Chromite

CHROMIUM -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Chromite (chromium): some 99 percent of the world's chromite is found in southern Africa and Zimbabwe. Chemical and metallurgical industries use about 85% of the chromite consumed in the United States. Background Chromium is a hard, bluish metallic element (Cr) with an atomic number of 24. In the mid-1700’s, chemical analysis of a mineral from Siberia showed that it contained lead. This mineral, crocoite (PbCrO4, lead chromate), was known as “red lead” because of the beautiful orange-red color of its crystals. It also contained another, thenunknown material. This material was identified as chromium oxide (CrO3) by Louis-Nicholas Vauquelin. In 1797, he heated this oxide with charcoal to remove the oxygen (chemists call this reaction a reducing process) which left the metal chromium. Shortly after Vauquelin’s discovery, a German chemist name Tassaert discovered chromium in an ore that geologists now call chromite (FeCr2O4, ferrous chromic oxide). Chromite forms in an igneous environment. Name The name chromium was derived from the Greek word chroma which means color, in reference to the fact that chromium is known to cause a number of colors in a variety of materials. For example, the green color of emerald is caused by the presence of very small amounts of chromium in the crystal. Sources The only ore of chromium is the mineral chromite. United States chromium consumption is equivalent to about 14% of all the chromite ore mined each year. In the western hemisphere, chromite ore is produced only in Brazil and Cuba; the United States, Mexico and Canada do not produce chromite. (The Stillwater Complex in Montana is the biggest chromium deposit in the United States, however it is not producing chromite ore at this time.) By comparison, about 80% of

world production of chromite comes from India, Kazakhstan, Turkey and southern Africa. Southern Africa itself produces about half of this. Geologists estimate that there are about 11 billion tons of chromium ore (chromite) in the world that could be mined. Most of these resources are found in southern Africa. This is enough chromium ore to meet world demand for hundreds of years into the future.

Uses Chromium is alloyed (that is, mixed) with steel to make it corrosion resistant or harder. An example is its use in the production of stainless steel, a bright, shiny steel that is strong and resistant to oxidation (rust). Stainless steel production consumes most of the chromium produced annually. Chromium is also used to make heat-resisting steel. So-called "superalloys" use chromium and have strategic military applications. Chromium also has some use in the manufacture of certain chemicals. For example, chromium-bearing chemicals are used in the process of tanning leather. Chromium compounds are also used in the textiles industries to produce a yellow color.

Substitutes and Alternative Sources There is no good alternative for chromium in the manufacture of steel or chromium chemicals. Scrap metal that contains chromium can be recycled as an alternative source. The natural abundance of chromite in the Earth’s crust makes alternative sources unnecessary at this time.

ChromiteChromite /wiki/Image:ChromiteUSGOV.jpg /wiki/Image:ChromiteUSGOV.jpg Chromite General Category Mineral iron magnesium Chemical chromium oxide: (Fe, formula Mg)Cr2O4 Identification Black to brownish Color black Crystal Octahedral rare; habit massive to granular Crystal Isometric; system hexoctahedral Cleavage absent Fracture Conchoidal Mohs Scale 5.5 hardness Luster Submetallic Refractiv Subtranslucent to e index opaque Streak Dark brown Specific 4.5 - 4.8 gravity Fusibility Infusible Other Character Weakly magnetic istics Major varieties Magnesio chromite Chromite is iron magnesium chromium oxide: (Fe, Mg)Cr2O4. It is an

oxide mineral belonging to the spinel group. Magnesium can substitute for iron in variable amounts; also, aluminium and ferric iron commonly substitute for chromium. Chromite is found in peridotite from the Earth's mantle. It also occurs in layered ultramafic intrusive rocks. In addition, it is found in metamorphic rocks such as some serpentinites. Ore deposits of chromite form as early magmatic differentiates. It is commonly associated with olivine, magnetite, serpentine, and corundum. The vast Bushveld igneous complex of South Africa is a large layered mafic to ultramafic igneous body with some layers consisting of 90% chromite making the rare rock type, chromitite. Chromite is also used as a refractory material. Chromite from Albania The only ore of chromium is the mineral chromite. In the western hemisphere, chromite ore is produced only in Brazil and Cuba; By comparison, about 80% of world production of chromite comes from India, Iran, Pakistan, Oman, Zimbabwe, Turkey and Southern Africa. Southern Africa itself produces about half of this. Chromite is mined from the ultramafic rocks in the Zhob District of Balochistan. Most of the chromite is of metallurgical grade with Cr2O3 averaging 46% and a chrome to iron ratio of 3:1.

Method for direct use of chromite ore in the production of stainless steel A three-stage process for obtaining metallic Cr units insitu during the production of stainless steel. Raw chromite ore or a concentrate produced from chromite ore is mixed with a carbonaceous reductant and slagging agents are added to an iron bath (24) for smelting and refining in a refining reactor (10). During the first stage, partially metallized chromite is smelted by carbon in the reactor that is top-and bottom-blown with oxygen and oxygen-containing gases respectively to produce a chromium alloy bath having a carbon content well below saturation. In the second stage, the alloy bath is decarburized by being bottom stirred with the oxygen-containing gas to the final bath carbon specification. In the third stage, the alloy bath is reduced by a metalloid reductant such as silicon or aluminum and again bottom stirred but with a non-oxidizing gas to achieve a high chromium yield. The reactor includes a top lance (18) extending through a throat (14) with a lower portion (20) of the lance extending to a point just above the bath and means (22) such as a tuyere or porous plug mounted at or near a bottom (16) and extending through a refractory lining (12) for stirring the iron bath containing dissolved carbon. Lance (18) includes a central passage (34) for injecting a compact, focused jet oxygen gas (30) that can penetrate through a slag layer (26) for decarburization of

the iron bath and an outer passage (32) for discharging an oxygen gas (28) above the bath for post-combustion of CO to CO2. Passage (32) includes a plurality of evenly spaced annular diverging nozzles (33). The lance also includes a pair of concentric conduits (36) and (38) for conducting a coolant. Ferrochrome Production Surging demand for ferrochrome used in making ferroalloy, which in turn is used in making stainless steel, has led to a severe shortage of chromite. Such supply condition is driving up prices of chrome ore. Ferrochrome production for metallurgical applications uses up more than 90% of the worlds chromite output of about 19 M tonnes/y. Nonmetallurgical applications consumer only a fraction of chromite production, with the refractory industry accounting for only about 1% and 3% each for the foundry and chemical industries. The nonmetallurgical industry is dependent on chromite requirements of the metallurgical industry as most chromite is manufactured by vertically integrated ferrochrome producers. Major traders of non-metallurgical chromite from South Africa provide more than half of global chromite supply. The declining availability of chromite is becoming alarming, especially when non-metallurgical applications are indicating increased demand for the material. The International Chromium Development Association noted that the metallurgical and foundry sectors both achieved an increase of about 10% in chromite consumption in 2005. Refractory consumption rose by 19.5% from 101,000 tonnes to 125,000 tonnes in 2005, while the chemical industry's chromite use dropped 21% from 752,000 tonnes to 595,000 tonnes. The supply shortage is mainly attributed to the booming stainless steel industry, which consumes more than 90% of the world's ferrochrome supply. Prices have also soared, with non-metallurgical chromite consumers compelled to match metal prices to ensure supply. Prices recently climbed further due to several developments, including a new tariff imposed by India on chromite exports; and speculations that South Africa is considering a new legislation that would ban the export of unbeneficiated chromite. South Africa accounts for about 50% of global chromite production, followed by India and Kazakhstan with about 20% and 15%, respectively. Demand for chromite and ferrochrome is expected to remain strong mainly due to the continued growth of China's stainless steel industry. A table shows chromite ore and concentrates production by end use sectors during 1999-2005. A line graph illustrates the price history of South African chromite special grades during Jan 2003-May 2007. Another table lists chromium ores and concentrates production of 20 countries in 2005, in tonnes/y. South Africa South Africa is the leading manufacturer of chromite globally and a major supplier of ferrochrome. Its chromite reserves are found in the

Bushveld Igneous Complex. Among South Africa's major producers of chromite and/or ferrochrome are Assmang Ltd, Samancor Chrome, Xstrata South Africa and International Ferrometals Ltd (IFM). Assmang mainly produces ferrochrome and obtains its chromite requirements from a new underground mine at Dwarsrivier. The underground mine is gradually increasing production towards its design capacity of 100,000 tonnes/mo of chromite. Samancor Chrome produces some 3 M tonnes/y of chromium ores from the Eastern Chrome Mines (ECM) and Western Chrome Mines (WCM) limbs of the Bushveld Igneous Complex. It consumes roughly 2.3 M tonnes/y of chromium ores for its internal requirements, while 700,000 tonnes/y are sold locally or abroad. The WCM business unit, which churns out most of the company's nonmetallurgical grade chromites, yielded 229,634 tonnes of foundrygrade chromite in 2005. The ECM unit produced 66,785 tonnes. Xstrata South Africa, which has five chromite ore mines, churned out 3.6 M tonnes of chromite ore in 2005, down from 4.2 M tonnes in 2004. Australia-based IFM operates the Buffelsfontein mine and ferrochrome smelter plant in Bushveld. The company has set up two furnaces to facilitate production of 267,000 tonnes/y of charge ferrochrome. Kazakhstan Kazakhstan is the second leading manufacturer of chromite globally. The country's top chromite producer is Eurasian Natural Resources Corp (ENRC), which operates the Donskoy Ore Mining & Processing unit. The company uses about 30% of its total chromite output to make chromium chemicals. India India is the third leading chromite ore producer globally with an output of about 3.5-4 M tonnes. India recently decided to implement a significant export tax to ensure supply for domestic ferrochrome manufacture. Chromite ore is mainly produced in the state of Orissa, with a large portion of chromite production consumed by local ferrochrome makers. Turkey Turkey is emerging as one of the major suppliers of chromite to China's ferrochrome markets. Adverse winter conditions allow mining of chromite to be conducted only from May to end of November. Bilfer Madencilik AS is one of Turkey's major chromite producers and primarily caters to the needs of the refractory and foundry industries. RHI AG sources about 2000 tonnes/y of refractory grade chrome for making sliding doors from Bilfer Madencilik.

Chromium is a truly international metal. The initial product - chromite ore - is mined in: • Africa • Europe and the CIS • Australasia and Middle East • America South Africa accounts for 36% of annual needs whilst Kazakhstan and India provide 17% and 19% respectively. Four countries - Brazil, Finland, Turkey and Zimbabwe - together account for 15% of total needs whilst about 11 smaller producer countries add the balance of 13%.

It is estimated that some 19 million tonnes of marketable chromite ore

were produced in 2006.

Geology and Mineralogy Chromium ore, or chromite, occurs exclusively in ultramafic igneous rocks.The chromium occurs as a chromium spinel, a complex mineral containing magnesium, iron, aluminium and chromium in varying proportions depending upon the deposit. The chromium spinel is a heavy mineral and concentrates to form ore deposits by gravity separation as the molten magma cools. Commercial chromite deposits occur mainly in two forms; stratiform deposits in layers in basin-like intrusions, and podiform or lenticular deposits Chromium ore, or chromite, occurs exclusively in rocks formed by the intrusion and solidification of molten lava or magma which is very rich in the heavy, iron containing minerals such as pyroxenes and olivines. Within these rocks, often referred to as ultramafic igneous rocks, chromium occurs as a chromium spinel, a highly complex mineral made up, in its basic form, of magnesium as MgO and aluminium as Al2O3. However, the magnesium can be substituted in varying proportions by divalent iron, and the aluminium can be substituted, also in varying proportions, by trivalent chromium and trivalent iron. Thus the chromium spinel may be represented as: (Fe,Mg)O.(Cr,Fe,Al)2O3 Large variations in the total and relative amounts of Cr and Fe in the lattice occur in different deposits. These affect the ore grade not only in terms of the Cr2O3 content but also in the Cr:Fe ratio which determines the chromium content of the ferrochromium produced. The

variations also affect the reducibility (relative ease of reduction) of the ore. For example, increasing amounts of magnesium compared with iron in the divalent site will make the spinel more difficult to reduce. Conversely, increasing amounts of iron in the trivalent site, replacing aluminium, will increase the reducibility of the spinel. Overall, the chromite ore can be given a refractory index (relative resistance to reduction) as follows: Refractory index= wt.% Cr2O3+MgO+Al2O3 (total Fe as FeO) +SiO2 The greater the index, the more refractory, or less reducible, the ore. Chromium is the most abundant of the Group V1A family of elements and at an average concentration of nearly 400ppm in the earth's crust it is the 13th most common element. However, as with all minerals or elements, economic deposits occur only where it has been concentrated in nature. The chromium spinel is a heavy mineral and it concentrates through gravity separation from most of the other molten material in the magma during crystallisation from the cooling magma. Commercial chromite deposits are found mainly in two forms: stratiform seams in basin-like intrusions, often multiple seams through repeated igneous injections, and the more irregular podiform or lenticular deposits. The best known example of a stratiform deposit is the Bushveld Igneous Complex of South Africa. This complex contains most of the world's chromite reserves. The Great Dyke of Zimbabwe, traversing nearly the length of the country, is very similar and has been linked to the Bushveld in geological history. These two features are well-known also for their important and very large commercial deposits of the platinum-group metals. Other stratiform deposits occur in Madagascar and in the Orissa district of India. Stratiform deposits are generally very large complexes. They can be more than 5,000 metres thick and cover thousands of square kilometres. For example, the largest, the Bushveld, covers an area of 12,000 square kilometres. The podiform deposits are relatively small in comparison and may be shaped as pods, lenses, slabs or other irregular shapes. Many have been extensively altered to serpentine and they are often faulted. They are generally richer in chromium than the stratiform deposits and have higher Cr:Fe ratios. Ore reserves in Kazakhstan are of the podiform

type. Podiform ores were originally highly sought after, especially those from the deposits in Zimbabwe, as the best source of metallurgical grade chromite for high-carbon ferrochromium. These ores also tend to be massive (hard lumpy) ores, as opposed to the softer, more friable ores from the stratiform deposits, and this makes for better electric smelting operation. There is a third type of chromite deposit but of very limited commercial significance. These are the eluvial deposits that have been formed by weathering of chromite-bearing rock and release of the chromite spinels with subsequent gravity concentration by flowing water. Chromium may also be concentrated in high-iron lateritic deposits containing nickel and there have been attempts to smelt these to produce a chromium-nickel pig iron for subsequent use in the stainless steel industry. MINING

Early mining of chromite was on a small-scale and was relatively straightforward from outcrops or to shallow depths followed by hand sorting. With the increased demand, conventional open-pit mining and mechanical underground mining became necessary. Underground mining of stratiform deposits is most often required but can be particularly difficult due to the narrow seam thickness (less than 1.5m), weathering close to surface and faulting. Open-pit mining is generally applied to the podiform ores at first but this progresses to underground mining as deeper levels of the deposit are reached. Weathering through serpentinisation and faulting are often encountered. Historically, there was sufficient high-grade metallurgical ore to meet demand but with the rapid growth of the stainless and other alloy steel industries, the much larger reserves of the lower grade, higher iron, ores have had to be exploited. Reserves and Resources Reserves are defined as proven in-situ tonnages, while resources are estimated additional tonnages.

- The United States Geological Survey states that world resources of chromite exceed 11 billion tonnes, sufficient to meet world demand for many centuries. - South Africa and Zimbabwe hold about 90% of the world's chromite reserves and resources, with South Africa having reserves of about 3.1 billion tonnes and a further estimated resource of 5.5 billion tonnes. - Zimbabwe has reserves of about 140 million tonnes with resources of a further 1 billion tonnes. It is the only country to exploit both stratiform and podiform deposits. The stratiform deposits occur in the Great Dyke, approx. 550 km long and 11 km wide, while the podiform deposits occur in the Selukwe and Belingwe areas. - Kazakhstan has podiform deposits in the southern Ural Mountain region with reserves of 320 million tonnes and a further 320 million tonnes resource. The ores vary greatly in chromium content and in Cr:Fe ratios. - India's output is from podiform bodies on the east coast of the state of Orissa. Its reserves are put at 27 million tonnes with a further resource of 67 million tonnes. - Finland has podiform deposits near Kemi in northern Finland. Although the Cr2O3 content is very low, the ore has been successfully mined, concentrated and smelted to ferrochromium, and then converted to stainless steel on site. Reserves are given as 41 million tonnes and resources as 120 million tonnes. - In Brazil, production is concentrated in Bahia and Minas Gerais, although chromite deposits have been identified in other states. These are mainly stratiform deposits with reserves of 14 million tonnes and resources of 17 million tonnes. - China's chromium resources are contained in podiform and stratiform deposits but are largely unknown in terms of possible reserves and resources. There is a chromite mine in Tibet. Russia also has mines in the Ural mountains with further developments above the arctic circle. - Other countries with smaller chromite deposits include Oman, Iran, Turkey and Albania. Total reserves and resources of these and others are 24 million tonnes and 538 million tonnes respectively. World Production and Global Development While demand for chromium alloys has been expanding by some 5% annually over the past decade, the output of chromite ore followed closely with an average growth rate of 4.6% per annum.

However, the market performance showed an unusual pattern: Between 1994 and 1999, chrome ore production stagnated whereas from the year 2000 onwards, market volumes increased from 15 million tonnes to 22 million tonnes in 2007. This substantial increase can be primarily explained from the rapidly rising global stainless steel demand and production in China, where local ferroalloy plants converted strongly rising imports of chrome ore into chromium alloys. In the year 2007, world chromite ore production stood at 22 million tonnes with the following breakdown: South Africa accounted for 39% of production, whilst Kazakhstan and India provided 17% and 15% respectively. Brazil, Finland, Russia, Turkey and Zimbabwe together contributed a further 19%, whilst some 11 smaller producer countries brought the balance of 10%. Within the total volume of ore and concentrates produced in 2007, 94% were metallurgical grade, 2% chemical grade and the balance of 4% were refractory and foundry grade. World Chromite Ore Production in 2007

* Albania, Australia, China, Iran, Madagascar, Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Sudan, UAE & Vietnam

ORE

PROCESSING

Initial

processing of chromite ores by hand

can be

sorting of lumpy ores, and by heavy media or gravity separation of finer ores, to remove gangue or waste materials and produce upgraded ores or concentrates. Magnetic separation and froth flotation techniques have also been applied in some cases. Most of the world's production of chromite (94%) is used in the metallurgical industry in the form of ferrochromium alloys. The alloys are produced by high temperature reduction (smelting) of chromite. They are essentially alloys of iron and chromium with much lesser amounts of carbon and silicon, the amounts depending upon the grade or type of alloy, and impurities such as sulphur, phosphorous and titanium. The conversion of chromite to ferrochromium alloys is dominated by electric submerged arc furnace smelting with carbonaceous reductants, predominantly coke, and fluxes to form the correct slag composition. The electric current is 3-phase Alternating Current (AC) and the furnaces have three equally spaced consumable graphite electrodes in a cylindrical, refractory-lined container with a bottom tap-hole. Characteristics of the submerged arc furnace for smelting chromite include: 1. Relatively easy to control provided the charge is well sorted to maintain a permeable overburden which will allow easy escape of the gases produced. 2. Self-regulating with power input determining the rate of consumption of charge (overburden) 3. Some pre-heating and pre- reduction of the overburden by the hot ascending gases. Submerged arc furnaces can be open, semi-closed or closed with correspondingly better thermal efficiency and the ability to make use of the energy in the off-gases from the closed furnaces. In the early days of high-carbon ferrochromium production, the furnaces were supplied with high-grade, lumpy chromite from countries such as Zimbabwe but with the increasing demand from the 1970s, other countries, South Africa in particular, commenced production from their lower-grade ores. The alloy produced from these ores became known as charge chrome because the chromium content was lower and the carbon content, and in particular the ratio of C:Cr, was very much greater than in high-carbon ferrochromium. This did not suit the stainless steelmakers who required as little carbon as possible entering their melts for each chromium unit and who were, therefore, having to use larger amounts of the more costly low-carbon ferrochromium to compensate. However, the situation changed radically with the advent of the argon-oxygen decarburising (AOD) and vacuum-oxygen decarburising (VOD) processes. These processes enabled the steelmakers to remove carbon from the stainless melts without

excessive oxidation and losses of chromium. A more advanced attempt to overcome the problem of ore fines was the introduction of DC arc, or plasma, furnace technology. The DC arc furnace uses a single, central hollow graphite electrode as the cathode, with an electrically conducting refractory furnace hearth as the anode. The furnace operates with an open bath, so there is no problem with overburden, and the chromite fines, together with coal and fluxes, are fed directly into the bath through the hollow electrode. The furnace has a closed top. Some of the advantages of DC arc furnace operation are: use of fine ores without agglomeration, use of cheaper reductants and greater choice of reductants, higher chromium recoveries, deliberate changes in the charge composition are reflected rapidly in the slag or metal, and closed top operation allows furnace off-gas energy to be used. Another approach to friable ores has been to pelletise them, after further grinding if necessary, with binder, reductant and fluxes and pass them through a rotary kiln where they are hardened (sintered), pre-heated and pre-reduced to a degree before charging to a submerged arc furnace. A further development in treating ore fines by kiln pre-reduction used unaglomerated chromite fines and low cost coal, with fluxes, as the feed to the kiln. Self agglomeration of the fines was achieved close to the discharge from the kiln where the charge becomes pasty in a high temperature zone of approx. 1,500ºC. Very high degrees of reduction were achieved (80-90%) so that the downstream electric furnace (DC arc) became essentially a melting furnace. A more recent approach, and one which is being installed by more plants, is again by pelletising. Pellets are produced with coke included and these are sintered and partly pre-reduced on a steel belt sintering system. From there, the pellets are delivered to pre-heating shaft kilns that are sited above submerged arc furnaces and which operate as direct feed bins, making use of the off-gas heat from the furnaces. Lump ore, coke and fluxes are also directed to the feed bins. In addition to the technologies already discussed, there have been various other approaches to smelting chromite. These include rotary hearth sintering and pre-reduction of pellets, and fluidised bed preheaters for chromite fines. Some intensive development work has been carried out in Japan upon entirely coal/oxygen based smelting processes using no electrical energy, sometimes referred to as smelt-reduction processes

The following diagram illustrates a typical material flow: Chrome ore in various sizes is typically charged into a submerged AC Electric Arc Furnace and reductants (coke, coal and quartzite ) are added. The smelting process is energy intensive requiring upt to 4,000 kWh per tonne material weight. Slag is separated from the liquid ferrochrome and tapped into ladles for further processing. Liquid ferrochrome is then poured into moulds and after cooling crushed into sizes as required by the customers. Crushed ferrochrome is railed to final customers or harbours for shipment.

USES AND APPLICATIONS Ferroalloys A wide range of ferroalloys is produced, reflecting not only the appropriate metallurgical application but also the composition of the ore in terms of its Cr2O3 content and its Cr:Fe ratio. The main alloys are high-carbon ferrochromium (HCFeCr), produced from ores with Cr:Fe ratios of 2.0-3.6, and having a chromium content of more than 60% and carbon of 4-6%, and charge chrome produced from lower grade ores, mainly from South Africa, with Cr:Fe in the range 1.3-2.0, and containing 50-55% Cr and 6-8%C. These two alloys are sometimes

collectively referred to as high-carbon ferrochromium. Some 7.6 million tonnes of HCFeCr were produced in 2007. South Africa accounted for 46% of production followed by Kazakhstan: 14%, China: 14% and India: 11%. Finland, Russia and Zimbabwe together contributed a further 10% whilst some 5 smaller producer countries brought the balance of 5%. World High Carbon Ferrochromium Production in 2007

*Brazil, Iran, Japan, Sweden & Turkey

Maximum levels of the impurities sulphur, phosphorous and titanium are specified in the alloys and minimum or maximum levels of silicon, depending upon the steelmaking process which might require the exothermic oxidation of the silicon to provide additional energy. Smaller quantities of chromium are added to the steels in the form of medium-carbon ferrochromium (MCFeCr) and low-carbon ferrochromium (LCFeCr) in stages or processes which require lower carbon levels. MCFeCr contains less than 5%C and LCFeCr has less than 0.1%C and less than 1% Si. LCFeCr is generally used by steelmakers for their final trimming adjustments to the steel composition. There were 681,000 tonnes of Other Ferrochromium (MCFeCr and LCFeCr) produced in 2007 with China, Russia, South Africa and Kazakhstan being the main producers.

World Other Ferrochromium Production in 2007

*Brazil, Germany, Japan & Turkey Ferrosilicochromium (FeSiCr) is also produced. It is used in the intermediate stages of LCFeCr production, through exothermic oxidation of the silicon with a chromite melt, or directly by some steel producers to add both Cr and Si to the melt rather than as separate alloys.

Indian Buyers of Chrome Ore Grishma Chrom Materials, Thane Engaged in supplying of Carbon chrome powder, chromium metal powder, chromium carbide powder, chromium nitride powder, chromium aluminium powder, ferro alloy powder, ferro chrome powder, ferro silicon powder, ferro titanium powder & ferro tungsten powder. Location: 3, Paras Industrial Estate, Opposite Bank Of Baroda Navghar Road, Vasai East, Thane, Maharashtra, India, 401 210. Rudra Ferro Alloys Private Limited, Delhi Suppliers and traders of High Carbon Ferrochrome, High Carbon chrome, ferro chrome alloys. Also exportes flurospar, flurospar lumps, High Carbon chrome and High Carbon silicon. Location: C-120, Street No. 3, (Near Police Station Bhajanpura), Delhi, India, 110 053. Hira Power And Steels Limited, Raipur Leading supplier and manufacturer of High Carbon Ferrochrome minerals, ferro alloys, ferro chrome, HC ferro manganese, HC silico manganese, HC Ferrochrome, HC manganese ore, Carbon Ferrochrome, pyrolusite, MnO2, hausmannite, Mn3O4, and manganite, MnO(OH). Location: 557, Urla industrial area, URLA, Raipur (C.G.), Raipur, Chattisgarh, India, 492 001. Shivam Chemicals & Minerals Limited, Agra Manufacturing and selling industrial High Carbon Ferrochromes, precision High Carbon Ferrochromes, automotive High Carbon Ferrochromes, ferro High Carbon Ferrochromes and industrial ferrous alloys.

Location: 3/220, Roshan Mohalla, Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India, 282 003. Andhra Ferro Alloys Limited, Visakhapatnam Exporters and suppliers of High Carbon ferro chrome such as industrial High Carbon Ferrochromes, precision High Carbon Ferrochromes, automotive High Carbon Ferrochromes and ferro High Carbon Ferrochromes. Location: Flat No. 501, Swagruha Coral, Pandurangapuram, R.K. Beach, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India, 530 003. Shyam Sel Limited, Kolkata Manufacturer / Supplier / Exporter of : Alloy Steel Bars, Construction Bars, Ferro Chrome Alloys, Ferro Manganese, Ferro Manganese Alloys, High Carbon Ferro Alloys, High Tensile Steel Structures, Light Steel Structures, Silico Manganese, Silico Manganese Ferro Alloys, Spring Steel Bars, Steel Angles, Steel Structures, Steel Wire Rods, Unequal Angles Location: 86 C, Topsia Road, Vishwakarma Building, Ist Floor., Kolkata, West Bengal, India, 700 046.

India's Mineral Sector India is endowed with significant mineral resources. India produces 89 minerals out of which 4 are fuel minerals, 11 metallic, 52 non-metallic and 22 minor minerals. The total value of mineral production (excluding atomic minerals was Rs. 404768 million in 1998-99. The entire metallic production is

accounted for by iron-ore, copper-ore, chromite and/or zinc concentrates, gold, manganese ore, bauxite, lead concentrates, and silver. Amongst the non-metallic minerals, 92 percent of the aggregate value is shared by limestone, magnesite, dolomite, barytes, kaolin, gypsum, apatite & phosphorite, steatite and fluorite. INDIA’S CONTRIBUTION TO THE WORLD’S MINERAL PRODUCTION ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT - Ministry of Mines CONTRIBUTION OF THE PUBLIC SECTOR CONTRIBUTION OF OTHER GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONS

INDIA’S CONTRIBUTION TO THE WORLD’S MINERAL PRODUCTION India is the world’s largest producer of mica blocks and mica splittings. With the recent spurt in world demand for chromite, India has stepped up its production to reach the third rank among the chromite producers of the world. Besides, India ranks 3rd in production of coal & lignite and barytes, 4th in iron ore, 6th in bauxite and manganese ore, 10 in aluminium and 11th in crude steel in the World.

Life Indices: Some Important Minerals S.No. Mineral/Ore/Metal

.

Recoverable Depletion Recoverable Projected Balance reserves as during Reserves as production life at on 1.1.1985 1985-97 on 1.1.1997 during 1996-97 1996-97 level of production

.

(m.tonnes) (m.tonnes) (m.tonnes) (m.tonnes) (years)++ 1

2

3

4

5

6

1

Crude oil (as on1.1.91)

993.00

230.00

763.00

50.00

15

2

Natural Gas (B.Cu.M.) (as on 1.4.90)

858.00

161.00

697.00

30.00

23

3

Coal (as on 1.1.91)

I

Coking

II

Non Coking

4

Bauxite

5

.

.

.

.

.

8507.00

201.00

8306.00

39.00

213

60346.00

1397.00

58949.00

269.00

219

2333.00

80.00

2253.00

8.00

282

Copper metal (as on 31.3.88)

3.95

0.43

3.52

0.06

64

6

Lead metal (as on 1.1.89)

1.93

0.56

1.37

0.10

14

7

Zinc metal (as on 1.1.89)

7.00

1.10

5.90

0.15

38

8

Gold (as on 1.1.89)

103000.00 16727.00

86273.00

1850.00

47

9

Iron ore

10440.00

686.00

9754.00

72.00

135

10 Chromite Ore

139.00

15.00

124.00

2.40

52

11 Magnesite

222.00

6.70

215.30

0.73

295

83.17

17.65

65.52

1.80

36

69353.00

876.00

68477.00

101.00

678

14.78

8.79

5.99

0.72

8

0.50

0.35

54.25

0.017

3191

0.51

1.04

0.06

19

12 Manganese Ore 13 Limestone Rock Phosphate High

14 grade 15

Sillimanite

I

Masslve

II

Beach sand

16 Kyanite

54.10 1.55

Introduction The Department of Mines and Geology was established in 1887. Upto 1951, the functions of both geological survey and Inspectorate of Mines were carried out by the department of Mines and Geological survey. In 1951 with the federal financial integration, the Hyderabad geological survey was merged with the Geological survey of India and the safety aspect of Mines became part of the Director General of Mines Safety, Dhanbad. After the formation of Andhra Pradesh, the functions of processing the applications for Mineral concession and the grant of Quarry leases were transferred to the Revenue Department. Later in 1976-77, the entire mineral regulatory for both Major and Minor Minerals were transferred from Revenue to Department of Mines and Geology. At present there are 22 district offices and 8 Regional offices to oversee the regulatory and promotional tasks in the state. The Department of Mines and Geology is the investigative, administrative, advisory and promotional arm of the Govt. of Andhra Pradesh in the mineral development. The Department of Mines and Geology is entrusted with regulatory and promotional tasks, which involve mineral investigation, exploration, receipt and processing of Mineral concession applications, approve mining plans, grant and monitoring of Leases, Vigilance, Issue of Permits, Monitoring of production and dispatch, Collection of Mineral revenue, development of Mineral based industries in the State. It generates and collates Geo-Scientific data of the state and coordinates with all geological agencies like Geological Survey of India, National Mineral Development Corporation, Mineral Exploration Corporation, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, Singereni Collieries, National Geophysical Research Institute, universities etc., for carrying out geological investigations and explorations in the state. It helps in identifying the Mineral potential for exploitation and development of Mineral based industries in the state. Functions of the Department Regulatory & Promotional Receipt and processing of Applications for the grant of leases under Mineral Concession Rules. Inspection of Applied areas to advice the Govt. for grant of Leases.

To monitor scientific exploitation of mineral wealth of the state. To control illicit mining, quarrying and transportation of minerals. Scanning and identification of Mineral Resources Mineral Investigations, Exploration, Quantification and Analysis of Minerals Guidance and Dissemination of Mineral Information Promotion of Mineral Based Industries. Mineral Revenue and assessments To monitor production and dispatches of various minerals. To monitor collection of royalty and seigniorage fee based on grades/quantity. Imposition of penalties on illicit mining, transportation and storage. Mineral Rights Under the federal constitution of the India, Mineral Rights are being vested with the state and state is wholly responsible for judicial exploration, exploitation, development, conservation, environment, safety and promotion of Mineral based Industries. Mineral Acts and Rules Mineral Regulations are being governed by the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Central Act 1957. Mineral Concession Rules 1960. Mineral Conservative & Development Rules 1988. Mines Act, Coal Act, Oil and Natural Gas Rules, Safety Rules, Forest Conservation Act 1980, Environment Protection Act 1986, Andhra Pradesh Minor Mineral Concession Rules 1966, Granite conservation and development rules 1999, Mineral dealer rules 2000 and the rules framed thereunder. National Mineral Policy In line with liberalisation and globalisation of India's economy, a new mineral policy was formulated in 1993. This policy marks a watershed in the history of development in the mineral sector in India. This policy recognises the need for encouraging private investment both domestic and foreign and the induction of state-of-the-art technology in the Mines and Mineral sector. Under this policy, all the 13 minerals (Iron Ore, Manganese Ore, Chrome ore, Sulphur, Diamond, Gold, Zinc, Copper, Lead, Molybdenum, Nickel, Platinum group, Tungsten ore) which were earlier reserved for public sector were open for exploration and exploitation by the private sector. Thus, the entire mining sector except for atomic minerals is now open for private investment including foreign investment. Liberalized National Mineral Policy 1993 was brought out to integrate the Indian Mineral Industry with the Global Mineral Industry and aims

to encourage Inflow of Private investment both domestic and foreign Technology transfer/ Upgradation to improve productivity and Scientific working Policy on Foreign Direct Investment The mining sector was opened to foreign direct investment(FDI) in 1993, initially all proposals were considered on a case to case basis by Foreign Investment Promotion Board (FIPB), later FDI policy in the mining sector was further liberalized, which opened up an "Automatic approval" route for investments involving foreign equity participation upto 100 percent except for Diamonds and precious stones. State Mineral Policy State Mineral Policy aims at optimum exploitation, scientific development, value addition, marketing and exports under private and joint sectors. Mineral Sector, Cement & Jewellery Sectors are identified as Thrust areas in the New Industrial Policy; brought out simplified entrepreneur friendly structural changes in the State Mineral Policy, decentralized, deregulated & introduced Prefixed Time frame in the processing of Mineral Concessions at each level for faster implementation of projects. The Govt. has thrown the Mineral sector open for private investment and likes to withdraw from areas in which their presence is no longer required and disinvest from these public sectors. State Investment Promotion Board Created to facilitate the entrepreneurs to get single window clearance for all the mineral Projects under the Chairmanship of Chief Minister. Any Mineral Project filled under are circulate simultaneously to all the departments and decision is made within 4 weeks. Mining Policy, Regulation and Development Ministry of Mines 8 Mining Law and Policy 3.1 The Central Government can exercise powers for regulation of mines and development of minerals to the extent that such regulation and development under the control of the Union is declared by Parliament by law to be expedient in the public interest, as per Entry- 54 of List-I of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India. The State Governments on the other hand have been given powers under Entry-23 of List–II for regulation of mines and mineral development subject to the provisions of List–I with respect to regulation and development under the control of the Union.Parliament has enacted the Mines and Minerals (Development & Regulation) Act, 1957 (MMDR Act,1957) under Entry 54 of List-I to provide for the regulation of mines and development of minerals undercontrol of the Union.3.2 In pursuance of the reforms initiated by the

Government of India in July 1991 in fiscal, industrial and trade regimes, the National Mineral Policy was announced in March 1993. The National Mineral Policy recognized the need for encouraging private investment including foreign direct investment and for attracting state-of-the-art technology in the mineral sector. The policy stressed that the Central Government, in consultation with the State Governments, shall continue to formulate legal measures for the regulation of mines and the development of mineral resources to ensure basic uniformity in mineral administration so that the development of mineral resources keeps pace, and is in consonance with the national policy goals. 3.3 In furtherance of the objective of the National Mineral Policy, the MMDR Act, 1957 has been amended in 1994 and 1999. The Mineral Concession

Mining Policy, Regulation and Development Chapter 3

Rules, 1960 (MCR) and the Mineral Conservation and Development Rules, 1988 (MCDR), framed under the MMDR Act, 1957 have also been modified. Salient features of the amended mining legislation are as follows: (i) There is no restriction on foreign equity holding in mining sector companies registered in India. (ii) There is a greater stability on tenure of mineral concessions, since the minimum period of a mining lease is twenty years with a maximum period of thirty years. A mining lease may be renewed for a period not exceeding 20 years and may again be renewed for a period not exceeding 20 years in respect of minerals specified in Part C of the First Schedule of the Act. In respect of minerals specified in Part A and B of the First Schedule of the Act, such renewal is to be granted with previous approval of the Central Government. The period of

prospecting licence is now three years, with scope of renewal by a further period of two years. (iii) Thirteen minerals like iron ore, manganese ore, chrome ore, sulphur, gold, diamond, copper, lead, zinc, molybdenum, tungsten, nickel and platinum group of minerals, which were reserved exclusively for public sector exploitation, have been thrown open for exploitation by the private sector. (iv) With the 1999 amendment, a concept of reconnaissance operations as a stage of operation distinct from and prior to actual prospecting operations was introduced. The period of reconnaissance permit is three years. A reconnaissance permit holder enjoys preferential right for grant of prospecting license.

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