Boilers, Evaporators & Condensers, Kakac

CONTENTS

BOILERS, EVAPORATORS AND CONDENSERS 1. 2. 3.

Introduction S. Kakaç

Basic Design Methods of Heat Exchangers

S. Kakaç and E. Paykoq

Forced Convection Correlations for Single-Phase Side of Heat Exchangers S. Kakaç and R. Oskay

4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Heat Exchanger Fouling

A. K. Agrawal and S. Kakaq

Industrial Heat Exchanger Design Practices

J. Taborek

Fossil-Fuel-Fired Boilers: Fundamentals and Elements

J. B. Kitto, Jr. and M. J. Albrecht

Once-Through Boilers

R. Leithner

Thermohydraulic Components

Design

of

Fossil-Fuel-Fired

Boiler

Z. H. Lin

9. 10. 11. 12.

Nuclear Steam Generators and Waste Heat Boilers

J. G. Collier

Heat Transfer in Condensation

P. J. Marto

Steam Power Plant and Process Condensers

D. Butterworth

Evaporators and Condensers for Refrigeration and AirConditioning Systems M. B. Pate

13.

Evaporators and Reboilers in the Process and Chemical Industries P. B. Whalley

Appendix A.

P. E. Liley

Thermophysical Properties MAIN PAGE

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Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers Chapter 01 Contents 1. Introduction S. Kakaç

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Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers Chapter 02 Contents 2. Basic Design Methods of Heat Exchangers S. Kakaç and E. Paykoq 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4

Introduction Arrangement of Flow Path in Heat Exchangers Basic Equations in Design Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 2.4.1 Order of Magnitude of Thermal Resistances 2.5 The LMTD Method for Heat Exchanger Analysis 2.5.1 Multipass and Crossflow Heat Exchangers 2.6 The ε-NTU Method for Heat Exchanger Analysis 2.7 The P-NTUC Method 2.8 The ψ-P Method 2.9 Heat Exchanger Design Calculation 2.10 Variable Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 2.11 Heat Exchanger Pressure Drop and Pumping Power 2.11.1 Tube-Side Pressure Drop 2.11.2 Noncircular Cross-Sectional Ducts 2.11.3 Shell-Side Pressure Drop 2.11.4 Heat Transfer and Pumping-Power Relationship 2.12 Summary Nomenclature References

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Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers Chapter 03 Contents 3. Forced Convection Correlations for Single-Phase Side of Heat Exchangers S. Kakaç and R. Oskay 3.1 3.2

Introduction Laminar Forced Convection 3.2.1 Hydrodynamically Developed and Thermally Developing Laminar Flow in Smooth Circular Ducts 3.2.2 Simultaneously Developing Laminar Flow in Smooth Ducts 3.2.3 Laminar Flow Through Concentric Smooth Ducts 3.3 The Effect of Variable Physical Properties 3.3.1 Laminar Flow of Liquids 3.3.2 Laminar Flow of Gases 3.4 Turbulent Forced Convection 3.4.1 Turbulent Flow in Circular Ducts with Constant Properties 3.5 Turbulent Flow in Smooth Straight Noncircular Ducts 3.6 The Effect of Variable Physical Properties in Turbulent Forced Convection 3.6.1 Turbulent Liquid Flow in Ducts 3.6.2 Turbulent Gas Flow in Ducts 3.7 Summary Nomenclature References

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Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers Chapter 04 Contents 4. Heat Exchanger Fouling A. K. Agrawal and S. Kakaç 4.1 4.2

Introduction Effects of Fouling 4.2.1 Basic Equations 4.2.2 Effect of Fouling on Heat Transfer 4.2.3 Effect of Fouling on Pressure Drop 4.2.4 Cost of Fouling 4.3 Aspects of Fouling 4.3.1 Categories of Fouling 4.3.2 Fundamental Processes of Fouling 4.3.3 Prediction of Fouling 4.4 Design of Heat Exchangers Subject to Fouling 4.4.1 Providing a Fouling Allowance 4.4.2 Design Features to Minimize Fouling 4.4.3 Design Features to Facilitate Fouling Control 4.5 Operation of Heat Exchangers Subject to Fouling 4.6 Techniques to Control Fouling 4.6.1 Surface Cleaning Techniques 4.6.2 Additives Nomenclature References

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Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers Chapter 05 Contents 5. Industrial Heat Exchanger Design Practices J. Taborek 5.1 5.2

Introduction Heat Exchanger Types, Their Characteristics and Selection 5.2.1 Shell and Tube 5.2.2 Double Pipe or Multitube Hairpin 5.2.3 Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers 5.2.4 Gasketed Plate Exchangers 5.2.5 Matrix and Plate Fin-Tube Exchangers 5.2.6 Conclusion 5.3 The Strategy of Overall Design Optimization 5.3.1 Process Specifications 5.3.2 Preliminary Problem Analysis 5.3.3 Detailed Thermohydraulic Design 5.3.4 Mechanical-Metallurgical Design Aspects 5.3.5 Architectural Considerations 5.3.6 Maintenance, Operation, and Control Considerations 5.4 Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers: Characteristics of Constructional Components 5.4.1 Shell Types 5.4.2 Tube Bundle Types 5.4.3 Tube Passes 5.4.4 Baffle Types and Geometry 5.4.5 Tube Diameter and Tube Length 5.4.6 Tube Layout 5.5 Comments on Condenser Design 5.6 Comments on Reboiler Design 5.7 Calculated Example: Butane Cooler 5.7.1 Process Specifications 5.7.2 Heat Exchanger Type and Fluid Allocation 5.7.3 Thermal Profile Analysis: Possible Configurations 5.7.4 Selection of Construction Elements 5.7.5 Preliminary Estimation of Unit Size 5.7.6 Design and Results Evaluation 5.8 Design by Computer Programs 5.9 Optimization and Expert Systems Nomenclature Nomenclature Appendix 5.1: Step-by-Step Calculations Acknowledgment References

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Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers Chapter 06 Contents 6. Fossil-Fuel-Fired Boilers: Fundamentals and Elements J. B. Kitto, Jr. and M. J. Albrecht 6.1

Introduction 6.1.1 Background 6.1.2 Current Practice 6.1.3 Objectives and Overview 6.2 Fossil Boiler System 6.2.1 Input Requirements and Operating Pressure 6.2.2 Power Cycle 6.2.3 Types of Boilers 6.2.4 System Approach 6.3 Major Steam-Water Boiler Components 6.3.1 Enclosure Surfaces 6.3.2 Superheaters and Reheaters 6.3.3 Economizers 6.3.4 Steam Temperature Control 6.3.5 Steam Drum 6.4 Steam-Water System 6.4.1 Circulation Methods 6.4.2 Boiler Circulation and Flow 6.4.3 Furnace Heat Flux Evaluation 6.4.4 Circulation Evaluation 6.5 Two-Phase Flow Circulation Limiting Criteria 6.5.1 Flow Instabilities and General Velocity Limits 6.5.2 Heat Transfer and Critical Heat Flux 6.5.3 Steam-Water Separation and Drum Capacity 6.6 Other Evaluation Factors 6.7 Summary Nomenclature References Appendix 6.1: Key Heat Transfer Parameters—Superheater, Reheater, and Economizer Appendix 6.2: Sample Correlations for Two-Phase Multipliers and Void Fraction in Steam-Water Flows Appendix 6.3: Sample Critical Heat Flux (CHF) Correlation

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Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers Chapter 07 Contents 7. Once-Through Boilers R. Leithner 7.1 Introduction (Historical Review) 7.2 Important Design Criteria in Comparison to Other Systems 7.2.1 Main Characteristic Features 7.2.2 Pressure Range 7.2.3 Operating Modes and Start-Up Period 7.2.4 Start-Up Equipment and Problems 7.2.5 Evaporator Tube Design 7.2.6 Heat Pickup of the Heating Surfaces 7.2.7 Differences in Heat Absorption and Flow Resistance in Individual Evaporator Tubes 7.2.8 Furnace Wall Design 7.2.9 Feed-Water Quality 7.2.10 Disturbances 7.2.11 Storage Capacity, Load Changes, and Control 7.2.12 Unit Capacity, Dimensions, and Design 7.3 Special Design Considerations 7.3.1 Water Wall Design 7.3.2 Steam Preheating Equipment 7.3.3 Water Separation 7.4 Start-Up Systems and Feed-Water Control 7.4.1 Start-Up Systems 7.4.2 Feed-Water Control 7.5 Examples and Operating Experiences 7.5.1 Lignite Fired 600-MW Once-Through Steam Generator 7.5.2 Bituminous Coal-Fired 740-MW Once-Through Steam Generator 7.5.3 Power Boiler for Supercritical 475-MW Unit 7.5.4 Steam Generator Unit for Steam Soak or Steam Drive in Oil Fields 7.6 Summary Acknowledgments Nomenclature References Appendix 7.1: Example for Calculating Power Generation Costs Appendix 7.2: Optimal Design of a Recirculation Pump Suction Pipe Appendix 7.3: Steam Generator Energy Balance

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Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers Chapter 08 Contents 8. Thermohydraulic Design of Fossil-Fuel-Fired Boiler Components Z. H. Lin 8.1 Introduction 8.1.1 Working Principle of a Steam Boiler 8.1.2 Main Characteristics of Steam Boilers 8.2 Types of Boilers and Construction of Boiler Components 8.2.1 Classification of Boilers 8.2.2 Construction and Design Problems of Furnaces 8.2.3 Construction and Design Problems of Superheaters and Reheaters 8.2.4 Construction and Design Problems of Economizers 8.2.5 Construction and Design Problems of Air Heaters 8.2.6 Construction and Design Problems of Steam Drums 8.3 Heat Transfer Calculations of Boiler Components 8.3.1 Boiler Efficiency and Weight of Fuel Fired 8.3.2 Heat Transfer Calculation of Water-Cooled Furnace 8.3.3 Heat Transfer Calculation of Convection Heating Surfaces 8.3.4 Procedure for Heat Transfer Calculation of a Boiler 8.4 A Numerical Example of the Heat Transfer Calculations of Boiler Components 8.5 Steam-Water Systems of Boilers and Circulation Calculations 8.5.1 Steam-Water System of Natural-Circulation Boiler and Design Problems 8.5.2 Steam-Water System of Controlled-Circulation Boilers and Design Problems 8.5.3 Steam-Water System of Once-Through Boilers 8.6 A Numerical Example of Boiler Circulation Calculations Nomenclature Nomenclature References

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Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers Chapter 09 Contents 9. Nuclear Steam Generators and Waste Heat Boilers J. G. Collier 9.1 9.2 9.3

Abstract Introduction The Principal Types of Boiler 9.3.1 Nuclear Power Plants 9.3.2 Waste Heat Boilers 9.4 The Thermal and Mechanical Design of Boilers 9.4.1 General 9.4.2 Primary Side (Unfired Boiler) Design 9.4.3 Water-Side (Evaporator) Design 9.4.4 An Example: PWR Inverted U-Tube Recirculating Steam Generator 9.5 Common Problems in the Operation of Boilers 9.5.1 Causes of Steam Generator Problems 9.5.2 Worked Solutions 9.6 Conclusions Acknowledgment Nomenclature References

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Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers Chapter 10 Contents 10. Heat Transfer in Condensation P. J. Marto 10.1 10.2

Introduction Film Condensation on a Single Horizontal Tube 10.2.1 Natural Convection 10.2.2 Forced Convection 10.3 Film Condensation in Tube Bundles 10.3.1 Effect of Condensate Inundation 10.3.2 Effect of Vapor Shear 10.3.3 Combined Effects of Inundation and Vapor Shear 10.3.4 Computer Modeling 10.4 Film Condensation Inside Tubes 10.4.1 Flow Patterns 10.4.2 Condensation in Horizontal Tubes 10.4.3 Condensation in Vertical Tubes 10.4.4 Condensation in Noncircular Passages 10.5 Pressure Drop During Condensation 10.5.1 Shell-Side Pressure Drop 10.5.2 Pressure Drop Inside Tubes 10.6 Condensation Heat Transfer Augmentation 10.6.1 Shell-Side Film Condensation Using Integral-Fin Tubes 10.6.2 Dropwise Condensation 10.7 Condensation of Vapor Mixtures 10.7.1 Equilibrium Methods 10.7.2 Nonequilibrium Methods Nomenclature References

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Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers Chapter 11 Contents 11. Steam Power Plant and Process Condensers D. Butterworth 11.1 11.2

Introduction Shell-and-Tube Condensers for Process Plant 11.2.1 Horizontal Shell-Side Condensers 11.2.2 Vertical Shell-Side Condensers 11.2.3 Tube-Side Condensers 11.2.4 Subcooling in Shell-and-Tube Condensers 11.2.5 Choice Between Types 11.3 Shell-and-Tube Condensers for Power Plant 11.3.1 Steam Turbine Exhaust Condensers 11.3.2 Feed-Water Heaters 11.4 Plate Exchangers 11.5 Spiral Exchangers 11.6 Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers 11.7 Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers 11.8 Direct-Contact Condensers 11.9 Thermal Evaluation Methods for Shell-and-Tube Condensers 11.9.1 Introduction and Definition of Terms 11.9.2 Co-current and Countercurrent Condensers 11.9.3 Shell-Side, E-Type Condenser with Two Tube-Side Passes 11.9.4 Shell-Side, E-Type Condenser with Four or More Tube Passes 11.9.5 Crossflow Condensers 11.9.6 Nonequilibrium Calculation Methods 11.9.7 Multidimensional Shell-Side Flows 11.10 Thermal Evaluation Method for Direct-Contact Condensers 11.10.1 Spray Condensers 11.10.2 Tray Condensers 11.11 Reasons for Failure of Condenser Operation 11.12 Examples 11.12.1 Process Condenser 11.12.2 Power Condenser Acknowledgment Nomenclature References

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Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers Chapter 12 Contents 12. Evaporators and Condensers for Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Systems M. B. Pate 12.1

Introduction 12.1.1 Background 12.1.2 Typical Evaporator Behavior 12.1.3 Typical Condenser Behavior 12.1.4 Types of Heat Exchangers in Refrigeration and AirConditioning Applications 12.2 Heat Exchanger Analysis 12.2.1 General Equations 12.2.2 Lumped Heat Exchanger Analysis Approach 12.2.3 Local Heat Transfer Integration Approach 12.3 Evaporator Coils 12.3.1 Description and Special Considerations 12.3.2 In-Tube Refrigerant Evaporation Heat Transfer 12.3.3 In-Tube Heat Transfer Augmentation 12.3.4 Air-Side Heat Transfer 12.3.5 Wet-Coil Heat Transfer 12.3.6 Frosted-Coil Heat Transfer 12.3.7 Fin Bonding and Thermal Contact Resistance 12.4 Condenser Coils 12.4.1 Description and Special Considerations 12.4.2 Similarities between Condenser and Evaporator Coils 12.4.3 In-Tube Refrigerant Condensation Heat Transfer 12.4.4 In-Tube Heat Transfer Augmentation 12.5 Flooded Evaporators 12.5.1 Description and Special Considerations 12.5.2 Shell-Side Refrigerant Heat Transfer 12.5.3 Shell-Side Heat Transfer Augmentation 12.6 Shell-and-Tube Direct Expansion Evaporators 12.6.1 Description and Special Considerations 12.6.2 In-Tube and Shell-Side Heat Transfer 12.7 Shell-and-Tube Condensers 12.7.1 Description and Special Considerations 12.7.2 Shell-Side Refrigerant Condensation Heat Transfer 12.7.3 Shell-Side Heat Transfer Augmentation 12.8 Heat Exchanger Design with Alternative Refrigerants Nomenclature References

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Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers Chapter 13 Contents 13. Evaporators and Reboilers in the Process and Chemical Industries P. B. Whalley 13.1 13.2 13.3

13.4

13.5

13.6

13.7

Introduction Relevance of Upflow and Downflow in Vertical Units Evaporator Types 13.3.1 Horizontal Shell-Side Evaporator 13.3.2 Horizontal Falling-Film Evaporator 13.3.3 Horizontal Tube-Side Evaporator 13.3.4 Short-Tube Vertical Evaporator 13.3.5 Long-Tube Vertical Evaporator 13.3.6 Climbing-Film Evaporator 13.3.7 Vertical Falling-Film Evaporator 13.3.8 Agitated Thin Film Evaporator 13.3.9 Plate-Type Evaporator 13.3.10 Submerged-Combustion Evaporator Reboiler Types 13.4.1 Internal Reboiler 13.4.2 Kettle Reboiler 13.4.3 Vertical Thermosyphon Reboiler 13.4.4 Horizontal Thermosyphon Reboiler Energy Efficiency in Evaporation 13.5.1 Introduction 13.5.2 Multiple-Effect Evaporators 13.5.3 Vapor Recompression in Evaporation 13.5.4 Multistage Flash Evaporator Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop Problems 13.6.1 Initial Sizing of the Unit 13.6.2 Two-Phase Vapor-Liquid Pressure Drop 13.6.3 Calculation of Natural-Circulation Units 13.6.4 Heat Transfer Rates 13.6.5 Heat Transfer on the Heating Side 13.6.6 Fouling 13.6.7 Boiling inside Tubes 13.6.8 Boiling outside Tubes 13.6.9 Falling-Film Evaporation 13.6.10 Agitated-Film Evaporation 13.6.11 Mixture Effects 13.6.12 Enhanced Surfaces Possible Problems in the Operation of Evaporators and Reboilers 13.7.1 Introduction 13.7.2 Corrosion and Erosion 13.7.3 Maldistribution

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Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers Chapter 13 (Contents Contd….) 13.7.4 Fouling 13.7.5 Flow Instability 13.7.6 Tube Vibration 13.7.7 Flooding 13.8 Design Example 13.8.1 Further Refinements in the Design Nomenclature References

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Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers Appendix & Table Contents Appendix A. P. E. Liley

Thermophysical Properties

Nomenclature List of Sources of Tables References Table A1. Thermophysical Properties of 113 Fluids at 1 bar, 300 K Table A2. Thermophysical Properties of Liquid and Saturated-Vapor Air Table A3. Thermophysical Properties of Gaseous Air at Atmospheric Pressure Table A4. Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Ammonia (R717) Table A5. Thermophysical Properties of Ammonia (R717) at 1-bar Pressure Table A6. Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Normal Butane (R600) Table A7. Thermophysical Properties of Normal Butane (R600) at Atmospheric Pressure Table A8. Thermophysical Properties of Solid, Saturated-Liquid and Saturated-Vapor Carbon Dioxide Table A9. Thermophysical Properties of Gaseous Carbon Dioxide at 1-bar Pressure Table A10. Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Ethane (R170) Table A11. Thermophysical Properties of Ethane at Atmospheric Pressure Table A12. Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Ethylene (R1150) Table A13. Thermophysical Properties of Ethylene (R1150) at Atmospheric Pressure Table A14. Thermophysical Properties of n-Hydrogen (R702) at Atmospheric Pressure Table A15. Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Methane (R50) Table A16. Thermophysical Properties of Methane (R50) at Atmospheric Pressure Table A17. Thermophysical Properties of Nitrogen (R728) at Atmospheric Pressure Table A18. Thermophysical Properties of Oxygen (R732) at Atmospheric Pressure Table A19. Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Normal Propane (R290) Table A20. Thermophysical Properties of Propane (R290) at Atmospheric Pressure Table A21. Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Refrigerant 12 Table A22. Thermophysical Properties of Refrigerant 12 at 1-bar Pressure Table A23. Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Refrigerant 22 Table A24. Thermophysical Properties of Refrigerant 22 at Atmospheric Pressure Table A25. Thermophysical Properties of Saturated R134a Table A26. Properties of Refrigerant 134a at Atmospheric Pressure Go to Chapter >

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Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers Contents Table A27. Table A28. Table A29.

Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Ice-Water-Steam Thermophysical Properties of Steam at 1-bar Pressure Thermophysical Properties of Water-Steam at High Pressures

Table A30. Table A31. Table A32. Table A33.

Thermal Expansion Coefficient α of Water Isothermal Compressibility Coefficient βT of Water Thermophysical Properties of Unused Engine Oil Conversion Factors

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