Community Acquired Pneumonia

Community Acquired Pneumonias update Dr.T.V.Rao MD

Pneumonia - Definition 

Pneumonia is an abnormal inflammat ory condition of the lung. It is often characterized as including inflammation of the parenchyma of the lung (that is, the alveoli) and abn or-mal alveolar filling with fluid

(consolidation and exudation)

Community Acquired Pneumonia 

Definition: Acute infection of the pulmonary parenchyma that is associated with at least some symptoms of acute infection, accompanied by the presence of an acute infiltrate on a chest radiograph, or auscultatory findings consistent with pneumonia, in a patient not hospitalized or residing in a long term care facility for > 14 days before onset of symptoms. Bartlett. Clinical Infect Diseases 2000;31:347-82.

Community-Acquired Pneumonia ( CAP ) 

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Community-acquired pneumonia refers to pneumonia acquired outside of hospitals or extended-care facilities. Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is one of the most common infectious diseases diagnosed by clinicians.

Why Community Acquired Pneumonia is a Important disease

CAP causes major changes in the Functional physiology of the Respiratory tract

Who Develops Community Acquired Pneumonia 

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Community-acquired pneumonia develops in people with limited or no contact with medical institutions or settings. CAP occurs throughout the world and is a leading cause of illness and death

Community Acquired Pneumonia  Risk

– – – – – – – –

Factors for pneumonia

age alcoholism smoking asthma Immuno suppression institutionalization COPD dementia

Community acquired pneumonia Emerging Health Problem  Causes

of CAP  Bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. CAP can be diagnosed by symptoms and physical examination alone, though x-rays, examination of the sputum, and other tests are often used. Individuals with CAP sometimes require hospitalization and treatment in a hospital.

Several Microbes can cause CAP 

The most commonly identified pathogens are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and atypical organisms (i.e., Chlamydia pneumoniae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Legionella sp).

Typical x Atypical etiological agents 

Typical pneumonia usually is caused by bacteria such as Streptococcus pneumoniae. Atypical pneumonia usually is caused by the influenza virus, mycoplasma, Chlamydia, Legionella, adenovirus, or other unidentified microorganism. The patient's age is the main differentiating factor between typical and atypical pneumonia; young adults are more prone to atypical causes, and very young and older persons are more predisposed to typical causes.

X ray chest gives the leading clues in Diagnosis

Pathophysiology 

CAP is usually acquired via inhalation or aspiration of pulmonary pathogenic organisms into a lung segment or lobe. Less commonly, CAP results from secondary bacteraemia from a distant source, such as Escherichia coli urinary tract infection and/or bacteraemia. CAP due to aspiration of Oropharyngeal contents is the only form of CAP involving multiple pathogens.

Etiological agents in CommunityAcquired Pneumonia in Children From Birth to 3 weeks  Group

B streptococci, Listeria Monocytogenes, gram-negative bacilli, cytomegalovirus

From 3 weeks to 3 months 

Streptococcus pneumoniae, viruses (RSV, Parainfluenza viruses, metapneumovirus), Bordetella pertussis, Staphylococcus aureus, Chlamydia trachomatis (trans natal exposure)

From 4 months to 4 years 

S. pneumoniae,

viruses

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(RSV, Parainfluenza viruses, influenza viruses, adenovirus, rhinovirus, metapneumovirus), Mycoplasma pneumoniae (in older children), group A streptococci

5 years to 15 years  

S. pneumoniae, M. pneumoniae, and Chlamydia pneumoniae

COMMUNITYACQUIRED PNEUMONIA IN ADULTS

Outpatients—with no modifying factors present    

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Streptococcus pneumoniae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, respiratory viruses, miscellaneous (Legionella sp, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, endemic fungi

Outpatients—modifying factors present 

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S. pneumoniae, including drug resistant forms; M. pneumoniae;

C. pneumoniae; mixed infection (bacteria + atypical pathogen or virus); H. influenzae; enteric gram-negative organisms; respiratory viruses; miscellaneous (Moraxella catarrhal is, Legionella sp, anaerobes [aspiration], M. tuberculosis, endemic fungi)

CAP in Inpatients not admitted in ICU 

S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae; C.Pneumonia; C. pneumoniae; mixed infection (bacteria + atypical pathogen or virus); respiratory viruses; Legionella sp, miscellaneous (M. tuberculosis, endemic fungi, Pneumocystis jiroveci)

CAP in ICU patients—with no Pseudomonas risk factor  S. pneumoniae, 

including drug resistant forms, Legionella sp, H. influenzae, enteric gram-negative organisms, S. aureus, C.Pneumonia, respiratory viruses, miscellaneous (C. pneumoniae, M. tuberculosis, endemic fungi

Non-bacterial pathogens causing CAP 

Non bacterial pathogens

in the differential include many viruses (influenza, adenovirus, rhinovirus, etc.) and fungi (Aspergillusspp., Ca ndida spp., Coccidi oides immitis, etc.)

Value of chest x-ray in Diagnosis of CAP •A

chest x-ray is recommended to make the diagnosis of pneumonia An imperfect gold standard •No studies specifically demonstrate improved patient outcomes through use of chest x-ray in adults

Radiological diagnosis can be supported by Microbiological studies

Microbiological Diagnosis

Common Laboratory Tests 

Common laboratory tests for pneumonia have included leukocyte count, sputum Gram stain, two sets of blood cultures, and urine antigens. However, the validity of these tests has recently been questioned after low positive culture rates were found (e.g., culture isolates of S. pneumoniae were present in only 40 to 50 percent of cases).

Microbiological diagnosis is confirmatory   Is

not possible to distinguish the causative organisms of pneumonia other than by microbiology as no pathogen leads to a clinical, laboratory or radiological pattern sufficiently characteristic to be the basis of a confident diagnosis, but clinical symptoms and epidemiological features  may provide clues to the aetiology as some differences in presentation do occur. 

Bacteriological Investigations on sputum 

Expectorated sputum collected ( poorly collected) without proper instructions may not yield optimal results

Sputum gram staining and culture • A good quality sputum sample with a predominant pus cells with proportionately less epithelial cells and bacterial pathogens can be observed in approximately 15%of the cases studied

Blood for Bacterial culture 

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Blood cultures should always be taken from patients with pneumonia. Blood culture collection before initial hospital antibiotics

Pre-treatment blood cultures - positive results in 5-14% of patients hospitalized with CAP

Newer methods – Diagnosis of Community associated Pneumonias 

Antigen detestation in sputum urine by Fluorescent methods Immunoelectrophoresis

Latex agglutination tests ELISA

Diagnosis in cases of Atypical Pneumonias 

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By serological methods using acute and convalescent sera Raise of significant titer or rising titer of antibodies give clues to diagnosis.

Emerging methods in Diagnosis  Newer

amplified DNA detection methods likely to improve the diagnosis of several cases of pneumonias

Advances in Diagnosis of CAP 

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Polymerase chain reaction assay for Mycoplasma pneumoniae from throat swab or sputum culture and urinary or serologic antigen tests for Legionella  have made inroads into accurately diagnosing CAP caused by atypical organisms Urinary antigen detection of the C polysaccharide common to Streptococcus pneumoniae now rapidly identifies the presence of this organism. To obtain higher yield specimens, transthoracic needle aspiration and bronchoscopic protected specimen brush techniques are being used among sicker patients.

Other markers suggestive of CAP 

C - reactive protein trends have been correlated to clinical progress in CAP, and administration of its activated form (drotrecogin alpha) appears to reduce mortality in severe sepsis.

Changing terminology in Pneumonias 

The distinction between typical and atypical pneumonia, although previously widely used, is not useful today.   It is, however, helpful to distinguish between typical and atypical pathogens in pneumonia. Although these can only be determined by microbiology, not by clinical signs and symptoms, atypical pathogens are less common in patients aged 75 years and over.

CDC guidelines on Laboratory testing 

The current recommendations issued by the CDC panel focused on laboratory testing and surveillance. The panel acknowledged that its suggestion to move the penicillin break points upward will require changes in the way laboratories report and clinicians interpret susceptibility results; susceptibility break points will differ according to the clinical syndrome being treated.

Pencillin still continues to be preferred antibiotic 

With a bloodstream or lung infection, you can get a much higher concentration of antibiotic to the site of the infection. Because of that, you can use a standard agent, such as penicillin, even when there is some resistance,“ Dr. Whitney.

All isolates of Pneumococcus should be tested for Minimum inhibitory concentration for antibiotic sensitivity 

Laboratories should report MIC’s for penicillin and extended-spectrum cephalosporins for all pneumococcal isolates from appropriately collected [specimens]," the report states.

All isolates of Pneumococcus should be tested with multiple antibiotics for sensitivity pattern 

The panel recommended that all local laboratories should include the following antimicrobials in surveillance for ant pneumococcal activity: penicillin, Cefotaxime (or Ceftriaxone), erythromycin, Doxycycline (or tetracycline), Clindamycin, and Flouroquinolones. Reference laboratories should also survey amoxicillin, Cefuroxime, cefpodoxime (or cefprozil), Clindamycin, vancomycin, trimethoprim-Sulphmethoxazole, and meropenem.

Antimicrobial therapy – Empirical approach 

Antimicrobial therapy is the mainstay of management for community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). Accordingly, the choices of treatment are influenced by the likely aetiologies, local resistance patterns of the pathogens, as well as patient factors. As the leading cause of acute CAP, the susceptibility patterns of Streptococcus pneumoniae have greatly influenced antimicrobial agents and dosage recommended for empirical treatment of this condition.

MRSA – a concern in treating Community acquired Pneumonias  The worldwide emergence of community-acquired Methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus has also led to discussion of this pathogen in recent revisions of the international CAP guidelines. 

CDC new regimes of treatment 

pneumococcal resistance pose a challenge for physicians who treat patients with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). When should Streptococcus pneumoniae be considered susceptible to penicillin and other antimicrobial agents? How is resistance defined in patients with CAP? Should pneumococcal resistance to ß-lactamase influence CAP therapy? What are the best empiric antimicrobial regimens for the treatment of outpatients and hospitalized patients with CAP?

Panel recommendations on Pencillin Usage with MIC determinations  Panel

recommended adjusting the penicillin susceptibility categories for pneumonia-causing pneumococcal isolates so that all isolates with MIC no greater than 1 µg/mL would be defined as susceptible, isolates with MIC of 2 µg/mL would be considered intermediate, and isolates with MIC of no less than 4 µg /mL would be classified as resistant.

Epidemiology  The

epidemiology of CAP is unclear because few population-based statistics on the condition alone are available. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) combines pneumonia with influenza when collecting data on morbidity and mortality, although they do not combine them when collecting hospital discharge data

Vaccination in children 

Vaccination is important in both children and adults. Vaccinations against Haemophilus influenzae and Streptococcus pneumoniae in the first year of life have greatly reduced their role in CAP in children

Community Acquired Pneumonia and Vaccination for Pneumococcal infection 

The pneumococcal vaccine (the ‘pneumonia shot’) protects against 23 types of pneumococcal bacteria.

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Research proves the vaccine is not 100% effective in preventing pneumonia, but found that if you are vaccinated you are less likely to die from pneumonia.

Preventing Influenzae 

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According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), anyone who wants to reduce their risk of getting the flu should have a flu vaccine. Older children and adults require only a single shot each year. However, children under age 9 may need two doses

General Health Measures 

Smoking cessation is important not only for treatment of any underlying lung disease, but also because cigarette  smoke interferes with many of the body's natural defences against CAP.

Future goals on reducing child deaths – 2015 by Hand washing

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Handwashing with soap is among the most effective and inexpensive ways to prevent diarrheal diseases and pneumonia, which together are responsible for the majority of child deaths. a significant contribution to meeting the Millennium Development Goal of reducing deaths among children under the age of five by two-thirds by 2015.

Created for Dr.T.V.Rao MD’s ‘e’ learning Programme Email [email protected]