Chapter 2 Review

Chapter 2 Review of literature Theories of Motivation Motivational theories can be divided into two categories, content and process theories.

Content theories: Content theories assume that all individuals possess the same set of needs and therefore prescribe the characteristics that ought to be present in jobs. They explain the specific factors that motivate people. In other words, they answer the question ‘what drives behavior?’ Basically, content theories suggest that we are all the same and therefore are motivated in the same way. They include the following theories: i. McGregor’s theory X and theory Y ii. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs a) Herzberg’s two-factor theory b) Alderfer’s ERG theory iii. McClelland’s needs theory

Process theories: Process theories stress the difference in people’s needs and focus on the cognitive processes that create these differences. They look at individuals as, understanding that we are all different and that what

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motivates one person does not necessarily motivate another. They explain motivation in terms of how people give meaning to rewards and respond with various work-related behaviors. They include the following: i. Vroom’s expectancy theory ii. Adam’s equity theory iii. Locke’s goal-setting theory iv. Skinner’s reinforcement theory

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y Douglas McGregor (1906 - 1964) (refer to fig. 1.1) was a Management professor at the MIT Sloan School of Management and president of Antioch College from 1948 to 1954. In his book, "The Human Side of Enterprise" published in 1960 has examined theories on behavior of individuals at work, and he has formulated two models which he calls Theory X and Theory Y. Theory X Assumptions • The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if he can. • Because of their dislike for work, most people must be controlled and threatened before they will work hard enough.

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• The average human prefers to be directed, dislikes responsibility, is unambiguous, and desires security above everything. • These assumptions lie behind most organizational principles today, and give rise both to "tough" management with punishments and tight controls, and "soft" management which aims at harmony at work. • Both these are "wrong" because man needs more than financial rewards at work, he also needs some deeper higher order motivation - the opportunity to fulfill himself. • Theory X managers do not give their staff this opportunity so that the employees behave in the expected fashion. Theory Y Assumptions •

The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest.

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Control and punishment are not the only ways to make people work, man will direct himself if he is committed to the aims of the organization.

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If a job is satisfying, then the result will be commitment to the organization.

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The average man learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek responsibility.

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Imagination, creativity, and ingenuity can be used to solve work problems by a large number of employees.

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Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average man are only partially utilized.

These assumptions are based on social science research which demonstrates the potential which is present in man and which organizations should recognize in order to become more effective. McGregor sees these two theories as two quite separate attitudes. Theory Y is difficult to put into practice on the shop floor in large mass production operations, but it can be used initially in the managing of managers and professionals. He shows how Theory Y affects the management of promotions and salaries and the development of effective managers. He also sees Theory Y as conducive to participative problem solving. It is part of the manager's job to exercise authority, and there are cases in which this is the only method of achieving the desired results because subordinates do not agree that the ends are desirable. If Theory Y holds, the firm can do many things to harness the motivational energy of its employees: •

Decentralization and Delegation - If firms decentralize control and reduce the number of levels of management, each manager will have more subordinates and consequently will be forced to delegate some responsibility and decision making to them.

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Job Enlargement - Broadening the scope of an employee's job adds variety and opportunities to satisfy ego needs.

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Participative Management - Consulting employees in the decision making process taps their creative capacity and provides them with some control over their work environment.

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Performance Appraisals - Having the employee set objectives and participate in the process of evaluating how well they were met.

If properly implemented, such an environment would result in a high level of motivation as employees work to satisfy their higher level personal needs through their jobs.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology, proposed by Abraham Maslow (refer to fig. 1.2a) in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often depicted as a pyramid consisting of five levels (refer to fig. 1.2b). They are:  Physiological needs  Security and safety needs  Love and belongingness needs  Esteem needs  Self-actualization needs These needs are arranged in a hierarchy, where the lower needs are the most basic moving to a higher need. Deficiency needs must be met first. Once these are met, seeking to satisfy higher needs also called growth needs drives personal growth. The higher needs in this hierarchy only 7

come into focus when the lower needs in the pyramid are satisfied. Once an individual has moved upwards to the next level, needs in the lower level will no longer be prioritized. If a lower set of needs is no longer being met, the individual will temporarily re-prioritize those needs by focusing attention on the unfulfilled needs, but will not permanently regress to the lower level. For instance, a businessman at the esteem level who is diagnosed with cancer will spend a great deal of time concentrating on his health (physiological needs), but will continue to value his work performance (esteem needs) and will likely return to work during periods of remission. But the theory assumes that till the lower order needs of a worker are taken care of the worker may not be motivated to work and achieve the higher order needs which are essential for the full exploitation of an individual’s capacities. Maslow’s theory has certain limitation like assuming that the employer will have to know the need level of each employer and prepare different motivational schemes for each worker. Although this theory has limitations it is a very popular approach to study motivation.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Fredrick Herzberg (1923 - 2000) (refer to fig. 1.2.1) was a noted psychologist who became one of the most influential names in business management. He proposed a modification of Maslow’s theory where he states that there are only two basic needs instead of five. He called it the two-factor theory in which he states that we have two basic needs

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

Hygiene needs (physiological and security needs) and

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Motivator needs (belongingness, esteem and self-actualization needs)

He said that when the hygiene needs is not met, it causes us to be dissatisfied. Meeting these needs does not make us satisfied -- it merely prevents us from becoming dissatisfied. The 'hygiene' word is deliberately medical as it is an analogy of the need to do something that is necessary, but which does contribute towards making the patient well (it only stops them getting sick). These are also called these maintenance needs. There is a separate set of needs which, when resolved, do make us satisfied. These are called motivators. Herzberg asked people about times when they had felt good about their work. He discovered that the key determinants of job satisfaction were Achievement, Recognition, Work itself, Responsibility and Advancement. He also found that key dissatisfiers were Company policy and administration, Supervision, Salary, Interpersonal relationships and Working conditions. What struck him the most was that these were separate groups with separate evaluation, and not a part of the same continuum. Thus if the company resolved the dissatisfiers, they would not create satisfaction. I need to be paid on time each month so I can pay my bills. If I am not paid on time, I get really unhappy. But when I get paid on time, I hardly notice it. On the other hand, when my boss gives me a pat on the back, I feel good. I don't expect this every day and don't especially miss not having praise all of the time. This is a significant difference between hygiene needs and motivator needs. 9

Alderfer’s ERG Theory Another variation of Maslow’s theory is Clayton Paul Alderfer’s (refer to fig. 1.2.2a) ERG theory. Here he talks about three basic drives instead of five or two. He categorized the hierarchy  Existence (physiological and safety needs) 

Relatedness (belongingness and esteem needs)

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Growth (esteem and self-actualization needs)

Alderfer also proposed a regression theory to go along with the ERG theory. He said that when needs in a higher category are not met then individuals redouble the efforts invested in a lower category need. For example if self actualization or self esteem is not met then individuals will invest more effort in the relatedness category in the hopes of achieving the higher need. (refer to fig. 1.2.2.b)

McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory David C. McClelland (May 20, 1917–March 1998) was an American psychological theorist. He gave the Acquired Needs Theory is also known as the Three-Need Theory or Learned Need Theory. Need are shaped over time by our experiences over time. Most of these fall into three general categories of needs:

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 Need for Achievement (nAch)

 Need for Power (nPower) 

Need for Affiliation (nAff).

We have different preferences, we will tend have one of these needs that affects us more powerfully than others and thus affects our behaviors. 

Achievers seek to excel and appreciate frequent recognition of how well they are doing. They will avoid low risk activities that have no chance of gain. They also will avoid high risks where there is a significant chance of failure.

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Affiliation seekers look for harmonious relationships with other people. They will thus tend to conform and shy away from standing out. The seek approval rather than recognition.

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Power seekers want power either to control other people (for their own goals) or to achieve higher goals (for the greater good). They seek neither recognition nor approval from others -- only agreement and compliance.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory Victor Vroom (refer to fig 2.1a) is a business school professor at the Yale School of Management, who was born on 9 August 1932 in Montreal, Canada. He holds a PhD from University of Michigan. His theory is a process theory of motivation in which we constantly are predicting likely 11

futures; we create expectations about future events. If things seem reasonably likely and attractive, we know how to get there and we believe we can 'make the difference' then this will motivate us to act to make this future come true. Thus we expect that our behavior will lead to a certain reward which motivates us. This is Victor Vroom’s Expectancy theory also called Valence-Instrumentality-Expectancy Theory or VIE Theory. Motivation is thus a combination of: 

Valence: The value of the perceived outcome (What's in it for me?)

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Instrumentality: The belief that if I complete certain actions then I will achieve the outcome. (Clear path?)

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Expectancy: The belief that I am able to complete the actions. (My capability?) (refer to fig. 2.1.b)

Of course you can have an unpleasant outcome, in which case the motivation is now one of avoidance. Motivate people to do something by showing them something desirable; indicating how straightforward it is to get it, and then supporting their self-belief that they can get there.

Adam’s Equity Theory Equity Theory attempts to explain relational satisfaction in terms of perceptions of fair/unfair distributions of resources within interpersonal relationships. It was first developed in 1962 by John Stacy Adams, a workplace and behavioral psychologist. It calls for a fair balance to be 12

struck between an employee’s inputs and an employee’s outputs. According to the theory, finding this fair balance serves to ensure a strong and productive relationship is achieved with the employee, with the overall result being contented, motivated employees. The Adams’ Equity Theory is named for John Stacey Adams, a workplace and behavioral psychologist, who developed this job motivation theory in 1963. Adams’ Equity Theory acknowledges that subtle and variable factors affect an employee’s assessment and perception of their relationship with their work and their employer. The theory is built-on the belief that employees become de-motivated, both in relation to their job and their employer, if they feel as though their inputs are greater than the outputs. Employees can be expected to respond to this is different ways, including de-motivation, reduced effort, becoming disgruntled, or, in more extreme cases, perhaps even disruptive. It is important to also consider the Adams’ Equity Theory factors when striving to improve an employee’s job satisfaction, motivation level, etc., and what can be done to promote higher levels of each. To do this, consider the balance or imbalance that currently exists between your employee’s inputs and outputs, as follows: Inputs typically include: •

Effort

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Loyalty

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Hard Work

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Commitment

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Skill

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Ability

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Adaptability

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Flexibility

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Tolerance

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Determination

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Enthusiasm

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Trust in superiors

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Support of colleagues

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Personal sacrifice, etc.

Outputs typically include: •

Financial rewards (salary, benefits, perks, etc.)

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Intangibles that typically include: o

Recognition

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Reputation

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Responsibility

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Sense of Achievement

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Praise

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Stimulus

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Sense of Advancement/Growth

o

Job Security

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While obviously many of these points can’t be quantified and perfectly compared, the theory argues that managers should seek to find a fair balance between the inputs that an employee gives, and the outputs received. And according to the theory, employees should be content where they perceive these to be in balance. The Adams’ Equity Theory of motivation states that positive outcomes and high levels of motivation can be expected only when employees perceive their treatment to be fair. An employee’s perception of this may include many factors. The idea behind Adams’ Equity Theory is to strike a healthy balance with outputs on one side of the scale; inputs on the other – both weighing in a way that seems reasonably equal. (refer to fig. 2.2) If the balance lies too far in favor of the employer, some employees may work to bring balance between inputs and outputs on their own, by asking for more compensation or recognition. Others will be demotivated, and still others will seek alternative employment.

Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory Professor Edwin A Locke, Retired Dean’s Professor of Motivation and Leadership at the Robert H. Smith School of Business at the University of Maryland, College Park. His pioneering research has advanced and enriched our understanding of work motivation and job satisfaction. The theory that is synonymous with his name — goal-setting theory — is perhaps the most

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widely-respected theory in industrial-organizational psychology. In order to direct

ourselves we set ourselves goals that are: 

Clear and understandable, so we know what to do and what not to do.

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Challenging, so we will be stimulated and not be bored.

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Achievable, so we are unlikely to fail.

If other people set us goals without our involvement, then we are much less likely to be motivated to work hard at it than if we feel we have set or directed the goal ourselves. Feedback: When we are working in the task, we need feedback so we can determine whether we are succeeding or whether we need to change direction. We find feedback (if it is sympathetically done) very encouraging and motivating. This includes feedback from ourselves. Negative self-talk is just as demotivating as negative comments from other people. Directional and accuracy goals: Depending on the type of goal we have, we will go about achieving it differently.  A directional goal is one where we are motivated to arrive at a

particular conclusion. We will thus narrow our thinking, selecting beliefs, etc. that support the conclusion. The lack of deliberation also tends to make us more optimistic about achieving the goal.  An accuracy goal is one where we are motivated to arrive at the most

accurate possible conclusion. These occur when the cost of being 16

inaccurate is high. Unsurprisingly, people invest more effort in achieving accuracy goals, as any deviation costs, and a large deviation may well more. Their deliberation also makes them realize that there is a real chance that they will not achieve their goal. When we have an accuracy goal we do not get to a 'good enough' point and stop thinking about it--we continue to search for improvements. Both methods work by influencing our choice of beliefs and decisionmaking rules. If you want someone to deliberately think about what they are doing, give them an accuracy goal. Choose your own goals. Notice the difference between when you are diving into action and when you are carefully thinking.

Skinner’s Reinforcement Theory Reinforcement theory focuses on the impact of external environmental consequences on behavior. This theory is based on the Law of effect — impact of type of consequence on future behavior Operant conditioning: Developed by B.F. Skinner Applies law of effect to control behavior by manipulating its consequences. Operant conditioning strategies Positive reinforcement

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Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence Negative reinforcement Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence Operant conditioning strategies Punishment Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence Extinction Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of a pleasant consequence. Successful implementation of positive reinforcement Law of contingent reinforcement Reward delivered only if desired behavior is exhibited Law of immediate reinforcement The more immediate the delivery of a reward, the more reinforcement value it has. Guidelines for using positive reinforcement Clearly identify desired work behaviors. Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards. Inform everyone about what must be done to get rewards. Recognize individual differences when allocating rewards. Follow the laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement. Guidelines for using punishment 18

Tell the person what is being done wrong. Tell the person what is being done right. Match the punishment to the behavior. Administer punishment in private. Follow laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement. Ethical issues in reinforcement Ignores individuality Restricts freedom of choice Ignores the possibility of other types of motivation Key ethical question concerns whether it is ethical to not control behavior well enough to serve both individual and organizational goals.

Applications 1. Education: Motivation is of particular interest to Educational

psychologists because of the crucial role it plays in student learning. However, the specific kind of motivation that is studied in the specialized setting of education differs qualitatively from the more general forms of motivation studied by psychologists in other fields. Motivation in education can have several effects on how students learn and their behavior towards subject matter (Ormrod, 2003). It can: • Direct behavior toward particular goals • Lead to increased effort and energy 19

• Increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities • Enhance cognitive processing • Determine what consequences are reinforcing • Lead to improved performance. Because students are not always internally motivated, they sometimes need situated motivation, which is found in environmental conditions that the teacher creates. There are two kinds of motivation: •

Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do something because it either brings them pleasure, they think it is important, or they feel that what they are learning is significant.

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Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like money or good grades).

Motivation is also an important element in the concept of Andragogy (what motivates the adult learner). 2. Motivation has been found to be a pivotal area in treating Autism

Spectrum Disorders, as in Pivotal Response Therapy. 3.

Business: At lower levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, such as physiological needs, money is a motivator; however it tends to have a motivating effect on staff that lasts only for a short period (in accordance with Herzberg's two-factor model of motivation). At

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higher levels of the hierarchy, praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging are far more powerful motivators than money, as both Abraham Maslow's theory of motivation and Douglas McGregor's Theory X and theory Y demonstrate. Maslow has money at the lowest level of the hierarchy and shows other needs are better motivators to staff. McGregor places money in his Theory X category and feels it is a poor motivator. Praise and recognition are placed in the Theory Y category and are considered stronger motivators than money. • Motivated employees always look for better ways to do a job. • Motivated employees are more quality oriented. • Motivated workers are more productive. The average workplace is about midway between the extremes of high threat and high opportunity. Motivation by threat is a dead-end strategy, and naturally staff is more attracted to the opportunity side of the motivation curve than the threat side. There are cultural differences in motivation and it remains a fact that individuals tend to be motivated by different factors at different times. Elton Mayo found out that the social contacts a worker has at the workplace are very important and that boredom and repetitiveness of tasks lead to reduced motivation. Mayo believed that workers could be motivated by acknowledging their social needs and making them feel

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important. As a result, employees were given freedom to make decisions on the job and greater attention was paid to informal work groups.

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