Community Development

Community Development William Allan Kritsonis, PhD According to the professor, the most important areas to study for the Comprehensive Exam in the area of Community Development are those included in the study guides that the class received in preparation for the class tests. In addition, the following questions and areas are emphasized as potential questions. Additional questions are added from the study guide after the special emphasis areas. Potential Questions with Special Emphasis 1. Compare and contrast gemeinschaft and gesellschaft communities, noting the types of social relations in each. 2. Considering Fellin's description of concentration and segregation, how has concentration and segregation affected public school funding, fiscal management and maintenance of school buildings? 3.

Fellin writes that "an important feature of social systems theory is the specification of boundaries of the system in relation to its environment.” Describe the geographical and psychological boundaries of a typical South Texas rural school district. Fellin notes that there is a second feature of a systems model, the interaction of the system with 'outside' systems beyond its own boundary. Using the same rural district, describe

the regional, state, and national entities with which the school district interacts as part of its system. 4. Using your school district, describe the social class of the student body and the extent of class awareness. 5. Characterize and define 'underclass' according to Fellin. Then debate the extent to which there is an 'underclass’ in your school district and school. 6. Given the mobility of Americans within and between communities, identify factors that can influence, positively or negatively, the social issues of neighborhoods. 7. Describe how voluntary associations affect the public school setting? 8. How does Fellin describe the connection between volunteer involvement and empowerment at personal, political, and interpersonal levels in the Latino community? 9.

The population of South Texas is predominantly Mexican-American, yet Fellin writes that minorities tend not to participate in voluntary associations because of cultural inhibition. How can self-help organizations help the dominant Hispanic population in South Texas overcome cultural inhibition?

10.Debate the advantages and disadvantages of multiculturalism. Identify the difficulties in implementing this type of curriculum.

11. Identify the stakeholders in a school bond election. 12. Discuss the issues in redrawing the boundaries of school districts. 13.

Identify the factors that create a positive neighborhood community and a positive school community.

14. How does the role of religion in the lives of students and their families impact on schools in South Texas. 15. Discuss the Communitarian movement and its development. 16. As a superintendent, how would you implement the Communitarian agenda in your school district. 17. Discuss how school reform movements attempt to bring about equalization of educational resources for school districts and the two major types of funding requests, for millage renewals and increases for their budgets and bond proposals usually for new schools and school renovations (Fellin, Chapter 9, p. 171, 1995). Special Emphasis Topic The following area was not formulated into question, but it is a critical and timely topic with special emphasis. 1. School Reform to improve the educational system Study Guide Questions The following are questions from the Mid-term Study Guide, 2000:

1. Communities are distinguished by common locality, or place, by nonplace characteristics, and in terms of an individual’s “personal community.” Choose one of the types of communities that you are involved in and discuss three advantages and one disadvantage to being a member in this community. 2. Individuals participate in multiple communities. Choose a role of superintendent, principal, or teacher and discuss as many of the communities you can think of that the person in this position would be involved in due to their profession. 3. Of the four conditions that enhance the competent functioning of a locality-based community, which has the greater significance and why? 4. Ravendale is a “welfare community” where violence is a part of life. Drive-by shootings, gang-related activities, drug abuse and drug trafficking are an every day occurrence. In regard to “community competence” what can the citizens of Ravendale do to save their community. 5. In Warren’s discussion of “What is a good community? What are the four values that appear to compose a good community and how do these relate to education?”

6. Is a school a special type of “planned community”? Review the characteristics of planned communities in the textbook and compare those characteristics to a school community. 7. What effect does public education have on the five identified functions that a community performs? 8. In an attempt to introduce the competitive elements of a free market economy into an educational system built on a tradition of cooperation, business and political interests are introducing various programs and accountability measurements into the ‘ecological system’ of education. How could the ecologists’ definition of “competition” help a school develop a mentality to adapt to the new climate? 9. Fellin cites a framework for understanding the activities of a local community. He calls it a “community as an ecology of games.” What are some of the “games” in a school district, and how does a newcomer learn the rules to those “games”? 10. Describe the major, chronic social problems ensuing from the continued and developing urbanization in what are called ‘edge cities’. 11.Compare and contrast life in the rural community and in the urban community.

12. Discuss three phases of urbanization. How might the future of technology affect the metropolitan and diffuse phase? 13. Describe how the community of the inner city has significantly changed over the last forty years. 14. How has technology affected the decentralization of people, businesses, and industries? 15. What is gentrification? Does it have a positive or negative effect on inner cities? 16. What are the phases of urbanization? 17.

What are some of the demographic changes in the inner city?

18.

Describe race and ethnicity according to Fellin.

19.

Discuss the difference between social class and class awareness.

20.

Discuss the six neighborhood types in the Warren & Warren model.

21.

Discuss the three neighborhood types in the Litwak model.\

22.

Describe a slum and a ghetto.

23.

Pretend that you are a school superintendent who needs to “test the waters” concerning upgrading the school facilities. How would the Superintendent use the knowledge of neighborhood socialization patterns to help determine how to proceed.

24.

Discuss settlement patterns and make reference to whites and ethnic

minorities and segregation and integration. 25.

How many types of voluntary associations may be classified and what are the characteristics that voluntary associations define as organized Groups?

26.

What are the roles of voluntary associations in the helping network according to Powell’s information?

27.

How does the organization of a voluntary group differ form the organization of a primary group such as a family?

28.

Describe voluntary groups that are related to student achievement.

29.

How can voluntary associations build a sense of community of learning in South Texas where empowerment is difficult to achieve?

Narrative Chapter Major Points from the book, The Community and the Social Worker, by Phillip Fellin Defining Communities Garvin and Tropman state that a community exists “when a group of people form a social unit based on common location, interest, identification, culture, and/or activities (Fellin, p. 3, 1995). Communities are classified as A.) locality-based communities and B.) personal communities. The locality-

based communities are “1.) a functional spatial unit meeting sustenance need, 2.) a unit of patterned social interaction, 3.) a symbolic unit of collective identity” (Mid-term Study Guide, 2000). An example of a locality-based community is a neighborhood community. A personal community is based on “1.) locational, 2.) identificational, and 3.) interest” (Mid-term Study Guide, 2000). Communities also have the characteristics of common locality, and place, or non-place in an individual’s personal community. A non place community is being a community of identification or interest. An example of a non place community is being a part of the Jewish community. The four conditions that enhance the functioning of a local community are: 1.) residents are committed to there community, 2.) various community groups have a self-awareness of their values and self-interests 3.) community groups are articulate and can communicate with one another, and 4.) residents identify goals and their implementation. When people think about a good community, they conjure up an individual picture or image and could be described as a good place to work, raise kids,

or retire. Images of a good community include “1.) the opportunity for primary group relationships, 2.) the attachment of citizens to their community, 3.) the absence of serious social problems, 4.) the presence of solid, functional, safe neighborhoods, 5.) the presence of opportunities for education and employment, and 6.) a positive and cultural environment” (mid-term Study Guide, 2000). In approaching education from the ecological system perspective, educators can view the “population characteristics of the community (size, density, heterogeneity), the physical environment (land use), the social organization or structure of a community, and the technological forces in a community” (Fellin, 1995, p. 11). Ecological systems explain the features of the population, such as social class, racial and ethnic composition. The ecological perspective helps us understand “1.) community changes, 2.) movements of population groups, 3.) Patterns of migrations and immigrations, 4.) succession and segregation,” and “5.) growth dynamics of communities” (Mid-term Study Guide, 2000). The next step to consider is the interdependencies of people and services to their local and broader environments in the context of community changes due to movements of populations.

The social systems perspective is the relationship of social institutions within the community and the social functions the institution provides. It is important to focus on how the formal organizations (economic, political, educational, social welfare, and health care) function as subsystems within a community. Production/distribution/consumption, socialization, social control, social participation, and mutual support for individuals and for the community are all-important features according to Warren (Fellin, 1995, p. 12). These features of the community are especially important to consider when planning or projecting for future trends and social change. The barriers to community competence are the values, attitudes, and practices of people toward special populations. The special population groups are ethnic minorities, women, the physically and mentally disabled, gays and lesbians, cultural and religious groups. The values, attitudes, and practices shape how the community responds to these specific groups. Fellin quoted Longres to say that racism could be institutionalized when racism could be built into the norms, traditions, laws, policies and could be found in the subsystems of a community through economic discrimination, inadequate services to minorities, and insensitivity to the needs of minorities. Barriers for ethnic minorities include “discriminatory policies and practices, institutionalized racism” (Mid-term Study Guide, 2000). For

women, communities might need to consider the location of day care, transportation systems, and equal pay structures when considering whether or not there are barriers to working women. Barriers “place women in a disadvantageous position and impose burdens upon them which restrict their full participation in the community” (Mid-term Study Guide, 2000). Architectural designs, transportation, job training, housing, public accommodations, employment, communication, recreation, services, and equal opportunity must be considered to determine whether there are barriers for the disabled and whether there is compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. Gay and lesbian individuals must not denied civil liberties or be excluded from social participation, must not be subjected to violence or stigma, and should have equal employment opportunities. All religious and cultural groups must not suffer discrimination, oppression, or prejudice. Myths, stereotypes, and negative behaviors must not be directed at those members of cultural or religious groups. In the development of communities it is helpful to understand the phases of urbanization, edge cities, gentrification, and the immigration and heterogeneity of communities. The overlapping phases of urbanization include the city-building phase that occurred from the 1830’s to 1925, the metropolitan phase that began about 1920, and the diffuse stage that began

about 1950 to the present. Presently, all three phases exist with the metropolitan phase showing more increased populations around the larger urban cities and a move of industry away from central cities. There was also a migration to suburbs. The diffuse stage is characterized by less dominance in central cities and a furthering broadening of industry and business. It is also characterized by major entertainment centers beyond the center of the city. Examples of these entertainment centers are superdomes, concert parks, national corporation offices, and hotels. Edge cities were created as the diffuse phase created new cities on the outskirts of central cities. Office and retail space became available in the once called bedroom communities. The Edge City would then begin to have its own identity as a place. Gentrification occurred as a result of the changing land use in the inner cities. Young professional people began to buy the old dwellings that investors developed into up scale residential use. There has been an increase in this movement but it should not be interpreted as a large movement. A disadvantage of gentrification is a lack of housing options for people who typically lived in rooming housing or single rooms. Migration and immigration affect communities. Western Europeans immigrated in the mid 1800’s, and southern and eastern Europeans

immigrated in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s. Other large immigrant groups include Africans, Hispanics from Mexico, Japanese, Chinese, and Indians. Many ethnic populations followed the process of social and spatial concentration, segregation, acculturation, and assimilation. Stratification in communities occurs based on class, race, and ethnicity. Social class is further stratified by socieconomic class, family, social standing, and lifestyle. Socioeconomic status is measured through the census by occupation, income, and education levels which is used to develop social profiles of communities. In 1955, Skevsky and Bell developed a social area analysis that was based on the three areas of (Fellin, 1995, p. 61): “1. Social rank (education and occupation) 2. urbanization or family status (type of housing, marital status, children, members of household working) 3. segregation or ethnicity (proportion of minorities in an area compared to the total community population).” Each area is scored and then ordered to gain a better understanding of communities for assessment of social class levels, as well as occupational, income, and educational levels. Social class is related to lifestyles and is indicated through “value and location of homes, clothing styles, consumer spending patterns, club

memberships, restaurants, bars, lounges, summer and winter homes, travel and vacation styles, type of automobile, cooking and food styles, participation in sports, and choices of reading/magazines/books” (Fellin, 1995, p. 62). The most evident is the value and location of residence. Neighborhoods serve functions for their residents as illustrated in a framework developed by Warren and Warren in 1977. They identified the functions of a neighborhood as a “sociability arena, an interpersonal influence center, a source of mutual aid, an organizational base, a reference group, and a status area (Fellin, 1995, p. 80). Other models include the Litwak model, the Fellin and Litwak model, and the Figueira-McDonough model. Each model of neighborhood types is described in the Table 1. below. Figure 1. The Models of Neighborhood Types

Warren and Warren 1977 Focus: Social identity, social interaction, and linkages to the wider community Integral neighborhood – High identity, interaction, and linkages • High capacity to identify problems and take action • Easier for higher social classes to create but is also in white-collar suburbs, inner city and blue-collar industrial communities Parochial neighborhood – High identity and interaction, low Linkages • Strong group identity due to race, class, age, and physical isolation there is a strong commitment to locality and getting things done • May be limited due to lack of linkages to larger community Diffuse neighborhoods – High identity, low interaction and linkages • Doesn’t act on its high degree of collective capacity • People think they don’t need the help • Found in upper-class suburban dwellings and highrise luxury apartments Stepping-stone neighborhoods – Low in identity, high interaction and linkages Transitory neighborhoods – Low identity and interaction, high linkages

Litwak 1985 Focus: Emphasizes two important dimensions of neighborhood primary groups 1.) level of membership change/turnover 2.) capacity to retain primary group cohesion/social integration Mobile neighborhood – • high turnover of residents, quickly integrate newcomers, retain neighborhood cohesion Transitional neighborhood – • stable membership, not well suited for integrating new residents Mass neighborhood – • high mobility of residents, little capacity for integrating new or retaining cohesion

Fellin and Litwak 1968 Focus: Organizational, value, and change dimensions of neighborhood primary groups Neighborhood with positive values, organized – Neighborhood with positive values, unorganized – Neighborhood with negative values, organized – Neighborhood with negative values, unorganized –

Figueira – McDonough 1991 Focus: Uses ecological perspective for typology to understand delinquency rates by the dimensions of population factors and organizational factors Stepping-stone community – • nonpoor and mobile, low primary networks, high secondary networks, high external links Established community – • nonpoor and stable, high primary and secondary networks, low external links Disorganized community – • poor and mobile, low primary and secondary networks, low external links Parochial community – • poor and stable, high primary networks, low secondary networks and low external links

A slum and a ghetto are two different terms and cannot be used interchangeably. A ghetto is a “bounded residential are in which a defined racial or ethnic group is forced to live” (Choldan, 1985). A slum is a physical environment that is “deteriorated, run-down and undesirable housing units, evidence of filth, dirt, unsanity conditions,” including “boarded up and unoccupied structures” (Fellin, 1995). Suburban neighborhoods are classified according to the three dimensions of social interaction, identity, and linkages to the wider community therefore the suburban neighborhood types in Warren and Warren’s model are integral, diffuse, and stepping-stone. Some of the functions of neighborhood primary groups are sociability arena, interpersonal influence center, organizational base, reference group, and

status area (Mid-term Study Guide, 2000). Older neighborhoods exhibit lower interaction. Social class neighborhoods are evident due to the status symbols of location, house, and people in varying combinations. The status of suburban neighborhoods changes much more slowly than urban neighborhoods. Until the 1960’s, many African-Americans and Hispanics continued to reside in the same neighborhood regardless of social status. These groups had ties of religion, family, ethnic, and small towns. Ethnic neighborhoods, also called communities or commonalities, are areas in large cities with a high concentration of a similar minority group. Mixed land use characterizes the neighborhood to include residences, businesses, agencies, and schools. Zones of emergence describe the areas in the central city or suburbs where the middle class minority have moved in large numbers. Housing segregation is attributed to discrimination and prejudice that the New York Times and others state that is due to race or ethnicity. Segregated housing still exists due to socioeconomic factors and preference. Some housing costs are prohibitive to some and nonwhites have preferred to live in homogeneous neighborhoods. Segregated housing continues to persist.

White flight occurred in dramatically after World War II to bring more white families to the suburbs. There were nonracial “pushes” and “pulls” as well as racial causes to generate this movement. White families had pent up housing needs which the accessibility and size of suburban housing filled. The economy allowed for upward mobility, lower interest loans were available, and there were lower taxes. The segregated neighborhoods in the suburbs were also attractive to the families. Succession, a series of events that caused the replacement of a neighborhood by a population or land use, is seen as part of the process of change of a neighborhood. The text termed the incoming group as “invaders” and the original group as “established” (Fellin, 1995, p. 105). The succession of the movement of minority groups into white areas should consider “1.) the causes and conditions of the process, 2.) the process of radical change itself, and 3.) the social and economic consequences of the process” (Aldrich in Fellin, 1995, p. 105). Whites view the incoming people negatively and make assumptions according to Aldrich. The assumptions are that single family dwellings will become multiple, household membership will increase, more people will gather at residences, and the business ownership will change (Aldrich in Fellin, 1995). Ultimately, tipping will occur when whites begin moving away.

Hernandez (1985) has explained the settlement of new immigrants as a framework of neighborhood typology. The first is a ghetto or barrio which is described as heterogeneously mixed with a single group dominating. The second is a heterogeneous mix with no predominant group. The next is multi-ethnic, multi-racial with a gentrification of white middle class. Then immigrants might enter or move to an older neighborhood. The last is scattered suburban settlements with lower and upper middle classes. Voluntary associations in America are viewed as social units with many diverse forms and functions. The associations can be a vehicle for “worship, social support, social participation, political influence, self-help, service, and client organizations” (Mid-term Study Guide, 2000). The organizations are helping networks involving citizen volunteers as well as formal human service organizations. The four systems are 1.)lay informal service systems, 2.) quasi formal and self-help systems, 3.) professional service organizations, and 4.) inter-organizational relationships. Voluntary associations link individuals with the larger community and help with integration into the primary group of neighborhood. The associations serve an important role in influencing minority groups regarding empowerment, mutual aid, social support, advocacy, and in dealing with relevant issues.

Women are important to volunteer organizations and have comprised the majority of membership due to their interest in connecting with their communities. Women have also gained power through their involvement in self-help groups. Women have joined with others to bring about changes in their communities. Religious groups can be viewed as voluntary associations and can identify themselves as communities of identification and interest. These associations play important roles in the community’s social welfare systems. A direct service agency in an agency that meets the social welfare needs of the community residents. Some of the services provided are vocational rehabilitation and counseling. These agencies could be either public or voluntary and provide services to families and children ranging from social welfare policies, child protective services, to parenting education. Health care services, public and private, provide services at hospital, clinics, and mental health centers. Lack of coordination between public and private as well as between physical and mental health subsystems have been the major criticisms of health care. The role of the federal government has been strong in the area of service and educational. Government programs include the Head Start program, the National School Lunch Program, and programs for children

with special needs. Brown vs. Board of Education ruled against segregation because it deprived students of educational opportunity. The role of the school board was clarified and the Buckley amendment ruled that all student records must be kept confidential. Many states were teaching sex education. In Texas, there were several cases of Edgewood vs. Kirby, etc. to equalize funding resources for all school districts. School reform was beginning to be the new focus with a “Nation At Risk” presenting the state of education as the lack of improvement in SAT scores. Multiculturalism is the study of minority cultures. The study is an emphasis on everyone’s uniqueness but some argue that the American culture is being minimized. The Children of the Rainbow in New York City is an example of cultural diversity as a valuable asset. Critics of this program refer to the family situations particularly gay and lesbian couples with children. Political economy is the community interdependence with organizations, groups, and individuals engaged in the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services. The economic system of local community includes “1.) numerous bureaucratic organizations such as industrial companies and commercial businesses, 2.) offices of professional and private or group practice such as accountants, lawyers,

physicians, social workers, psychologists; 3.) small, less formalized businesses, home industries, service operations, and 4.) an underground economy which includes a variety of legal and illegal remunerative activities by individuals or groups” (Mid-term Study Guide, 2000). Equal employment opportunities for employment, pay, and advancement differ in communities. Pay for women is less than men and even lower for Black and Hispanic women. Felice Schwartz (1989) introduced the career track idea so that women could be viewed as individuals with varying needs. One track was a career-primary woman and the other was a career-and-family track. Schwartz has also developed a questionnaire for businesses to assess how they treat women employees. The issues for women in workplace are 1.) support of women in the workplace, 2.) in the home, and 3.) on options of workplace and/or home. The Americans with Disabililities Act of 1990 applies to the economic, social, vocational, and educational discrimination to individuals with physical or mental disabilities. Businesses with 25 or medical more employees must comply with this act. The employer cannot inquire about such areas as medical history, insurance claims, work absenteeism; must make reasonable accommodation; defines a disabled person as one with physical or mental disability that impairs one ore more life activities; and

defines a qualified disabled person as one who can perform the essential functions of the job. Sexual harrassment is addressed in the Titles VII and IX of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Discrimination in hiring practices of gays and lesbians may fall under this act. Sexual harassment is a critical area of knowledge for an employer. Problems in the Community Economics system include opportunities for various occupations, discrimination in hiring, promotion, and unequal benefits. Enterprise zones, established in Florida in 1981, focused on hiring area residents and was a local response to high unemployment, high crime, and welfare dependency. The employer received tax incentives for participating in the program. The feminization of poverty is apparent when discussing the underclass and the economy. The underclass is composed of individuals who rely on the public welfare system for income and services. The reliance is due to a lack of education and training as well as lack of occupational training for women. High unemployment and low wage industries such as nursing homes, hospitals, hotels, small businesses, department stores, and retail food stores

characterize the economy of the ghetto. The low occupational and residential mobility prevent movement out of the ghetto (Mid-term Study Guide, 2000). When redrawing district boundaries, it is worthwhile to be aware of the pitfalls of gerrymandering. Gerrymandering is the drawing of voting districts so that white and non-white groups outnumber other groups assuring specific groups majority residential group of representation in local, state, or federal government. Social power is the potential ability to select, change, or attain the goals of the social system. Ethnic minority groups, women, and community power can be assessed by identifying the community leaders according to their position, reputation, or the policy decisions they have made. Community conflict serves positive functions in a community. Conflict allows a community to establish and maintain identity and boundaries of societies and groups, provides opportunities to vent hostility and express dissent, allows group to assess the power and influence of another group and serves as a balancing mechanism, and brings people together in coalitions. Religious institutions and organizations serve important functions in communities as instruments of socialization, education, social control, and mutual support. Formally, they facilitate community integration through

religious-oriented schools, social agencies, volunteer groups, creation of own volunteer groups, and through the informal relationships of leading mutual aid and social supports among families connected to a religious congregation. Major Points from book, The Spirit of Community, by Amitai Etzioni Many writers such as Sinclair Lewis and John O’Hara describe small towns as narrow places “inhabited by petty, mean spirited people” which gave a negative view of the idea of gemeinschaft, the German word for community (Etzioni, 1993, p. 116). Tonnies labeled social relations as either gemeinschaft, which means community or gesellschaft, the German word for society. During the twentieth century there was a transition to gesellschaft even though large cities were portrayed more favorably than they were in reality. James Q. Wilson, a political analyst, saw the cities as gesellschaft and he thought that the YMCA and other associations were trying to provide a “socially appropriate, morality-sustaining context” (Etzioni, p. 118, 1993). Herbert Gans, a Columbia University sociologist, painted a different picture of cities through his observance of urban villages, or gemeinschaft, in which neighbors were friendly and diverse groups of people lived side by side. Suburbs that share similarities with small communities now characterize

America. The author describes this movement as an enhancement to the Communitarian nexus. The Communitarian movement is an environmental movement dedicated to the betterment of our moral, social, and political environment (Study Guide Test #2, 2000, p. 5). It is characterized by a four point agenda including 1.) a Moratorium, a transition period, which puts a tight lid on new rights; 2.) Rights Presume Responsibilities, claiming rights without assuming responsibilities is unethical and illogical; 3.) Responsibilities without rights, we have some duties of moral claims; and 4.) Careful adjustments, outlaws unreasonable searches and seizures (Study Guide Test #2, 2000, p. 5). The Communitarian recognizes a need for a new social map. In the 50’s, there was a clear set of values for most Americans, discrimination against minorities was commonplace, and was very authoritarian. Challenging voices came out in the 1960’s to embrace new values. Violent, sexual, and commercial messages were heard. The 80’s were the “me-istic” time with self-interest and greed considered to be virtuous. The 90’s had a growing awareness that there were few firmly established moral positions. Marriage was a disposable relationship and the moral values included malingering at work, drug and alcohol abuse, physical force used against another person, and a tendency to violence. There was a call for moral

commitment in the early 90’s and a positive response. The opponents dubbed the movement “neopuritanism” (Study Guide Test #2, 2000, p. 7). The Communitarian nexus is further sustained by the reluctance of Americans to move as frequently breaking ties to friends and to roots. There have also been new, nongeographic communities developing. Examples of these communities are the work-based and professional communities made up of people who work together, interact with each other, grow to care for each other, and also reinforce moral expectations. Etzioni describes those people who are supporting the gesellschaft and investing themselves into making higher salaries and moving to a higher rank but points out that this is an unsatisfying activity because there is always someone else who makes more money or has a higher ranking position. The author writes that people should instead “combine their selfadvancement with investment in their community” and a “we-ness” approach with one or more groups of people (Etzioni, 1993, p. 124). Examples of we-ness are neighborhood crime watches, soup kitchens for the less fortunate, a folk dance group that meets weekly, an Alcoholics Anonymous chapter, and especially centers for senior citizens which provides activities for groups. It is possible to train recruiters and facilitators of we-ness to foster a Communitarian nexus to revive communities.

Etzioni continues to support the importance of gemeinschaft or Communitarian activity and writes that it should not be trivialized. Volunteer efforts are more important than ever to education and to national service. Educators can help to identify ways that the public can help education. Volunteers provide an enormous service, as almost half of the emergency medical technicians are not paid. Institutions are important to the communities because of the services they provide but play an even more important role in that communities come together around these institutions. Local schools provide a source of identity for the community. Many times loss of community is a social cost when schools consolidate. Churches, synagogues, senior citizen centers, and the local grocery store serve as unifying institutions within the community. Etzioni suggests that Communitarians should consider the moral and social as well as the financial consequences when they are considering the closing of shops or the consolidation of schools. The movement to community policing is an example of trying to reconstruct a core institution for the purpose of rebuilding communities. Other examples are restoration of housing projects and opening community mental health centers. Community policing allows for the officers to develop relationships and communicate with people as they patrol their beats on foot.

Grievances are resolved more directly and the police work is a more integral part of the community. In order to enhance public safety, Communitarians can support crime watches, citizen patrols, build community bonds, sentence nonviolent offenders to community service, and public humiliating or public shaming by publishing the names of people frequenting prostitutes or requiring convicted drunken drivers to display signs on their cars. Communitarians are also expected to participate in politics and governance as an important way to build community. Schools, hospitals, libraries and other community activities offer ample opportunities for public participation. The Communitarian family has a commitment to the children who require attention, time, energy, and self. Communitarianism is a movement away from the institutionalization of children into child care centers where bonding with families was not occurring. Etzioni favors two parent families over single parent families and supports the division of educational labor. Parents need to parent more and have to make choices between income and better relationships with their children. Divorce moves fathers away and children are faced with the adjustment to fragile relationships with the revolving boyfriends and girlfriends of parents. Etzioni supports a slow movement to marriage with counseling for young people. During marriage,

families should eat together, go to marriage encounters, renew vows, and get counseling when it is needed. Mechanisms have been suggested to slow down family break-ups and divorce such as a waiting period. The benefits of marriage include greater happiness, less depression, stable identity, bonding, and the we-ness of being a couple. Key Terms and Definitions Centralization – a clustering of institutions and service in a central location Communitarianism – a community member with a sense of gemeinschaft and who works to build and maintain the community Community policing – a local, usually on foot, police who work within the community and build relationships with people in the community Crowding – a stress producing environment, either psychological or subjective, resulting from a person recognizing that he/she has less space than desired, described by Krupat Gemeinschaft – the German term for a small, traditional community, a type of social relation described by Ferdinand Tonnies, a German sociologist Gesellschaft – the German word for society, another type of social relation, which Tonnies used to refer to “people who have rather few bonds, like people in a crowd or a mass society” in which isolation and

individuation in the place of communal ties could occur (Etzioni, 1993, p. 116; Fellin, 1995, p. 45). Minority group – people of color, groups identified by the Equal Rights Act of 1964 as African American, Asian American, Native American, and Hispanic (Fellin, 1995, p. 68) Nongeographic community – a community made of people who do not live near each other such as a work-based or professional community (Etzioni, 1993) We-ness – a shared sense of belonging to a group or groups comprised of significant others with whom they have meaningful, stable, and affective relationships (Etzioni, 1993) Internet Links: Gemeinschaft and gesellschaft http://www.imsa.edu/~bernie/gemeingesell.html http://www.cf.ac.uk/socsi/frameset_students/introsoc/gemein.html http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed376996.html Concentration and Segregation http://www.scp.nl/boeken/cahiers/cah123/uk/samenvatting.htm http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/housing/resseg/def.html http://education.mit.edu/tep/11124/school.htm

http://www.idra.org/Newslttr/1997/Oct/Albert.htm http://www.nber.org/reporter/spring98/hoxby_spring98.html http://www.uncfsu.edu/NCcatalyst/new_page_15.htm Social Class http://www.hewett.norfolk.sch.uk/curric/soc/class/class.htm http://www.trinity.edu/mkearl/strat.html http://hss.fullerton.edu/sociology/orleans/436.htm Social Issues and Neighborhoods http://www.neighborhoodcoalition.org/

References

Anderson, T. & Cohort VIII. (2000). Mid-term study guide, SOCI 6302 Community Development, Kingsville, TX: Texas A & M University. Anderson, T. & Cohort VIII. (2000). Study guide test #2, SOCI 6302 Community Development, Kingsville, TX: Texas A & M University. Etzioni, A. (1993). The spirit of community: The reinvention of american society. New York: Simon & Schuster. Fellin, P. (1995). The community and the social worker. Itasca, IL: Peacock.