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ROBUST RESULTS
Bovans White
ProductGuide Cage Production System
Achieving the full genetic potential of the Bovans White
The Story of the Bovans White By the 1950s traditional Dutch poultry breeders were facing increased competition from larger American companies. So in 1954 four family owned layer breeding farms formed a new breeding company called Bovans Organisatie N.V. (Bovans Poultry Breeders). These hard working, farming families were the Bongers, Van Duijnhoven, Van Lankveld and Van der Linden (one Bo and three Vans = Bovans). The founders of Bovans were Harry van Duijnhoven and his wife Nora. The Bovans breeding center was at Harry van Duijnhoven’s farm at Stevensbeek and their Bovans layers reflected the robust and hardworking ethics of the four families. The original Bovans logo, which is still in use, was designed by Harry van Duijnhoven’s brother. Bovans Poultry Breeders soon developed into a strong and successful breeder, selling its birds in Europe, the America’s, Africa and the Middle East.
2
THE BOVANS WHITE TODAY The Bovans White is an exceptionally balanced layer, combining high peak performance, feed efficiency and livability. Robust and easy to manage the Bovans White enables egg producers to achieve their desired egg weight level, for table eggs or processing. A productive layer with a flat egg weight curve, a very strong shell and excellent laying persistency, the Bovans White is suitable for longer laying cycles, and is adaptable to differing environments and management systems.
Flat egg weight curve Superior egg production Robust and easy to manage Exceptionally balanced bird Strong bottom line results
Product Guide
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3
CONTENTS THE STORY OF THE BOVANS WHITE
2
THE BOVANS WHITE TODAY
3
PRODUCTION SUMMARY
7
REARING TABLE
8
REARING GRAPH
9
PRODUCTION TABLE 1
10
PRODUCTION TABLE 2
12
PRODUCTION GRAPHS
14
REARING PERIOD
16
Good brooding conditions are vital to give the chicks the best possible start
16
Standards of temperature and humidity Lighting program to encourage feed intake and growth
19
From 4 to 16 weeks - Building the potential of the future layer
20
Housing and equipment
20
A good follow up with a weekly check of the development
21
Targets in rearing Targets in production
21 21
Beak treatment: A delicate operation
21
Age of beak treatment During beak treatment: Attention points After beak treatment: Attention points
22 22 22
General principals of the lighting programs in rearing period
23
Lighting program and growth Control of sexual maturity Light stimulation Light intensity in rearing
23 23 24 24
PRODUCTION PERIOD Age of transfer Points of attention at loading and transport Lighting as a tool for encouraging a rapid adaptation to a new environment
4
17
26 26 26 27
Encouraging water consumption Feeding for physiological needs Encouraging feed consumption Monitoring environmental and production parameters
27 28 28 29
General principles of lighting programs during the production period
29
Light intensity in production How to improve shell quality
29 30
Adjusting egg weight to meet market requirements
30
WATER: THE MOST CRITICAL NUTRIENT 31 Water quality Monitoring water quality Water consumption
31 31 32
PULLET AND HEN HEALTH
33
Biosecurity 33 Welfare and poultry husbandry 33 Disease prevention by immunization 34 Types of vaccines 34 Vaccination methods 35 Ocular (eye drop), beak dipping and intranasal vaccination 35 Subcutaneous and intramuscular injection 36 Transcutaneous injection (wing web) 36 Vent brush vaccination 37 In ovo injection 37 Drinking water (oral) vaccination 37 Vaccination through a medicator 38 Water vaccination 38 Spray vaccination 40 Parasite control 42 Vaccination against coccidiosis 43 Histomoniasis and round worms 43 Mites 44 Controlling groups of disease by vaccination 44 Respiratory diseases 44 Pertitonitis in layers 45 Diseases of the digestive system 45 Diseases affecting the nervous system 45 Diseases affecting the urinary and reproductive tract 46 Diseases affecting the immune system 46 Disease agents of concern for food safety 46
CONVERSION TABLE
47
Warranty disclaimer
Product Guide
47
bovans.com
5
INTRODUCTION Many years of investment in genetic research and development have resulted in layers with excellent performance traits such as livability, production and egg quality. These highly favourable genetic characteristics can only be fully realized when layers are supported with good management practices, which include, but are not limited to, good quality feed, housing and constant attention to the birds behaviour and welfare. The purpose of this product guide is to help producers to gain the best possible results from their investment. This will be achieved by providing conditions in which the layers can thrive. The information supplied in this publication is based on the analysis of extensive research and field results, produced over time and with many years of experience. We do recognize that many egg producers have developed their own management programs, as a result of their experience with specific housing types, climate, feed, market conditions. Therefore do not hesitate to use your own experience in conjunction with the guidelines in this guide. And of course, do not hesitate to consult our distributors who will be happy to help in any way they can. We are constantly seeking to develop our breeding program and welcome feedback from the field. Please send your technical results to [email protected]. Excel files are available on request to help you to follow the flock’s performance and record information.
6
PRODUCTION SUMMARY Laying Period
(18-90 Weeks)
Livability
94 %
Age at 50% production
143 days
Peak of production
96 %
Average egg weight
62.0 g
Eggs hen housed
426
Egg mass hen housed
26.4 kg
Average feed intake
108 g/day
Cum. feed conversion rate
2.03 kg/kg
Body weight
1710 g
Shell strength
4200 g/cm²
Haugh units
83
Product Guide
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7
Bovans WHITE White DEKALB
REARING REARINGTABLE TABLE Weeks
Age (days)
Feed intake per bird per day (g)
Feed intake per bird cum. (g)
Body weight (g)
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
1
0-7
6
8
40
54
62
65
2
8-14
13
15
128
156
126
132
3
15.21
19
21
260
302
193
203
4
22-28
25
27
432
488
264
278
5
29-35
30
32
641
711
338
356
6
36-42
35
37
882
966
415
436
7
43-49
39
41
1,155
1,253
493
518
8
50-56
43
45
1,455
1,567
572
602
9
57-63
46
48
1,780
1,906
652
686
10
64-70
50
52
2,128
2,268
733
770
11
71-77
53
55
2,498
2,652
812
854
12
78-84
56
58
2,888
3,056
891
937
13
85-91
59
61
3,298
3,480
968
1,017
14
92-98
61
63
3,727
3,923
1,042
1,096
15
99-105
64
66
4,176
4,386
1,114
1,171
16
106-112
67
69
4,646
4,870
1,181
1,242
17
113-119
70
72
5,139
5,377
1,244
1,308
18
120-126
76
78
5,670
5,922
1,302
1,369
The information supplied in this guide is based on many actual flock results obtained under good environment and managing conditions. It is presented as a service to our customers and should be used as a guide only. It does not constitute a guarantee or warranty of performance in any way.
8
Bodyweight in g
Product Guide
bovans.com
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
Age in weeks
9
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
REARING GRAPH Bovans White
Feed consumption in g
9
Bovans White
PRODUCTION TABLE 1 PER HEN DAY Weeks
% Lay
Egg weight (g)
Egg mass per day (g)
Feed intake per day (g)
19
6.2
42.9
2.6
82
20
41.5
46.1
19.1
89
4.66
21
66.1
48.8
32.2
95
2.96
18
10
Feed conversion per week
77 31.17
22
81.8
51.0
41.7
101
2.41
23
90.4
53.0
47.9
104
2.18
24
94.1
54.6
51.4
105
2.05
25
94.9
53.1
106
1.99
26
95.3
56.0 57.1
54.4
106
1.95
27
95.6
58.0
55.5
107
1.92
28
95.9
58.8
56.3
107
1.90
29
96.1
59.3
57.0
107
1.88
30
96.2
59.8
57.5
108
1.87
31
96.2
60.1
57.9
108
1.86
32
96.2
60.4
58.1
108
1.86
33
96.2
60.6
58.3
108
1.86
34
96.1
60.8
58.4
108
1.86
35
96.0
60.9
58.4
109
1.86
36
95.8
61.0
58.4
109
1.86
37
95.7
61.1
58.4
109
1.86
38
95.5
61.1
58.3
109
1.87
39
95.2
61.2
58.3
109
1.87
40
95.0
61.3
58.2
109
1.88
41
94.7
61.4
58.1
109
1.88
42
94.5
61.5
58.1
109
1.89
43
94.2
61.6
58.0
110
1.89 1.89
44
93.9
61.7
57.9
110
45
93.6
61.8
57.8
110
1.90
46
93.4
61.9
57.7
110
1.90
47
93.1
62.0
57.7
110
1.90
48
92.8
62.1
57.6
110
1.91
49
92.5
62.2
57.5
110
1.91
50
92.2
62.3
57.4
110
1.92
51
91.9
62.3
57.3
110
1.92
52
91.6
62.4
57.2
110
1.92
53
91.3
62.5
57.1
110
1.93
54
91.0
62.6
57.0
110
1.93
PER HEN HOUSED Age in weeks
Egg per bird cum.
Egg mass cum.
0
0.0
18 19
Feed intake cum. (kg)
Feed conversion cum.
% Livability
99.9
1,335
1.1
60.25
99.8
1,388
0.5
Body weight (g)
20
3
0.2
1.7
11.42
99.8
1,435
21
8
0.4
2.4
6.37
99.7
1,473
22
14
0.7
3.1
4.65
99.6
1,503
23
20
1.0
3.8
3.82
99.5
1,519
24
26
1.4
4.6
3.36
99.4
1,535
25
33
5.3
3.07
99.3
1,550
26
40
1.7 2.1
6.0
2.87
99.3
1,564
27
46
2.5
6.8
2.72
99.2
1,577
28
53
2.9
7.5
2.61
99.1
1,589
29
60
3.3
8.3
2.52
99.0
1,601
30
66
3.7
9.0
2.45
98.9
1,611
31
73
4.1
9.8
2.39
98.9
1,620
32
80
4.5
10.5
2.34
98.8
1,629
33
86
4.9
11.2
2.30
98.7
1,637
34
93
5.3
12.0
2.27
98.6
1,645
35
100
5.7
12.7
2.24
98.5
1,652
36
106
6.1
13.5
2.22
98.4
1,658
37
113
6.5
14.2
2.19
98.4
1,663
38
119
6.9
15.0
2.18
98.3
1,668
39
126
7.3
15.7
2.16
98.2
1,673
40
132
7.7
16.5
2.14
98.1
1,677
41
139
8.1
17.2
2.13
98.0
1,681
42
145
8.5
18.0
2.12
98.0
1,684
43
152
8.9
18.7
2.11
97.9
1,687
44
158
9.3
19.5
2.10
97.8
1,689
45
165
9.7
20.2
2.09
97.7
1,692
46
171
10.1
21.0
2.08
97.6
1,694
47
177
10.5
21.7
2.08
97.5
1,695
48
184
10.9
22.5
2.07
97.5
1,697
49
190
11.3
23.2
2.07
97.4
1,698
50
196
11.6
24.0
2.06
97.3
1,699
51
203
12.0
24.7
2.06
97.2
1,699
52
209
12.4
25.5
2.05
97.1
1,700
53
215
12.8
26.2
2.05
97.0
1,701
54
221
13.2
27.0
2.04
97.0
1,701
Product Guide
bovans.com
11
Bovans White
PRODUCTION TABLE 2 PER HEN DAY Weeks
12
% Lay
Egg weight (g)
Egg mass per day (g)
Feed intake per day (g)
Feed conversion per week
1.93
55
90.7
62.7
56.9
110
56
90.4
62.8
56.8
110
1.94
57
90.1
62.9
56.7
110
1.94
58
89.8
63.0
56.6
110
1.94
59
89.4
63.1
56.4
110
1.95
60
89.1
63.2
56.3
110
1.95
61
88.7
63.3
56.2
110
1.96
62
88.4
110
1.96
88.1
63.4 63.5
56.1
63
55.9
110
1.97
64
87.7
63.6
55.8
110
1.97
65
87.4
63.7
55.7
110
1.98
66
87.1
63.8
55.6
110
1.98
67
86.8
63.9
55.5
110
1.99
68
86.4
64.0
55.3
110
1.99
69
86.1
64.1
55.2
110
1.99
70
85.8
64.2
55.1
110
2.00
71
85.5
64.3
54.9
110
2.00
72
85.1
64.4
54.8
110
2.01
73
84.8
64.5
54.7
110
2.01
74
84.5
64.6
54.6
110
2.02
75
84.2
64.7
54.4
110
2.02
76
83.8
64.8
54.3
110
2.03
77
83.5
64.9
54.2
110
2.03 2.04
78
83.2
65.0
54.0
110
79
82.9
65.1
53.9
110
2.04
80
82.5
65.2
53.8
110
2.05
81
82.2
65.3
53.7
110
2.05
82
81.9
65.4
53.5
110
2.06
83
81.6
65.5
53.4
110
2.06
84
81.2
65.6
53.3
110
2.07
85
80.9
65.7
53.1
110
2.08
86
80.6
65.8
53.0
110
2.08
87
80.2
65.9
52.8
110
2.09
88
79.9
65.9
52.7
110
2.09
89
79.6
66.0
52.6
110
2.10
90
79.3
66.1
52.4
110
2.10
PER HEN HOUSED Age in weeks
Egg per bird cum.
Egg mass cum.
Feed intake cum. (kg)
Feed conversion cum.
% Livability
Body weight (g)
55
227
13.6
27.7
2.04
96.9
1,701
56
233
14.0
28.5
2.04
96.8
1,701
57
240
14.4
29.2
2.04
96.7
1,701
58
246
14.7
30.0
2.03
96.6
1,701
59
252
15.1
30.7
2.03
96.6
1,701
60
258
15.5
31.5
2.03
96.5
1,701
61
264
15.9
32.2
2.03
96.4
1,701
62
270
32.9
2.03
96.3
1,702 1,702
63
276
16.3 16.6
33.7
2.03
96.2
64
281
17.0
34.4
2.02
96.1
1,702
65
287
17.4
35.2
2.02
96.1
1,702
66
293
17.8
35.9
2.02
96.0
1,703
67
299
18.1
36.6
2.02
95.9
1,703
68
305
18.5
37.4
2.02
95.8
1,703
69
311
18.9
38.1
2.02
95.7
1,704
70
316
19.2
38.9
2.02
95.7
1,704
71
322
19.6
39.6
2.02
95.6
1,704
72
328
20.0
40.3
2.02
95.5
1,705
73
333
20.3
41.1
2.02
95.4
1,705
74
339
20.7
41.8
2.02
95.3
1,705
75
345
21.1
42.5
2.02
95.2
1,705
76
350
21.4
43.3
2.02
95.2
1,706
77
356
21.8
44.0
2.02
95.1
1,706
78
361
22.1
44.7
2.02
95.0
1,706
79
367
22.5
45.5
2.02
94.9
1,707
80
372
22.9
46.2
2.02
94.8
1,707
81
378
23.2
46.9
2.02
94.8
1,707
82
383
23.6
47.7
2.02
94.7
1,708
83
389
23.9
48.4
2.02
94.6
1,708
84
394
24.3
49.1
2.02
94.5
1,708
85
399
24.6
49.8
2.02
94.4
1,709
86
405
25.0
50.6
2.02
94.3
1,709
87
410
25.3
51.3
2.03
94.3
1,709
88
415
25.7
52.0
2.03
94.2
1,709
89
420
26.0
52.8
2.03
94.1
1,710
90
426
26.4
53.5
2.03
94.0
1,710
Product Guide
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13
14
Laying Rate
Livability
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90
Age in weeks
45
50
55
60
65
1250
1500
1750
2000
Bodyweight
70
70
75
Average Egg Weight
80
85
90
95
100
Bovans White
PRODUCTION GRAPHS
Product Guide
bovans.com
15
120 115 110 105 100
57.5
55.0
52.5
50.0
47.5
0
2.00
Age in weeks
50
2.05
150
200
250
300
350
400
100
37.5
40.0
42.5
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90
125
60.0
45.0
130
450
Cum no. of eggs per HH
2.10
2.15
2.20
Feed Conversion Kg/kg
135
62.5
140
145
Feed conversion g/egg
65.0
Egg mass in g/day
REARING PERIOD Good brooding conditions are vital to give the chicks the best possible start.
The period from one day old to the point of first egg production is a critical time in the life of the laying hen. It is during this time that the physiological capability of the hen is developed. Success in the rearing period leads to success in the laying house and this starts with chick arrival. All the standards and programs set out in this section have been proven to give excellent performance in the production stages. Any delay in growth at 4-5 weeks will be reflected in a reduction in bodyweight at 16 weeks and then in performance. This is particularly true for mean egg weight in temperate climates and may cause a delay in start of lay in hot climates near the equator. Bodyweight development • 12 Growth (g)
Skeletal
BW Growth
Growth g / day
•6 Organs Calcium increase at prelay
Muscle
Reproductive tract
Fat Medullary bone 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Weeks in age
16
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
Equipment and environment Floor
Age (weeks) Ventilation Stocking densities
Cages
0–2
2–5
0–3
3–5
Minimum per hour / kg
0.7m³
0.7m³
0.7m³
0.7m³
Birds / m²
30
20
cm² / Bird Water supply
Feed supply
(1): (2): (3):
Chicks / Chick drinker
75
Birds / drinker
75
75
Birds / nipple
10
10
Birds / Starting pan
50
80
45
125
220
80 (1)
10 (2)
10 (2)
(3)
cm of trough feeders
4
4
Birds / Round feeder
35
35
2
4
Place one additional drinker per cage for the first week Make sure that all the birds have access to at least 2 nipples Spread sheets of paper over the cage bottom to last for 7 days, remove the top sheet every day
Notes: • The removal of the supplementary starter drinkers should be done gradually, making sure that the chicks have acquired the habit of using the regular drinkers. • It is useful to monitor water consumption. To maintain litter quality, it is necessary to avoid water spillage, by carefully regulating the drinkers or the nipples. • The drinkers should be cleaned daily for the first 2 weeks. From the third week they should be cleaned each week. • Check that all the birds, even the smaller ones have access to feed and water. • It is important to use 360° nipples, especially for infra-red beak treated birds.
STANDARDS OF TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY In order to ensure that the equipment and the litter are warm for chick arrival, we advise starting to raise the house temperature at least 36 hours before chick arrival so that it reaches a house temperature of 28 to 31°C. The concrete floor must be at 28°C and litter at 30°C. The best way to check if the house temperature is correct during the first days after arrival is to measure cloacal temperature of the chicks (40°C/104°F).
Product Guide
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17
Standards for temperature and humidity
Age in days
Brooding temperature at the edge of the brooders
Brooding temperature at 2-3m from the brooders
Room temperature
Relative humidity optimummaximum in%
0–3
35°C
29 – 28°C
33 – 31°C
55 – 60
4–7
34°C
28 – 27°C
32 – 31°C
55 – 60
8 – 14
32°C
27 – 26°C
30 – 28°C
55 – 60
15 – 21
29°C
55 – 60
26 – 25°C
28 – 26°C
22 – 24
25 – 23°C
25 – 23°C
55 – 65
25 – 28
23 – 21°C
23 – 21°C
55 – 65
29 – 35
21 – 19°C
21 – 19°C
60 – 70
After 35
19 – 17°C
19 – 17°C
60 – 70
Notes: • The heat losses incurred from contact with the litter are very important during the first days. • Provision of two gas brooders or 2 radiant heaters of 1450 Kcal is advised for 1000 birds. • Temperature and relative humidity should be uniform throughout the building. The distribution behaviour of chicks is the best indicator of temperature: • On floor system, the distribution of chicks in each pen or throughout the building will help you to manage the correct temperature of the house. • If the chicks crowd together under the brooder -> temperature is too low. • If the chicks are close to the surroundings -> the temperature is too high. Distribution behaviour according to temperature:
Too cold
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Too warm
Draught
Ideal
LIGHTING PROGRAM TO ENCOURAGE FEED INTAKE AND GROWTH During the first few days, it is important to maintain the chicks under a maximumw light regime (22 to 23 hours) with a high intensity (30-40 lux) to encourage intake of water and feed. Afterwards, the light intensity should be gradually reduced to reach a level of about 10 lux at 15 days of age in dark houses. Light intensity will also depend on bird behaviour. Note: a cyclical program could be applied for the first 2 weeks (4 hours of light /2 hours of dark, repeated 4 times to equal 24 hours) and then follow recommended lighting program, which is 18 hours of light on third week. Lighting program according to age and rearing housing system Rearing in dark or semi dark house Light duration
Light intensity
Rearing in hot climate (open houses) Light duration
Light intensity
1 – 3 days
23 hours
20 – 40 lux
23 hours
40 lux
4 – 7 days
22 hours
15 – 30 lux
22 hours
40 lux
8 – 14 days
20 hours
10 – 20 lux
20 hours
40 lux
15 – 21 days
18 hours
5 – 10 lux
19 hours
40 lux
22 – 28 days
16 hours
5 – 10 lux
18 hours
40 lux
29 – 35 days
14 hours
5 – 10 lux
17 hours
40 lux
Below are some key-points to provide day old chicks with a good start. Key points: • Flush the water lines prior to arrival, and make sure that no disinfectant is left in the water lines when the chicks arrive. • Make sure that the nipples and round drinkers are on the correct height - nipples at chick eye level and round drinkers on the floor. • Put paper under the nipples to attract the chicks and extra feed over the chick paper or paper trays. • Check the nipples / round drinkers to ensure the water supply is sufficient. When nipples are used the chicks must see the water drop on the nipple. • The feed should be distributed when the chicks have drunk enough water to restore their body fluid (about 2 hours after being placed in the brooding pens), especially when the birds have travelled for a long time. • In hot climate environments, flush the line just before chicks arrived to provide them fresh water.
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All these recommendations will help to: • Get a good start and a low mortality level during the first 2 weeks • A good frame and immune system • A good uniformity from the start
From 4 to 16 weeks - building the potential of the future layer After a good start, the objective of the 4-16 week period is to prepare the birds for egg production with the best development of: • The frame • The bodyweight • The uniformity • The digestive tract. These objectives can be achieved by providing: • A correct stocking density and housing conditions • A lighting program adapted to rearing conditions • Beak treatment performed by trained people • Good management of the feeding program and feeding techniques • Good biosecurity
HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT Floor
Age (weeks)
Cages
5 – 10
10 – 17
5 – 10
10 – 17
Ventilation
Minimum per hour / kg
4m³
4m³
4m³
4m³
Stocking densities
Birds / m²
15
10
15
10
Birds / m² (hot climate)
12
9
12
9
220
350
Birds / drinker
100
100
Birds / drinker (hot climate)
75
75 10 (1)
cm² / Bird Water supply
Feed supply
Birds / nipple
9
8
10 (1)
cm of trough feeders
5
7
4
6
Birds / Round feeder
25
23
25
23
(1): Make sure that all the birds have access to at least 2 nipples
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A good follow up with a weekly check of the development A weekly control of the growth is a must to check the real evolution of the flock: the earlier you know the earlier you can correct.
TARGETS IN REARING • To produce a uniform flock with a bodyweight in accordance with the target age at sexual maturity • To obtain the correct bodyweight at 4 weeks to secure frame development • To achieve steady growth between 4 and 16 weeks with a good development of the digestive tract
TARGETS IN PRODUCTION • To make sure that between 5% lay and peak of production the bodyweight increase is at least 300g for brown layers and 200g for white layers. For these reasons it is essential to exercise control over bodyweight on a weekly basis from 0 to 30 weeks of age, and after that, at least once every month. • Controlling the quantity of feed distributed will not on it’s own ensure good growth because the requirements vary according to:
- the energy level of the diet
- the house temperature
- the health status of the flock
Beak treatment: A delicate operation This operation is normally carried out for two main reasons: • To prevent feather pecking and cannibalism • To reduce feed wastage Beak treatment is a delicate operation and only specially trained personnel should perform it. If improperly done, it may result in birds having difficulty eating and drinking and lead to a non-uniform flock as a consequence.
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AGE OF BEAK TREATMENT In addition to technical recommendations, any local codes and regulations concerned with animal welfare should be observed. The decision about the age of beak treatment depends mostly on the housing system and local regulations: • In cage productions, in dark houses, when the intensity of artificial light is low, beaks should be treated at one day old or at 7 to 10 days. • Production in open-sided houses, giving exposure to high natural light intensity, one single beak tipping at 7 to 10 days will not prevent pecking entirely. Under these conditions, beak treatment should be carried out twice: a light tipping at 10 days and then a second operation between 8 and 10 weeks of age, where local regulations allow it.
DURING BEAK TREATMENT: ATTENTION POINTS The operator should be seated comfortably so that each beak is cut in the same manner • Do not rush the process: too high a rate (number of birds/ minute could lead to a higher chance of errors and poor=uniformity. • Change blades when required: maximum recommended usage for a blade is 5.000 birds. • Make sure the tongue of the bird does not get burned.
AFTER BEAK TREATMENT: ATTENTION POINTS • Increase the water level in the drinkers and decrease the water pressure in the pipes to make it easy for the birds to drink. • Make sure that the depth of the feed is adequate, do not empty the feeders for a week after beak treatment. Beak treatment is a very delicate operation and it is important enough to be done correctly. Improper beak treatment can damage bird livability and uniformity and consequently affect negatively the overall flock performances.
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General principles of the lighting programs in rearing period Chickens are sensitive to changes in the duration of illumination, and this will influence the age of sexual maturity. In addition, feed consumption is greatly influenced by the duration of day length. Lighting programs have, therefore, different objectives. During rearing, they allow us to encourage growth and to control the birds’ sexual maturity. For this reason, we consider lighting programs to be essential to achieve; • The recommended bodyweight at 5% lay. • In order to obtain an egg weight which conforms to the target from start of lay. • To achieve high overall production.
LIGHTING PROGRAM AND GROWTH In addition to the influence on growth, the lighting program plays a determinant role for 3 essential reasons: • Progressive growth of the digestive system. • Gradual adaptation to a body clock (above all, anticipation of a dark period). • Lack of night time energy supply when dark periods are too long. Observations of the feeding and drinking behaviour show a first peak of feed intake in the 2 to 3 hours that precede a dark period, and a second peak shortly after lights come on. The crop is used during these peaks of consumption as a storage organ. The introduction of a dark period from the start of the rearing period is important to progressively develop the crop capacity, which plays the role of feed reserve. However the amount of feed stocked remains insufficient for the nocturnal energy needs.
CONTROL OF SEXUAL MATURITY
The purpose of lighting programs is to control the age at point of lay and above all to avoid the influence of the variations in natural day length. Do not underestimate the effect of even the slightest variations in day length.
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Role of bodyweight Photo stimulation is not necessary to stimulate production even when the pullets are reared under very short day lengths. • A trial carried out by Lewis (1996)(1) shows that with a day length greater or equal to 10 hours, the age at 50% lay does not vary, or only a little. On the other hand, a day length kept at 8 hours appears to delay sexual maturity by one week. This delay of maturity with 8 hours at the plateau is explained by the lower growth obtained compared to 10 or more hours of lighting program. • These observations are confirmed in latitudes close to the Equator. With very little change in day length, we have seen that sexual maturity is mainly activated by obtaining adequate bodyweight. The higher the latitude is the higher the differences in sexual maturity between summer and winter flocks are.
LIGHT STIMULATION • The variation of light duration greatly influences sexual maturity. Under certain conditions, we can observe a response to a light stimulation from 6 weeks of age. However, the more sensitive period is between 10 and 12 weeks of age. • According to the program being used, the age at 50% can vary by up to 6 weeks Light stimulation will change the bird`s weight at sexual maturity, its adult weight and as a consequence, the egg weight, which is directly related to the bodyweight of the bird at first egg. Bird weight at sexual maturity will be 75g lower when light stimulation is advanced one week. Egg numbers will be greater but egg weight will be reduced by about 1g. Total egg mass produced does not seem to be affected by reasonable variations in the age of sexual maturity (Lewis 1997)(2). For this reason, it is preferable to determine the time of light stimulation according to bodyweight rather than the of age of the bird.
LIGHT INTENSITY IN REARING Little information is available. However some work has shown that light intensity can be very low. Morris (1995)(3) showed that an intensity greater than 1 lux did not modify sexual maturity.
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Ideal light intensity will be determined in practice by the following needs: • Light required to inspect the birds well. • The degree of darkness of the building (light leaking in) • The intensity to be used during laying period. Lighting programs have to be adapted to the rearing facilities (dark or open house systems), to the conditions of production, to the climate and to the egg weight profile demanded by the market. In order to get an efficient light stimulation, the day length increase has to be done in the morning. For rearing in dark house systems and production in an open house system, it is necessary to maintain a high light intensity throughout all the rearing period in order to avoid a sudden increase of light intensity. The lighting programs suggested below are only guides. They have to be adapted to the real circumstances of the rearing farm and according to performances previously obtained. Guide line for lighting program for rearing in a dark poultry house Light Duration
GUIDE LINE FOR LIGHTING PROGRAMME FOR REARING IN A DARK POULTRY HOUSE
C
B
A
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Age in weeks
A
B
C
Lighting program during temperate period
Lighting program during hot season
Lighting program during maturity
We consider essential to achieve the recommended bodyweight at light stimulation and at 5% lay, in order to obtain an egg weight which conforms to the target, and to achieve high overall production.
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PRODUCTION PERIOD The transfer from the rearing farm to the laying facilities is a major stress, accompanied by changes in environment (temperature, humidity…) and equipment. It should be carried out as fast as possible, ideally being completed within a day. Be sure the production house is clean, disinfected and temperature is minimum 17°C. Then, between transfer and the peak of production, a rapid increase in feed intake is necessary since the bird has to cover: • Its requirements to grow to the adult bodyweight. • Its requirements to achieve peak of production. • Its requirements to get a rapid egg weight increase.
AGE OF TRANSFER We advise transferring the birds at 16 weeks, maybe even at 15 weeks, but never after 17 weeks. Because of the stress to which birds are subjected during transfer and immediately afterwards: • It is extremely important that transfer is completed before the appearance of the first eggs: most development of reproductive organs (ovary and oviduct) occurs during the 10 days prior to the first egg. • We advice that vaccinations are given at least a week before transfer, so as to obtain a good vaccine response. • De-worming of the flock, if necessary, is best done in the last days before moving, depending on the de worming product used. • A late transfer or too long a transfer often leads to delayed start of lay and higher mortality and increases the risk of floor laying in non-cage systems.
POINTS OF ATTENTION AT LOADING AND TRANSPORT The following rules should minimise stress at handling of the birds at loading and during later transport: • The birds should have an empty digestive tract at the moment of loading, but they must have access to fresh drinking water up to the time of being loaded. • Choose the best time for transport during the day or night, depending on the weather circumstances.
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• Crates or containers, equipment, trucks etc. must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. • Make sure that air can circulate freely around the crates, but protect pullets from direct air flow. Containers or crates should not be overloaded, particularly in hot weather on long distance hauls. • Avoid unnecessary stops during transit of the birds.
LIGHTING AS A TOOL FOR ENCOURAGING A RAPID ADAPTATION TO A NEW ENVIRONMENT Immediately after the birds arrive at the laying unit, it is very important to put into practice the following techniques to help the birds adapt to the new environment, particularly to cages and nipple systems. • Apply 22 hours of light the first day. • Light duration should be decided according to what has been used during rearing. • Increase the light intensity for 4 to 7 days to help the birds in the darkest cages to find nipples. • Then reduce light intensity gradually while ensuring that normal water intake continues. A high light intensity for longer than 7 days can increase the risks of pecking.
ENCOURAGING WATER CONSUMPTION Birds can become dehydrated during transfer. The water loss rate ranges between 0,3% and 0,5% per hour according to atmospheric conditions. • Pullets should drink before feeding: the absence of feed helps them find the nipple drinkers more easily. • Make sure that the water pipes have been rinsed before pullets arrival. • Wait for 3 or 4 hours before distributing feed and check if drinking system is working properly. • If the pullets have not been reared on nipples, decrease the pressure and allow some leakage of water during the first few days. • If nipples are planned for production, it is helpful to add at least one nipple for 200 birds to the other drinking equipment used in rearing, as a “nipples school”. • A daily water consumption control is of paramount importance.
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FEEDING FOR PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS • About 2 weeks before the first egg is laid, the medullary bone, which acts as a reservoir of calcium for eggshell formation, develops. Therefore a pre-lay diet needs to be used, containing enough calcium and phosphorus, for this bone formation. This diet should be switched to a layer diet as soon as production reaches 2% to avoid any demineralization. • Then, an early lay feed with a high content of amino acids (about 7% higher than after peak diet) should be used. This feed needs to satisfy requirements for early production, growth and reproductive development.
ENCOURAGING FEED CONSUMPTION From the start of lay to the peak of production, feed consumption should increase by about 40% to allow the birds to meet their requirements for egg production and growth. To encourage bird appetite and feed intake, the following advice should be put into practice: • Maintain the temperature at point of lay as close as possible to the temperature to which the birds became acclimatised during rearing. Growth at the point of lay is reduced above 24°C, and is extremely low above 28°C. • Minimize house temperature variations and avoid draughts. • Use an adapted light duration, achieving 15 hours of light at 50% of production. • Providing 1hour 30 minutes to 2 hours of supplementary light in the middle of the dark period will help to attain the correct bodyweight by allowing an extra feed intake (“midnight feeding”). • Limit the number of feed distributions according to equipment to avoid selective feeding and competition for large particles which could lead to lack of uniformity. • Adapt the feeding times as to achieve 60% of feed consumed in the last 6 hours of the day and to have empty feeders for 2 to 3 hours in the middle of the day. This technique avoids a build up of fine particles and its consequent negative effect on feed intake. • Use a layer feed with the correct grist (80% of particles between 0,5 and 3,2 of diameter).
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MONITORING ENVIRONMENTAL AND PRODUCTION PARAMETERS A close control of the following parameters will help you to check the real evolution of the flock during this critical period for the future performances: • Feed consumption (daily). • Water consumption (daily) and water/feed ratio. • Temperature (min-max) and relative humidity (daily). • Evolution of bodyweight (weekly until peak of lay), by weighing the birds up to 35 weeks of age. • Evolution of egg weight (daily for the first weeks of lay).
General principles of lighting programs during the production period In production as well as in rearing, the lighting program greatly influences feed consumption. In addition, during all its life, a chicken remains sensitive to changes in the duration of illumination. The objective of the lighting programs during the production period is: • To encourage growth at start of lay. • To counteract the harmful effects of decreases in natural day length. • To control the livability through the light intensity management. • To improve eggshell quality. Other lighting programs can also be introduced during the production period to adapt the egg weight to market demand, to improve eggshell quality or to control feed intake for some breeds.
LIGHT INTENSITY IN PRODUCTION The light intensity required is low. No significant differences have been found in the different trials with today’s breeds. But as stated for the rearing period, we encourage an increase in light intensity for a few days from the transfer time in order to help the bird to discover its new environment and to find easily water and feed systems. Thereafter, the light intensity can be reduced step by step to a minimum of 0,5 lux at the feeder level in the dimmest areas of the laying house as long as during the rearing stage light intensity doesn’t exceed 10 lux. There is a strong relation between bird activity, stocking density and feather loss during production.
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HOW TO IMPROVE SHELL QUALITY All methods that help to increase the quantity of calcium stored in the gizzard before lights off and to ingest a soluble form of calcium after lights on, have a positive effect on shell quality. According after transfer we advise: For white layers: • Encourage maximum feed intake during the last 4 hours of the day (distribute 4 hours before lights out). • Arrange to have feeders empty in the middle of the day to encourage feed intake in the afternoon. • Ensure that the calcium content of the feed has 50% in particles of 2 to 4 mm to encourage retention in the gizzards and storage for the night period. • Provide 50% of the calcium in easy soluble power form for quick availability at lights on. Important note: During the hot season or in summer, heat stress can delay the oviposition time, mainly when birds are panting. Panting provokes a loss of carbon dioxide and bicarbonate in blood plasma. As a consequence, oviposition times are delayed. In these circumstances the maximum feed possible has to be given during midnight lighting and early in the morning to maintain production and shell quality.
ADJUSTING EGG WEIGHT TO MEET MARKET REQUIREMENTS Egg producers want to produce eggs of a size which matches market demand and in the end satisfies the needs of their customers and optimises margins. The principal factors affecting egg weight are: • Genetic aspects • Bodyweight at sexual maturity (so at the time of the first egg is laid) • Feed consumption and growth from first egg till achieving of adult bodyweight • Nutritional factors; For eggshell quality reasons, a minimum of 60% of the feed, needs to be distributed in the afternoon.
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WATER: THE MOST CRITICAL NUTRIENT
The water is the most critical nutrient for the poultry. The daily control of water consumption is essential. If an animal does not drink, it will not eat and can not produce.
WATER QUALITY Good quality drinking water is very important for (production) animals. Birds must always have easy access to the drinking water, the water must be fresh and bright. Taste and smell seem to be of less importance to the birds but are indicators for the water quality. Poultry
Parameter pH
Good quality
Do not use
5 – 8,5
<4 and >9
Ammonium mg/l
<2,0
>10
Nitrite mg/l
<0,1
>1,0
Nitrate mg/l
<100
>200
Chloride mg/l
<250
>2000
Sodium mg/l
<800
>1500
Sulfate mg/l
<150
>250
Iron mg/l
<0,5
>2,5
Mangane mg/l
<1,0
>2,0
Lime/chulk content
<20
>25
<50
>200
Oxidizable organic matter mg/l
non detectable non detectable
H2S Coliform bacteria’s cfu/ml
<100
>100
Total bacteria count cfu/ml
<100.000
>100.000
MONITORING WATER QUALITY The value of any analysis depends on when, where, and how the sample has been taken, (where it enters the house or at the end of the system). One should not forget that an analysis only refers to the quality of the water at the time when the sample was taken, and is never a guarantee of its quality at another time. Where farms have their own water supply,
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it is necessary to take a sample at least twice a year (one at the end of winter, the other at the end of summer). On farms using the mains supply an annual measurement should be adequate. It is important to realise that the sodium thiosulphate, contained in the flasks supplied by the laboratories carrying out bacteriological tests on water, only neutralises chlorine or bleach. It has no action on quaternary ammonium compounds.
WATER CONSUMPTION Water consumption depends on ambient temperature. Above 20°C, consumption increases to enable the bird to maintain body temperature (respiratory evaporation). The actual consumption depends on temperature and humidity of the ambient air. The following table shows the relationship between water and feed consumption according to house temperature: Water to feed ratio according to temperature in rearing and laying period. Temperature
Rearing
Production
15°C
1.6
1.70 (210 ml)
20°C
1.7
1.80 (205 ml)
25°C
2.3
2.10 (230 ml)
30°C
3.0
3.10 (320 ml)
In hot periods it is essential to provide cool water for the birds. In a hot climate, cool water will improve productivity. It is extremely important to protect the water tanks from the direct sunlight.
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PULLET AND HEN HEALTH Bird health results from the interface between adequate biosecurity, animal welfare, poultry husbandry, nutrition, immunization, and general disease prevention, control and monitoring. This section is intended to serve as a general guide for maintaining healthy flocks. Details on actual procedures should be provided by a poultry health professional.
BIOSECURITY The concept of biosecurity may be complex and difficult to generalize or adapt for every possible circumstance. The objective of biosecurity is to prevent infectious disease from affecting otherwise healthy flocks. Among the many strategies used to prevent infectious disease, some of the most effective ones include: a) limit access of unnecessary visitors; b) avoiding visits to multiple farms in the same day; c) shower in and out of any poultry facility; d) even when showering is not possible, it is imperative to wear clean clothes or coveralls. Footwear and hairnets that should not leave the farm being visited; e) establish, maintain and monitor adequate programs for rodent and insect control. In addition, it is important to consider all major risks in terms of biosecurity such as moving birds into and from the farm; sales, maintenance, equipment and construction personnel; manure removal personnel, vehicles and equipment. Service personnel should not visit any flocks after having been in contact with flocks with known, suspect, or obvious signs of disease caused by agents such as MG, MS, ILT or IBV.
WELFARE AND POULTRY HUSBANDRY Overall bird health is relatively easy to maintain by simply applying good husbandry. The health and productivity of chickens is closely related to their welfare, which in turn depends on the use of adequate biosecurity and husbandry practices. In many areas, official regulations dictate specific requirements related to animal welfare and it is important to ensure compliance with regulatory agencies. Local or national poultry associations and Government institutions are usually a good source of welfare guidelines that are relevant for each geographical area.
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DISEASE PREVENTION BY IMMUNIZATION An individual becomes “immune”, “immunized” or resistant to a specific disease after inoculation with a specific vaccine, or after exposure to a disease agent in the field. Vaccination programs should be designed to “immunize” flocks against diseases with an economic impact; and against disease agents that could potentially compromise food safety. The entire disease control program relies on sound and well-designed vaccination programs and adequate biosecurity, husbandry and nutrition. At the same time, vaccinations should be administered at times or ages when their detrimental impact is minimal, and at times when the best possible benefit can be obtained from them. Most vaccination programs are intended to immunize chickens against diseases that affect the immune system; cause tumors in chickens; affect the respiratory, urinary or reproductive tracts; affect the nervous system; induce disease in the intestinal tract; or represent a food safety concern. Fortunately there are vaccines and vaccination methods available to protect chickens against most of these groups of conditions. Prior to using any vaccines, ensure that their use is legal and that it will not disqualify specialty flocks because of the type of preservatives contained in the vaccines.
TYPES OF VACCINES There are many types of vaccines available for commercial poultry. It is important to become familiar with their basic characteristics related to their potential for protection, safety, ease of administration, relative cost, reactivity, compatibility with other vaccines, etc. This is a list of some of the most important types of vaccines: • Live virus vaccines • Recombinant virus vaccines • Live bacterial vaccines • Inactivated bacterial vaccines (bacterins) • Gene modified and deletion mutant live bacterial vaccines • Autogenous inactivated bacterial vaccines • Autogenous inactivated viral vaccines • Live coccidiosis vaccines • Live Mycoplasma vaccines • Inactivated Mycoplasma vaccines (bacterins) • Recombinant Mycoplasma vaccines • Competitive exclusion products
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VACCINATION METHODS It is important to understand the characteristics of each vaccine and to use each product according to the manufacturer’s recommendations. Vaccines are designed and approved for individual or mass application methods. Individual vaccination methods include: • Ocular (eye drop) • Beak dipping or intranasal • Subcutaneous injection • Intramuscular injection • Transcutaneous injection (wing web) • Vent brush application Mass vaccination methods include: • In ovo injection • Drinking water vaccination • Spray vaccination
OCULAR (EYE DROP), BEAK DIPPING AND INTRANASAL VACCINATION Eye drop vaccination is commonly used to protect chickens against respiratory viruses, Mycoplasma and occasionally against infectious bursal disease. Ocular vaccination is most suitable for delivery of live vaccines against diseases or agents such as (but not exclusively) Newcastle disease, infectious bronchitis, infectious laryngotracheitis, avian metapneumovirus and Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Eye drop vaccination is likely the most effective and safest method for respiratory viruses. Direct contact of the vaccine with the mucosa of the eye will result in stimulation of the Harderian gland and a strong local immune response. Despite being highly effective, eye drop vaccination is labor intensive and time consuming and thus it is usually limited to application of vaccines that must be administered via the ocular route and by no other method, such as some (but not all) live MG vaccines and live attenuated vaccines against ILT. Intranasal and beak dipping application of vaccines has the same objectives as the ocular route. Intranasal application is popular in some countries but beak dipping is rarely used. The vaccine is administered by depositing a drop (usually 30 ul or 0.03 ml) of reconstituted vaccine directly on the eye or into the nostrils. The advantage of eye drop application is that if applied properly, every bird receives a similar dose of vaccine and is thus likely to be immunized (protected) against the disease, as opposed to mass application methods, which unavoidably result in suboptimal coverage since not every bird receives an equally immunizing dose.
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Because eye drop vaccination requires individual handling of birds, biosecurity is most important and the vaccination crews must follow strict biosecurity procedures so as not to bring infectious diseases to the flock being vaccinated. For the beak dipping method to be successful, both nostrils must be immersed in the vaccine. This method is suitable only for chicks up to 7 days of age and is used for immunization against NDV or IBDV. It is used in areas or farms where even vaccine uptake is not possible using the drinking water or spray methods, or with the objective of minimizing vaccine reactions.
SUBCUTANEOUS AND INTRAMUSCULAR INJECTION Injection via the intramuscular and subcutaneous routes is reserved primarily for inactivated vaccines and bacterins. The vaccination equipment should be sterile and the needles used should be of the proper caliber and length for the age of the bird and also for the type of product being injected. The needles should be replaced with sterile needles at least every 500 injections to prevent injections with bent or blunt needles, and to avoid transmission of some diseases from infected to non-infected chickens. Most inactivated (killed) vaccines are administered at approximately 12-14 weeks of age. Should it be necessary to vaccinate younger chickens with inactivated products it should be kept in mind that handling and administration of inactivated vaccines or bacterins between 6 and 11 weeks of age might delay or alter the development of the pullets. Inactivated viral vaccines are usually available in a water-in-oil (WO) or water-in-oil-in-water (WOW) emulsion, which are typically not very reactive. Thus, such products can be injected with confidence intramuscularly or subcutaneously, provided the injection is done in the proper area and without depositing any of the vaccine product in the cavity or directly into the internal organs. Inactivated products containing Mycoplasmas and/or bacteria such as Salmonella may be quite reactive and every effort should be made to minimize the local vaccine reactions that can be derived from the injections. For subcutaneous injections, it is especially important to avoid the thymus by injecting the vaccine in the middle line (avoiding the sides of the neck), and by not injecting too close to the head or the base of the neck. For intramuscular injections (in the breast muscle), every effort should be made to avoid injecting the product into the cavity. Vaccinations in the thigh may contribute to reduced adverse reactions but care must be exercised to minimize injuries resulting in lameness.
TRANSCUTANEOUS INJECTION (WING WEB) Transcutaneous (wing web) application is used almost exclusively to vaccinate chickens against poxvirus (POX). For convenience, manufacturers of vaccines have added other agents such as chicken infectious anemia virus (CAV) and avian encephalomyelitis virus (AE)
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to POX vaccines and thus it is possible to vaccinate pullets simultaneously against AE, POX and CAV in one injection. The latter (CAV) is only necessary in layer breeders but AE and POX are routinely used in commercial layers. In addition, there are recombinant vaccines with a poxvirus as a vector carrying genes that express proteins from ILTV or MG. Thus, such products can also be administered by wing web application.
VENT BRUSH VACCINATION Vent brush vaccination was developed decades ago to protect chickens against ILTV using vaccine strains that were extremely reactive and caused vaccine-induced ILT. The procedure involves dipping a rough brush into the reconstituted ILTV vaccine vial and brushing harshly the mucosa of the vent. This procedure is still used with relative success in some countries for administration of live attenuated vaccines against ILTV.
IN OVO INJECTION In ovo vaccination is a mass-application procedure that is reserved for vaccination of embryos in the hatchery and is typically done at 17 to 19 days of incubation. The procedure was designed for immunization against Marek’s disease virus (MDV). With the advent of recombinant vaccines, in ovo vaccination can now be used to protect chickens against diseases such as Marek’s disease, fowl poxvirus, infectious laryngotracheitis, infectious bursal diseases (Gumboro) and Newcastle disease. In addition, coccidiosis vaccines are now registered and approved for in ovo administration.
DRINKING WATER (ORAL) VACCINATION Vaccination via the drinking water is a suitable method to vaccinate pullets against hardy viruses such as infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) and CIAV, but it can be used to immunize against diseases such as Newcastle, infectious bronchitis, colibacillosis, salmonellosis and other diseases. Along with spray vaccination and in ovo vaccination, administration of live vaccines via the drinking water is considered a mass-application method. Although practical, mass application methods usually result in less-than-optimal vaccine coverage and thus protection might be suboptimal compared with individual vaccination methods. Vaccination via the drinking water should be used in birds one week old or older because water consumption in younger pullets might be too irregular. Oral vaccination can be done by directly adding the vaccine into the water reservoirs supplying water to the barn to be vaccinated; it can also be accomplished by using “medicators” or “dosifiers” that can be connected to the main water pipelines feeding the drinkers.
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The method relies on the preparation of a stock solution of vaccine that is to be placed in a container (a clean bucket) from which the medicator draws small quantities of vaccine that is mixed automatically with fresh incoming water in the water pipelines. For example, 28,5 ml of stock solution of vaccine is drawn by the medicator and mixed with every 3,78 liters of fresh water to be consumed. This method requires that the birds to be vaccinated are thirsty so that water consumption helps to consume the vaccine rapidly (within approximately 60 minutes). Thus, access to water by the birds should be interrupted for approximately 2 hours (depending on the temperature, humidity, age of the birds, etc.) prior to vaccination. Because the stock solution is drawn in a pulse manner, and because it must be mixed with incoming water automatically before it is delivered it is not possible to achieve an even vaccination in all birds.
VACCINATION THROUGH A MEDICATOR Vaccination through a medicator is one of the methods of vaccination with live virus vaccines which is least recommended, although it is a suitable method for administration of drugs, vitamins, etc. Coccidiosis vaccination using a medicator should be avoided because the Eimeria oocysts will tend to settle and the actual dose of oocysts per bird will vary greatly, and so giving very poor results.
WATER VACCINATION Water vaccination can also be accomplished using a water pump to “inject” or “force” the vaccine into the water lines, which is a popular and very effective method of mass application using the drinking water for delivery of live vaccines. Water pump vaccination requires a closed water system (nipple drinker lines) and can be used successfully for delivery of vaccines against diseases or disease agents such as IBDV or CIAV. As with other methods involving water delivery, this one requires that the birds be thirsty prior to delivering the vaccine to them. Wherever possible, the drinker lines are raised high enough so as to prevent drinking by the birds in the 2-3 hours prior to vaccination. Water vaccination requires flushing the drinker lines with fresh water to minimize the amount of unwanted residues. Commercial products can be used to clean the drinker lines thoroughly prior to vaccination. Even after the use of commercial products, it is recommended to flush the lines with clean fresh water before vaccinating the flock. This is particularly important in operations that have hard water, or in operations that have used antibacterial drugs or other products that may have formed a film in the drinker lines. Prior to vaccination, it is important to water-starve the pullets to be vaccinated so that most will consume vaccine upon its administration. Check the drinkers or nipple drinkers to ensure they are clean and operational and shut down all water sanitizing systems. Allow the birds to become thirsty by interrupting their access to water.
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The amount of time required for the birds to become thirsty will depend on their age, environmental temperature, feed formulation, etc. The goal should be for all pullets to consume the vaccine in a matter of 60 minutes. If the birds consume the vaccine in less time, it would mean they were too thirsty. On the other hand, if it takes the birds more than one hour to fully consume the vaccine this would be an indication that the water was not removed long enough prior to vaccination. A few essential steps for water vaccination are listed as follows: • Clean and flush the water lines. • Turn off the water sanitation system. • Ensure proper functioning of the drinker system. • Water-starve the pullets enough for them to consume the vaccine in less than one hour. • Verify that the vaccine to be administered has been stored according to the manufacturer’s recommendations; that it is still viable (before expiry); and maintain a record of the type of vaccine, serial (lot) number, number of doses per vial and number of vials used, as well as the expiry date. • Reconstitute the vaccine in an aseptic manner and verify that the number of vials used matches the number of doses to be given. The amount of vaccine to be consumed in volume should be equivalent to approximately 1/7 the total water consumed the previous day. • Use a commercially produced vaccine stabilizer or powdered skim milk to help protect the vaccine viruses. Closely follow the recommendations of the manufacturer of the vaccine stabilizer. If skimmed milk is used, approximately 2.5g of well-dissolved skim milk per liter of water plus vaccine is enough to protect the vaccine from any residual chemicals or minerals in the drinking water. Keep the reconstituted vaccine cool and away from exposure to the sunlight. • Deliver the vaccine into the drinkers and drinker lines. To ensure a complete fill out of the drinker lines (pipes) add a visual aid such as commercial blue dye and let the vaccine be flushed to the end of the lines until blue dye is seen at the end of the lines. At this time close the end of the water lines and allow the birds to drink. If the vaccine is delivered into open water systems, it is important to walk slowly through the house to stimulate water consumption and to help distribute the birds in the house. • Check at least 100 birds throughout the barn to verify that they have consumed the vaccine. If enough dye was used, it should be easy to observe a blue coloring of the tongue, head feathers and occasionally the crop, which is visible through the skin. Vaccine coverage of at least 90% should be a realistic goal.
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SPRAY VACCINATION Spray vaccination is used primarily for immunization against respiratory viruses such as Newcastle disease virus (NDV) and infectious bronchitis virus (IBV). However, it should be noted that spray vaccination should involve the less invasive forms or strains of viruses, such as the B1B1 strain of Newcastle, or H120 of infectious bronchitis. In general, the more invasive the virus, the better the protection against disease but the harsher the vaccine reactions, especially in flocks infected with Mg or some strains of MS. Coccidiosis vaccines are sometimes sprayed on the feed of layer breeders in some areas. Some live Mycoplasma gallisepticum vaccines (but not all) can be sprayed directly on chickens in the field. Each type of equipment intended for spray vaccinations may be different and the operator must be thoroughly familiar with each piece of equipment and its spray patterns, pressure and particle size. For example, pressurized sprayers are excellent to deliver vaccine to the respiratory tract but because of the small particle size that they produce, the vaccine will tend to remain suspended in the air or it may be sucked towards the house fans if they are not turned off prior to vaccinating the birds. With some types of sprayers the equipment must be located not more than 50 cm over those birds to be vaccinated. This method is therefore not practical for mass application over chickens on the ground. Rather, sprayers intended for horticultural use or pesticide application in the horticultural industry have proved very popular and effective for application of live respiratory vaccines in the field. The particle size will range between 100 and 300 um, which is suitable for most respiratory viruses. In general, spray vaccination is used for protection against respiratory viruses and Mycoplasma in pullets; and for protection against respiratory viruses in hens in production. A few essential considerations for spray vaccination are listed as follows: • Prior to choosing spray vaccination to immunize chickens against respiratory viral diseases, consider all possible options. Be aware that spray vaccination against Newcastle disease and Infectious Bronchitis generally provides better protection than water vaccination, but vaccine reactions can be harsh, particularly in Mycoplasma-positive chickens. Spray vaccination against Infectious Laryngotracheitis should be avoided and must never be done in chickens in production. Only vaccinate healthy chickens. • For adult flocks, verify the flock antibody titers prior to vaccination. If antibody titers are low, vaccine reactions may be harsh. • Ensure that the vaccination equipment has been thoroughly cleaned, disinfected and rinsed to remove all traces of vaccine and disinfectant. • Drive the birds (if reared on the floor) to an area of the barn where they can be vaccinated without them flying or moving freely away from the vaccination equipment. • Calculate the total number of doses and the total volume of diluent
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(distilled deionized water) required to vaccine all chickens. The water used should not be chlorinated and should have a pH of 5,5 to 7,0. • Turn off the lights, brooders and ventilation system while ensuring the birds do not overheat or suffocate. The flock should be relatively calm at the moment of spraying the vaccine on them. • Reconstitute the vaccine aseptically and in the shade, and only immediately prior to vaccinating the flock. • Use appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), including protective mask and goggles. • Adjust the spray nozzle to a proper droplet size. Coarse sprays (>80-120 microns) are recommended for priming vaccinations and also for invasive vaccines. Fine sprays (50-60 microns) are recommended for boost vaccinations in older chickens, but only after they have been primed with similar viruses. • MG-infected chickens tend to react too severely to spray vaccinations, particularly if the droplet size is too small. • Use distilled water to dilute the vaccine (the amount should be adjusted to every situation). If a pressurized spray apparatus is used, it should be kept in mind that this type of equipment delivers droplets with a diameter range of 50-1000 microns, and thus only part of the vaccine will be inhaled. Thus, it is necessary to spray the vaccine at a distance not larger than 50cm from the chickens. This type of equipment typically requires a relatively large volume per chicken house (15-20 liters). For situations where a controlleddroplet application apparatus is used, the droplet size is considerably more uniform (~50-150 microns). Although the droplet size is more uniform with this type of equipment, some of the droplets are too small and may remain in suspension for quite some time after the vaccine is sprayed. This may represent a problem because a vaccine that stays in suspension a long time may decrease in virus titer before it is inhaled and much of the vaccine ends up on house and equipment surfaces but not in the chickens. In addition, if much of the vaccine remains in suspension (in the form of a mist), re-activating the ventilation system will draw the vaccine out of the house through the exhaust fans. • Only spray-vaccinate healthy birds. Avoid spraying birds that are infected with MG. • Adjust the nozzle to obtain the desired droplet size. • Wear a mask and goggles for personal protection when sprayvaccinating. • Make sure the sprayer to be used is clean and has no residual disinfectant. The vaccine containers of the spray apparatus should be rinsed with distilled water prior to and after every use. • Use only one dose per bird or less.
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• Reconstitute the vaccine only immediately prior to use. • Close up the house including curtains and doors and shut the ventilation system and dim the lights while the birds are being vaccinated and if possible, during 20-30 minutes post-vaccination (provided the air quality and temperature allow for a temporary shut down without compromising the flock integrity). If the flock is in a high temperature area, vaccinate birds at night or early in the morning. Make sure the ventilation system is not running at the time the vaccine is being applied or that it runs at a minimum power. Dim the lights to a minimum to settle the birds. • Spray the birds evenly and thoroughly at least twice and ensure that all calculated doses are used evenly. The heads and upper body of the sprayed birds should appear wet after vaccination. • Make a point of not leaving the farm without making sure the ventilation system and the lights have been re-engaged. Ventilation should be restored approximately 20 minutes after the initiation of the vaccination process. • Rinse, clean, disinfect and re-rinse the vaccination equipment before leaving the farm. • Destroy all residual vaccine and vaccine vials by incineration. Follow local regulations regarding adequate disposal of vaccines, vaccine vials and biological materials.
PARASITE CONTROL The most common internal parasites in laying hens include coccidia, Histomonas (“black head”), Capillaria worms, round (Ascaridia) worms, and cecal (Heterakis) worms. External parasites frequently seen in layer operations include the Northern fowl mite (Ornythonyssus), the red mite or roost mite (Dermanyssus) - poultry lice are less frequent but can occur in commercial operations. The Northern fowl mite completes its entire life cycle on the birds, whereas the red mite feeds on the birds only at night. As a whole, mites are external parasites that must be controlled to avoid drops in egg production, dermatitis around the vent, restless birds, increased mortality and farm employee discomfort. Some mites are known to carry other disease agents and can induce anemia if the infestation is severe and thus must be controlled.
VACCINATION AGAINST COCCIDIOSIS Pullets reared in battery cages do not ordinarily experience significant internal parasitic diseases. However, if they have access to droppings in the hen house because of the type of equipment and manure removal systems, outbreaks of coccidiosis could potentially occur. Regardless of the type of operation, it is important to ensure immunity against coccidiosis, which can be accomplished by using one of two common methods. Where legal, pullets reared on the floor may be treated with anticoccidial drugs for 8-12 weeks to allow for a gradual acquisition of
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immunity. Commonly used drugs for this purpose include (not exclusively) amprolium and salinomycin. However, other anticoccidial drugs have been used successfully. Perhaps the best approach to control coccidiosis in pullets reared on the floor is vaccination. Pullets can be vaccinated by spray at the hatchery with one of the various commercially available vaccines. It is important to use a commercial product that will contain at least E. acervulina, E. maxima, E. tenella and E. necatrix. Coccidiosis vaccines for broiler chickens do not contain E. necatrix, an essential component of coccidiosis vaccines for longevity in birds. When coccidiosis vaccines are used it is critical not to medicate the flock with any drug that coccidia would be sensitive to, in order to allow at least two complete coccidial cycles, which normally occurs at approximately 14-16 days of age, depending on various factors including litter moisture, bird density, environmental temperature, etc. It is also important to allow vaccinated birds to remain in the brood chamber for the duration of at least 2 complete coccidial cycles before allowing them to occupy the entire barn. If vaccinated pullets are given to the entire barn prior to the second cycle being completed, many of them will not be properly immunized and might develop coccidiosis at a later age, with the significant consequences of increased mortality, delayed growth, poor uniformity and the need for treating the flock. Specialty flocks may not be treated with drugs of any kind and thus it is critical to ensure proper coccidiosis control with the use of vaccines.
HISTOMONIASIS AND ROUND WORMS Histomonas meleagridis (HM) is the causative agent of histomoniasis (“black head”) and almost exclusively affects pullets reared on the floor, particularly in premises with dirt floors. The condition, which can be devastating, has made a comeback after the ban of many anti-parasitic drugs and is difficult to control since there are no drugs that can be used legally in many areas of the world. Because the microscopic parasite depends to some extent on the life cycle of cecal worms and earthworms, one of the strategies for control involves the control of worms. Early administration of drugs against round worms might contribute to maintain HM under control. The layer industry most commonly uses piperazine and anti-worm compounds from the family of the benzimidazole drugs such as levamizole or albendazole. Controlling worms reduces the challenge posed by HM. Where legal, HM infection may be treated with drugs such as nitarsone, but even this drug is only partially effective. Control of HM involves not only treating birds against worms, but also proper cleaning and disinfection, adequate husbandry, and proper coccidosis control, particularly of E. tenella.
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MITES The best form of prevention for mite infestation is biosecurity. Infested flocks should never be visited before visiting mite- free flocks. Mites can be mechanically carried from farm to farm in clothes, footwear, on people, equipment, egg boxes, etc. Such parasites usually thrive in sexually mature flocks and thus most treatments become necessary while the infested flocks are in production. Effective control requires direct application of “acaricide” products. A variety of products can be used for mite control, including pyrethroids, organophosphates, carbamates, mineral-based products, vegetable oils, citrus concentrated extracts and other products. Some of these products can be administered by dry (dust) spray, or as a wet spray. Prior to using any of these products it is critical to determine whether they are approved for use in hens in production, and also whether the personnel applying the products requires personal protective equipment. Some products are less effective if applied dry but quite effective when applied wet directly on the birds, which requires considerable more time than the application of dry products. Treating birds against mites is frequently expensive and it may be necessary to treat an infested flock more than once. After the affected flock is removed, thorough cleaning and disinfection and chemical treatment of the premises and equipment is necessary. The best approach is to exercise adequate biosecurity and never to transit from infested flocks to clean flocks, or to share equipment and egg boxes between infested and clean premises.
CONTROLLING GROUPS OF DISEASE BY VACCINATION Infectious diseases can be grouped by the organ system they affect. Thus, infectious diseases can affect the respiratory, digestive, nervous, urinary, reproductive and immune systems among others. Other diseases tend to affect the integument (skin or cutaneous tissues) and yet some others are considered a concern for food safety.
RESPIRATORY DISEASES Respiratory diseases of major concern in commercial layers include Newcastle disease, infectious bronchitis, avian influenza, avian metapneumovirus infection (swollen head syndrome), avian mycoplasmosis (MG and MS), infectious coryza, avian pasteurellosis (fowl cholera) and Gallibacterium anatis infection. All such diseases or disease agents can be prevented or controlled by using a combination of biosecurity and vaccination. In general, vaccination against respiratory viruses is done with live vaccines followed by killed (inactivated) vaccines. Live attenuated avian influenza vaccines are not available, but recombinant vaccines and killed vaccines are.
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Bacterial diseases (infectious coryza, fowl cholera and Gallibacterium infection) are typically prevented by means of inactivated (killed) vaccines or bacterins, which are given once or twice during the rearing period. Bacterins are usually administered by intramuscular or subcutaneous injection at approximately 10-14 weeks of age. Live vaccines against viral respiratory diseases may be administered by spray or in the drinking water once or multiple times while the flocks are in production.
PERTITONITIS IN LAYERS Peritonitis in layers is frequently caused by E. coli strains that are unrelated to the E. coli strains which affect cattle or humans. However, they can induce severe economic losses if there is no adequate control. Colibacillosis associated with peritonitis in layers is not strictly a respiratory condition, but E. coli can penetrate via the respiratory tract (descending infection). E. coli can also penetrate via an ascending route (via the reproductive tract), or possibly from the intestinal tract, a mechanism that has not yet been confirmed. Peritonitis in layers should be controlled by a variety of approaches, including maintaining proper husbandry practices, adequate ventilation, and vaccination against E. coli among other strategies. Vaccination against E. coli in layers is a very effective method of control and is commonly done by using live vaccines by spray or in the drinking water twice during rearing, once at hatch and once a few weeks later. Live E. coli vaccines can also be given safely to flocks in production or close to the onset of production, if they were not vaccinated during rearing.
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Diseases of the digestive system that are preventable by vaccination include the parasitic disease coccidiosis. Coccidiosis vaccines are typically administered at the hatchery in ovo or by spray, or by spray on the feed during the first week of life.
DISEASES AFFECTING THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Diseases affecting the nervous system such as avian encephalomyelitis (AE) require effective vaccination for prevention. Flocks may be vaccinated via the drinking water or by transcutaneous injection in the wing web, usually along with POX vaccination at approximately 10-12 weeks of age. AE vaccines should not be given for the first time before 10 weeks of age or too soon before the flock initiates egg production because they can induce disease or drops in egg production.
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DISEASES AFFECTING THE URINARY AND REPRODUCTIVE TRACT Diseases affecting the urinary and reproductive tracts are represented typically by infectious bronchitis. Prevention of infectious bronchitis requires vaccination at various ages with the same or similar serotypes of virus circulating in the field. It may be necessary to vaccinate the pullets 3-4 times with live viruses during rearing, and once with a killed vaccine containing at least the same or similar serotypes circulating in the field. Still, in many instances it might be necessary to vaccinate flocks in production by spray several times in order to maintain a healthy urinary, respiratory and reproductive tract.
DISEASES AFFECTING THE IMMUNE SYSTEM Diseases affecting the immune system can be numerous. Well-known diseases affecting the immune system include infectious bursal disease (IBDV, or Gumboro disease), chicken infectious anemia (CIAV), and Marek’s disease (MDV), the latter being a disease that also causes tumors and mortality. IBDV can be prevented by vaccination with live attenuated vaccines, immune complex vaccines, or recombinant vaccines. Live attenuated vaccines are becoming less popular because of the frequent need to give them multiple times in order to control IBDV effectively during the rearing period. Still, they have contributed very positively to the effective control of IBDV in the field, particularly in floor rearing operations. Live attenuated IBDV vaccines are given 3-4 times during the first 8 weeks of age, beginning with an initial application at approximately 14 days of age. It is not necessary to vaccinate commercial layers against CIAV because they are only susceptible to this immunosuppressive agent during the first 3 weeks of life, and the layer parents should provide protection after being exposed and/or vaccinated themselves. All layer pullets should be vaccinated against MDV to prevent losses to mortality, immunosuppression and tumors.
DISEASE AGENTS OF CONCERN FOR FOOD SAFETY Salmonella control requires a very complex approach, part of which involves vaccination. Where legal, vaccination against Salmonella is one of the most effective means of control and is usually done with live attenuated or genetically modified vaccines against S. typhimurium, followed by killed vaccines against S. enteritidis or containing other Salmonella serovars that may be residents in a particular area or operation. It is recommended to use two live Salmonella vaccines and at least one killed vaccine containing SE and other serovars to reduce the probability of infection in the field. References 1) Lewis, P. D. 1996. The domestic hen's response to photoperiodic influences. Pages 737-745 in Proceedings of XXth World's Poultry Congress. Vol II. New Delhi, India. 2) Lewis, P. D., G. C. Perry, and T. R. Morris. 1997. Effect of size and timing of photoperiod increase on age at first egg and subsequent performance on two breeds of laying hen. Br. Poult. Sci. 38:142-150. 3) Morris, T. R., P. J. Sharp, and E. A. Butler. 1995. A test for photorefractoriness in highproducing stocks of laying pullets. Br. Poult. Sci. 36:763-769.
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CONVERSION TABLE 1 mtr. 1 sq. mtr. 1 cub. mtr. 1 cm. 1 sq. cm. 1 kg. 1 g. 1 ltr.
=3,282 feet =10,76 sq. feet =35,316 cub. feet =0,394 inches =0,155 sq. inch =2,205 lbs. =0,035 ozs. =0,22 gallons
1 foot 1 sq. foot 1 cub. foot 1 inch 1 sq. inch 1 lb. 1 oz. 1 gallon
=0,305 mtr. =0,093 sq. mtr. =0,028317 cub. m. =2,54 cm. =6,45 sq.cm. =0,454 kg. =28,35 g. =4,54 ltr.
1 bird per square metre 3 birds per square metre 4 birds per square metre 5 birds per square metre 7 birds per square metre 11 birds per square metre 13 birds per square metre
=10,76 square feet per bird =3,59 square feet per bird =2,69 square feet per bird =2,15 square feet per bird =1,54 square feet per bird =0,98 square feet per bird =0,83 square feet per bird
1 cubic meter/kilogram/hour 1 cubic foot/lb./hour
=16,016 cubic feet/lb./hour =0,0624 cubic meter/kilogram/hour
F° 45 °C 40 °C 35 °C 30 °C 27 °C 24 °C
=9/5 °C+32 =113 °F =104 °F =95 °F =86 °F =81 °F =75 °F
°C 22 °C 20 °C 18 °C 16 °C 14 °C 12 °C
=5/9 (°F-32) =72 °F =68 °F =64 °F =61 °F =57 °F =54 °F
10 °C 8 °C 6 °C 4 °C 2 °C 0 °C
=50 °F =46 °F =43 °F =39 °F =36 °F =32 °F
1 Joule per second = 1 Watt = Volt x Ampere 1 KJ =1000J 1 MJ =1000KJ 1 MJ =239 Kcal 1 Kcal =4.2 KJ 1 KWh =3.6MJ - 860 Kcal 1 BTU =1055J
Warranty Disclaimer This product guide for layers has been prepared by Institut de Sélection Animale B.V. and its affiliates (“ISA”) with the greatest possible care and dedication to inform and assist ISA’s customers on the various manners of production to improve their production results while using ISA products. However, specific circumstances at the farm of the customer may impact the usability and reliability of the statements and information mentioned in this product guide. No implied or explicit guarantees are given by ISA as to the accuracy and completeness of the provided information in this product guide. Applying the information as stated in this product guide in the customers’ production environment remains a decision of the customer, to be taken at its sole discretion. ISA will not be liable for any losses or damages whatsoever, whether in contract, tort or otherwise arising from reliance on information contained in this product guide. L7150-2
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bovans.com P.O. Box 114 5830 AC Boxmeer The Netherlands +31 485 319 111 [email protected]
Backed by a strong portfolio of leading brands, Hendrix Genetics provides expertise and resources to producers globally, with operations and joint ventures in 24 countries. Better Breeding Today – Brighter Life Tomorrow
Bovans White
ProductGuide Cage Production System
Achieving the full genetic potential of the Bovans White
The Story of the Bovans White By the 1950s traditional Dutch poultry breeders were facing increased competition from larger American companies. So in 1954 four family owned layer breeding farms formed a new breeding company called Bovans Organisatie N.V. (Bovans Poultry Breeders). These hard working, farming families were the Bongers, Van Duijnhoven, Van Lankveld and Van der Linden (one Bo and three Vans = Bovans). The founders of Bovans were Harry van Duijnhoven and his wife Nora. The Bovans breeding center was at Harry van Duijnhoven’s farm at Stevensbeek and their Bovans layers reflected the robust and hardworking ethics of the four families. The original Bovans logo, which is still in use, was designed by Harry van Duijnhoven’s brother. Bovans Poultry Breeders soon developed into a strong and successful breeder, selling its birds in Europe, the America’s, Africa and the Middle East.
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THE BOVANS WHITE TODAY The Bovans White is an exceptionally balanced layer, combining high peak performance, feed efficiency and livability. Robust and easy to manage the Bovans White enables egg producers to achieve their desired egg weight level, for table eggs or processing. A productive layer with a flat egg weight curve, a very strong shell and excellent laying persistency, the Bovans White is suitable for longer laying cycles, and is adaptable to differing environments and management systems.
Flat egg weight curve Superior egg production Robust and easy to manage Exceptionally balanced bird Strong bottom line results
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CONTENTS THE STORY OF THE BOVANS WHITE
2
THE BOVANS WHITE TODAY
3
PRODUCTION SUMMARY
7
REARING TABLE
8
REARING GRAPH
9
PRODUCTION TABLE 1
10
PRODUCTION TABLE 2
12
PRODUCTION GRAPHS
14
REARING PERIOD
16
Good brooding conditions are vital to give the chicks the best possible start
16
Standards of temperature and humidity Lighting program to encourage feed intake and growth
19
From 4 to 16 weeks - Building the potential of the future layer
20
Housing and equipment
20
A good follow up with a weekly check of the development
21
Targets in rearing Targets in production
21 21
Beak treatment: A delicate operation
21
Age of beak treatment During beak treatment: Attention points After beak treatment: Attention points
22 22 22
General principals of the lighting programs in rearing period
23
Lighting program and growth Control of sexual maturity Light stimulation Light intensity in rearing
23 23 24 24
PRODUCTION PERIOD Age of transfer Points of attention at loading and transport Lighting as a tool for encouraging a rapid adaptation to a new environment
4
17
26 26 26 27
Encouraging water consumption Feeding for physiological needs Encouraging feed consumption Monitoring environmental and production parameters
27 28 28 29
General principles of lighting programs during the production period
29
Light intensity in production How to improve shell quality
29 30
Adjusting egg weight to meet market requirements
30
WATER: THE MOST CRITICAL NUTRIENT 31 Water quality Monitoring water quality Water consumption
31 31 32
PULLET AND HEN HEALTH
33
Biosecurity 33 Welfare and poultry husbandry 33 Disease prevention by immunization 34 Types of vaccines 34 Vaccination methods 35 Ocular (eye drop), beak dipping and intranasal vaccination 35 Subcutaneous and intramuscular injection 36 Transcutaneous injection (wing web) 36 Vent brush vaccination 37 In ovo injection 37 Drinking water (oral) vaccination 37 Vaccination through a medicator 38 Water vaccination 38 Spray vaccination 40 Parasite control 42 Vaccination against coccidiosis 43 Histomoniasis and round worms 43 Mites 44 Controlling groups of disease by vaccination 44 Respiratory diseases 44 Pertitonitis in layers 45 Diseases of the digestive system 45 Diseases affecting the nervous system 45 Diseases affecting the urinary and reproductive tract 46 Diseases affecting the immune system 46 Disease agents of concern for food safety 46
CONVERSION TABLE
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Warranty disclaimer
Product Guide
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bovans.com
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INTRODUCTION Many years of investment in genetic research and development have resulted in layers with excellent performance traits such as livability, production and egg quality. These highly favourable genetic characteristics can only be fully realized when layers are supported with good management practices, which include, but are not limited to, good quality feed, housing and constant attention to the birds behaviour and welfare. The purpose of this product guide is to help producers to gain the best possible results from their investment. This will be achieved by providing conditions in which the layers can thrive. The information supplied in this publication is based on the analysis of extensive research and field results, produced over time and with many years of experience. We do recognize that many egg producers have developed their own management programs, as a result of their experience with specific housing types, climate, feed, market conditions. Therefore do not hesitate to use your own experience in conjunction with the guidelines in this guide. And of course, do not hesitate to consult our distributors who will be happy to help in any way they can. We are constantly seeking to develop our breeding program and welcome feedback from the field. Please send your technical results to [email protected]. Excel files are available on request to help you to follow the flock’s performance and record information.
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PRODUCTION SUMMARY Laying Period
(18-90 Weeks)
Livability
94 %
Age at 50% production
143 days
Peak of production
96 %
Average egg weight
62.0 g
Eggs hen housed
426
Egg mass hen housed
26.4 kg
Average feed intake
108 g/day
Cum. feed conversion rate
2.03 kg/kg
Body weight
1710 g
Shell strength
4200 g/cm²
Haugh units
83
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Bovans WHITE White DEKALB
REARING REARINGTABLE TABLE Weeks
Age (days)
Feed intake per bird per day (g)
Feed intake per bird cum. (g)
Body weight (g)
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
1
0-7
6
8
40
54
62
65
2
8-14
13
15
128
156
126
132
3
15.21
19
21
260
302
193
203
4
22-28
25
27
432
488
264
278
5
29-35
30
32
641
711
338
356
6
36-42
35
37
882
966
415
436
7
43-49
39
41
1,155
1,253
493
518
8
50-56
43
45
1,455
1,567
572
602
9
57-63
46
48
1,780
1,906
652
686
10
64-70
50
52
2,128
2,268
733
770
11
71-77
53
55
2,498
2,652
812
854
12
78-84
56
58
2,888
3,056
891
937
13
85-91
59
61
3,298
3,480
968
1,017
14
92-98
61
63
3,727
3,923
1,042
1,096
15
99-105
64
66
4,176
4,386
1,114
1,171
16
106-112
67
69
4,646
4,870
1,181
1,242
17
113-119
70
72
5,139
5,377
1,244
1,308
18
120-126
76
78
5,670
5,922
1,302
1,369
The information supplied in this guide is based on many actual flock results obtained under good environment and managing conditions. It is presented as a service to our customers and should be used as a guide only. It does not constitute a guarantee or warranty of performance in any way.
8
Bodyweight in g
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200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
Age in weeks
9
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
REARING GRAPH Bovans White
Feed consumption in g
9
Bovans White
PRODUCTION TABLE 1 PER HEN DAY Weeks
% Lay
Egg weight (g)
Egg mass per day (g)
Feed intake per day (g)
19
6.2
42.9
2.6
82
20
41.5
46.1
19.1
89
4.66
21
66.1
48.8
32.2
95
2.96
18
10
Feed conversion per week
77 31.17
22
81.8
51.0
41.7
101
2.41
23
90.4
53.0
47.9
104
2.18
24
94.1
54.6
51.4
105
2.05
25
94.9
53.1
106
1.99
26
95.3
56.0 57.1
54.4
106
1.95
27
95.6
58.0
55.5
107
1.92
28
95.9
58.8
56.3
107
1.90
29
96.1
59.3
57.0
107
1.88
30
96.2
59.8
57.5
108
1.87
31
96.2
60.1
57.9
108
1.86
32
96.2
60.4
58.1
108
1.86
33
96.2
60.6
58.3
108
1.86
34
96.1
60.8
58.4
108
1.86
35
96.0
60.9
58.4
109
1.86
36
95.8
61.0
58.4
109
1.86
37
95.7
61.1
58.4
109
1.86
38
95.5
61.1
58.3
109
1.87
39
95.2
61.2
58.3
109
1.87
40
95.0
61.3
58.2
109
1.88
41
94.7
61.4
58.1
109
1.88
42
94.5
61.5
58.1
109
1.89
43
94.2
61.6
58.0
110
1.89 1.89
44
93.9
61.7
57.9
110
45
93.6
61.8
57.8
110
1.90
46
93.4
61.9
57.7
110
1.90
47
93.1
62.0
57.7
110
1.90
48
92.8
62.1
57.6
110
1.91
49
92.5
62.2
57.5
110
1.91
50
92.2
62.3
57.4
110
1.92
51
91.9
62.3
57.3
110
1.92
52
91.6
62.4
57.2
110
1.92
53
91.3
62.5
57.1
110
1.93
54
91.0
62.6
57.0
110
1.93
PER HEN HOUSED Age in weeks
Egg per bird cum.
Egg mass cum.
0
0.0
18 19
Feed intake cum. (kg)
Feed conversion cum.
% Livability
99.9
1,335
1.1
60.25
99.8
1,388
0.5
Body weight (g)
20
3
0.2
1.7
11.42
99.8
1,435
21
8
0.4
2.4
6.37
99.7
1,473
22
14
0.7
3.1
4.65
99.6
1,503
23
20
1.0
3.8
3.82
99.5
1,519
24
26
1.4
4.6
3.36
99.4
1,535
25
33
5.3
3.07
99.3
1,550
26
40
1.7 2.1
6.0
2.87
99.3
1,564
27
46
2.5
6.8
2.72
99.2
1,577
28
53
2.9
7.5
2.61
99.1
1,589
29
60
3.3
8.3
2.52
99.0
1,601
30
66
3.7
9.0
2.45
98.9
1,611
31
73
4.1
9.8
2.39
98.9
1,620
32
80
4.5
10.5
2.34
98.8
1,629
33
86
4.9
11.2
2.30
98.7
1,637
34
93
5.3
12.0
2.27
98.6
1,645
35
100
5.7
12.7
2.24
98.5
1,652
36
106
6.1
13.5
2.22
98.4
1,658
37
113
6.5
14.2
2.19
98.4
1,663
38
119
6.9
15.0
2.18
98.3
1,668
39
126
7.3
15.7
2.16
98.2
1,673
40
132
7.7
16.5
2.14
98.1
1,677
41
139
8.1
17.2
2.13
98.0
1,681
42
145
8.5
18.0
2.12
98.0
1,684
43
152
8.9
18.7
2.11
97.9
1,687
44
158
9.3
19.5
2.10
97.8
1,689
45
165
9.7
20.2
2.09
97.7
1,692
46
171
10.1
21.0
2.08
97.6
1,694
47
177
10.5
21.7
2.08
97.5
1,695
48
184
10.9
22.5
2.07
97.5
1,697
49
190
11.3
23.2
2.07
97.4
1,698
50
196
11.6
24.0
2.06
97.3
1,699
51
203
12.0
24.7
2.06
97.2
1,699
52
209
12.4
25.5
2.05
97.1
1,700
53
215
12.8
26.2
2.05
97.0
1,701
54
221
13.2
27.0
2.04
97.0
1,701
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Bovans White
PRODUCTION TABLE 2 PER HEN DAY Weeks
12
% Lay
Egg weight (g)
Egg mass per day (g)
Feed intake per day (g)
Feed conversion per week
1.93
55
90.7
62.7
56.9
110
56
90.4
62.8
56.8
110
1.94
57
90.1
62.9
56.7
110
1.94
58
89.8
63.0
56.6
110
1.94
59
89.4
63.1
56.4
110
1.95
60
89.1
63.2
56.3
110
1.95
61
88.7
63.3
56.2
110
1.96
62
88.4
110
1.96
88.1
63.4 63.5
56.1
63
55.9
110
1.97
64
87.7
63.6
55.8
110
1.97
65
87.4
63.7
55.7
110
1.98
66
87.1
63.8
55.6
110
1.98
67
86.8
63.9
55.5
110
1.99
68
86.4
64.0
55.3
110
1.99
69
86.1
64.1
55.2
110
1.99
70
85.8
64.2
55.1
110
2.00
71
85.5
64.3
54.9
110
2.00
72
85.1
64.4
54.8
110
2.01
73
84.8
64.5
54.7
110
2.01
74
84.5
64.6
54.6
110
2.02
75
84.2
64.7
54.4
110
2.02
76
83.8
64.8
54.3
110
2.03
77
83.5
64.9
54.2
110
2.03 2.04
78
83.2
65.0
54.0
110
79
82.9
65.1
53.9
110
2.04
80
82.5
65.2
53.8
110
2.05
81
82.2
65.3
53.7
110
2.05
82
81.9
65.4
53.5
110
2.06
83
81.6
65.5
53.4
110
2.06
84
81.2
65.6
53.3
110
2.07
85
80.9
65.7
53.1
110
2.08
86
80.6
65.8
53.0
110
2.08
87
80.2
65.9
52.8
110
2.09
88
79.9
65.9
52.7
110
2.09
89
79.6
66.0
52.6
110
2.10
90
79.3
66.1
52.4
110
2.10
PER HEN HOUSED Age in weeks
Egg per bird cum.
Egg mass cum.
Feed intake cum. (kg)
Feed conversion cum.
% Livability
Body weight (g)
55
227
13.6
27.7
2.04
96.9
1,701
56
233
14.0
28.5
2.04
96.8
1,701
57
240
14.4
29.2
2.04
96.7
1,701
58
246
14.7
30.0
2.03
96.6
1,701
59
252
15.1
30.7
2.03
96.6
1,701
60
258
15.5
31.5
2.03
96.5
1,701
61
264
15.9
32.2
2.03
96.4
1,701
62
270
32.9
2.03
96.3
1,702 1,702
63
276
16.3 16.6
33.7
2.03
96.2
64
281
17.0
34.4
2.02
96.1
1,702
65
287
17.4
35.2
2.02
96.1
1,702
66
293
17.8
35.9
2.02
96.0
1,703
67
299
18.1
36.6
2.02
95.9
1,703
68
305
18.5
37.4
2.02
95.8
1,703
69
311
18.9
38.1
2.02
95.7
1,704
70
316
19.2
38.9
2.02
95.7
1,704
71
322
19.6
39.6
2.02
95.6
1,704
72
328
20.0
40.3
2.02
95.5
1,705
73
333
20.3
41.1
2.02
95.4
1,705
74
339
20.7
41.8
2.02
95.3
1,705
75
345
21.1
42.5
2.02
95.2
1,705
76
350
21.4
43.3
2.02
95.2
1,706
77
356
21.8
44.0
2.02
95.1
1,706
78
361
22.1
44.7
2.02
95.0
1,706
79
367
22.5
45.5
2.02
94.9
1,707
80
372
22.9
46.2
2.02
94.8
1,707
81
378
23.2
46.9
2.02
94.8
1,707
82
383
23.6
47.7
2.02
94.7
1,708
83
389
23.9
48.4
2.02
94.6
1,708
84
394
24.3
49.1
2.02
94.5
1,708
85
399
24.6
49.8
2.02
94.4
1,709
86
405
25.0
50.6
2.02
94.3
1,709
87
410
25.3
51.3
2.03
94.3
1,709
88
415
25.7
52.0
2.03
94.2
1,709
89
420
26.0
52.8
2.03
94.1
1,710
90
426
26.4
53.5
2.03
94.0
1,710
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13
14
Laying Rate
Livability
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90
Age in weeks
45
50
55
60
65
1250
1500
1750
2000
Bodyweight
70
70
75
Average Egg Weight
80
85
90
95
100
Bovans White
PRODUCTION GRAPHS
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120 115 110 105 100
57.5
55.0
52.5
50.0
47.5
0
2.00
Age in weeks
50
2.05
150
200
250
300
350
400
100
37.5
40.0
42.5
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90
125
60.0
45.0
130
450
Cum no. of eggs per HH
2.10
2.15
2.20
Feed Conversion Kg/kg
135
62.5
140
145
Feed conversion g/egg
65.0
Egg mass in g/day
REARING PERIOD Good brooding conditions are vital to give the chicks the best possible start.
The period from one day old to the point of first egg production is a critical time in the life of the laying hen. It is during this time that the physiological capability of the hen is developed. Success in the rearing period leads to success in the laying house and this starts with chick arrival. All the standards and programs set out in this section have been proven to give excellent performance in the production stages. Any delay in growth at 4-5 weeks will be reflected in a reduction in bodyweight at 16 weeks and then in performance. This is particularly true for mean egg weight in temperate climates and may cause a delay in start of lay in hot climates near the equator. Bodyweight development • 12 Growth (g)
Skeletal
BW Growth
Growth g / day
•6 Organs Calcium increase at prelay
Muscle
Reproductive tract
Fat Medullary bone 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Weeks in age
16
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
Equipment and environment Floor
Age (weeks) Ventilation Stocking densities
Cages
0–2
2–5
0–3
3–5
Minimum per hour / kg
0.7m³
0.7m³
0.7m³
0.7m³
Birds / m²
30
20
cm² / Bird Water supply
Feed supply
(1): (2): (3):
Chicks / Chick drinker
75
Birds / drinker
75
75
Birds / nipple
10
10
Birds / Starting pan
50
80
45
125
220
80 (1)
10 (2)
10 (2)
(3)
cm of trough feeders
4
4
Birds / Round feeder
35
35
2
4
Place one additional drinker per cage for the first week Make sure that all the birds have access to at least 2 nipples Spread sheets of paper over the cage bottom to last for 7 days, remove the top sheet every day
Notes: • The removal of the supplementary starter drinkers should be done gradually, making sure that the chicks have acquired the habit of using the regular drinkers. • It is useful to monitor water consumption. To maintain litter quality, it is necessary to avoid water spillage, by carefully regulating the drinkers or the nipples. • The drinkers should be cleaned daily for the first 2 weeks. From the third week they should be cleaned each week. • Check that all the birds, even the smaller ones have access to feed and water. • It is important to use 360° nipples, especially for infra-red beak treated birds.
STANDARDS OF TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY In order to ensure that the equipment and the litter are warm for chick arrival, we advise starting to raise the house temperature at least 36 hours before chick arrival so that it reaches a house temperature of 28 to 31°C. The concrete floor must be at 28°C and litter at 30°C. The best way to check if the house temperature is correct during the first days after arrival is to measure cloacal temperature of the chicks (40°C/104°F).
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Standards for temperature and humidity
Age in days
Brooding temperature at the edge of the brooders
Brooding temperature at 2-3m from the brooders
Room temperature
Relative humidity optimummaximum in%
0–3
35°C
29 – 28°C
33 – 31°C
55 – 60
4–7
34°C
28 – 27°C
32 – 31°C
55 – 60
8 – 14
32°C
27 – 26°C
30 – 28°C
55 – 60
15 – 21
29°C
55 – 60
26 – 25°C
28 – 26°C
22 – 24
25 – 23°C
25 – 23°C
55 – 65
25 – 28
23 – 21°C
23 – 21°C
55 – 65
29 – 35
21 – 19°C
21 – 19°C
60 – 70
After 35
19 – 17°C
19 – 17°C
60 – 70
Notes: • The heat losses incurred from contact with the litter are very important during the first days. • Provision of two gas brooders or 2 radiant heaters of 1450 Kcal is advised for 1000 birds. • Temperature and relative humidity should be uniform throughout the building. The distribution behaviour of chicks is the best indicator of temperature: • On floor system, the distribution of chicks in each pen or throughout the building will help you to manage the correct temperature of the house. • If the chicks crowd together under the brooder -> temperature is too low. • If the chicks are close to the surroundings -> the temperature is too high. Distribution behaviour according to temperature:
Too cold
18
Too warm
Draught
Ideal
LIGHTING PROGRAM TO ENCOURAGE FEED INTAKE AND GROWTH During the first few days, it is important to maintain the chicks under a maximumw light regime (22 to 23 hours) with a high intensity (30-40 lux) to encourage intake of water and feed. Afterwards, the light intensity should be gradually reduced to reach a level of about 10 lux at 15 days of age in dark houses. Light intensity will also depend on bird behaviour. Note: a cyclical program could be applied for the first 2 weeks (4 hours of light /2 hours of dark, repeated 4 times to equal 24 hours) and then follow recommended lighting program, which is 18 hours of light on third week. Lighting program according to age and rearing housing system Rearing in dark or semi dark house Light duration
Light intensity
Rearing in hot climate (open houses) Light duration
Light intensity
1 – 3 days
23 hours
20 – 40 lux
23 hours
40 lux
4 – 7 days
22 hours
15 – 30 lux
22 hours
40 lux
8 – 14 days
20 hours
10 – 20 lux
20 hours
40 lux
15 – 21 days
18 hours
5 – 10 lux
19 hours
40 lux
22 – 28 days
16 hours
5 – 10 lux
18 hours
40 lux
29 – 35 days
14 hours
5 – 10 lux
17 hours
40 lux
Below are some key-points to provide day old chicks with a good start. Key points: • Flush the water lines prior to arrival, and make sure that no disinfectant is left in the water lines when the chicks arrive. • Make sure that the nipples and round drinkers are on the correct height - nipples at chick eye level and round drinkers on the floor. • Put paper under the nipples to attract the chicks and extra feed over the chick paper or paper trays. • Check the nipples / round drinkers to ensure the water supply is sufficient. When nipples are used the chicks must see the water drop on the nipple. • The feed should be distributed when the chicks have drunk enough water to restore their body fluid (about 2 hours after being placed in the brooding pens), especially when the birds have travelled for a long time. • In hot climate environments, flush the line just before chicks arrived to provide them fresh water.
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All these recommendations will help to: • Get a good start and a low mortality level during the first 2 weeks • A good frame and immune system • A good uniformity from the start
From 4 to 16 weeks - building the potential of the future layer After a good start, the objective of the 4-16 week period is to prepare the birds for egg production with the best development of: • The frame • The bodyweight • The uniformity • The digestive tract. These objectives can be achieved by providing: • A correct stocking density and housing conditions • A lighting program adapted to rearing conditions • Beak treatment performed by trained people • Good management of the feeding program and feeding techniques • Good biosecurity
HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT Floor
Age (weeks)
Cages
5 – 10
10 – 17
5 – 10
10 – 17
Ventilation
Minimum per hour / kg
4m³
4m³
4m³
4m³
Stocking densities
Birds / m²
15
10
15
10
Birds / m² (hot climate)
12
9
12
9
220
350
Birds / drinker
100
100
Birds / drinker (hot climate)
75
75 10 (1)
cm² / Bird Water supply
Feed supply
Birds / nipple
9
8
10 (1)
cm of trough feeders
5
7
4
6
Birds / Round feeder
25
23
25
23
(1): Make sure that all the birds have access to at least 2 nipples
20
A good follow up with a weekly check of the development A weekly control of the growth is a must to check the real evolution of the flock: the earlier you know the earlier you can correct.
TARGETS IN REARING • To produce a uniform flock with a bodyweight in accordance with the target age at sexual maturity • To obtain the correct bodyweight at 4 weeks to secure frame development • To achieve steady growth between 4 and 16 weeks with a good development of the digestive tract
TARGETS IN PRODUCTION • To make sure that between 5% lay and peak of production the bodyweight increase is at least 300g for brown layers and 200g for white layers. For these reasons it is essential to exercise control over bodyweight on a weekly basis from 0 to 30 weeks of age, and after that, at least once every month. • Controlling the quantity of feed distributed will not on it’s own ensure good growth because the requirements vary according to:
- the energy level of the diet
- the house temperature
- the health status of the flock
Beak treatment: A delicate operation This operation is normally carried out for two main reasons: • To prevent feather pecking and cannibalism • To reduce feed wastage Beak treatment is a delicate operation and only specially trained personnel should perform it. If improperly done, it may result in birds having difficulty eating and drinking and lead to a non-uniform flock as a consequence.
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AGE OF BEAK TREATMENT In addition to technical recommendations, any local codes and regulations concerned with animal welfare should be observed. The decision about the age of beak treatment depends mostly on the housing system and local regulations: • In cage productions, in dark houses, when the intensity of artificial light is low, beaks should be treated at one day old or at 7 to 10 days. • Production in open-sided houses, giving exposure to high natural light intensity, one single beak tipping at 7 to 10 days will not prevent pecking entirely. Under these conditions, beak treatment should be carried out twice: a light tipping at 10 days and then a second operation between 8 and 10 weeks of age, where local regulations allow it.
DURING BEAK TREATMENT: ATTENTION POINTS The operator should be seated comfortably so that each beak is cut in the same manner • Do not rush the process: too high a rate (number of birds/ minute could lead to a higher chance of errors and poor=uniformity. • Change blades when required: maximum recommended usage for a blade is 5.000 birds. • Make sure the tongue of the bird does not get burned.
AFTER BEAK TREATMENT: ATTENTION POINTS • Increase the water level in the drinkers and decrease the water pressure in the pipes to make it easy for the birds to drink. • Make sure that the depth of the feed is adequate, do not empty the feeders for a week after beak treatment. Beak treatment is a very delicate operation and it is important enough to be done correctly. Improper beak treatment can damage bird livability and uniformity and consequently affect negatively the overall flock performances.
22
General principles of the lighting programs in rearing period Chickens are sensitive to changes in the duration of illumination, and this will influence the age of sexual maturity. In addition, feed consumption is greatly influenced by the duration of day length. Lighting programs have, therefore, different objectives. During rearing, they allow us to encourage growth and to control the birds’ sexual maturity. For this reason, we consider lighting programs to be essential to achieve; • The recommended bodyweight at 5% lay. • In order to obtain an egg weight which conforms to the target from start of lay. • To achieve high overall production.
LIGHTING PROGRAM AND GROWTH In addition to the influence on growth, the lighting program plays a determinant role for 3 essential reasons: • Progressive growth of the digestive system. • Gradual adaptation to a body clock (above all, anticipation of a dark period). • Lack of night time energy supply when dark periods are too long. Observations of the feeding and drinking behaviour show a first peak of feed intake in the 2 to 3 hours that precede a dark period, and a second peak shortly after lights come on. The crop is used during these peaks of consumption as a storage organ. The introduction of a dark period from the start of the rearing period is important to progressively develop the crop capacity, which plays the role of feed reserve. However the amount of feed stocked remains insufficient for the nocturnal energy needs.
CONTROL OF SEXUAL MATURITY
The purpose of lighting programs is to control the age at point of lay and above all to avoid the influence of the variations in natural day length. Do not underestimate the effect of even the slightest variations in day length.
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Role of bodyweight Photo stimulation is not necessary to stimulate production even when the pullets are reared under very short day lengths. • A trial carried out by Lewis (1996)(1) shows that with a day length greater or equal to 10 hours, the age at 50% lay does not vary, or only a little. On the other hand, a day length kept at 8 hours appears to delay sexual maturity by one week. This delay of maturity with 8 hours at the plateau is explained by the lower growth obtained compared to 10 or more hours of lighting program. • These observations are confirmed in latitudes close to the Equator. With very little change in day length, we have seen that sexual maturity is mainly activated by obtaining adequate bodyweight. The higher the latitude is the higher the differences in sexual maturity between summer and winter flocks are.
LIGHT STIMULATION • The variation of light duration greatly influences sexual maturity. Under certain conditions, we can observe a response to a light stimulation from 6 weeks of age. However, the more sensitive period is between 10 and 12 weeks of age. • According to the program being used, the age at 50% can vary by up to 6 weeks Light stimulation will change the bird`s weight at sexual maturity, its adult weight and as a consequence, the egg weight, which is directly related to the bodyweight of the bird at first egg. Bird weight at sexual maturity will be 75g lower when light stimulation is advanced one week. Egg numbers will be greater but egg weight will be reduced by about 1g. Total egg mass produced does not seem to be affected by reasonable variations in the age of sexual maturity (Lewis 1997)(2). For this reason, it is preferable to determine the time of light stimulation according to bodyweight rather than the of age of the bird.
LIGHT INTENSITY IN REARING Little information is available. However some work has shown that light intensity can be very low. Morris (1995)(3) showed that an intensity greater than 1 lux did not modify sexual maturity.
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Ideal light intensity will be determined in practice by the following needs: • Light required to inspect the birds well. • The degree of darkness of the building (light leaking in) • The intensity to be used during laying period. Lighting programs have to be adapted to the rearing facilities (dark or open house systems), to the conditions of production, to the climate and to the egg weight profile demanded by the market. In order to get an efficient light stimulation, the day length increase has to be done in the morning. For rearing in dark house systems and production in an open house system, it is necessary to maintain a high light intensity throughout all the rearing period in order to avoid a sudden increase of light intensity. The lighting programs suggested below are only guides. They have to be adapted to the real circumstances of the rearing farm and according to performances previously obtained. Guide line for lighting program for rearing in a dark poultry house Light Duration
GUIDE LINE FOR LIGHTING PROGRAMME FOR REARING IN A DARK POULTRY HOUSE
C
B
A
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Age in weeks
A
B
C
Lighting program during temperate period
Lighting program during hot season
Lighting program during maturity
We consider essential to achieve the recommended bodyweight at light stimulation and at 5% lay, in order to obtain an egg weight which conforms to the target, and to achieve high overall production.
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PRODUCTION PERIOD The transfer from the rearing farm to the laying facilities is a major stress, accompanied by changes in environment (temperature, humidity…) and equipment. It should be carried out as fast as possible, ideally being completed within a day. Be sure the production house is clean, disinfected and temperature is minimum 17°C. Then, between transfer and the peak of production, a rapid increase in feed intake is necessary since the bird has to cover: • Its requirements to grow to the adult bodyweight. • Its requirements to achieve peak of production. • Its requirements to get a rapid egg weight increase.
AGE OF TRANSFER We advise transferring the birds at 16 weeks, maybe even at 15 weeks, but never after 17 weeks. Because of the stress to which birds are subjected during transfer and immediately afterwards: • It is extremely important that transfer is completed before the appearance of the first eggs: most development of reproductive organs (ovary and oviduct) occurs during the 10 days prior to the first egg. • We advice that vaccinations are given at least a week before transfer, so as to obtain a good vaccine response. • De-worming of the flock, if necessary, is best done in the last days before moving, depending on the de worming product used. • A late transfer or too long a transfer often leads to delayed start of lay and higher mortality and increases the risk of floor laying in non-cage systems.
POINTS OF ATTENTION AT LOADING AND TRANSPORT The following rules should minimise stress at handling of the birds at loading and during later transport: • The birds should have an empty digestive tract at the moment of loading, but they must have access to fresh drinking water up to the time of being loaded. • Choose the best time for transport during the day or night, depending on the weather circumstances.
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• Crates or containers, equipment, trucks etc. must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. • Make sure that air can circulate freely around the crates, but protect pullets from direct air flow. Containers or crates should not be overloaded, particularly in hot weather on long distance hauls. • Avoid unnecessary stops during transit of the birds.
LIGHTING AS A TOOL FOR ENCOURAGING A RAPID ADAPTATION TO A NEW ENVIRONMENT Immediately after the birds arrive at the laying unit, it is very important to put into practice the following techniques to help the birds adapt to the new environment, particularly to cages and nipple systems. • Apply 22 hours of light the first day. • Light duration should be decided according to what has been used during rearing. • Increase the light intensity for 4 to 7 days to help the birds in the darkest cages to find nipples. • Then reduce light intensity gradually while ensuring that normal water intake continues. A high light intensity for longer than 7 days can increase the risks of pecking.
ENCOURAGING WATER CONSUMPTION Birds can become dehydrated during transfer. The water loss rate ranges between 0,3% and 0,5% per hour according to atmospheric conditions. • Pullets should drink before feeding: the absence of feed helps them find the nipple drinkers more easily. • Make sure that the water pipes have been rinsed before pullets arrival. • Wait for 3 or 4 hours before distributing feed and check if drinking system is working properly. • If the pullets have not been reared on nipples, decrease the pressure and allow some leakage of water during the first few days. • If nipples are planned for production, it is helpful to add at least one nipple for 200 birds to the other drinking equipment used in rearing, as a “nipples school”. • A daily water consumption control is of paramount importance.
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FEEDING FOR PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS • About 2 weeks before the first egg is laid, the medullary bone, which acts as a reservoir of calcium for eggshell formation, develops. Therefore a pre-lay diet needs to be used, containing enough calcium and phosphorus, for this bone formation. This diet should be switched to a layer diet as soon as production reaches 2% to avoid any demineralization. • Then, an early lay feed with a high content of amino acids (about 7% higher than after peak diet) should be used. This feed needs to satisfy requirements for early production, growth and reproductive development.
ENCOURAGING FEED CONSUMPTION From the start of lay to the peak of production, feed consumption should increase by about 40% to allow the birds to meet their requirements for egg production and growth. To encourage bird appetite and feed intake, the following advice should be put into practice: • Maintain the temperature at point of lay as close as possible to the temperature to which the birds became acclimatised during rearing. Growth at the point of lay is reduced above 24°C, and is extremely low above 28°C. • Minimize house temperature variations and avoid draughts. • Use an adapted light duration, achieving 15 hours of light at 50% of production. • Providing 1hour 30 minutes to 2 hours of supplementary light in the middle of the dark period will help to attain the correct bodyweight by allowing an extra feed intake (“midnight feeding”). • Limit the number of feed distributions according to equipment to avoid selective feeding and competition for large particles which could lead to lack of uniformity. • Adapt the feeding times as to achieve 60% of feed consumed in the last 6 hours of the day and to have empty feeders for 2 to 3 hours in the middle of the day. This technique avoids a build up of fine particles and its consequent negative effect on feed intake. • Use a layer feed with the correct grist (80% of particles between 0,5 and 3,2 of diameter).
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MONITORING ENVIRONMENTAL AND PRODUCTION PARAMETERS A close control of the following parameters will help you to check the real evolution of the flock during this critical period for the future performances: • Feed consumption (daily). • Water consumption (daily) and water/feed ratio. • Temperature (min-max) and relative humidity (daily). • Evolution of bodyweight (weekly until peak of lay), by weighing the birds up to 35 weeks of age. • Evolution of egg weight (daily for the first weeks of lay).
General principles of lighting programs during the production period In production as well as in rearing, the lighting program greatly influences feed consumption. In addition, during all its life, a chicken remains sensitive to changes in the duration of illumination. The objective of the lighting programs during the production period is: • To encourage growth at start of lay. • To counteract the harmful effects of decreases in natural day length. • To control the livability through the light intensity management. • To improve eggshell quality. Other lighting programs can also be introduced during the production period to adapt the egg weight to market demand, to improve eggshell quality or to control feed intake for some breeds.
LIGHT INTENSITY IN PRODUCTION The light intensity required is low. No significant differences have been found in the different trials with today’s breeds. But as stated for the rearing period, we encourage an increase in light intensity for a few days from the transfer time in order to help the bird to discover its new environment and to find easily water and feed systems. Thereafter, the light intensity can be reduced step by step to a minimum of 0,5 lux at the feeder level in the dimmest areas of the laying house as long as during the rearing stage light intensity doesn’t exceed 10 lux. There is a strong relation between bird activity, stocking density and feather loss during production.
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HOW TO IMPROVE SHELL QUALITY All methods that help to increase the quantity of calcium stored in the gizzard before lights off and to ingest a soluble form of calcium after lights on, have a positive effect on shell quality. According after transfer we advise: For white layers: • Encourage maximum feed intake during the last 4 hours of the day (distribute 4 hours before lights out). • Arrange to have feeders empty in the middle of the day to encourage feed intake in the afternoon. • Ensure that the calcium content of the feed has 50% in particles of 2 to 4 mm to encourage retention in the gizzards and storage for the night period. • Provide 50% of the calcium in easy soluble power form for quick availability at lights on. Important note: During the hot season or in summer, heat stress can delay the oviposition time, mainly when birds are panting. Panting provokes a loss of carbon dioxide and bicarbonate in blood plasma. As a consequence, oviposition times are delayed. In these circumstances the maximum feed possible has to be given during midnight lighting and early in the morning to maintain production and shell quality.
ADJUSTING EGG WEIGHT TO MEET MARKET REQUIREMENTS Egg producers want to produce eggs of a size which matches market demand and in the end satisfies the needs of their customers and optimises margins. The principal factors affecting egg weight are: • Genetic aspects • Bodyweight at sexual maturity (so at the time of the first egg is laid) • Feed consumption and growth from first egg till achieving of adult bodyweight • Nutritional factors; For eggshell quality reasons, a minimum of 60% of the feed, needs to be distributed in the afternoon.
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WATER: THE MOST CRITICAL NUTRIENT
The water is the most critical nutrient for the poultry. The daily control of water consumption is essential. If an animal does not drink, it will not eat and can not produce.
WATER QUALITY Good quality drinking water is very important for (production) animals. Birds must always have easy access to the drinking water, the water must be fresh and bright. Taste and smell seem to be of less importance to the birds but are indicators for the water quality. Poultry
Parameter pH
Good quality
Do not use
5 – 8,5
<4 and >9
Ammonium mg/l
<2,0
>10
Nitrite mg/l
<0,1
>1,0
Nitrate mg/l
<100
>200
Chloride mg/l
<250
>2000
Sodium mg/l
<800
>1500
Sulfate mg/l
<150
>250
Iron mg/l
<0,5
>2,5
Mangane mg/l
<1,0
>2,0
Lime/chulk content
<20
>25
<50
>200
Oxidizable organic matter mg/l
non detectable non detectable
H2S Coliform bacteria’s cfu/ml
<100
>100
Total bacteria count cfu/ml
<100.000
>100.000
MONITORING WATER QUALITY The value of any analysis depends on when, where, and how the sample has been taken, (where it enters the house or at the end of the system). One should not forget that an analysis only refers to the quality of the water at the time when the sample was taken, and is never a guarantee of its quality at another time. Where farms have their own water supply,
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it is necessary to take a sample at least twice a year (one at the end of winter, the other at the end of summer). On farms using the mains supply an annual measurement should be adequate. It is important to realise that the sodium thiosulphate, contained in the flasks supplied by the laboratories carrying out bacteriological tests on water, only neutralises chlorine or bleach. It has no action on quaternary ammonium compounds.
WATER CONSUMPTION Water consumption depends on ambient temperature. Above 20°C, consumption increases to enable the bird to maintain body temperature (respiratory evaporation). The actual consumption depends on temperature and humidity of the ambient air. The following table shows the relationship between water and feed consumption according to house temperature: Water to feed ratio according to temperature in rearing and laying period. Temperature
Rearing
Production
15°C
1.6
1.70 (210 ml)
20°C
1.7
1.80 (205 ml)
25°C
2.3
2.10 (230 ml)
30°C
3.0
3.10 (320 ml)
In hot periods it is essential to provide cool water for the birds. In a hot climate, cool water will improve productivity. It is extremely important to protect the water tanks from the direct sunlight.
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PULLET AND HEN HEALTH Bird health results from the interface between adequate biosecurity, animal welfare, poultry husbandry, nutrition, immunization, and general disease prevention, control and monitoring. This section is intended to serve as a general guide for maintaining healthy flocks. Details on actual procedures should be provided by a poultry health professional.
BIOSECURITY The concept of biosecurity may be complex and difficult to generalize or adapt for every possible circumstance. The objective of biosecurity is to prevent infectious disease from affecting otherwise healthy flocks. Among the many strategies used to prevent infectious disease, some of the most effective ones include: a) limit access of unnecessary visitors; b) avoiding visits to multiple farms in the same day; c) shower in and out of any poultry facility; d) even when showering is not possible, it is imperative to wear clean clothes or coveralls. Footwear and hairnets that should not leave the farm being visited; e) establish, maintain and monitor adequate programs for rodent and insect control. In addition, it is important to consider all major risks in terms of biosecurity such as moving birds into and from the farm; sales, maintenance, equipment and construction personnel; manure removal personnel, vehicles and equipment. Service personnel should not visit any flocks after having been in contact with flocks with known, suspect, or obvious signs of disease caused by agents such as MG, MS, ILT or IBV.
WELFARE AND POULTRY HUSBANDRY Overall bird health is relatively easy to maintain by simply applying good husbandry. The health and productivity of chickens is closely related to their welfare, which in turn depends on the use of adequate biosecurity and husbandry practices. In many areas, official regulations dictate specific requirements related to animal welfare and it is important to ensure compliance with regulatory agencies. Local or national poultry associations and Government institutions are usually a good source of welfare guidelines that are relevant for each geographical area.
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DISEASE PREVENTION BY IMMUNIZATION An individual becomes “immune”, “immunized” or resistant to a specific disease after inoculation with a specific vaccine, or after exposure to a disease agent in the field. Vaccination programs should be designed to “immunize” flocks against diseases with an economic impact; and against disease agents that could potentially compromise food safety. The entire disease control program relies on sound and well-designed vaccination programs and adequate biosecurity, husbandry and nutrition. At the same time, vaccinations should be administered at times or ages when their detrimental impact is minimal, and at times when the best possible benefit can be obtained from them. Most vaccination programs are intended to immunize chickens against diseases that affect the immune system; cause tumors in chickens; affect the respiratory, urinary or reproductive tracts; affect the nervous system; induce disease in the intestinal tract; or represent a food safety concern. Fortunately there are vaccines and vaccination methods available to protect chickens against most of these groups of conditions. Prior to using any vaccines, ensure that their use is legal and that it will not disqualify specialty flocks because of the type of preservatives contained in the vaccines.
TYPES OF VACCINES There are many types of vaccines available for commercial poultry. It is important to become familiar with their basic characteristics related to their potential for protection, safety, ease of administration, relative cost, reactivity, compatibility with other vaccines, etc. This is a list of some of the most important types of vaccines: • Live virus vaccines • Recombinant virus vaccines • Live bacterial vaccines • Inactivated bacterial vaccines (bacterins) • Gene modified and deletion mutant live bacterial vaccines • Autogenous inactivated bacterial vaccines • Autogenous inactivated viral vaccines • Live coccidiosis vaccines • Live Mycoplasma vaccines • Inactivated Mycoplasma vaccines (bacterins) • Recombinant Mycoplasma vaccines • Competitive exclusion products
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VACCINATION METHODS It is important to understand the characteristics of each vaccine and to use each product according to the manufacturer’s recommendations. Vaccines are designed and approved for individual or mass application methods. Individual vaccination methods include: • Ocular (eye drop) • Beak dipping or intranasal • Subcutaneous injection • Intramuscular injection • Transcutaneous injection (wing web) • Vent brush application Mass vaccination methods include: • In ovo injection • Drinking water vaccination • Spray vaccination
OCULAR (EYE DROP), BEAK DIPPING AND INTRANASAL VACCINATION Eye drop vaccination is commonly used to protect chickens against respiratory viruses, Mycoplasma and occasionally against infectious bursal disease. Ocular vaccination is most suitable for delivery of live vaccines against diseases or agents such as (but not exclusively) Newcastle disease, infectious bronchitis, infectious laryngotracheitis, avian metapneumovirus and Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Eye drop vaccination is likely the most effective and safest method for respiratory viruses. Direct contact of the vaccine with the mucosa of the eye will result in stimulation of the Harderian gland and a strong local immune response. Despite being highly effective, eye drop vaccination is labor intensive and time consuming and thus it is usually limited to application of vaccines that must be administered via the ocular route and by no other method, such as some (but not all) live MG vaccines and live attenuated vaccines against ILT. Intranasal and beak dipping application of vaccines has the same objectives as the ocular route. Intranasal application is popular in some countries but beak dipping is rarely used. The vaccine is administered by depositing a drop (usually 30 ul or 0.03 ml) of reconstituted vaccine directly on the eye or into the nostrils. The advantage of eye drop application is that if applied properly, every bird receives a similar dose of vaccine and is thus likely to be immunized (protected) against the disease, as opposed to mass application methods, which unavoidably result in suboptimal coverage since not every bird receives an equally immunizing dose.
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Because eye drop vaccination requires individual handling of birds, biosecurity is most important and the vaccination crews must follow strict biosecurity procedures so as not to bring infectious diseases to the flock being vaccinated. For the beak dipping method to be successful, both nostrils must be immersed in the vaccine. This method is suitable only for chicks up to 7 days of age and is used for immunization against NDV or IBDV. It is used in areas or farms where even vaccine uptake is not possible using the drinking water or spray methods, or with the objective of minimizing vaccine reactions.
SUBCUTANEOUS AND INTRAMUSCULAR INJECTION Injection via the intramuscular and subcutaneous routes is reserved primarily for inactivated vaccines and bacterins. The vaccination equipment should be sterile and the needles used should be of the proper caliber and length for the age of the bird and also for the type of product being injected. The needles should be replaced with sterile needles at least every 500 injections to prevent injections with bent or blunt needles, and to avoid transmission of some diseases from infected to non-infected chickens. Most inactivated (killed) vaccines are administered at approximately 12-14 weeks of age. Should it be necessary to vaccinate younger chickens with inactivated products it should be kept in mind that handling and administration of inactivated vaccines or bacterins between 6 and 11 weeks of age might delay or alter the development of the pullets. Inactivated viral vaccines are usually available in a water-in-oil (WO) or water-in-oil-in-water (WOW) emulsion, which are typically not very reactive. Thus, such products can be injected with confidence intramuscularly or subcutaneously, provided the injection is done in the proper area and without depositing any of the vaccine product in the cavity or directly into the internal organs. Inactivated products containing Mycoplasmas and/or bacteria such as Salmonella may be quite reactive and every effort should be made to minimize the local vaccine reactions that can be derived from the injections. For subcutaneous injections, it is especially important to avoid the thymus by injecting the vaccine in the middle line (avoiding the sides of the neck), and by not injecting too close to the head or the base of the neck. For intramuscular injections (in the breast muscle), every effort should be made to avoid injecting the product into the cavity. Vaccinations in the thigh may contribute to reduced adverse reactions but care must be exercised to minimize injuries resulting in lameness.
TRANSCUTANEOUS INJECTION (WING WEB) Transcutaneous (wing web) application is used almost exclusively to vaccinate chickens against poxvirus (POX). For convenience, manufacturers of vaccines have added other agents such as chicken infectious anemia virus (CAV) and avian encephalomyelitis virus (AE)
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to POX vaccines and thus it is possible to vaccinate pullets simultaneously against AE, POX and CAV in one injection. The latter (CAV) is only necessary in layer breeders but AE and POX are routinely used in commercial layers. In addition, there are recombinant vaccines with a poxvirus as a vector carrying genes that express proteins from ILTV or MG. Thus, such products can also be administered by wing web application.
VENT BRUSH VACCINATION Vent brush vaccination was developed decades ago to protect chickens against ILTV using vaccine strains that were extremely reactive and caused vaccine-induced ILT. The procedure involves dipping a rough brush into the reconstituted ILTV vaccine vial and brushing harshly the mucosa of the vent. This procedure is still used with relative success in some countries for administration of live attenuated vaccines against ILTV.
IN OVO INJECTION In ovo vaccination is a mass-application procedure that is reserved for vaccination of embryos in the hatchery and is typically done at 17 to 19 days of incubation. The procedure was designed for immunization against Marek’s disease virus (MDV). With the advent of recombinant vaccines, in ovo vaccination can now be used to protect chickens against diseases such as Marek’s disease, fowl poxvirus, infectious laryngotracheitis, infectious bursal diseases (Gumboro) and Newcastle disease. In addition, coccidiosis vaccines are now registered and approved for in ovo administration.
DRINKING WATER (ORAL) VACCINATION Vaccination via the drinking water is a suitable method to vaccinate pullets against hardy viruses such as infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) and CIAV, but it can be used to immunize against diseases such as Newcastle, infectious bronchitis, colibacillosis, salmonellosis and other diseases. Along with spray vaccination and in ovo vaccination, administration of live vaccines via the drinking water is considered a mass-application method. Although practical, mass application methods usually result in less-than-optimal vaccine coverage and thus protection might be suboptimal compared with individual vaccination methods. Vaccination via the drinking water should be used in birds one week old or older because water consumption in younger pullets might be too irregular. Oral vaccination can be done by directly adding the vaccine into the water reservoirs supplying water to the barn to be vaccinated; it can also be accomplished by using “medicators” or “dosifiers” that can be connected to the main water pipelines feeding the drinkers.
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The method relies on the preparation of a stock solution of vaccine that is to be placed in a container (a clean bucket) from which the medicator draws small quantities of vaccine that is mixed automatically with fresh incoming water in the water pipelines. For example, 28,5 ml of stock solution of vaccine is drawn by the medicator and mixed with every 3,78 liters of fresh water to be consumed. This method requires that the birds to be vaccinated are thirsty so that water consumption helps to consume the vaccine rapidly (within approximately 60 minutes). Thus, access to water by the birds should be interrupted for approximately 2 hours (depending on the temperature, humidity, age of the birds, etc.) prior to vaccination. Because the stock solution is drawn in a pulse manner, and because it must be mixed with incoming water automatically before it is delivered it is not possible to achieve an even vaccination in all birds.
VACCINATION THROUGH A MEDICATOR Vaccination through a medicator is one of the methods of vaccination with live virus vaccines which is least recommended, although it is a suitable method for administration of drugs, vitamins, etc. Coccidiosis vaccination using a medicator should be avoided because the Eimeria oocysts will tend to settle and the actual dose of oocysts per bird will vary greatly, and so giving very poor results.
WATER VACCINATION Water vaccination can also be accomplished using a water pump to “inject” or “force” the vaccine into the water lines, which is a popular and very effective method of mass application using the drinking water for delivery of live vaccines. Water pump vaccination requires a closed water system (nipple drinker lines) and can be used successfully for delivery of vaccines against diseases or disease agents such as IBDV or CIAV. As with other methods involving water delivery, this one requires that the birds be thirsty prior to delivering the vaccine to them. Wherever possible, the drinker lines are raised high enough so as to prevent drinking by the birds in the 2-3 hours prior to vaccination. Water vaccination requires flushing the drinker lines with fresh water to minimize the amount of unwanted residues. Commercial products can be used to clean the drinker lines thoroughly prior to vaccination. Even after the use of commercial products, it is recommended to flush the lines with clean fresh water before vaccinating the flock. This is particularly important in operations that have hard water, or in operations that have used antibacterial drugs or other products that may have formed a film in the drinker lines. Prior to vaccination, it is important to water-starve the pullets to be vaccinated so that most will consume vaccine upon its administration. Check the drinkers or nipple drinkers to ensure they are clean and operational and shut down all water sanitizing systems. Allow the birds to become thirsty by interrupting their access to water.
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The amount of time required for the birds to become thirsty will depend on their age, environmental temperature, feed formulation, etc. The goal should be for all pullets to consume the vaccine in a matter of 60 minutes. If the birds consume the vaccine in less time, it would mean they were too thirsty. On the other hand, if it takes the birds more than one hour to fully consume the vaccine this would be an indication that the water was not removed long enough prior to vaccination. A few essential steps for water vaccination are listed as follows: • Clean and flush the water lines. • Turn off the water sanitation system. • Ensure proper functioning of the drinker system. • Water-starve the pullets enough for them to consume the vaccine in less than one hour. • Verify that the vaccine to be administered has been stored according to the manufacturer’s recommendations; that it is still viable (before expiry); and maintain a record of the type of vaccine, serial (lot) number, number of doses per vial and number of vials used, as well as the expiry date. • Reconstitute the vaccine in an aseptic manner and verify that the number of vials used matches the number of doses to be given. The amount of vaccine to be consumed in volume should be equivalent to approximately 1/7 the total water consumed the previous day. • Use a commercially produced vaccine stabilizer or powdered skim milk to help protect the vaccine viruses. Closely follow the recommendations of the manufacturer of the vaccine stabilizer. If skimmed milk is used, approximately 2.5g of well-dissolved skim milk per liter of water plus vaccine is enough to protect the vaccine from any residual chemicals or minerals in the drinking water. Keep the reconstituted vaccine cool and away from exposure to the sunlight. • Deliver the vaccine into the drinkers and drinker lines. To ensure a complete fill out of the drinker lines (pipes) add a visual aid such as commercial blue dye and let the vaccine be flushed to the end of the lines until blue dye is seen at the end of the lines. At this time close the end of the water lines and allow the birds to drink. If the vaccine is delivered into open water systems, it is important to walk slowly through the house to stimulate water consumption and to help distribute the birds in the house. • Check at least 100 birds throughout the barn to verify that they have consumed the vaccine. If enough dye was used, it should be easy to observe a blue coloring of the tongue, head feathers and occasionally the crop, which is visible through the skin. Vaccine coverage of at least 90% should be a realistic goal.
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SPRAY VACCINATION Spray vaccination is used primarily for immunization against respiratory viruses such as Newcastle disease virus (NDV) and infectious bronchitis virus (IBV). However, it should be noted that spray vaccination should involve the less invasive forms or strains of viruses, such as the B1B1 strain of Newcastle, or H120 of infectious bronchitis. In general, the more invasive the virus, the better the protection against disease but the harsher the vaccine reactions, especially in flocks infected with Mg or some strains of MS. Coccidiosis vaccines are sometimes sprayed on the feed of layer breeders in some areas. Some live Mycoplasma gallisepticum vaccines (but not all) can be sprayed directly on chickens in the field. Each type of equipment intended for spray vaccinations may be different and the operator must be thoroughly familiar with each piece of equipment and its spray patterns, pressure and particle size. For example, pressurized sprayers are excellent to deliver vaccine to the respiratory tract but because of the small particle size that they produce, the vaccine will tend to remain suspended in the air or it may be sucked towards the house fans if they are not turned off prior to vaccinating the birds. With some types of sprayers the equipment must be located not more than 50 cm over those birds to be vaccinated. This method is therefore not practical for mass application over chickens on the ground. Rather, sprayers intended for horticultural use or pesticide application in the horticultural industry have proved very popular and effective for application of live respiratory vaccines in the field. The particle size will range between 100 and 300 um, which is suitable for most respiratory viruses. In general, spray vaccination is used for protection against respiratory viruses and Mycoplasma in pullets; and for protection against respiratory viruses in hens in production. A few essential considerations for spray vaccination are listed as follows: • Prior to choosing spray vaccination to immunize chickens against respiratory viral diseases, consider all possible options. Be aware that spray vaccination against Newcastle disease and Infectious Bronchitis generally provides better protection than water vaccination, but vaccine reactions can be harsh, particularly in Mycoplasma-positive chickens. Spray vaccination against Infectious Laryngotracheitis should be avoided and must never be done in chickens in production. Only vaccinate healthy chickens. • For adult flocks, verify the flock antibody titers prior to vaccination. If antibody titers are low, vaccine reactions may be harsh. • Ensure that the vaccination equipment has been thoroughly cleaned, disinfected and rinsed to remove all traces of vaccine and disinfectant. • Drive the birds (if reared on the floor) to an area of the barn where they can be vaccinated without them flying or moving freely away from the vaccination equipment. • Calculate the total number of doses and the total volume of diluent
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(distilled deionized water) required to vaccine all chickens. The water used should not be chlorinated and should have a pH of 5,5 to 7,0. • Turn off the lights, brooders and ventilation system while ensuring the birds do not overheat or suffocate. The flock should be relatively calm at the moment of spraying the vaccine on them. • Reconstitute the vaccine aseptically and in the shade, and only immediately prior to vaccinating the flock. • Use appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), including protective mask and goggles. • Adjust the spray nozzle to a proper droplet size. Coarse sprays (>80-120 microns) are recommended for priming vaccinations and also for invasive vaccines. Fine sprays (50-60 microns) are recommended for boost vaccinations in older chickens, but only after they have been primed with similar viruses. • MG-infected chickens tend to react too severely to spray vaccinations, particularly if the droplet size is too small. • Use distilled water to dilute the vaccine (the amount should be adjusted to every situation). If a pressurized spray apparatus is used, it should be kept in mind that this type of equipment delivers droplets with a diameter range of 50-1000 microns, and thus only part of the vaccine will be inhaled. Thus, it is necessary to spray the vaccine at a distance not larger than 50cm from the chickens. This type of equipment typically requires a relatively large volume per chicken house (15-20 liters). For situations where a controlleddroplet application apparatus is used, the droplet size is considerably more uniform (~50-150 microns). Although the droplet size is more uniform with this type of equipment, some of the droplets are too small and may remain in suspension for quite some time after the vaccine is sprayed. This may represent a problem because a vaccine that stays in suspension a long time may decrease in virus titer before it is inhaled and much of the vaccine ends up on house and equipment surfaces but not in the chickens. In addition, if much of the vaccine remains in suspension (in the form of a mist), re-activating the ventilation system will draw the vaccine out of the house through the exhaust fans. • Only spray-vaccinate healthy birds. Avoid spraying birds that are infected with MG. • Adjust the nozzle to obtain the desired droplet size. • Wear a mask and goggles for personal protection when sprayvaccinating. • Make sure the sprayer to be used is clean and has no residual disinfectant. The vaccine containers of the spray apparatus should be rinsed with distilled water prior to and after every use. • Use only one dose per bird or less.
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• Reconstitute the vaccine only immediately prior to use. • Close up the house including curtains and doors and shut the ventilation system and dim the lights while the birds are being vaccinated and if possible, during 20-30 minutes post-vaccination (provided the air quality and temperature allow for a temporary shut down without compromising the flock integrity). If the flock is in a high temperature area, vaccinate birds at night or early in the morning. Make sure the ventilation system is not running at the time the vaccine is being applied or that it runs at a minimum power. Dim the lights to a minimum to settle the birds. • Spray the birds evenly and thoroughly at least twice and ensure that all calculated doses are used evenly. The heads and upper body of the sprayed birds should appear wet after vaccination. • Make a point of not leaving the farm without making sure the ventilation system and the lights have been re-engaged. Ventilation should be restored approximately 20 minutes after the initiation of the vaccination process. • Rinse, clean, disinfect and re-rinse the vaccination equipment before leaving the farm. • Destroy all residual vaccine and vaccine vials by incineration. Follow local regulations regarding adequate disposal of vaccines, vaccine vials and biological materials.
PARASITE CONTROL The most common internal parasites in laying hens include coccidia, Histomonas (“black head”), Capillaria worms, round (Ascaridia) worms, and cecal (Heterakis) worms. External parasites frequently seen in layer operations include the Northern fowl mite (Ornythonyssus), the red mite or roost mite (Dermanyssus) - poultry lice are less frequent but can occur in commercial operations. The Northern fowl mite completes its entire life cycle on the birds, whereas the red mite feeds on the birds only at night. As a whole, mites are external parasites that must be controlled to avoid drops in egg production, dermatitis around the vent, restless birds, increased mortality and farm employee discomfort. Some mites are known to carry other disease agents and can induce anemia if the infestation is severe and thus must be controlled.
VACCINATION AGAINST COCCIDIOSIS Pullets reared in battery cages do not ordinarily experience significant internal parasitic diseases. However, if they have access to droppings in the hen house because of the type of equipment and manure removal systems, outbreaks of coccidiosis could potentially occur. Regardless of the type of operation, it is important to ensure immunity against coccidiosis, which can be accomplished by using one of two common methods. Where legal, pullets reared on the floor may be treated with anticoccidial drugs for 8-12 weeks to allow for a gradual acquisition of
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immunity. Commonly used drugs for this purpose include (not exclusively) amprolium and salinomycin. However, other anticoccidial drugs have been used successfully. Perhaps the best approach to control coccidiosis in pullets reared on the floor is vaccination. Pullets can be vaccinated by spray at the hatchery with one of the various commercially available vaccines. It is important to use a commercial product that will contain at least E. acervulina, E. maxima, E. tenella and E. necatrix. Coccidiosis vaccines for broiler chickens do not contain E. necatrix, an essential component of coccidiosis vaccines for longevity in birds. When coccidiosis vaccines are used it is critical not to medicate the flock with any drug that coccidia would be sensitive to, in order to allow at least two complete coccidial cycles, which normally occurs at approximately 14-16 days of age, depending on various factors including litter moisture, bird density, environmental temperature, etc. It is also important to allow vaccinated birds to remain in the brood chamber for the duration of at least 2 complete coccidial cycles before allowing them to occupy the entire barn. If vaccinated pullets are given to the entire barn prior to the second cycle being completed, many of them will not be properly immunized and might develop coccidiosis at a later age, with the significant consequences of increased mortality, delayed growth, poor uniformity and the need for treating the flock. Specialty flocks may not be treated with drugs of any kind and thus it is critical to ensure proper coccidiosis control with the use of vaccines.
HISTOMONIASIS AND ROUND WORMS Histomonas meleagridis (HM) is the causative agent of histomoniasis (“black head”) and almost exclusively affects pullets reared on the floor, particularly in premises with dirt floors. The condition, which can be devastating, has made a comeback after the ban of many anti-parasitic drugs and is difficult to control since there are no drugs that can be used legally in many areas of the world. Because the microscopic parasite depends to some extent on the life cycle of cecal worms and earthworms, one of the strategies for control involves the control of worms. Early administration of drugs against round worms might contribute to maintain HM under control. The layer industry most commonly uses piperazine and anti-worm compounds from the family of the benzimidazole drugs such as levamizole or albendazole. Controlling worms reduces the challenge posed by HM. Where legal, HM infection may be treated with drugs such as nitarsone, but even this drug is only partially effective. Control of HM involves not only treating birds against worms, but also proper cleaning and disinfection, adequate husbandry, and proper coccidosis control, particularly of E. tenella.
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MITES The best form of prevention for mite infestation is biosecurity. Infested flocks should never be visited before visiting mite- free flocks. Mites can be mechanically carried from farm to farm in clothes, footwear, on people, equipment, egg boxes, etc. Such parasites usually thrive in sexually mature flocks and thus most treatments become necessary while the infested flocks are in production. Effective control requires direct application of “acaricide” products. A variety of products can be used for mite control, including pyrethroids, organophosphates, carbamates, mineral-based products, vegetable oils, citrus concentrated extracts and other products. Some of these products can be administered by dry (dust) spray, or as a wet spray. Prior to using any of these products it is critical to determine whether they are approved for use in hens in production, and also whether the personnel applying the products requires personal protective equipment. Some products are less effective if applied dry but quite effective when applied wet directly on the birds, which requires considerable more time than the application of dry products. Treating birds against mites is frequently expensive and it may be necessary to treat an infested flock more than once. After the affected flock is removed, thorough cleaning and disinfection and chemical treatment of the premises and equipment is necessary. The best approach is to exercise adequate biosecurity and never to transit from infested flocks to clean flocks, or to share equipment and egg boxes between infested and clean premises.
CONTROLLING GROUPS OF DISEASE BY VACCINATION Infectious diseases can be grouped by the organ system they affect. Thus, infectious diseases can affect the respiratory, digestive, nervous, urinary, reproductive and immune systems among others. Other diseases tend to affect the integument (skin or cutaneous tissues) and yet some others are considered a concern for food safety.
RESPIRATORY DISEASES Respiratory diseases of major concern in commercial layers include Newcastle disease, infectious bronchitis, avian influenza, avian metapneumovirus infection (swollen head syndrome), avian mycoplasmosis (MG and MS), infectious coryza, avian pasteurellosis (fowl cholera) and Gallibacterium anatis infection. All such diseases or disease agents can be prevented or controlled by using a combination of biosecurity and vaccination. In general, vaccination against respiratory viruses is done with live vaccines followed by killed (inactivated) vaccines. Live attenuated avian influenza vaccines are not available, but recombinant vaccines and killed vaccines are.
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Bacterial diseases (infectious coryza, fowl cholera and Gallibacterium infection) are typically prevented by means of inactivated (killed) vaccines or bacterins, which are given once or twice during the rearing period. Bacterins are usually administered by intramuscular or subcutaneous injection at approximately 10-14 weeks of age. Live vaccines against viral respiratory diseases may be administered by spray or in the drinking water once or multiple times while the flocks are in production.
PERTITONITIS IN LAYERS Peritonitis in layers is frequently caused by E. coli strains that are unrelated to the E. coli strains which affect cattle or humans. However, they can induce severe economic losses if there is no adequate control. Colibacillosis associated with peritonitis in layers is not strictly a respiratory condition, but E. coli can penetrate via the respiratory tract (descending infection). E. coli can also penetrate via an ascending route (via the reproductive tract), or possibly from the intestinal tract, a mechanism that has not yet been confirmed. Peritonitis in layers should be controlled by a variety of approaches, including maintaining proper husbandry practices, adequate ventilation, and vaccination against E. coli among other strategies. Vaccination against E. coli in layers is a very effective method of control and is commonly done by using live vaccines by spray or in the drinking water twice during rearing, once at hatch and once a few weeks later. Live E. coli vaccines can also be given safely to flocks in production or close to the onset of production, if they were not vaccinated during rearing.
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Diseases of the digestive system that are preventable by vaccination include the parasitic disease coccidiosis. Coccidiosis vaccines are typically administered at the hatchery in ovo or by spray, or by spray on the feed during the first week of life.
DISEASES AFFECTING THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Diseases affecting the nervous system such as avian encephalomyelitis (AE) require effective vaccination for prevention. Flocks may be vaccinated via the drinking water or by transcutaneous injection in the wing web, usually along with POX vaccination at approximately 10-12 weeks of age. AE vaccines should not be given for the first time before 10 weeks of age or too soon before the flock initiates egg production because they can induce disease or drops in egg production.
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DISEASES AFFECTING THE URINARY AND REPRODUCTIVE TRACT Diseases affecting the urinary and reproductive tracts are represented typically by infectious bronchitis. Prevention of infectious bronchitis requires vaccination at various ages with the same or similar serotypes of virus circulating in the field. It may be necessary to vaccinate the pullets 3-4 times with live viruses during rearing, and once with a killed vaccine containing at least the same or similar serotypes circulating in the field. Still, in many instances it might be necessary to vaccinate flocks in production by spray several times in order to maintain a healthy urinary, respiratory and reproductive tract.
DISEASES AFFECTING THE IMMUNE SYSTEM Diseases affecting the immune system can be numerous. Well-known diseases affecting the immune system include infectious bursal disease (IBDV, or Gumboro disease), chicken infectious anemia (CIAV), and Marek’s disease (MDV), the latter being a disease that also causes tumors and mortality. IBDV can be prevented by vaccination with live attenuated vaccines, immune complex vaccines, or recombinant vaccines. Live attenuated vaccines are becoming less popular because of the frequent need to give them multiple times in order to control IBDV effectively during the rearing period. Still, they have contributed very positively to the effective control of IBDV in the field, particularly in floor rearing operations. Live attenuated IBDV vaccines are given 3-4 times during the first 8 weeks of age, beginning with an initial application at approximately 14 days of age. It is not necessary to vaccinate commercial layers against CIAV because they are only susceptible to this immunosuppressive agent during the first 3 weeks of life, and the layer parents should provide protection after being exposed and/or vaccinated themselves. All layer pullets should be vaccinated against MDV to prevent losses to mortality, immunosuppression and tumors.
DISEASE AGENTS OF CONCERN FOR FOOD SAFETY Salmonella control requires a very complex approach, part of which involves vaccination. Where legal, vaccination against Salmonella is one of the most effective means of control and is usually done with live attenuated or genetically modified vaccines against S. typhimurium, followed by killed vaccines against S. enteritidis or containing other Salmonella serovars that may be residents in a particular area or operation. It is recommended to use two live Salmonella vaccines and at least one killed vaccine containing SE and other serovars to reduce the probability of infection in the field. References 1) Lewis, P. D. 1996. The domestic hen's response to photoperiodic influences. Pages 737-745 in Proceedings of XXth World's Poultry Congress. Vol II. New Delhi, India. 2) Lewis, P. D., G. C. Perry, and T. R. Morris. 1997. Effect of size and timing of photoperiod increase on age at first egg and subsequent performance on two breeds of laying hen. Br. Poult. Sci. 38:142-150. 3) Morris, T. R., P. J. Sharp, and E. A. Butler. 1995. A test for photorefractoriness in highproducing stocks of laying pullets. Br. Poult. Sci. 36:763-769.
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CONVERSION TABLE 1 mtr. 1 sq. mtr. 1 cub. mtr. 1 cm. 1 sq. cm. 1 kg. 1 g. 1 ltr.
=3,282 feet =10,76 sq. feet =35,316 cub. feet =0,394 inches =0,155 sq. inch =2,205 lbs. =0,035 ozs. =0,22 gallons
1 foot 1 sq. foot 1 cub. foot 1 inch 1 sq. inch 1 lb. 1 oz. 1 gallon
=0,305 mtr. =0,093 sq. mtr. =0,028317 cub. m. =2,54 cm. =6,45 sq.cm. =0,454 kg. =28,35 g. =4,54 ltr.
1 bird per square metre 3 birds per square metre 4 birds per square metre 5 birds per square metre 7 birds per square metre 11 birds per square metre 13 birds per square metre
=10,76 square feet per bird =3,59 square feet per bird =2,69 square feet per bird =2,15 square feet per bird =1,54 square feet per bird =0,98 square feet per bird =0,83 square feet per bird
1 cubic meter/kilogram/hour 1 cubic foot/lb./hour
=16,016 cubic feet/lb./hour =0,0624 cubic meter/kilogram/hour
F° 45 °C 40 °C 35 °C 30 °C 27 °C 24 °C
=9/5 °C+32 =113 °F =104 °F =95 °F =86 °F =81 °F =75 °F
°C 22 °C 20 °C 18 °C 16 °C 14 °C 12 °C
=5/9 (°F-32) =72 °F =68 °F =64 °F =61 °F =57 °F =54 °F
10 °C 8 °C 6 °C 4 °C 2 °C 0 °C
=50 °F =46 °F =43 °F =39 °F =36 °F =32 °F
1 Joule per second = 1 Watt = Volt x Ampere 1 KJ =1000J 1 MJ =1000KJ 1 MJ =239 Kcal 1 Kcal =4.2 KJ 1 KWh =3.6MJ - 860 Kcal 1 BTU =1055J
Warranty Disclaimer This product guide for layers has been prepared by Institut de Sélection Animale B.V. and its affiliates (“ISA”) with the greatest possible care and dedication to inform and assist ISA’s customers on the various manners of production to improve their production results while using ISA products. However, specific circumstances at the farm of the customer may impact the usability and reliability of the statements and information mentioned in this product guide. No implied or explicit guarantees are given by ISA as to the accuracy and completeness of the provided information in this product guide. Applying the information as stated in this product guide in the customers’ production environment remains a decision of the customer, to be taken at its sole discretion. ISA will not be liable for any losses or damages whatsoever, whether in contract, tort or otherwise arising from reliance on information contained in this product guide. L7150-2
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