into the London Public

Records office the author found new information concerning Cook by studying the journals, manuscripts and logs from Cook, Hicks, Gore Pickersgill, Wilkinson, Forster, Bligh, Banks, Clerke, Green, Briscoe, Roberts and Munkhouse. The drawings of the Bark Endeavour are absolutely stunning. Page 71. s 5.

Lloyd�s Register of Shipping, London. Correspondence with Connell L

6. P.R.O. London. ADM 106/3402 Navy Board Deptford Surveyors 5th February 1775. Sheet 388 1 7. 8. London

P.R.O. London. ADM 106/340 P Syrett, David. Shipping and the American War 1775-83. University of Historical Studies. XXV11 Athlone Press 1970. Page 65 H

9. Lowell. Edward J. The Hessians and the other German Auxiliaries of Great Britain in the Revolutionary War�. New York : Harper and Bros., 1884. W 10. P.R.O. London. ADM 106/3402 Navy Board Deptford Surveyors 9th February 1775. Sheet 427 1 11. Forster. J. R. Tableau de l�Angleterre. 1783 page 310 F 12 Letter from: Rhode Island Marine Archaeology Project, Newport Rhode Island. To Professor G.R. Henning, Editor �The Great Circle�. Department of Economic History, University of New England, Armidale NSW, Australia Nov 11th 1998. N 13. Lowell. Edward J. The Hessians and the other German Auxiliaries of Great Britain in the Revolutionary War�. New York : Harper and Bros., 1884. W 14. ADM1/488 Letter from Captain Brisbane to Viscount Howe dated August 3rd 1778 Ledger 328-329 1 15. Lyon, David, The Sailing Navy list. All the Ships of the Royal Navy Built, Purchased and Captured 1688-1860. Conway Maritime Press. 1 1993. 16.

P.R.O. London. ADM 106/3404 Navy Board Deptford Surveyors 9th December

1 1778. 17. Parkin, Ray. �H.M. Bark Endeavour�. The Miegunyah Press Melbourne University. Number 13 in the second numbered Series 1st Edition. 1997. Page 71. E 18. ADM1/488 Letter from Captain Brisbane to Viscount Howe dated August 3rd 1778 Ledger 328-329 1 Chapter 19.

Artefacts Salvaged from Endeavour Reef Queensland A

1. Beaglehole, J C. Editor. Cook�s Journal �The Journals of Captain James Cook on his Voyages of Discovery: the voyage of the Endeavour 1768-1771�. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and the Hakluyt Society. (1955) Page 347 n ( 2. Valuer for Department of Communications and The Arts Committee on Taxation Incentives for the Arts and Cultural Gifts Program. Section 30-

200 of 2

the Income Tax Asessment Act 1997

3.

Journal p 347 J

4

I Ibid

5. NSW, 1994 N

Callegari, Dennis �Cook�s Cannon and Anchor� Kangaroo Press, Dural,

6.

Part Vii �Wrecks and Salvage� Section 308. P

7.

Journals 1 Page 99 J

8.

Minutes of the Cooktown Town Council 2ist January 1886. M

9. Vlasoff. Vince �In Search of a Cannon and Finding all Six� G.K.Bolton, Cairns 1969. C 10. Pearson. C. Report 508 and Report 419 Commonwealth of Australia Department of Supply Australian Defence Scientific Service Defence Standards Laboratories. Maribyrnong, Victoria Report 419 �The Preservation of Cannon after 200 years under the sea�. May 1972. o

13.

11.

Ibid Page 12, I

12.

Ibid I

Ibid I

Page 12, 15-17

15 -17

Page 12

14. 18th Century Secrets in Arts, Trades, and Crafts�. Primary source information � An original work of 1809, transcribed by Anne Post. Chapter 2 24 15. Pearson. C. Report 508 and Report 419 Commonwealth of Australia Department of Supply Australian Defence Scientific Service Defence Standards Laboratories. Maribyrnong, Vic. and Report 419 �The Preservation of Cannon after 200 years Under the Sea�. May 1972. o 20. Chapter 20. C In

i ibid Artefacts.

1 Joppien, R�diger and Smith Bernard. The Art of Captain Cook�s Voyages � two volumes. Oxford University Press, London. 1985 U

2. Page 150 P Chapter 21. C

Kitson, Arthur. �The Life of Captain James Cook the Circumnavigator�.

Sir Clowdisley Shovell (1650-1707)

1. Hill, J.R. (Ed) The Oxford Illustrated History of the Royal Navy. Oxford University Press 1995.(Hattendorf, John, The Struggle with France. 1689-1815) pp 89-90 S 2. Lewis, Michael. The Navy of Britain. A Historical Portrait. George Allen, London 1948 pages 472-476

a

3

ibid pages 472-476 i

4.

ibid pages 472-476 i

5. The Shipwreck of Sir Clowdisley Shovell, on the Scilly Islands in 1707 from Original and Contemporary Documents Hitherto Unpublished� (Read at a Meeting of the Society of Antiquaries, London, Feb. 1, 1883) by James Herbert Cooke, F.S.A. b 6. Sobel, Dava. Author: Sobel, Dava. Longitude.: The Story of a Lone Genius who solved the greatest scientific problem of his time. Publisher: Walker and Company. New York. 1995. 1st edition. Page 16. P 7.

Ibid Pages 11 - 13 I

8 The Shipwreck of Sir Clowdisley Shovell, on the Scilly Islands in 1707 from Original and Contemporary Documents Hitherto Unpublished (Read at a Meeting of the Society of Antiquaries, London, Feb. 1st 1883) by James Herbert Cooke, F.S.A. b 9 Sobel, Dava. Author: Sobel, Dava. Longitude : The Story of a Lone Genius who solved the greatest scientific problem of his time. Publisher: Walker and Company. New York. 1995. 1st edition Page 96 P 10. 11. 3 August Chapter 22. C

Balchin Family Society. B Biographical Magazine of 1776 as recorded in Mariners Mirror Vol 80 No 1994 pages 332-335 1 Navigation at Sea.

1. National Geographic December, 1974 An excellent four-part series on �The Isles of the Pacific� including a map �The Pacific Islands and Their Discoverers�. a 2. Cordingly, David. �Capt. James Cook Navigator�. Exhibition Catalogue. �Captain James Cook Exhibition of Navigation 1988. National Maritime Museum, Greenwich. UK pages 69-79 U 3. Gemma , Frisius �On the Principles of Astronomy and Cosmography, with Instruction for the Use of Globes, and Information on the World and on Islands and Other Places Recently Discovered�. It was a work in three parts published in Antwerp by Johannes Grapheus (Gemma's original publisher Roeland Bollaert had died). R 4 Sobel, Dava. Author: Sobel, Dava. Longitude.: The Story of a Lone Genius who solved the greatest scientific problem of his time. Publisher: Walker and Company. New York. 1995. 1st edition. Page 1 11-15 5.

Ibid Page 16. I

6.

Ibid Page 16 I

7.

Ibid Pages 96-97 I

8. Cotter, Charles H. Master Mariner. A History of the Navigator's Sextant� Brown Son and Ferguson, Glasgow. 1st Edition. 1983. Traces the

history and evolution of the Sextant. The genesis of the Mariner's angle measuring; Seaman's Quadrant; Mariner's Astolabe, Nautical Ring, Semi Circle, Cross Staff Shadow Staff to Hadley's Octant and the modern i instruments. 9. Sobel, Dava. �Longitude� - The Story of a Lone Genius who solved the greatest scientific problem of his time. Walker and Company. New York. 1995. Page 83 1 10. �John Harrison and the Longitude Problem�, National Maritime Museum. http://www.nmm.ac.uk h 11 Gould, Rupert T. Lieutenant-Commander. The Annual Lecture for 1935 February 21st. At the Draper�s Company. �John Harrison and his Time Keepers�. Published in The Mariner�s Mirror Vol XXI No 2 1935 pages 115-139 (200 guests turn up to hear the lecture and view the exhibits recently restored by Gould. Page 117 G 12 Sobel, Dava. �Longitude� - The Story of a Lone Genius who solved the greatest scientific problem of his time. Walker and Company. New York.1995 o 13.

Ibid Page 135-137 I

14. �John Harrison and the Longitude Problem�, National Maritime Museum.http://www.nmm.ac.uk M 15 Forbes Eric G. A. J. Meadows - Derek Howse. Greenwich Observatory. One set of three volumes by different authors telling the story of Britain's oldest scientific institution The Royal Observatory at Greenwich and Herstmonceux 1675 to 1835. Vol 1: Origins and Early History (1675 to 1835). Vol II: Recent History (1836 to 1975). Vol III: The Buildings and Instruments. London, Taylors and Francis, 1975, 3 volumes a 16

Sobel, Dava. S

Page 128-130

17. Ibid 136-137 (Maskelyne demonstrated his disapproval of Harrison and his clocks he broke two H2 by mishandling, and �accidentally� dropped H1). Further he failed to wind or maintain the collection. H 18. Precomputed lunar distances were published in the Nautical Almanac from the first edition (1767) until 1905. Gould, Rupert T. Lieutenant-Commander. �John Harrison and his Time Keepers�. Published in The Mariner�s Mirror Vol XXI No 2 1935 page 117. T 19. Sobel, Dava. Author: Sobel, Dava. Longitude.: The Story of a Lone Genius who solved the greatest scientific problem of his time. Publisher: Walker and Company. New York. 1995. 1st edition. Pages 1461 147 20.

Appendix in this book �Cost of living in Harrison�s Day� A

21. Gould, Rupert T. Lieutenant-Commander. The Annual Lecture for 1935 February 21st. At the Draper�s Company. �John Harrison and his Time Keepers�. Published in The Mariner�s Mirror Vol XXI No 2 1935 pages 115-139 22.

Forbes Eric G.A. J. Meadows - Derek Howse. Greenwich Observatory. One

set of three columes by different authors telling the story of Britain's oldest scientific institution The Royal Observatory at Greenwich and Herstmonceux 1675-1835. Vol 1: Origins and Early History (1675 1835). Vol II: Recent History (1836-1975). Vol III: The Buildings and Instruments. London, Taylors and Francis, 1975. Three volumes 1 23. Gould, Rupert T. Lieutenant-Commander. The Annual Lecture for 1935 February 21st. At the Draper�s Company. �John Harrison and his Time Keepers� Page 117. K 24.

h http://wwp.greenwich2000.com/millennium/info/conference.htm

25. King gave a full account of the difficulties in a letter to the secretary of the Board of Longitude from Petropavlovsk, 10th June 1779, a copy of which is in the Banks Papers in the Mitchell Library Ms A 78.1 printed in Journals III, 1541�2. p 26.

Astronomical Society of Southern Africa A

27. Cordingly, David. �Capt. James Cook Navigator�. Exhibition Catalogue. �Captain James Cook Exhibition of Navigation 1988. National Maritime Museum, Greenwich. UK pages 69-79 M 28. Moskowitz, Saul �The World�s First Sextants� Navigation Spring 1987. Vol 32 No 4 Page 27 P 29. Cordingly, David. �Capt. James Cook Navigator�. Exhibition Catalogue. �Captain James Cook Exhibition of Navigation 1988. National Maritime Museum, Greenwich. UK pages 73-79 M Chapter 23. C

The Second Voyage HM Sloops Resolution and Adventure

0. Marquardt, Karl. �Anatomy of the Ship - Captain Cook�s Endeavour� Conway Maritime Press. London 1995. Page 18-19 L 1. Cook, James. �The Voyages of 2 two vols page 339. 2.

Captain James Cook�. William Smith 1842.

Ibid page 340 I

3. Polley, Jane, ed. Stories Behind Everyday Things. Pleasantville, New York: The Reader�s Digest Association, Inc., 1980, p. 293. A 4. Cook, James. �The Voyages of 2 two vols Page 220 5.

Captain James Cook�

William Smith 1842.

Ibid Page 443 I

6. Lyon, David, The Sailing Navy list. All the Ships of the Royal Navy Built, Purchased and Captured 1688-1860. Conway Maritime Press. 1993. �Storeships, etc. Resolution� Page 213 1 7. Resolution 1772 Limited, 131 Main Street, Burley-in-Wharfdale, West Yorkshire, UK. Builders of the life size replica. Literature. l 8.

Dunmore, John. Who�s Who in Pacific Navigation. Melbourne University

Press 1992 P 9. Edwards, Philip (Ed) Cook, James. �The Journals� from the original Manuscripts by J. C. Beaglehole for the Hakluyt Society 195567�. Penguin Books 2003 Pages 373 6 10.

Ibid Pages 222, 390 I

11.

Ibid page 9. I

12.

Ibid pages : 9; 332; 334; 373; 411 I

13. Fornasiero, Jean; Peter Monteath, John West-Sooby �Encountering Terra Australis The Australian Voyages of Nicholas Baudin and Mathew Flinders� Wakefield Press, Adelaide, South�Australia. 2004. Page 5 introduction. P Chapter 24 C 1.

Death and Scurvy Second Voyage A Appendix

2. Cook, James commander of the Resolution. A Voyage towards the South Pole, and Round the World; Performed in his Majesty's ships the Resolution and Adventure, in the Years 1772, 3, 4, and 5. In which is included Captain Furneaux' Narrative of his Proceedings in the Adventure during the separation of the ships�. Printed For W. Strahan and T., Cadell in the Strand. London. 1777. Chapter IV 1 3. Mackaness, George. The Life of Vice-Admiral Bligh. Farrar and Rinehart, Inc New York. Two Vols in one. 1931 Pages 47-9; 100-7 i 4. Hoare, Michael. The Resolution Journal of Johann Reinhold Forster 17721775. Hakluyt Society. London 1982. Vol IV Page 158-160 [Scuttle A port hole storm cover] p 5

Ibid 646 I

6.

Ibid 316 I

7. Egon H. Kodicek and Frank G. Young Captain Cook and Scurvy Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 24, No. 1 (Jun., 1969), pp. 43-63 � 4 8. Ibid Page 329 [Dropsy - An old term for the swelling of soft tissues due to the accumulation of excess water � Oedema] w 1775.

9

Hoare, Michael. The Resolution Journal of Johann Reinhold Forster 1772Hakluyt Society. London 1982. Vol IV Page 316 L

10. Cook, James. Commander of the Resolution. A Voyage towards the South Pole, and Round the World; Performed in his Majesty's Ships the Resolution and Adventure, in the Years 1772, 3, 4, and 5 in which is included Captain Furneaux's Narrative of his Proceedings in the Adventure during the Separation of the Ships. Printed for W Strahan and T. Cadell in the Strand. London. 1777 Vol 1 Book 1 Chapter IX V 11.

Hoare, Michael. The Resolution Journal of Johann Reinhold Forster 1772-

1775. Hakluyt Society. g gout.

London 1982. Vol IV Page 317 � This could have been

12. Burney, James. �With Captain James Cook in the Antarctic and Pacific. The Private Journal of James Burney. Second Lieutenant of the Adventure on Cook's Second Voyage 1772 -1773�. Canberra, National Library of Australia, 1975. Page 59n A 13. Hoare., Michael. The Resolution Journal of Johann Reinhold Forster 1772-1775. Hakluyt Society, London 1982. Page 316 L 14. Burney, James. �With Captain James Cook in the Antarctic and Pacific. The Private Journal of James Burney. Second Lieutenant of the Adventure on Cook's SecondVoyage 17721773�. Canberra, National Library of Australia, 1975. Page 59n o 15. Hoare., Michael. The Resolution Journal of Johann Reinhold Forster 1772-1775 Hakluyt Society, London 1982. Page 317 L 16.

Ibid Page 322 I

17.

Ibid Page 325 I

18.

Ibid Page I

19. Edwards, Philip (Ed) Cook, James. �The Journals� from the original Manuscripts by J. C. Beaglehole for the Hakluyt Society 195567�. Penguin Books 2003 Page 389. 6 20. Hoare., Michael. The Resolution Journal of Johann Reinhold Forster 1772-1775 Hakluyt Society, London 1982. Page 329 L 21. James A. Duke. 1983. Purdue University Handbook of Energy Crops. Unpublished. �Humulus lupulus L. Cannabinaceae Common hops� L 22 page 40 p 23

Bown, Stephen R. �Scurvy�. Summersdale Publishers, West Sussex. UK 2003 Ibid Page 40 I

24. Smith, John, Captain. Sea-Mans Grammar and Dictionary, Explaining all the difficult Terms in Navigation: and the Practical Navigator and Gunner. Randal Taylor, London, 1691 �Hawkins�. R 25. John Parkinson, Theatrum Botanicum: The Theatre of Plants (or A Universall andCompleate Herball) or an Herball of a Large Extent. (London, 1640). ( 26 Bown, Stephen R. �Scurvy�. Summersdale Publishers, West Sussex. UK 2003 Appendix �Vitamin �C� contained in Common Foods of the Age of Sail� page 2642 265 27.

Ibid page 214 I

28.

Ibid page 216 I

29.

Ibid page 212-222 I

Chapter 25. The Orders Second Voyage 1772-1775 HM Sloops Resolution and Adventure 1. Bouvet Island is located at 54�26? S 3�24? E?. Brazil. It is 49�km� in area, 93% of which is covered by glaciers. Considered the most remote island in the world. The nearest land is Queen Maud Land, Antarctica, over 1,600�km. [1,000�miles] away to the south, which is itself uninhabited. [Cook was unable to locate Cape Circumcision as he was given the incorrect coo ordinates]. 2. Cook, James Commander of the Resolution. A Voyage Towards the South Pole, and Round the World; Performed in his Majesty's Ships the Resolution and Adventure, in the Years 1772, 3, 4, and 5. Printed for W Strahan and T Cadell in the Strand. London. 1777 Vol.1, Book 1: Chapter 1 S 3. Chapter 26. C

Ibid Chapter III 1773 April I Captain Tobias Furneaux

1. Cook, James Commander of the Resolution. A Voyage Towards the South Pole, and Round the World; Performed in his Majesty's Ships the Resolution and Adventure, in the Years 1772, 3, 4, and 5. Printed for W Strahan and T Cadell in the Strand. London. 1777 Vol.1, Book 1: Chap III. S 2. James Cook �A Voyage Towards the South Pole. Captain Furneaux's Narrative of his Proceedings, in the Adventure, from the Time he was separated from the Resolution, to his Arrival in England; including Lieutenant Burney's Report concerning the Boat's Crew who were murdered by the Inhabitants of Queen Charlottes Sound�. Vol.II, Book IV: Chapter V I 3. 1997 Pages

Williams, Glyndwr, Captain Cook Voyages 1768-1889. The Folio Society. 2 283-5

4. Burney, James; Hooper, Beverley (editor) �With Captain James Cook in the Antarctic and Pacific: The Private Journal of James Burney, Second Lieutenant of the Adventure on Cook's Second Voyage, 1772-1773�. National Library of Australia, Canberra, 1975. Pages 95-97 N 5.

Ibid 95-97 I

6.

Ibid 95-97 I

7. McNab, Robert (Editor) Historical Records of New Zealand. Vol. I . John Mackay, Government Printer, 1908, Wellington. Letter from Captain Furneaux to Secretary S Stephens. Chapter 27.

Johann Reinhold Forster.

1 The King through the public purse did indeed pay Forster a gratuity three times that paid to Cook. t 2. Hoare, Michael E. The Resolution Journal of Johann Forster 1772-1775 Hakluyt Society, London. 1982 (Four Vols) Pages 436 Vol III ( 3. 4. 5

Ibid page 436 I Elliott (Midshipman) Cook Journals II Pages 304-5 Hoare, Michael E. �The Resolution Journal of Johann Forster 1772-1775�

Hakluyt Society, London. 6. Chapter 28. C

1982 (Four Vols) Pages 1

Vol 1-IV throughout

Ibid Page 437. Forster was a Latin Scholar. I James Cook RN - The illness continues

1. Hoare, Michael E. The Resolution Journal of Johann Forster 1772-1775 Hakluyt Society, London. 1982 (Four Vols) Pages 329 Vol II 1 2. such

Ibid page 273 Vol II I

3 At higher doses this herbal preparation is a powerful emetic and as was and still is used in the treatment of poisoning. t

4. Hoare, Michael E. The Resolution Journal of Johann Forster 1772-1775 Hakluyt Society, London. 1982 (Four Vols) Pages 456-457 Vol III 1 5

Page 456-7 P

6. Hoare, Michael E. The Resolution Journal of Johann Forster 1772-1775 Hakluyt Society, London. 1982 (Four Vols) Pages 665 Vol IV 1 7. Edwards, Philip (Ed) Cook, James. �The Journals� from the original Manuscripts by J.C. Beaglehole for the Hakluyt Society 1955-67�. Penguin Books 2003 Page 336 P 8.

Marra. Journals II 333 n1 M

9. Edwards, Philip (Ed) Cook, James. �The Journals� from the original Manuscripts by J.C. Beaglehole for the Hakluyt Society 1955-67�. Penguin Books 2003 Page 334 P 10.

Ibid page 456 I

11.

Ibid page 457 I

12.

Ibid page 458 I

Chapter 29. C

2nd Voyage Floggings and Punishment

1. Clune, Frank. �Captain Bully Hayes - Blackbirder and Bigamist� Angus and Robertson. Sydney 1970. An American sea-captain known as Bully Hayes, roamed the Pacific Ocean from 1860's to 1870's was described during his lifetime as a rogue, rascal, barrator, bigamist, buccaneer, blackbirder, pirate and most feared sailor afloat. Here the author Frank Clune investigates the legend and throws a new light on a maligned reputation. Although debunking much of the reputation he still finds that Hayes was indeed able to live up to his name and reputation. t 2. James William. Naval History of Great Britain - Vol II Mutiny On Board The British Hermione 1797. Macmillan and Co., Limited. New York. 1902 Page 103. and Spinney. J.D. �The Hermione Mutiny�. Reprinted in, The Mariner�s Mirror Vol 41 No 1955 Page 123 M 3. Beatson, Robert. A Political Index to the histories of Great Britain and Ireland. A Complete Register. �Broke by a court martial, for treating his officers ill, and his crew with barbarity, in the West

Indies, he being then Captain of the HMS Superb 74 gun. Died June 2 1882 during a Sea Battle off the E East Indies�. Pages 328 and 342 4. Eder, Markus. Crime and Punishment in the Royal Navy of the Seven Years� War 1755-1763. �The P Patterns of Crime and Punishment� Page 99-116 5.

Articles of War. Appendix to this book. A

6. The Articles were originally established in the 1650s amended in 1749 (by an act of Parliament) and again in 1757. The 1757 Articles of War were based on the amended 1749. Anno Vicesimo Secundo G George II. 7. Hoare, Michael E. The Resolution Journal of Johann Forster 1772-1775 Hakluyt Society, London. 1982 Pages 329 Vol II page 514 n 1 8. Hoare, Michael E. The Resolution Journal of Johann Forster 1772-1775 Hakluyt Society, London. 1982 Pages 171-172 Vol II 1 9.

PRO Admin 51/4556/208 Summarised by Beaglehole Vol II page 136 P

10. Campbell, Gordon. Vice-Admiral V.C. D.S.O. �Captain James Cook R.N., F.R.S.� Hodder and Stoughton London 1936. Page 163 S 11. Edwards, Philip (Ed) Cook, James. �The Journals� from the original Manuscripts by J.C. Beaglehole for the Hakluyt Society 1955-67�. Penguin Books 2003 Page 254 P 12. Hoare, Michael E. The Resolution Journal of Johann Forster 1772-1775 Hakluyt Society, London. 1982 Vol II Page 256 1 13. Cook, James commander of the Resolution. A voyage towards the South Pole, and Round the World; Performed in his Majesty's ships the Resolution and Adventure, in the Years 1772, 73, 74, and 75. In which is included Captain Furneaux Narrative of his proceedings in the Adventure during the separation of the ships. Printed For W Strahan and T., Cadell in the Strand. London. 1777 Chapter IV C 14. John Martin, An Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands� from the extensive communications of Mr William Mariner (3rd ed., Edinburgh, 1827), II, Page 71�2. E 15. Edgar, Thomas. The Edgar Journal of Captain Cook�s Third Voyage 17761778. PRO 55/21 Public Records office London P 16. July 1773. J

Keplin was an A.B. Cooper tells us of the incident. Journals II, 19th

17. Edwards, Philip (Ed) original manuscrips by J. C. Penguin Books. 2003 Page 287 P

1956.

18.

Ibid I

Page 287

19.

Ibid I

Page 287

�James Cook. The Journals�. Prepared from the Beaglehole, for the Hakluyt Society 1955-67

20. Beaglehole, J. C. The Geographical Journal Vol CXXII Part 4th December On the Character of Captain James Cook - Marra Page 428 o

21. Holmes, Chritine (Editor) �Captain Cook�s Voyage: The Journal of Midshipman George Gilbert� Brian Clouston Trowbridge Wilts. UK 1982. Page 5 50 22. During the voyage, Lee was punished 3 times; on 11th September 1772 for insolence; on 22nd November 1773 for theft; and on 22nd February 1774 for drunkenness. He joined Cook on the Third V Voyage 23. Beaglehole describes �all that one could expect from the unhappy Loggie� Page 299 and 363-4 Beaglehole �The Life of Captain James Cook� (�This was one of the wild set, the unstable exasperating Loggie, who had already been sent before the mast and now, apparently in a drunken riot���, r 24. Ibid 26 July 1773) 2

Page 299 Pages 363-4 and Adm 51/4554/207 Journal 18th January to

25. 'Memoirs of The Early Life of John Elliott, of Elliott House, Near Ripon-Yorkshire, Esqre and, Lieut: of the Royal Navy: written by himself, at the request of his Wife, for the use, and amusement of his children only'. British Library collection (ADD 42714), f1b. John Elliott served as midshipman on board HMS 'Resolution' during Captain Cook's second voyage (1772-75). In his memoirs, he records the names of the officers and civilians on the Quarter deck of the Resolution.James Cook Esq. Captain Sober, brave, humane, and expert seaman and officer. Robert Palliser Cooper, 1st. Lieut. - Sober, steady good officer. Charles Clerke, 2nd Lieut. - A brave and good officer. and a genal favorite Richd. Pickersgill, 3rd. Lieut. - A good officer and astronomer, but liking ye Grog. John Gilbert, Master - A steady good officer Mr Patten, Surgeon - A steady clever man Mr Anderson, 1st Surgn. Mate - Ditto Mr Drawwater, 2nd Surgn. Mate - Ditto Mr Dawson, Scting Purser - Ditto in his situation Danl. Clark. Captns Clerk - Clever but liking grog Mr Forster, Botanist - A clever but a litigious quarelsome, fellow Mr Forster Jun., Botanist - A clever good young man Mr Sparrman, Asst. Botanist - Clever steady man Mr Hodges, Draftman - Clever good man Mr Wailes, Astronomer - An Able steady man Mr Gilpin, His assistant - A quiet young. man Mr Edgecomb, Lieut. Marines - A steady man and a good officer Isac Smith, Masters Mate - Clever and steady John Whitehouse, Masters Mate - Jesuitical, sensible but an insinuating litigious mischief making fellow Danial Burr, Masters Mate - Steady good officer Richd. Grindall, Midshipman - Steady clever young man Bowels Mitchell, Midshipman - Steady young man Henry Roberts, Midshipman - Very clever young man John Elliot, Midshipman - -----------------------Mr Harvery, Midshipman - Steady officer Alexander Hood, Midshipman - Clever steady young man Thomas Willis, Midshipman - Wild and drinking John Coglan, Midshipman - Ditto Ditto Charles Loggie, Midshipman - From misfort. drinking Charles Burney, Midshipman - Clever and Excentric

Mr Maxwill, �Mishipman� - An Charles Prices, Midshipman Richd. Colnett, Midshipman Mr Vancouver, Midshipman - A M

hypocritical canting fellow * Unsteady and drinking Clever and sober Quiet inoffensive Young man

* Uncertain if the author made a deliberate pun with �Mishipman� or this is an edited mistake. o 26. Beaglehole, J.C. �The Life of Captain Cook� Adam and Charles Black, London. 1974. It was on 2nd January that Cook at last lost patience in a matter of discipline and took the most unusual step he flogged a midshipman. Page 363 m 27.

Beaglehole, J.C. Ed James Cook's Journals.19th February 1774 B

28. Hoare, Michael E. The Resolution Journal of Johann Forster 1772-1775 Hakluyt Society, London. 1982 (Four Vols) Page Vol IV 610 1 29. Elliot Log Nov 23rd 1772 to March 3rd 1775. P.R.O. Admin 51/4556/208 and Beaglehole Vol 2 Page 1 136 30. Hoare, Michael E. The Resolution Journal of Johann Forster 1772-1775 Hakluyt Society, London. 1982 (Four Vols) Page Vol III Page 482 1 31.

Kitson, Arthur Title: �The Life of Captain James Cook� Chapter 13.7th

M May 32. Page 507n. P 33.

Hoare, Michael E. The Resolution Journal of Johann Forster 1772-1775 Ibid 513-514 Vol III I

34. �The Journals of Captain James Cook on his Voyages of Discovery: the voyage of the Resolution and Adventure 1772-1775�. vol. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and the Hakluyt Society. C 35.

Ibid 18th August 1774 I

36. Hoare, Michael E. The Resolution Journal of Johann Forster 1772-1775 Hakluy Society, London. 1982 (Four Vols) Page Vol III Page 389 1 37.

ibid Page 357. i

38.

Journals II, 576, n6. J

39. Beaglehole, J. C. �The Life of Captain James Cook� University Press, Stanford 1974 page 426 S 40.

Ibid Page 299 I

41.

Journals II 313 n1. Clerke and Elliott give us the fullest accounts. J

42. Earle, Alice Morse Curious Punishments of Bygone Days � Chapter I. �The Bilboes�. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Chicago, Ill., 1896 H 43.

Claver, Scott �Under The Lash�. Torchstream Books London, 1954. C

44.

Beaglehole, J.C. �The Death of Captain Cook�. Alexander Turnbull

Library, 1979. Page 296 L 45. Eder, Markus. Crime and Punishment in the Royal Navy of the Seven Years� War 1755-1763 �The Patterns of Crime and Punishment� Pages 114, 115 n 1 46. Beaglehole, J.C. �The Death of Captain Cook�. Alexander Turnbull Library, 1979. page 176 L Chapter 30. C

Thieving, a Pacific Island Way of Life.

0. Journal 1.Chapter 3 �Tahiti� Cook, James. Captain Cook's Journal, First Voyage 14th June 1763 V 1. Beaglehole, John.Cawte. �The Life of Captain James Cook�. XXI � New Zealand to Tonga�. Adam and Charles Black. London., 1974 Page 541 2. Beaglehole, John Cawte �The Death of Captain Cook�, an address. Published The Australian Journal of Science Vol 26 No 10 1964 page 5 o 1778.

3. Edgar, Thomas. The Edgar Journal of Captain Cook�s Third Voyage 1776PRO 55/21 Public Records office London. R

4. Cook, James. Captain Cook's Journal During the First Voyage Round the World. Hazlitt, William Carew, 1834-1913 [Editor]. Tahiti, Friday, 14th. Chapter 3 5. Ibid.Tahiti. Remarkable Occurrences, At George's Island. Chapter 3. I 5. Wharton, Captain W.J.L., R.N., F.R.S. Hydrographer of the Admiralty (Editor) �Captain Cook's Journal During His First Voyage Round the World made in H.M. Bark �Endeavour� 1768-71. A Literal Transcription of the Original MSS�. Elliot Stock, 62 Paternoster Row, London. 1893. June, 1 1769 6. Banks, Joseph. (Beaglehole, J.C. Editor) �The Endeavour Journal of Joseph Banks 1768-1771� [Volume One]. Angus and Robertson Limited, 1962 Page 289 P 7. 537-552). 5

Teuira, Henry. �Ancient Tahiti�

Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 1928, pp.

8. Cook, James Commander of the Resolution. �A Voyage Towards the South Pole, and Round the World; Performed in His Majesty's Ships the Resolution and Adventure, in the Years 1772, 3, 4, And 5. Written by James Cook. In which is included Captain Furneaux's Narrative of his Proceedings in the Adventure during the Separation of the Ships�. In Two Volumes. Vol.I, Book II: Chapter VII March 1774. C 9. Cook, James. The Voyages of Captain James Cook. In two vols. Published by W. Smith, 1842 Vol 1. Page 411. Forster writes in his Journal that Captain Cook went ashore for a �Heeva dance� Forster also states that Cook took off his shirt, let his hair flow and danced in a manner unexpected. t 10. Beckwith, Martha Hawaiian Mythology, Yale University Press. 1940. Chapter 3 �The God Lono� p. 31 C Chapter 31.

Cook�s

Mayhem and �Heevas� Continue

1.

Forster 566 F

2.

Ibid 569 I

3. Zealand to

IV

Beaglehole, John.Cawte. �The Life of Captain James Cook�. XXI � New Tonga�. Adam and Charles Black. London., 1974 Pages 397-398 T

4. Hoare, Michael E. The Resolution Journal of Johann Forster 1772-1775 Hakluyt Society, London. 1982 (Four Vols) Page Vol IV Page 570 1 5.

Ibid. Forster Journal Vol IV pp 49�51 I

6.

Ibid Vol III Page 504 I

Chapter 32. Third Voyage HM Sloop Resolution 1776 � 1780 C 1. Williams. Glyndwr. �Captain Cook�s Voyages 1768�1779�. The Folio Society, London, 1997 Wharton). Page 297-301 2.

ibid page 299 i

3.

ibid page 301 i

4.

ibid 301 i

5 Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. page lxvii C 6.

Ibid page xxlx I

7.

ibid page 1492 i

8. Beaglehole, J.C. The Life of Captain James Cook, Stanford University Press. California 1974 P 9. Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. page 1492 C 10.

Ibid 3rd Voyage. Samwill�s Journal Page 1101 I

11. Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. page 389 C 12.

Ibid page 389 I

13.

Ibid - Third Voyage Page 450-51 I

14.

ibid 474 n3 Black cat i

15.

Ibid � 474-5 n5 I

16.

ibid 474 i

17. Riou

Log HMS Guardian and other papers. . N.M.M London

C

18. Captain Riou� service record:www.angelfire.com/trek/guardian/images/service.htm w 19. 20.

I Ibid St Paul's Cathedral.

Chapter 33. C

The Authorized Guide. R E Thomas and Co 1902

James Cook�s Third Voyage

1 Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967.page ccxxc ccxiv. 2

Ibid, part two page 1486 (Feb 10th) I

3. Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. Pages 17-20 C 4.

ibid 266n i

5.

ibid 19-20

6.

Ibid Page 1199 6 I

7.

Ibid xcvi I

8.

Williamson�s Journal Page 1345 W

9.

Ibid xcvii I

10.

Samwell Journal page 995 S

11. Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. Page 59 & 17 2 1 4 465 13.

12.

Edwards P. James Cook. The Journals. Penguin Classics, London 2003 Page

Ibid page 878 I

14. Holmes, Christine (Editor) Captain Cooks Final Voyage : The Journal of Midshipman George Gilbert. Brian Clouston, Manuka, ACT 1982. G 15.

Edgar, Thomas. The Edgar Journals E

(ADM 55/21 PRO London M.S. London).

16. Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. Page 1030 P 17.

Ibid I

page 132 n

18. Ibid 132 n 19. Gananath Obeyesekere. �The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific� Princeton University Bishop Museum Press. 1992 Page 30

20. Headstone �To the Memory of Captain�s Mosse and Riou, voted by Parliament and executed by C. Rossi R.A.in 1805� R 21. Midshipman

Holmes, Christine (Editor) Captain Cooks Final Voyage : The Journal of George Gilbert. Brian Clouston, Manuka, ACT 1982. pages 46-47 G

22 Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. Page 228 and 32 n P 23.

Ibid 1383 236 n2 I

24

Ibid 1468 I

25.

Ibid 236 n1 I

26

Ibid 1771 I

27.

Ibid 238 I

28.

Ibid Page 244 I

29.

Ibid 266n I

30.

Ibid 1535 Dixon Library MSS CLB I

31.

Ibid 266 n I

32.

Ibid 1883 I

33.

Ibid page 237 I

n1

Chapter 34 Third Voyage - The Rate of Flogging Increases C 0. Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. Part two page 1464 p 1. Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society.Cambridge University Press, London 1967. Part one page 6 and 6 n n3 2. William Ellis, James Cook. An authentic narrative of a voyage performed by Captain Cook and Captain Clerke, in His Majesty's ships Resolution and Discovery during the years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779 and 1780: In Search of a North-West Passage Between the Continents of Asia and America : Including a Faithful Account of All ... Published by G. Robinson, 1783 Page 3 I 3. Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. Part two, Page 1464 P 4.

Ibid, part two page 1465

5.

Ibid, part two page 1463 I

6.

Ibid, part two page 1464 I

7.

Ibid, part two page 1467 I

8.

Ibid, part two page 1461 I

9.

Ibid I

Part one page 18 n

10. Journal of Captain Cook's Last Voyage, John Ledyard, James Kenneth Munford, Published by Oregon State University Press, 1964 Page xxviii S 11. Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. Part one, page 240n p 12.

Ibid part one, page 240 n3 I

13.

Ibid part one, page 48n and Letter Cook to Banks page 1521 I

14.

Ibid part one, page 1470 I

15.

Ibid part two, pages 1199-1200 I

16.

Ibid appendix V part two, page 1524 I

17.

Ibid I

18.

Ibid part two, pages 1469 and 1199 I

part page 148 n

19. Kitson, Arthur. �The Life of Captain James Cook. 1907. Gutenberg Press. Chapter sixteen C 20. Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London. 1967. Part one, page 51 n p 21.

Ibid part one, page 51 n I

22.

Ibid part one, pages xcvii I

23.

Ibid part two, page 995 I

24.

Ibid part two, page 1460 (12) I

25.

Ibid part one page 48n I

26.

Ibid part one page I

and 58 n

97 n

27. 1797�. 1

Manley, David �The Battle of Camperdown, (Kamperduin), 11 October

28. 1797�. 1

Manley, David �The Battle of Camperdown, (Kamperduin), 11 October

29.

Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The

Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London . 1967. Part two, page 1 1464 30.

Ibid part two, page 1465 I

31.

Ibid part two, page 1469 I

32.

Part two, page Page 465 P

33. Dana, Richard Henry Jr.�(1815-1882).���Two Years before the Mast�. The Harvard Classics.��1909�14. Chapter III �Ship�s Duties�Tropics C 34. Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. Part two, page page 866. p 35.

Ibid part one, page 111 n I

36.

Ibid part two, page 1080 I

37.

Ibid part one, page 111-112 n I

38. Salmond, Anne. �The Trial of the Cannibal Dog�. Yale University Press New Haven. 2003 page 436 N 39.

ibid part two, page 1464 i

40. Holmes, Christine (Editor) �Captain Cook�s Final Voyage : The Journal of Midshipman George Gilbert�. Brian Clouston, Manuka ACT 1982. Page 33 G 41. Gananath Obeyesekere. �The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific�. Princeton University Bishop Museum Press. 1992 Page 30 1 42.

I Ibid

43.

i ibid

44. Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. Part two, page 1 1461-1462 45.

Ibid part two, page 1464 I

46. Gananath Obeyesekere. �The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific� Princeton University Bishop Museum Press. 1992 Page 30 1 47.

ibid page 30 i

48. Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. Part two, page 48 n p 49. Gananath Obeyesekere. �The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific� Princeton University Bishop Museum Press.

1992 Page 30 1 50.

ibid page 30 i

51.

ibid page 30 PRO 55/21 i

52. Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. Part two, page 1 1469 53.

Ibid part two, page 1470 I

54.

Ibid part two, page 1466 I

55.

Ibid part two, page 1470 I

56.

Ibid part two, page 1469 I

57.

Ibid part two, page 1469 I

58.

Ibid part two, page 1345 I

59.

Ibid part two, page 1345 I

60.

Ibid part two, page 1345 I

61.

Ibid part two, page 1345 I

62. Gananath Obeyesekere. �The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific� Princeton University Bishop Museum Press. 1992 Page 160 1 63. Williams, Glyndwr (Ed) �Captain Cook Voyages 1768-1779� Society, London 1997. VIII, P Page 463 64. 1964 �The Death of Captain Cook�. An address. of Science Vol 26 No 10. page 296 p

The Folio

The Australian Journal

65. Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. Part two, page 1 1383 66. �Aikane�- Male companion but more specifically a sodomite, (Glossary) Williams, Glyndwr. �Captain Cook�s Voyages 1768-1779�. Folio Society 1997 C 67. Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. Part one, page 714 and 714n a 68. Beaglehole, J. C. �The Life of Captain James Cook� Published by Stanford University Press, 1992. P Page 685 69. James Cook, John Cawte Beaglehole, Raleigh Ashlin Skelton �The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery� By Published by Published for the Hakluyt Society at the University Press, 1955 page 243n 2 P 70.

Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The

Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967.Part two page 1075 C 71.

Ibid part one, page 236 I

72. Williams, Glyndwr (Ed) �Captain Cook Voyages 1768-1779� The Folio Society, London 1997. VIII, Page 387 73.

Ibid 388 I

74. Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. Part two page 1479 C 75. Page 103 Cook, James. �A voyage to the Pacific ocean. Undertaken, by the command of His Majesty, for making discoveries in the Northern hemisphere, to determine the position and extent of the west side of North America; its distance from Asia; and the practicability of a northern passage to Europe. Performed under the direction of Captains Cook, Clerke, and Gore, in His Majesty's ships the Resolution and Discovery, in the years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779, and 1780� Publisher: London, W. and A. Strahan, for G. Nicol, and T. Cadell 1784 f 76. Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. Part one, page 2 238n 77.

Ibid, part one, page 238 n I

78.

Ibid, part one, page 238 n 1 I

79.

Ibid, part one, page I

80.

Ibid, part two, page 1702 I

238 n

81. Beaglehole, J. C. �The Life of Captain James Cook - Samwell�s Journal� Published by Stanford U University Press, 1992, pages cliii-clv, 238n 82.

Ibid part one, page 238 n I

83.

Ibid part one, page 240 n I

84.

Ibid part one, page 266 n I

85.

Ibid part one, page 266 n I

86.

Ibid part one, page 266 n I

87.

Ibid part one, page 266 n I

88.

Ibid part two, page 1469 I

89.

Ibid part two, page 1476 I

90. Beaglehole, J. C. �The Life of Captain James Cook - Samwell�s Journal� Published by Stanford University Press, 1992 Page 1347-1348 P 91.

Edwards, Philip. (Ed) Cook, James. �The Journals� Penguin Books 2003

Page 532 P 92. Beaglehole, J. C. �The Life of Captain James Cook - Samwell�s Journal� Published by Stanford University Press, 1992 1082-1084 P 93. Page 533 P

Edwards, Philip. (Ed) Cook, James. �The Journals� Penguin Books 2003

94. Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. Part two, page 1467 C 95.

Ibid, part two, page 1478 I

96.

Ibid, part one, page 511n2 I

97.

Ibid, part two, page 1467 I

98.

Ibid, part two, page 1467 I

99.

Ibid, part two, page 1463 I

100.

Ibid, part two, page 1468 I

101.

Ibid, part two, page 1463 I

102.

Ibid, part two, page 1462 I

103.

Ibid, part two, page 1469 I

104.

Ibid, part two, page 188-189 I

105. Beaglehole, J.C. �The Life of Captain James Cook� Published by Stanford University Press, 1992 page 642 p

109.

106.

Ibid, part one, page 480-481 n I

107.

Ibid, part one, page 480-481 n I

108.

Ibid, part one, page 480n I

Ibid, part one, page 511n I

110. Ibid, part one, page 266n 1 111.

Ibid, part one, page 649 I

112.

Ibid, part one, page 1466 I

113.

Ibid, part one, page 1463 I

114.

Ibid, part one, page 1469 I 115.

Ibid, part one, page 1460 I

116. Beaglehole, John Cawte �The Death of Captain Cook� Alexander Turnbull Library, 1979. Page 295 L

117. Barrow, John F.R.S., F.S.A. Captain Cook�s Voyages of Discovery. J.M. Dent, London, 1906 reprinted 1954. Page 306 r 118 Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. Part one, page 233 n4 p 119.

Ibid page 239 I

120.

ibid Page 238 i

121. Edwards, Philip. (Ed) Cook, James. �The Journals� Penguin Books 2003 Page 532 & page 595 P 122. Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. Part one, page 480n P 123. 124. Page 532 P

Ibid page 265 I Edwards, Philip. (Ed) Cook, James. �The Journals� Penguin Books 2003

125. Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press,London 1967. Part two, page 5 5112n 126.

Ibid part one, page 266n I

127.

Ibid part one, page 266 n I

128.

Ibid part one, page 511 n2 I

129.

Ibid part one, page 486 n3 I

130.

Ibid part one, pages 529-30 I

131.

Edwards, Philip. �James Cook, The Journals� Penguin Books 2003 page 609 E

Chapter 35. The Death of James Cook. C 1. Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of theResolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. Part one,page 5 516 2.

Ibid part one, page 516 I

3.

Ibid part two, page 1172 and part one page 516 I

4.

Ibid part, one pages 527-528 I

5.

Ibid part one, page 533 I

6.

Ibid page part one, 549 n I

7.

Ibid part one (Ellis Assistant Surgeon) cxlix n I

8.

Ibid page part one, page 536

I

9. October 1797�. O

Manley, David, �The Battle of Camperdown, (Kamperduin), 11th 1

10 Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. Part one pages 536 � 537 n 5 11.

Ibid, page 541 I

12.

Ibid page 542 I

13.

Ibid page 1211 I

14. Kitson, Arthur. �The Life of Captain James Cook the London, John Murray, 1912. Page 150 III L

Circumnavigator�

15. Beaglehole. J.C. (Editor) �The Journals of Captain James Cook � The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780�, Hakluyt Society. Cambridge University Press, London 1967. Part one page 545 and 558 L Chapter 36 C

HM Sloop Resolution and the French

1. Lyon, David, The Sailing Navy list. All the Ships of the Royal Navy Built, Purchased and Captured 1688-1860. Conway Maritime Press. 1993. �Storeship Resolution� Page 213 R 2. Suffren, de. M. Le Commandeur. �Relation D�taill�� de la Campagne, de Suffren Dans L�Inde 1 er Jnin 1732 au 29 Septembre fuivant�. Port Louis, MDCCLXXXIIL. Cornmarket Press Reprint. Page 8 C 3. Pasquier, Thierry du, Les Baleiniers Francais de Louis XVI A Napoleon. Henri Veyrier, Kronos. Paris 1990 Pages 38, 40, 42, 45, 69, 127, 142; H 4.

Ibid pages 184-185 I

5.

Ibid �Liberte� pages 186-87 I

6. Cadell

Barrow, John A Voyage to Cochinchina in the Years 1872 and 1793 London. and Davies 1806 p 63-65

7. Connell, Michael and Liddy, Desmond. �The Great Circle� Vol 19, No 1 1997 �Cook�s Endeavour Bark : Did this vessel End its Days in Newport, Rhode Island�. Pages 40-49 I 8 Flemming Fergus. �Barrow's Boys: A Stirring Story of Daring, Fortitude, and Outright Lunacy� Granta Books, London 2000 G 9. Barrow, John A Voyage to Cochinchina in the Years 1872 and 1793 London.Cadell and Davies 1806 p 63-65 10. Suffren, de. M. Le Commandeur. �Relation D�taill�� de la Campagne, de Suffren Dans L�Inde 1 er Jnin 1732 au 29 Septembre fuivant�. Port Louis, MDCC LXXXIIL Cornmarket Press Reprint. Page 8

11.

Boston Evening Transcript 14th August 1834 B

Chapter 32. Third Voyage HM Sloop Resolution 1776 � 1780 C 1. Hartig, O. John and Sebastian Cabot. The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company (1908). C 2. Hartig, O. John and Sebastian Cabot. The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. (1908). A 3. Bown, Stephen R. �Scurvy � How a Surgeon, a Mariner and a Gentleman solved the greatest Medical Mystery of the Age of Sail�. Summersdale Chicester UK 2003. Pages 38-42. C 4 Quinn. D.B. �The Voyages and Colonizing Enterprises of Sir Humphrey Gilbert�. Oxford University Press for London: Hakluyt Society, U 5.

I Ibid

6. Best, George. �The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, in Search of a Passage to Cathay and India by the North-West, AD 1576-8�. Facsimile of the Hakluyt original. Published by Adamant Media Corporation, 2001 Page 46 M 7. 2007 1st

Davis, John. �The Worldes Hydrographical Discription� eBooks@Adelaide. V Voyage

8

Ibid I

2nd Voyage

9.

Ibid 3rd Voyage. 182. I

10. Read, John, Meredith. �A Historical Inquiry Concerning Henry Hudson, His Friends, Relatives and ...� Historical Society of Delaware - Merchants 1866 First Voyage Page 3 11.

Ibid - Second Voyage Pages 12, 31, 56 I

12.

Ibid - Third Voyage Page 181 I

13. Dunmore, John Vitus Bering: Who�s Who in Pacific Navigation. Melbourne University Press, Victoria 1991. Pages 20-24 V 14.

Ibid - Bodega. Page 31-32 I

15. Fanthorpe, Patricia and Fanthorp, Lionel. Unsolved Mysteries of the Sea. Published by Dundurn Press Ltd., 2004. Page 81 L 16. Amundsen, Roald. �The North West Passage Being the Record of a Voyage of Exploration of the Ship �Gj�a� 1903-1907 Supplement by First Lieutenant Hansen, Vice-Commander of the Expedition . London: Archibald Constable and Company Limited, 1908. a 17. Dunmore, John Beechey : Who�s Who in Pacific Navigation. Melbourne University Press, Victoria 1991. Pages 17-18 1 18.

McGoogan, Ken. �Fatal Passage: The Untold Story of

John Rae, the

Arctic Adventurer Who Harper, Canada 2001. H

Discovered the Fate of Franklin�.

19. McClure, Sir Robert John Le Mesurier The Discovery of the North West Passage By HMS Investigator Capt. R. M'Clure, 1850, 1851, 1852, 1853, 1854. Edited By Captain Sherard Osborn, C. B. Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans and Roberts London, 1856 L 20. S. S. Manhattan National Geographic (March, 1970),� The Lamp (Spring, 1970), American Society for Engineering Education Annual Meeting, June 21-24, 1971. J 21. 1990

Family records of Staff Sergeant John Friederich R.C.M.P. 1914-

h http://www.pbase.com/rocketman2002ca/image/78175245

Chapter 33 - The Structure of the Royal Navy in James Cook�s time C 1. Lewis, Michael. Professor of History, Royal Naval College, Greenwich. �The Navy of Britain A Historical Portrait� George Allen Unwin, London. 1948. Pages 377-385 L 2.

Ibid 383 I

3.

Barrow, Sir John - Encyclop�dia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. B

4.

I Ibid

5. Lewis, Michael. Professor of History, Royal Naval College, Greenwich. �The Navy of Britain A Historical Portrait� George Allen Unwin, London. 1948. Pages 355-56 L 6. Hill, J. R. (Editor) �The Oxford Illustrated History of the Royal Navy�. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK 1995. Page 121and 141 O

? ?? ? ?? ? ?? ? ?? A Look on the Dark Side of James Cook 1 4 471