Climate Change

Climate Change — The Global Effects Introduction by John Streicker In 2007 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released its Fourth Assessment Report. Previous assessments (1990, 1995, 2001) had provided strong indications that by various measures the Earth's climate was becoming warmer, but with the latest report the picture had become clearer: “Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising global average sea level.” The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme and the World Meteorological Organization (a UN agency) in recognition of the potential importance of climate change. The IPCC is charged with reviewing comprehensive scientific climate-change studies and providing an objective understanding of climate change, its potential impacts, and options for adaptation and mitigation. Hundreds of climatologists, meteorologists, and other scientists from around the world are involved in the preparation of IPCC reports as authors, contributors, and expert reviewers. The fourth assessment was compiled by three IPCC working groups, and an overview of their findings is provided in the sections that follow. Climate undergoes natural changes and cycles. In order to understand the Earth's overall warming, therefore, scientists examine the balance of the energy that reaches the Earth from the Sun and the energy that is radiated away from the Earth. They then identify radiative forcings—that is, human or natural factors that drive the energy balance up or down. The fourth assessment established that anthropogenic (human) activity is responsible for most of the current global warming, with radiative forcing from anthropogenic sources being over 10 times larger than all natural components combined. The primary anthropogenic source is the emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, which is produced mainly by the burning of fossil fuels. (Greenhouse gases are gases that allow sunlight to pass through but trap heat radiated from the Earth as it is warmed by the sunlight.) Land-use change, such as the burning or clearing of forests, provides a lesser contribution.

Effects on the Physical World

The Fourth Assessment Report documented that 11 of the past 12 years have been the warmest on record since 1850 (when global instrumental record keeping began). Over the past 100 years, the global annual average surface temperature has risen by 0.74 °C (1.3 °F), with most of this warming coming in only the past 50 years. The world has not been warming uniformly as climate changes, however. In general, average land surface temperatures have been increasing more rapidly than ocean surface temperatures (although the oceans absorb 80% of the heat that the world is gaining). The Arctic has been the region with the most rapid rate of warming—two to three times the global average. In contrast, surface temperatures of Antarctica have not risen significantly. (For Projected Surface Temperature Changes, see Map.) With warmer surface temperatures and warmer oceans, more water evaporates and the moisture in the atmosphere increases. Storms with heavy precipitation have occurred with more frequency and intensity. Extreme events such as hurricanes and cyclones are not more frequent globally, but there is evidence of an increase in the strength and duration of the storms since 1970 that is consistent with increases in ocean temperature. Increases in the extent of spring melting and in storms with heavy precipitation have resulted in more flooding in some areas. Warmer temperatures can also mean more rapid drying, however, and some areas have experienced more periods marked by drought.

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The melting and retreat of Grinnell Glacier in Glacier National Park, Montana, is documented in …

With the advent of satellite imagery in the late 1970s, it became possible to monitor snow and ice coverage on a global scale. Snow pack, sea ice, and glaciers have been melting, and the rate of melt has been increasing in recent decades. Permafrost (ground that normally stays frozen year-round) in the Northern Hemisphere is also beginning to melt, and the ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica are losing mass. The most visible expression of climate change has been the seasonal retreat of Arctic sea ice. The summertime sea-ice minimum in the Arctic has shown a declining trend, and in 2007 the minimum was 23% less than the record minimum that was set in 2005. (See Map.)

The melting of land-based ice and the expansion of the oceans as they have become warmer account about equally for observed increases in sea level. (Melting of sea ice does not raise sea level, since floating ice already displaces its equivalent in melt water.) Sea level has risen by 17 cm (7 in) in the past 100 years. Although this is a relatively small amount, historical data indicate that mean sea level had been virtually unchanged for the previous 2,000 years.

Effects on Biological Systems As temperatures rise and precipitation and storm patterns shift, there have been accompanying changes in the biological world. The fourth assessment states: “Observational evidence from all continents and most oceans shows that many natural systems are being affected by regional climate changes, particularly temperature increases.” Some land plant and animal species have shifted their ranges poleward (northward in the Northern Hemisphere and southward in the Southern Hemisphere), and some have moved upslope to higher elevations, where it is cooler. Boreal forests, for example, have been observed encroaching northward on the Arctic tundra at a rate of 12 km (7.5 mi) per year. In general, mid- to high-latitude regions have had earlier springs and a longer growing season. Other changes that have been reported include earlier leaf production in trees, earlier egg hatching in birds, and an earlier awakening from hibernation by mammals. The timing varies for different species, however, depending on their specific behaviour and ability to adapt to change. As climate and some ecosystems have shifted, there has been some loss and fragmentation of terrestrial habitats. Climate change is thought to play a role in the population decrease and ultimately the extinction of some species by such mechanisms as constricting habitat, affecting reproductive patterns, and providing an advantage to competing species. Particularly at risk are species that have a restricted range and low adaptive capacity.

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A polar bear leaps between ice floes in the Arctic Ocean. Arctic sea ice serves as a prime polar …

Some marine and freshwater biological ecosystems have also shifted poleward, apparently because of rising water temperatures, loss of ice cover, and changes in ocean circulation and water chemistry. Examples of affected organisms include algae, plankton, and fish in high-latitude regions and in high-altitude lakes. Warming of the southern

oceans has been associated with a decline in the population of krill (a small crustacean of the open sea), which in turn has been linked to a decrease in seabird and seal populations in the region. Loss of habitat is also expected to affect those species that are dependent on Arctic sea ice, such as the polar bear, walrus, and several species of seals and seabirds. Overall biological abundance in the oceans is difficult to determine, but satellite imagery of chlorophyll levels (from marine plant life) indicates that primary ocean production has gone down 6% globally since the early 1980s.

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This staghorn coral in the Caribbean Sea shows signs of bleaching, the loss of symbiotic …

Another potential impact on marine life is related to the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere because some of the gas is absorbed by the oceans. The extra dissolved carbon dioxide in seawater has made it more acidic (measured as an average decrease in pH). There is evidence that the acidity may be exacerbating the coral bleaching already caused by ocean warming.

Effects on Human Society The effects of climate change are beginning to appear in the human sphere, although in general they are not as evident as the impacts on the natural world. Problems related to water supply are projected to increase in many regions as the result of shrinking glaciers and snowpack, drought, evaporation, and the infiltration of salt water in low-lying areas through rising sea levels. Lack of access to usable water is a key vulnerability, especially in less-developed countries (LDCs).

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A worker lays down hay in a grid pattern to stabilize a sand dune and help prevent desertification …

Climate change is expected to have a mixed impact on agriculture. With spring occurring sooner in mid- to high-latitude regions, a longer growing season would benefit crop yields. Agricultural productivity, however, is vulnerable to other potential consequences of climate change, such as heat waves, floods, and droughts. Agricultural production in low-latitude regions has already been adversely affected by global warming. The Sahel region of Africa has seen crop failures because of intense and more frequent droughts. The situation has resulted in famines and has been exacerbated by other stresses in the region. Unfortunately, crop yields are expected to continue to drop in coming decades as a result of climate change.

Like agriculture, forestry is expected to be positively and negatively affected. Forests of the Northern Hemisphere would benefit from an extended growing season but might also experience adverse effects from other factors. For example, forests from British Columbia to Alaska have been subjected to severe infestations of tree-killing beetles that have proliferated with a warmer regime. Dead trees in turn increase the risk of wildfires. Coastal cities and infrastructure, especially low-lying delta regions and small islands, are vulnerable to sea storms. A rise in sea level together with more intense, or extreme, weather could combine to create severe damage. The costs associated with such damage are not necessarily incremental, because its severity could suddenly become much greater when structures are subjected to forces that exceed what they have been designed to withstand. Climate change might have adverse effects on human health. There is evidence that the ranges of mosquitoes and other disease vectors have increased, although there is no clear indication of any corresponding increase in the incidence of the diseases they transmit. Cold-related injury and deaths are projected to decrease, but heat-related increases would outweigh them. Heat waves can be very serious, as shown by the 2003 heat wave in Europe, in which 35,000 excess deaths were recorded. Increased stress on water and food resources would result in a higher incidence of malnutrition. The hardest hit areas are likely to be those with low capacity for adaptation—in other words, regions that do not have spare economic resources and that are subject to various kinds of stress in addition to any created by climate change.

Responses to Climate Change

In order to project future climate change, the IPCC employs computer-based climate models, which over several decades of development “have consistently provided a robust and unambiguous picture of significant climate warming in response to increasing greenhouse gases.” The greatest uncertainties in the climate models lie in predictions of human behaviour (for example, predictions concerning economic and population growth) that affect greenhouse-gas emissions and their cumulative concentration. For this reason the IPCC used several different emissions scenarios, based on different assumptions concerning global and regional development. For the six major emissions scenarios, the range of the projected rise in global average annual temperature was 1.8 to 4 °C (3.2 to 7.2 °F) over the next century if no measures are taken to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions. Despite these uncertainties, all of the models predict that the currently observed changes to the physical world brought on by global warming will continue and will accelerate over the coming decades.

Some climate-change impacts present opportunities, while others pose risks, but climate change in general is projected to be disruptive, with an overall negative impact on both society and the environment. Although regional and local uncertainties about the effects of climate change remain, the general trends are now fairly well understood. The largest unknown is how people and governments will respond to the situation. People and other living beings have experience adapting to change. Human adaptation can be achieved through a variety of means, such as technology, management, modification of behaviour, or social policy. Adaptation is a way of addressing the immediate consequences of climate change, and some adaptation is already taking place on an ad hoc basis. According to the fourth assessment, however, “more extensive adaptation than is currently occurring is required to reduce vulnerability to climate change. There are barriers, limits and costs, which are not fully understood.” Climate change is projected to bring severe stress on the capability of supplying such necessities as water, food, and health care. In accepting the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize on behalf of the IPCC, the organization's chairman—R.K. Pachauri—stated that climate change “raised the threat of dramatic population migration, conflict, and war over water and other resources as well as a realignment of power among nations.” Human greenhouse-gas emissions essentially began with the industrial era two centuries ago. Emissions increased with the growth of industrialization that followed World War II, and they increased by more than 70% between 1970 and 2004. In order to stabilize the climate change that is being driven by global warming, mitigation efforts seek to reduce the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. In the words of the IPCC, “Mitigation efforts over the next two to three decades will have a large impact on opportunities to achieve lower stabilization levels.” Mitigation can be approached through demand-side management (such as behavioral changes to conserve energy), alternate sources of energy (with reduced or zero emissions, including renewable sources of energy), technologies that improve energy efficiency, and carbon capture and storage. One form of mitigation is an emphasis on sustainable development, including the use of green architecture to design buildings that make efficient use of energy and water (see Special Report) and the use of biofuels as a renewable energy source (see Special Report). Another important mitigation strategy to promote the conservation of energy is to put a price on carbon. By assigning costs to carbon-dioxide emissions and placing a value on the reduction of carbon-dioxide emissions, a carbon market can operate in which carbon credits are bought and sold to provide economic incentives to meet emission regulations. The IPCC has attempted to assess the potential costs of mitigation. Although the question is complex, there is some agreement that it would be on the order of 1% of global GDP. Some studies have also tried to assess the economic cost to society from the impacts of climate change with the assumption that no mitigation attempts are made. Although there is less certainty about these costs, there is agreement that they would very likely outweigh the cost of mitigation (for example, 1–5% of GDP globally, with the cost rising as high as 25% of GDP for LDCs).

By the end of 2007, all major developed countries with the exception of the U.S. had ratified the Kyoto Protocol, the international treaty for developed nations to begin to reduce their greenhouse-gas emissions. The protocol mandated restrictions of greenhouse-gas emissions for the period 2008–12. At the United Nations Climate Change Conference held in December 2007 in Bali, Indon., delegates used the findings of the IPCC fourth assessment to discuss what would succeed the protocol. Although many issues remained, the delegates reached a consensus on the course that would be followed to negotiate a post-Kyoto agreement to address climate change. John Streicker is a Professional Engineer and a Climate-Change Consultant and Speaker who lives in the Yukon Territory, Canada.