Conservation Biology

The Urban Forest and Water Conservation Trees are an important part of the water and energy conservation strategy. May 24, 2001 William Rutherford, Salt Lake City Forester Trees are an important part of Salt Lake City’s environs and quality of life.

Water is a vital constituent of a tree’s physical, chemical and biological make-up. Applied in too little or too great a quantity it can limit or irreparably alter tree health and value. Requirements for water vary by tree species, size, location, setting, season and weather.

An issue of immense importance related to planning, development and stewardship of green space is availability and conservation of water. Protecting water is not only sensible – it’s essential. However, we must also understand, protect and propagate elements of the ecosystem to which watersheds are linked and upon which they depend. Trees are such an element -- favorably affecting hydrological processes and water quality in many ways. Trees facilitate more rapid absorption and capture of water in the soil. Where trees grow only 4% of annual precipitation is lost to surface runoff. In contrast, soils without trees absorb and capture less total volume of water and lose nearly 35% to surface runoff. Effectiveness of reducing runoff and increasing infiltration are influenced by soil properties, topography, kind and duration of precipitation and plant cover. In the tree phylum, conifers generally do a better job in this regard than broadleaf deciduous trees. According to the United States Department of Agriculture the nation loses more than 5 billion tons of soil annually to erosion. Scientists determined the problem is more severe in developed urban areas than on forested land. The absence or removal of trees is a major factor. The result is sedimentation of waterways, degradation of water quality and reduction of watershed storage capacity. In addition to protecting water availability and quality, trees can offset the demand for irrigation of urban landscapes. A case in point is turf grass -- water consumption of turf can be reduced by 20% where covered by shade trees. Shade from mature trees does far more than reduce water demand of landscape plants. Recently NASA completed an evaluation of Salt Lake City’s heat profile. One of the reports most prominent recommendations was to plant more trees. The benefits from doing so are not limited to cooler and cleaner air, but have a direct bearing on water conservancy as well. Air temperature near soil surfaces that are not sheltered by trees can be 20 to 30 degrees Fahrenheit warmer than the surrounding air. This not only increases soil temperature and reduces moisture content, but also impedes recovery from drying out and reduces viability of the soil to support plant material.

Tree lined residential streets shade outdoor landscapes, saving irrigation water and indoor energy costs.

Unfavorable differentials in air temperature can be even greater for surfaces such as concrete, asphalt and steel (not uncommon in urban areas) that absorb and radiate heat back into the atmosphere. The result is higher air temperatures during the day and slower cooling at night.

Covered by trees, heat absorption by the soil is reduced. The results are more stable soil moisture levels, less extreme air temperature and moderation of heat related air pollution such as low level ozone. In addition, where soil temperature is cooler than surrounding air temperature water vapor contained in the air can penetrate the soil condense, and be conserved. There is no question trees use water. A more important question would seem to be do we stop planting trees for this reason or do we recognize the invaluable contributions trees make to water conservancy and to the health and well being of our city’s environment. Water usage can be controlled by wise species selection, improved planting practices and careful irrigation methods and schedules. Benefits lost by not planting trees in our neighborhoods would not be so easily addressed. Questions about trees and water conservation can be directed to: [email protected] Suggestions for care of newly planted trees:

Trees in the downtown business sector of the city provide beauty, shade and coolness.

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Place water hose emitter on the surface of the root ball but not directly beside the trunk. Adjust water output to very low. There should be no water loss to runoff. Water once per week in the spring and no more than twice per week in the summer. Watering time should not exceed twenty minutes.

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Keep turf as far removed from the stem of the trees as landscape use allows. A 3 to 4 inch layer of bark mulch spread over the surface of the root ball is recommend as replacement for turf. Mulch should not make contact with the trunk.

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Contrary to popular opinion, most newly planted trees do not require soil fertilization or extensive pruning when planted.

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Use caution whenever applying herbicides. Young and old trees alike can be damaged or killed by unintended exposure to chemicals.

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Avoid attaching wires, screws, nails and other object to trees.

Water conservation Our ancient religious texts and epics give a good insight into the water storage and conservation systems that prevailed in those days. Over the years rising populations, growing industrialization, and expanding agriculture have pushed up the demand for water. Efforts have been made to collect water by building dams and reservoirs and digging wells; some countries have also tried to recycle and desalinate (remove salts) water. Water conservation has become the need of the day. The idea of ground water recharging by harvesting rainwater is gaining importance in many cities. In the forests, water seeps gently into the ground as vegetation breaks the fall. This groundwater in turn feeds wells, lakes, and rivers. Protecting forests means protecting water 'catchments'. In ancient India, people believed that forests were the 'mothers' of rivers and worshipped the sources of these water bodies. Some ancient Indian methods of water conservation The Indus Valley Civilization, that flourished along the banks of the river Indus and other parts of western and northern India about 5,000 years ago, had one of the most sophisticated urban water supply and sewage systems in the world. The fact that the people were well acquainted with hygiene can be seen from the covered drains running beneath the streets of the ruins at both Mohenjodaro and Harappa. Another very good example is the well-planned city of Dholavira, on Khadir Bet, a low plateau in the Rann in Gujarat. One of the oldest water harvesting systems is found about 130 km from Pune along Naneghat in the Western Ghats. A large number of tanks were cut in the rocks to provide drinking water to tradesmen who used to travel along this ancient trade route. Each fort in the area had its own water harvesting and storage system in the form of rock-cut cisterns, ponds, tanks and wells that are still in use today. A large number of forts like Raigad had tanks that supplied water. In ancient times, houses in parts of western Rajasthan were built so that each had a rooftop water harvesting system. Rainwater from these rooftops was directed into underground tanks. This system can be seen even today in all the forts, palaces and houses of the region. Underground baked earthen pipes and tunnels to maintain the flow of water and to transport it to distant places, are still functional at Burhanpur in Madhya Pradesh, Golkunda and Bijapur in Karnataka, and Aurangabad in Maharashtra. Rainwater harvesting In urban areas, the construction of houses, footpaths and roads has left little exposed earth for water to soak in. In parts of the rural areas of India, floodwater quickly flows to the rivers, which then dry up soon after the rains stop. If this water can be held back, it can seep into the ground and recharge the groundwater supply. This has become a very popular method of conserving water especially in the urban areas. Rainwater harvesting essentially means collecting rainwater on the roofs of building and storing it underground for later use. Not only does this recharging arrest groundwater depletion, it also raises the declining water table and can help augment water supply. Rainwater harvesting and artificial recharging are becoming very important issues. It is essential to stop the decline in groundwater levels, arrest sea-water ingress, i.e. prevent seawater from moving landward, and conserve surface water run-off during the rainy season. Town planners and civic authority in many cities in India are introducing bylaws making rainwater harvesting compulsory in all new structures. No water or sewage connection would be given if a new building did not have provisions for rainwater harvesting. Such rules should also be implemented in all the other cities to ensure a rise in the groundwater level. Realizing the importance of recharging groundwater, the CGWB (Central Ground Water Board) is taking steps to encourage it through rainwater harvesting in the capital and elsewhere. A number of government buildings have been asked to go in for water harvesting in Delhi and other cities of India. All you need for a water harvesting system is rain, and a place to collect it! Typically, rain is collected on rooftops and other surfaces, and the water is carried down to where it can be used immediately or stored. You can direct water run-off from this surface to plants, trees or lawns or even to the aquifer.

Some of the benefits of rainwater harvesting are as follows Increases water availability Checks the declining water table Is environmentally friendly Improves the quality of groundwater through the dilution of fluoride, nitrate, and salinity Prevents soil erosion and flooding especially in urban areas Rainwater harvesting: a success story Once Cherrapunji was famous because it received the largest volume of rainfall in the world It still does but ironically, experiences acute water shortages. This is mainly the result of extensive deforestation and because proper methods of conserving rainwater are not used. There has been extensive soil erosion and often, despite the heavy rainfall and its location in the green hills of Meghalaya, one can see stretches of hillside devoid of trees and greenery. People have to walk long distances to collect water. In the area surrounding the River Ruparel in Rajasthan, the story is different - this is an example of proper water conservation. The site does not receive even half the rainfall received by Cherrapunji, but proper management and conservation have meant that more water is available than in Cherrapunji. The water level in the river began declining due to extensive deforestation and agricultural activities along the banks and, by the 1980s, a drought-like situation began to spread. Under the guidance of some NGOs (non-government organizations), the women living in the area were encouraged to take the initiative in building johads (round ponds) and dams to hold back rainwater. Gradually, water began coming back as proper methods of conserving and harvesting rainwater were followed. The revival of the river has transformed the ecology of the place and the lives of the people living along its banks. Their relationship with their natural environment has been strengthened. It has proved that humankind is not the master of the environment, but a part of it. If human beings put in an effort, the damage caused by us can be undone. Agriculture Conservation of water in the agricultural sector is essential since water is necessary for the growth of plants and crops. A depleting water table and a rise in salinity due to overuse of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has made matters serious. Various methods of water harvesting and recharging have been and are being applied all over the world to tackle the problem. In areas where rainfall is low and water is scarce, the local people have used simple techniques that are suited to their region and reduce the demand for water. In India's arid and semi-arid areas, the 'tank' system is traditionally the backbone of agricultural production. Tanks are constructed either by bunding or by excavating the ground and collecting rainwater. Rajasthan, located in the Great Indian Desert, receives hardly any rainfall, but people have adapted to the harsh conditions by collecting whatever rain falls. Large bunds to create reservoirs known as khadin, dams called johads, tanks, and other methods were applied to check water flow and accumulate run-off. At the end of the monsoon season, water from these structures was used to cultivate crops. Similar systems were developed in other parts of the country. These are known by various local names ¾ jal talais in Uttar Pradesh, the haveli system in Madhya Pradesh, ahar in Bihar, and so on. Reducing water demand Simple techniques can be used to reduce the demand for water. The underlying principle is that only part of the rainfall or irrigation water is taken up by plants, the rest percolates into the deep groundwater, or is lost by evaporation from the surface. Therefore, by improving the efficiency of water use, and by reducing its loss due to evaporation, we can reduce water demand. There are numerous methods to reduce such losses and to improve soil moisture. Some of them are listed below. Mulching, i.e., the application of organic or inorganic material such as plant debris, compost, etc., slows down the surface run-off, improves the soil moisture, reduces evaporation losses and improves soil fertility. Soil covered by crops, slows down run-off and minimizes evaporation losses. Hence, fields should not be left bare for long periods of time. Ploughing helps to move the soil around. As a consequence it retains more water thereby reducing evaporation. Shelter belts of trees and bushes along the edge of agricultural fields slow down the wind speed and reduce evaporation and erosion. Planting of trees, grass, and bushes breaks the force of rain and helps rainwater penetrate the soil. Fog and dew contain substantial amounts of water that can be used directly by adapted plant species. Artificial surfaces such as

netting-surfaced traps or polyethylene sheets can be exposed to fog and dew. The resulting water can be used for crops. Contour farming is adopted in hilly areas and in lowland areas for paddy fields. Farmers recognize the efficiency of contour-based systems for conserving soil and water. Salt-resistant varieties of crops have also been developed recently. Because these grow in saline areas, overall agricultural productivity is increased without making additional demands on freshwater sources. Thus, this is a good water conservation strategy. Transfer of water from surplus areas to deficit areas by inter-linking water systems through canals, etc. Desalination technologies such as distillation, electro-dialysis and reverse osmosis are available. Use of efficient watering systems such as drip irrigation and sprinklers will reduce the water consumption by plants. Water conservation The most important step in the direction of finding solutions to issues of water and environmental conservation is to change people's attitudes and habits¾this includes each one of us. Conserve water because it is the right thing to do. We can follow some of the simple things that have been listed below and contribute to water conservation. Try to do one thing each day that will result in saving water. Don't worry if the savings are minimal¾every drop counts! You can make a difference. Remember to use only the amount you actually need. Form a group of water-conscious people and encourage your friends and neighbours to be part of this group. Promote water conservation in community newsletters and on bulletin boards. Encourage your friends, neighbours and co-workers to also contribute. Encourage your family to keep looking for new ways to conserve water in and around your home. Make sure that your home is leak-free. Many homes have leaking pipes that go unnoticed. Do not leave the tap running while you are brushing your teeth or soaping your face. See that there are no leaks in the toilet tank. You can check this by adding colour to the tank. If there is a leak, colour will appear in the toilet bowl within 30 minutes. (Flush as soon as the test is done, since food colouring may stain the tank.) Avoid flushing the toilet unnecessarily. Put a brick or any other device that occupies space to cut down on the amount of water needed for each flush. When washing the car, use water from a bucket and not a hosepipe. Do not throw away water that has been used for washing vegetables, rice or dals¾use it to water plants or to clean the floors, etc You can store water in a variety of ways. A simple method is to place a drum on a raised platform directly under the rainwater collection source. You can also collect water in a bucket during the rainy season

Conservation movement From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search "Conservationist" redirects here. For the 1974 novel by Nadine Gordimer, see The Conservationist. Not to be confused with Conservatism.

The High Peaks Wilderness Area in the 6,000,000-acre (24,000 km2) Adirondack Park is a publicly-protected area located in northeast New York.

Much attention has been given to preserving the natural characteristics of Hopetoun Falls, Australia, while allowing ample access for visitors. The conservation of forests also known as nature conservation is a political and social movement that seeks to protect natural resources including plant and animal species as well as their habitat for the future. The early conservation movement included fisheries and wildlife management, water, soil conservation and sustainable forestry. The contemporary conservation movement has broadened from the early movement's emphasis on use of sustainable yield of natural resources and preservation of wilderness areas to include preservation of biodiversity. Some say the conservation movement is part of the broader and more far-reaching environmental movement, while others argue that they differ both in ideology and practice. Chiefly in the United States, conservation is seen as differing from environmentalism in that it aims to preserve natural resources expressly for their continued sustainable use by humans.[1] In

other parts of the world conservation is used more broadly to include the setting aside of natural areas and the active protection of wildlife for their inherent value, as much as for any value they may have for humans.

Contents [hide] •

1 History

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2 Areas of concern ○

2.1 Boreal forest and the Arctic

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2.2 Latin America (Bolivia)

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2.3 Africa (Botswana)

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3 See also

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4 References

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5 Further reading

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6 External links

[edit] History See also: Timeline of environmental events

F. V. Hayden's map of Yellowstone National Park, 1871. The nascent conservation movement slowly developed in the 19th century, starting first in the scientific forestry methods pioneered by the Germans and the French in the 17th and 18th centuries. While continental Europe created the scientific methods later used in conservationist efforts, British India and the United States are credited with starting the conservation movement. Foresters in India, often German, managed forests using early climate change theories (in America, see also, George Perkins Marsh) that Alexander von Humboldt developed in the mid 19th century, applied fire protection, and tried to keep the "house-hold" of nature. This was an early ecological idea, in order to preserve the growth of delicate teak trees. The same German foresters who headed the Forest Service of India, such as Dietrich Brandis and Berthold Ribbentrop, traveled back to Europe and taught at forestry schools in England (Cooper's Hill, later moved to Oxford). These men brought with them the legislative and scientific knowledge of conservationism in British India back to Europe, where they distributed it to men such as Gifford Pinchot, which in turn helped bring European and British Indian methods to the United States.

[edit] Areas of concern Deforestation and overpopulation are issues affecting all regions of the world. The consequent destruction of wildlife habitat has prompted the creation of conservation groups in other countries, some founded by local hunters who have

witnessed declining wildlife populations first hand. Also, it was highly important for the conservation movement to solve problems of living conditions in the cities and the overpopulation of such places.

[edit] Boreal forest and the Arctic The idea of incentive conservation is a modern one but its practice has clearly defended some of the sub Arctic wildernesses and the wildlife in those regions for thousands of years, especially by indigenous peoples such as the Evenk, Yakut, Sami, Inuit and Cree. The fur trade and hunting by these peoples have preserved these regions for thousands of years. Ironically, the pressure now upon them comes from non-renewable resources such as oil, sometimes to make synthetic clothing which is advocated as a humane substitute for fur. (See Raccoon Dog for case study of the conservation of an animal through fur trade.) Similarly, in the case of the beaver, hunting and fur trade were thought to bring about the animal's demise, when in fact they were an integral part of its conservation. For many years children's books stated and still do, that the decline in the beaver population was due to the fur trade. In reality however, the decline in beaver numbers was because of habitat destruction and deforestation, as well as its continued persecution as a pest (it causes flooding). In Cree lands however, where the population valued the animal for meat and fur, it continued to thrive. The Inuit defend their relationship with the seal in response to outside critics.[2] In other regions of the Arctic, the Sami in Scandinavia, Russia and the Evenk in Siberia, indigenous peoples and their traditional hunting and fur trade are making a clear stand against the more "modern" resource exploitation{[3]}In Canada the Boreal Forest Conservation Framework is a multi-stakeholder initiative, which includes the Aboriginal peoples in the Canadian north. Eighty percent of the world's furs are produced in these regions either through farming by groups such as SAGA or 22% by indigenous peoples. Fur and hunting it appears, as indeed Greenpeace are finding out in the Sami forests, is an economic barrier to development, deforestation etc. The WWF has established areas of traditional hunting and animal use in Siberia and these sable reserves are clearly based on the principles of "incentive conservation".[4]

[edit] Latin America (Bolivia) The Izoceño-Guaraní of Santa Cruz, Bolivia is a tribe of hunters who were influential in establishing the Capitania del Alto y Bajo Isoso (CABI). CABI promotes economic growth and survival of the Izoceno people while discouraging the rapid destruction of habitat within Bolivia's Gran Chaco. They are responsible for the creation of the 34,000 square kilometre Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park and Integrated Management Area (KINP). The KINP protects the most biodiverse portion of the Gran Chaco, an ecoregion shared with Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil. In 1996, the Wildlife Conservation Society joined forces with CABI to institute wildlife and hunting monitoring programs in 23 Izoceño communities. The partnership combines traditional beliefs and local knowledge with the political and administrative tools needed to effectively manage habitats. The programs rely solely on voluntary participation by local hunters who perform selfmonitoring techniques and keep records of their hunts. The information obtained by the hunters participating in the program has provided CABI with important data required to make educated decisions about the use of the land. Hunters have been willing participants in this program because of pride in their traditional activities, encouragement by their communities and expectations of benefits to the area. Because of their spiritual beliefs, many hunters indigenous to this area used conservative approaches to hunting even before population declines were noted. Common self-imposed conservation techniques followed by this tribe include seasonal rotation of hunting areas; not hunting young animals; not hunting excessively beyond the needs of ones family; not hunting vulnerable species; and the substitution of other activities during certain seasons (fishing/farming).

[edit] Africa (Botswana) In order to discourage illegal South African hunting parties and ensure future local use and sustainability, indigenous hunters in Botswana began lobbying for and implementing conservation practices in the 1960s. The Fauna Preservation Society of Ngamiland (FPS) was formed in 1962 by the husband and wife team: Robert Kay and June Kay, environmentalists working in conjunction with the Batawana tribes to preserve wildlife habitat. The FPS promotes habitat conservation and provides local education for preservation of wildlife. Conservation initiatives were met with strong opposition from the Botswana government because of the monies tied to big-game hunting. In 1963, BaTawanga Chiefs and tribal hunter/adventurers in conjunction with the FPS founded Moremi National Park and Wildlife Refuge, the first area to be set aside by tribal people rather than governmental forces. Moremi National Park is home to a variety of wildlife, including lions, giraffes, elephants, buffalo, zebra, cheetahs and antelope, and covers an area of 3,000 square kilometers. Most of the groups involved with establishing this protected land were involved with hunting and were motivated by their personal observations of declining wildlife and habitat.

Forestry and Biodiversity Conservation and Management Latin America has about one quarter of the world's existing forests and more than half of its tropical forests, which contain a wealth of products that are in growing demand, including local and global environmental benefits. The Bank's forest policy, approved 1991, was the result of a long process of consultation that took place between 1981 and 1992. The policy is relatively broad, allowing a spectrum of activities such as institutional strengthening and research, alongside investments in forest conservation, rehabilitation of degraded natural forests, agroforestry, reforestation and appropriate use of products and services from sustainably managed forests. Current priority areas of action include the analysis of sectoral policies (especially in agriculture and rural development) that affect the protection and sustainable management of forest resources; the generation of innovative approaches to rural development in tropical forest areas that lead to sustainability and curb deforestation; the preparation of a strategy and Bank guidelines for urban greening; the evaluation of financial mechanisms in reforestation programs; and support for the identification of appropriate technologies in natural forest management and agroforestry systems in Bank programs. Biodiversity's relevance for the survival of indigenous peoples and for those who depend upon wildland resources is well known. New uses or applications adopted from indigenous knowledge of wild plants and animals, are entering a growing market in essential oils, natural pesticides, wild fibers, latex products, pharmaceuticals and veterinary products, ornamental plants and exotic fruits. At the same time, growing interest in visiting wildland areas, from rain forests to Patagonian glaciers, is fueling an expanding ecotourism industry, providing a source of revenue for rural communities and a potential ingredient for sustainable development strategies. While much biological diversity can be conserved within parks and reserves, the ecology of many plants and animals requires that they be maintained beyond the boundaries of established protected areas. The Bank will support the consolidation of national systems of protected areas, helping the countries of the region to establish management and financing arrangements that ensure effective long-term protection, and at the same time make biodiversity an integral element of rural development initiatives. To attain these objectives, the Division will (i) explore new avenues for technical support and investment in biodiversity conservation and rational utilization; (ii) support initiatives that link the stewardship of biological resources with the cultural heritage of native peoples; (iii) promote the development of ecotourism tied to the management of protected areas as an integral component of sustainable development efforts; (iv) integrate biodiversity assessment in project design and execution, and (v) support interinstitutional cooperation leading to the implementation of the Biodiversity Convention, the revitalization of the Western Hemisphere Convention and the achievement of the objectives of international agreements designed to preserve the natural and cultural heritage of Latin America and Caribbean.