CHAPTER 27
CARE OF THE CHEMICALLY IMPAIRED
CHAPTER OUTLINE PREVALENCE Studies indicate that 13.8% of American adults have had either an alcoholdependent or alcohol abuse problem at one point in their lives. Estimate suggests that about 2.4 million of the U.S. population over age 12 need treatment for drug use disorders, and an additional 13 million people need treatment for alcohol use disorders. COMORBIDITY Psychiatric Comorbidity Fiftyone percent of people with a serious mental illness also have a chemical dependency. The suicide risk is three to four times higher in substance abusers than in the general population. Clients with dual disorders often require longer treatment are dependent on or addicted to an illicit drug., have more crises, and respond more slowly to treatment. Common examples of dual disorders include the combinations of major depression with cocaine addiction, alcohol addiction with panic disorder, alcoholism and polydrug addiction with schizophrenia, and borderline personality disorders with episodic polydrug abuse. Medical Comorbidity Alcohol can affect all organ systems, but oftenseen problems involve the CNS (Wernicke’s encephalopathy and Korsakoff’s psychosis) and the GI system (esophagitis, gastritis, pancreatitis, hepatitis, cirrhosis). Cocaine abusers may experience malnutrition, myocardial infarction, and stroke. IV drug users have a higher incidence of HIV, TB, STDs, abscesses, and bacterial endocarditis. Smoking a substance increases the incidence of respiratory problems and intranasal use predisposes to sinusitis and perforated nasal septum. THEORIES Addiction study incorporates the concepts of loss of control of substance ingestion, using drugs despite associated problems, and a tendency to relapse.
Biological Theories Children of alcoholic parents are more likely to develop alcoholism than are children of nonalcoholic parents. Both alcohol use and drug use have recently been demonstrated to affect selected neurotransmitter systems. Alcohol and certain other drugs act on the GABA system; cocaine use is associated with deficiency in dopamine and norepinephrine.
Psychological Theories The following are associated psychodynamic factors: intolerance for frustration and pain, lack of success in life, lack of affectionate and meaningful relationships, low self esteem, and risktaking propensity. A person uses substances to feel better and over time this habitual behavior develops into an addiction. Sociocultural Theories There are differences in the incidence of substance abuse in various groups. In Asian cultures the prevalence rate of alcoholism is relatively low, due in part to an oftenfound inability to break down acetaldehyde, an intermediate in alcohol metabolism, which produces unpleasant symptoms. Another theory correlates substance use with the degree of socioeconomic stress experienced by individuals. DEFINITIONS Tolerance Tolerance is the need for higher and higher doses of substances to achieve the desired effect. Withdrawal Withdrawal involves physiological and psychological signs and symptoms associated with stopping or reducing use of substances. Flashbacks
Flashbacks are the transitory recurrence in perceptual disturbance reminiscent of disturbances experienced in earlier hallucinogenic intoxication. Synergistic Effects Synergistic effects refer to the intensification or prolongation of the effect of two or more drugs occurring when they are taken together, e.g., alcohol and a benzodiazepine. Antagonistic Effects Antagonistic effects refer to weakening or inhibiting the effect of one drug by using another, e.g., using cocaine and heroin together, or using naloxone, a narcotic antagonist, to treat opiate overdose. CoDependence CoDependence is a cluster of behaviors that prevents one individual from taking care of his or her own needs due to preoccupation with another who is addicted to a substance. APPLICATION OF THE NURSING PROCESS ASSESSMENT Assessment is complex because of polydrug use, dual diagnosis, and comorbid physical illness. Overall Assessment Interview Guidelines The nurse should ask questions about what is being taken (prescribed; overthe counter; social drugs — caffeine and nicotine, alcohol, other drugs), amount, length of use, route, and drug preference. Questions should be asked in a matteroffact and nonjudgmental way: • What drugs did you take before coming to the hospital? • How did you take the drugs (route)? • How much did you take? (For ethanol, ask about beer, wine, and liquor individually.) • When was the last dose(s) taken?
• • •
How long have you been using substances? When did this episode start? How often and how many do you use? What problems has substance use caused for you? Your family? Friends? Job? Health? Finances? The law?
How a person responds is significant for assessment purposes: rationalizations merit further assessment. Some will answer guardedly, being careful of what is said. Some will answer with hopelessness about being able to attain a drugfree state. Physical indicators of substance abuse should be assessed, including dilated or constricted pupils, abnormal vital signs, needle marks, tremors, and alcohol on the breath. The nurse should also take a history from family and friends and check belongings for drug paraphernalia. There is a significant link between ethanol consumption and injury. Check neurological signs, especially with comatose clients. Urine toxicology and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) are useful. Be alert for comorbid psychiatric impairment. Assessment Tools Useful tools include the brief version of the Michigan Alcohol Screening Test (MAST) for assessment of a problem with alcohol, and the Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST for other substances. Psychological Changes Psychological characteristics associated with substance abuse include denial, depression, anxiety, dependency, hopelessness, low selfesteem, and various psychiatric disorders. Some people with psychiatric disorders selfmedicate; for these people the symptoms remain even after sobriety is achieved. On the other hand, psychological changes that occurred as a result of drinking resolve quickly. Substanceabusing people are concerned about being rejected by nurses; they may be anxious about recovering because to do so they must give up the substance they think they need to survive, and because they are concerned about failing at recovery. These concerns prompt the addict to establish a predictable defensive style using denial, projection, and rationalization, and characteristic thought processes such as allornone thinking and selective attention, as well as behaviors that include conflict minimization, avoidance, passivity, and manipulation. Assessing Signs of Intoxication and Withdrawal CNS Depressants These include alcohol, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and sedatives. Intoxication signs and symptoms include slurred speech; incoordination; ataxia; drowsiness;
disinhibition of sexual and aggressive impulses; and impaired judgment, social, and occupational function, and attention and memory. Withdrawal from alcohol and CNS depressants is associated with severe morbidity and mortality, unlike withdrawal from other drugs. Multiple drug and alcohol dependencies can result in simultaneous withdrawal syndromes that present a bizarre clinical picture and may pose problems for safe withdrawal. Alcohol Withdrawal Early signs (anxiety, anorexia, insomnia, and tremor) develop within a few hours after cessation or reduction of alcohol intake, peak after 24 to 48 hours, then disappear unless the withdrawal progresses to alcohol withdrawal delirium. Other signs and symptoms include startling easily, “shaking inside,” vivid nightmares, illusions, confusion, fright, elevated pulse and BP, and grand mal seizures. The client requires a kind, warm, supportive manner from the nurse; consistent and frequent orientation to time and place; and clarification of illusions. Alcohol Withdrawal Delirium
This is a medical emergency with up to a 10% mortality rate. Delirium peaks after 2 to 3 days (48 to 72 hours) after cessation or reduction of intake and lasts 2 to 3 days. Features of withdrawal delirium include anxiety, insomnia, anorexia, delirium, autonomic hyperactivity (elevated pulse and BP, diaphoresis), disturbed sensorium (clouded consciousness, disorientation), perceptual disturbances (visual and tactile hallucinations), fluctuating levels of consciousness, paranoid delusions, agitation, and fever. CNS Stimulants These include amphetamines, cocaine, crack, caffeine, and nicotine. These stimulants accelerate normal body functioning. Common signs of abuse include pupil dilation, dryness of oronasal cavity, excessive motor activity, tachycardia, elevated BP, twitching, insomnia, anorexia, grandiosity, impaired judgment, paranoid thinking, hallucinations, hyperpyrexia, convulsions, and death. Dependence develops rapidly. Periods of “high” are followed by deep depression as the body tries to rebalance neurotransmitters. Cocaine and Crack
Cocaine is a naturally occurring drug extracted from leaves of the coca bush. Crack is an alkalinized form of cocaine. Dependence develops rapidly. Cocaine is a schedule II substance. People who sniff cocaine develop deterioration of the nasal passages. Those who smoke the drug can incur lung damage, upper GI problems, and throat infections. IV users may experience endocarditis, heart attacks, angina, and needlerelated infections such as hepatitis and HIV. Cocaine has both anesthetic and stimulant effects. As an anesthetic it blocks conduction of electrical impulses within nerve cells that transmit pain
impulses. As a stimulant it produces sexual arousal and violent behavior. It produces an imbalance of dopamine and norepinephrine that may be responsible for many of the physical withdrawal symptoms: depression, paranoia, lethargy, anxiety, insomnia, nausea and vomiting, sweating and chills. Nicotine and Caffeine
Nicotine can act as a stimulant, depressant, or tranquilizer. It is addicting. Bupropion (Wellbutrin, Zyban) has been a successful treatment for nicotine withdrawal. Caffeine is a stimulant ingested daily by many in coffee, tea, and cola drinks. Opiates Opiates include opium, morphine, heroin, codeine, and fentanyl and its analog methadone and meperidine. Signs of intoxication include constricted pupils, decreased respiration and BP, drowsiness, slurred speech, psychomotor retardation, euphoria or dysphoria, and impaired attention, memory, and judgment. Overdose causes respiratory depression, coma, convulsions, and death. Marijuana (Cannabis sativa)
The active ingredient in marijuana is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which has mixed depressant and hallucinogenic properties. Effects include detachment, relaxation, euphoria, apathy, intensification of perceptions, impaired judgment, slowed perception of time, impaired memory, and heightened sensitivity to stimuli. Overdose may cause panic reactions. Dependence is associated with lethargy, anhedonia, difficulty concentrating, and memory impairment. Hallucinogens Hallucinogens alter mental state within a very short period of time. Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) and LSD-like Drugs
LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin produce a “trip” characterized by slowing of time, lightheadedness, images in intense colors, and visions in sound (synesthesia). A “bad trip” may produce severe anxiety, paranoia, and terror compounded by distortions in time and distance. The best treatment for a bad trip is reassurance in a pleasant environment. Flashbacks — transitory recurrence of the drug experience — occur when a person is drugfree. Phencyclidine Piperidine (PCP)
The route of administration of PCP plays a significant role in the severity of intoxication: symptoms appear within 1 hour of oral ingestion and within 5 minutes of IV use, sniffing, or smoking. PCP produces a blank stare, ataxia, muscle rigidity, vertical and
horizontal nystagmus, and a tendency toward violence. High doses may lead to hyperthermia, chronic jerking of the extremities, hypertension, and kidney failure. Suicidal ideation should always be assessed, especially in cases of toxicity or coma. Longterm use can result in dulled thinking, lethargy, loss of impulse control, poor memory, and depression. Inhalants Inhalants are substances (paint, glue, cigarette lighter fluid, and propellant gases used in aerosols) that when sniffed result in intoxication. “Rave” and “Techno” Drugs, Date Rape Drugs Drugs included in this category are ecstasy (3, 4methyleredioxymethamphetamine, MDMA), gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB) and ketamine. Ecstasy, called “Adam” and “Love” and “Eve,” is a substitute amphetamine representing one of a distinct category of drugs labeled entactogens. These drugs produce euphoria, increased energy, increased selfconfidence, increased sociability, and some psychedelic effects. Adverse effects include hyperthermia, rhabdomyolysis, acute renal failure, hepatotoxicity, cardiovascular collapse, depression, panic attacks, and psychosis. The drugs most frequently used to facilitate sexual assault are flunitrazepam (Rohypnol), and GHB because they produce rapid disinhibition and relaxation, as well as retrograde amnesia. Alcohol potentiates the effects of these drugs. SelfAssessment Nurses’ responses to clients who use illicit substances sometimes include disapproval, intolerance, condemnation, and belief that the client is morally weak. The manipulative behaviors sometimes used by these clients may lead the nurse to feel angry and exploited. In some areas, recreational use of drugs is so common that nurses may accept intoxication and overdose as normal phenomena. This causes the nurse to underestimate the amount of support and education the client needs. Enabling (i.e., supporting or denying the client’s physical or psychological substance dependence) is highly detrimental. Enabling behaviors include encouraging denial by agreeing that the client drinks or takes drugs only socially, ignoring clues to possible dependency, demonstrating sympathy for client’s reasons for abusing substances, and preaching. Nurses must attend to personal feelings that arise when they work with drug abusers if they are to be therapeutic. The Chemically Impaired Nurse Nurses have a 32% to 50% higher rate of chemical dependency than the general
population. Without intervention or treatment the problems associated with chemical dependency escalate and the potential for client harm increases. Early indicators of substance abuse problems in nurses include changing life style to focus on activities that encourage substance use, showing inconsistency between statements and actions, displaying increasing irritability, projecting blame, isolating self from social contacts, deteriorating physical appearance, episodes of vaguely described illness, frequent tardiness or absences, manipulating possession of keys to narcotics, and deepening depression. When the impaired nurse is on duty, clients may complain that their pain is unrelieved by their narcotic analgesic and increases in inaccurate drug counts and vial breakage may occur. Clear, accurate documentation by coworkers is vital. Once there is documentation the nurse manager must be informed. Intervention is the responsibility of the nurse manager. If the situation persists without intervention by the nurse manager, the information needs to be taken to the next level in the chain of command. Although reporting a colleague is difficult, not reporting is an enabling behavior. Referral to a treatment program should be an option. Reports to the state board for nursing by nursing administration must contain factual documentation. NURSING DIAGNOSIS The list of potential diagnoses includes, but is not limited to, Anxiety, Ineffective coping; Ineffective health maintenance, Risk for injury, Impaired verbal communication, Disturbed sensory perception, Hopelessness, Risk for infection, Impaired parenting, Ineffective breathing pattern, Sexual dysfunction, Disturbed sleep pattern, Impaired social interaction, Disturbed thought processes, Risk for selfdirected violence, Risk for other directed violence, Interrupted family processes, Selfcare deficit; Imbalanced nutrition: Less than body requirements, Powerlessness, Chronic low selfesteem, Spiritual distress, Impaired skin integrity, etc. OUTCOME CRITERIA Withdrawal Example: Remains free from injury while withdrawing; evidence of stable condition within 72 hours. Initial and Active Drug Treatment
Example: Maintains abstinence from chemical substances, demonstrates acceptance for own behavior at end of 3 months, continues attendance for treatment and maintenance of sobriety, attends a relapse prevention program during active course of treatment, states he or she has a stable group of drugfree friends with whom to socialize at least three times weekly, etc. Health Maintenance Example: Demonstrates responsibility for taking care of health care needs, as evidenced by keeping appointments and adhering to medication and treatment schedules; client medical tests will demonstrate after 6 months a reduced incidence of medical complications related to substance abuse. PLANNING Abstinence is the safest treatment goal for all addicts. Planning must also address major psychological, social, and medical problems, as well as the substanceabusing behavior. Lack of interpersonal and social supports and even lack of ability to meet basic needs for shelter, food, and clothing may complicate planning. INTERVENTION Aim of treatment is toward selfresponsibility, not compliance. Choice of program is often influenced by cost and health insurance coverage. Outpatient programs work best for employed substance abusers who have an involved support system. People without support and structure do better in inpatient programs. Communication Guidelines These involve working with dysfunctional anger, manipulation, impulsiveness, and grandiosity. A warm, accepting relationship can assist the client to feel safe enough to begin looking at problems with openness and honesty. Characteristics of a counselor that facilitate work with substance abusers include knowledge of addiction, ability to form caring relationships, capacity to tolerate anxiety and depression, persistence and patience, capacity to listen, and honesty. Principles for counseling interventions include the following: expect abstinence, individualize goals and interventions, set limits on behavior and on conditions under which treatment will continue, support and redirect defenses rather than attempt to remove them, recognize that recovery is carried out in stages, and look for therapeutic leverage.
Intervention Strategies Primary Prevention Primary prevention through health teaching can impact how youngsters and adolescents choose to solve problems and relate interpersonally. Participation in groups such as scouting, school clubs, 4H clubs, and organized church activities lowers risk for substance abuse. These activities and part time jobs develop selfconfidence and self esteem in young people. Targeting the elderly who are experiencing stressful life events can also be helpful in preventing alcohol abuse among the elderly. Primary prevention of HIV infection among the population using needles can be facilitated by needle exchange programs. Brief Interventions Any interaction with a substanceabusing client can be used as an opportunity for managing associated behaviors. Key interventions can be remembered by using the acronym FRAMES (feedback, responsibility, advice, menu [options], empathy, self efficacy). Motivational interviewing is another technique to motivate change. Five general principles to motivate change: (1) express empathy; (2) develop discrepancy; (3) avoid argument; (4) roll with resistance; and (5) support selfefficacy. Psychotherapy Evidencebased practice indicates that cognitive behavior therapy, psychodynamic and interpersonal therapies, group and family therapies, and participation in selfhelp groups are all effective treatment modalities. Critical issues that arise within the first 6 months of therapy include physical changes as the body adapts to functioning without the substance, needing to learn new responses to former cues to drink or use drugs, experiencing fullstrength emotions instead of drugmediated emotions, need to address family and coworker responses to client’s new behavior, need to develop coping skills to prevent relapse and ensure prolonged sobriety. Individual Therapy Often, the best time for a recovering alcoholic to engage in insight psychotherapy is after 2 to 5 years of sobriety. Therapy can play an important role in relapse prevention. Relapse Prevention The goal of relapse prevention is to help the person learn from relapse so that periods of sobriety can be lengthened over time and lapses and relapses are not viewed as total
failure. Group Therapy Advantages of group therapy include decreased social isolation, role models provided for newly recovering addicts, support from a variety of people, and therapist can observe the interpersonal behavior of clients without always being directly involved. Ground rules must be developed regarding minimal stay, expectations of regular attendance, advance notice if one is considering leaving, abstinence, willingness to talk about fears of drinking or actual lapses, discussion of other difficult issues in the client’s life, talk about group dynamics, and confidentiality. Family Therapy Addiction is a family illness because all members are affected. Family members usually lack trust in each other, lack nurturing closeness, and inadequately solve problems. Children become used to extra and inappropriate responsibilities. Family equilibrium is established around the substance abuse. Removal of the substance abuse is a threat. Family members are concerned about the client’s return to substance use, and avoid talking about anything involving substance use so as not to upset the user. Therapy helps family members change roles as appropriate to the stage of recovery of the addicted person. Responsibility must be renegotiated. Marital Therapy Issues about time spent at home and about sex are prominent. The recovering spouse may not have much sex drive early in recovery, which may be frustrating to the partner. The partner may not understand the client’s need to attend so many 12step meetings or his or her involvement with people met there and may feel rejected. Self-Help Groups for Client and Family Counseling and support should be encouraged for all families with a drugdependent member. Groups include AlAnon, AlaTeen, Adult Children of Alcoholics, Pills Anonymous, and Narcotics Anonymous Twelve-Step Programs These programs have three fundamental concepts: (1) individuals with addictive disorders are powerless over their addiction, and their lives are unmanageable; (2) although individuals with addictive disorders are not responsible for their disease, they are responsible for their recovery; and (3) individuals can no longer blame people, places, and things for their addiction — they must face their problems and their feelings. Alcoholics Anonymous
(AA) is the prototype for other 12step programs such as Pills Anonymous, Narcotics Anonymous, etc. Each offers the behavioral, cognitive, and dynamic structures necessary to help a person refrain from addictive behaviors and to change and grow. Selfhelp groups for family members include AlAnon, NarcAnon, ACoA, AlaTeen, etc. These groups work with family issues and codependency issues. Milieu Therapy Motivation of an addicted client is mixed. Motivation must be encouraged. Nurses can help clients become receptive to the possibility of change. When family and friends refuse to solve the client’s problems, the individual is forced to face the consequences of his or her behavior. Residential Programs These programs are best suited for individuals who have a long history of antisocial behavior. The addict is expected to remain in the program at least 90 days and may stay a year or more in some residential communities. The goal is to effect a life style change, including abstinence from drugs, development of social skills, and elimination of antisocial behavior. Intensive Outpatient Programs Clients who once were hospitalized for treatment are now treated in the community due to cost reduction necessities. A clinical pathway for an intensive outpatient program is shown. Outpatient Drug-Free Programs and Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) These are geared to the polydrugabusing or alcoholic client rather than to the client who is addicted to heroin. EAPs have been developed to provide delivery of mental health services in occupational settings. Psychopharmacology and Drug Addictions Alcohol Withdrawal Not all people who stop drinking require management of withdrawal. Medication should not be given until symptoms of withdrawal are seen. Early symptoms are tremors, diaphoresis, rapid pulse, elevated BP, occasional tactile or visual hallucinations, Interventions include medication, as needed, for management of withdrawal symptoms (using crossdependent sedatives); monitoring vital signs; administration of thiamine to prevent Wernicke’s syndrome; correction of hypomagnesemia; maintaining fluid and
electrolyte balance while avoiding overhydration. Anticonvulsants such as diazepam or phenobarbital may be used on a shortterm basis to control seizures. Phenytoin is used only if the person has a history of primary seizure disorder. Alcohol Treatment Naltrexone (ReVia)
This drug is helpful to some recovering alcoholics to reduce cravings. Is is also a narcotic antagonistic that blocks the euphoric effects of opioids for up to 72 hours. It has low toxicity with few side effects and is nonaddicting. Disulfiram (Antabuse)
Taken daily, this drug is useful for preventing impulsive drinking because disulfiram with alcohol produces a severe reaction. Care must be taken to teach the client to avoid hidden sources of alcohol in food, fumes, and skin preparations. Opioid Treatment Methadone (Dolophine)
This drug is a synthetic opiate. In a sufficient dosage taken daily, it blocks craving for and effects of heroin. Methadone maintenance helps keep the client out of the illegal drug culture while counseling is undertaken. Methadone is highly addicting and, when stopped, produces withdrawal. Because it is an oral drug it reduces risk of HIV infection from needles. Levomethadyl Acetate
This drug is an alternative to methadone that requires three doses a week. It gives clients more freedom than methadone maintenance. It is also an addicting narcotic, with therapeutic effects and side effects resembling morphine. Clonidine
This drug is a nonopioid suppressor of opioid withdrawal symptoms and when combined with naltrexone is an effective nonaddicting treatment for opioid addiction. Buprenophine
This drug is a partial opioid against. At low doses it blocks signs and symptoms of opioid withdrawal. Early studies suggest it suppresses heroin use. Nicotine Patch
A nicotine patch provides transdermal doses of nicotine and has been shown to double longterm abstinence rates.
EVALUATION Effectiveness of treatment is judged by increasing lengths of time of abstinence, decreased denial, acceptable occupational functioning, improved family relationships, the client’s ability to relate normally and comfortably with others without using drugs or alcohol, and the ability to use existing supports and skills used in treatment.