Biology Final

Introduction to Biology 2-1, 2-2 What is Biology? Fields of Study-“ologies” Characteristics of life

1

Biology is the study of life, living things. The Characteristics of Life: -Must have cells -Must grow and develop -Must be able to reproduce -Must respond to stimulus -Must obtain and use energy Field of study: Zoology: Animals Microbiology: Small things Marine biology: Ocean life Paleontology: Ancient life, fossils Archaeology: Old cultures Psychology: Human behavior Entomology: Insects Cardiology: Heart Ophthalmology: Eyes Neurology: Nerves Dermatology: Skin Botany: Plants Mycology- Fungus Herpetology: Reptiles Ornithology: Birds Limnology: Fresh water Ichthyology: Fish Parasitology: Parasites Ecology: Living things, their habitats, & interactions Oncology: Cancer Toxicology: Poisons and Pollution Anthropology: Human kind 2

Scientific Method: Observation State Problem Make a hypothesis Testing with a control (-Observe and collect data) Analyze data Draw Conclusion Retest -A hypothesis-may be disproved by a single experiment -A hypothesis may arise from -Prior knowledge -Logical inferences -Informed, creative imagination -A theory-may be revised or replaced -A hypothesis is only useful if it can be proven

3

Microscope 2-2 Rules of use Microscope vocab Resolution Field of view Depth of field Compound microscope -Total magnification

4

Terms: Eyepiece (Ocular) Body tube Objective lenses- 4x, 10x, 40x Turret (nosepiece) Stage Stage clips Light source (lamp, mirror) Coarse adjustment (focus) Fine focus Diaphragm Base Arm

5

Anton VanLeeuwenhoek: -1600’s -First to discover protist, called them “animalcules” Robert Hooke: -Saw cork wine stoppers and say boxes -Named jail cells, cells. Robert Brown: -Discovered the nucleus by looking at onion skin Matthias Schleiden: -Botanist -Discovered every plant is made of cells Theodor Schwann: -Zoologist -Discovered every animal is made of cells Rudolf Virchow: -Cell theory

6

Cell structure & Functions +

Cell specialization and levels or organization

5-1, 5-2, 5-3, Cell theory Structure Organelles and their functions Fluid mosaic model of cell membrane

7

Cell theory 1. All living things are composed of cells 2. Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living things 3. Cells can only come from pre-existing cells Animal Cell:

Plant Cell:

8

Prokaryotic -No nucleus or organelles -Bacteria Eukaryotic -With nucleus and membrane -Bound organelles-made of molecules, fat, etc…

Organelles and Functions: Nucleus: Control center that contains DNA to make proteins. Surrounded by nuclear envelope. Nuclear Envelope: Controls what goes in and out of the nucleus Nucleolus: Inside nucleus and controls ribosome production Mitochondria: The “powerhouse” of the cell and the site of cellular respiration, energy. Converts chemical energy stored in food into compounds that are more convenient for the cell to use Cytoplasm: Fluid inside the cell Endoplasmic Reticulum: Network of membranes, transport of proteins -Rough ER-coated with ribosomes -Smooth ER-no ribosomes Golgi Body: Packaging of proteins for export 9

Vacuoles: Storage of food and waste. Water vacuole (in plants) Cell Membrane: Controls what goes in and out of the cell. “Fluid Mosaic Model.” Cell Wall: In plants and some fungi. Provides protection and support Lysosomes: In animals, containing toxins and digestive enzymes Enzymes: Speeds up a reaction Centrioles: In animals cells only. Aids in cell reproduction Ribosomes: Site of protein production. Lines the ER, rough and smooth. Made up of proteins and RNA. 2 subunits: 18s, 28s. Created in the nucleus by the nucleolus. Found in cytoplasm Chloroplast: Makes plants green so they can photosynthesize. Green and yellow are the least colors used. Blue and red are the most. Provides energy Cytoskeleton: The structure to keep cells shape in all cells Plastids: Only in plants, chloroplasts and chromoplasts

●●● Cell Membrane- Made up of Fluid Mosaic Model

●●●

10

Tissue: A group of similar cells that perform the same function Organ: A group of tissues that work together to perform a specific function Organ System: A group of organs that work together to perform a specific function Organelle: A cell structure that performs a specialized function within the cell

Cell > Tissue > Organ > Organ System

Movement of materials through the cell membrane 5-4 Diffusion Osmosis Facilitated diffusion Active transport

11

Diffusion: The process by which molecules of a substance move from areas of higher concentration of that substance to areas of lower concentration, high to low concentration Selectively Permeable: Allows some substances to pass through but not others Osmosis: Diffusion of water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of higher water concentration to an area of lower water concentration, high to low concentration Facilitated Diffusion: Diffusion of materials across a cell membrane assisted by carrier molecules, no energy, high to low concentration Active Transport: Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference, energy, low to high concentration GLUCOSE AND SALT DO NOT GO THROUGH SEMI-PERMABLE MEMBRANES

Hydrophilic The bilipid layer is (water-loving) made lipids Fatty Acid Tails

 Hydrophobic (water-fearing)

12

Proteins in cell membrane are carrier molecules ●●● Insulin is the glucose carrier molecule.

Solvent: a substance that dissolves another to form a solution Solute: substance dissolved in a given solution. Hypertonic Solution: high concentration solution Hypotonic Solution: low concentration solution

Cell energy 6-1, 6-2, 6-3, 6-4 Photosynthesis Respiration

13

PHOTOSYNTHESIS:

The process where a plant converts the energy of sunlight into sugar Autotrophs: an organism that produces its own food -Chemosynthetic: no sunlight-no pigment-prokaryotes -Photosynthetic: do photosynthesis-plants-cyanobacteria Heterotrophs: eats other organisms

DEVILS REACTION (REDUCED): 6H20 + 6CO2 sun & chlorophyll C6H12O6 + 6O2 PHOTOSYNTHESIS REACTION (FULL): 12H20 + 6CO2 sun & chlorophyll C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

(12H20’s because 6O’s are given off and the 6 H2O at the end is given off as transpiration)

14

●●● The oxygen that comes from plants is from the splitting of water.

LIGHT REACTION:

Produces: Oxygen and converts ADP to ATP and NADP+ to NADPH (energy carriers) Occurs: In the thylakoid membrane 1. Light is absorbed by photosystem II (P680) -Water is split -O2 is released to atmosphere 2. High energy electrons are passed through the cytochrome complex -The energy released is used to actively transport H+ into the thylakoid inner space 3. Low energy electrons are passed to photosystem I (P700) where light is absorbed and the now high energy electrons are passed to NADP+ to create NADPH 4. The H+ ions from the inner thylakoid space pass through ATP synthase to create energy to turn ADP into ATP 5. ATP and NADPH go to the Calvin Cycle/Dark Reaction

15

DARK REACTION:

Produces: Glucose (2G3P) Occurs: In the stroma 1. 3RuBP is joined with 3CO2 and rubisco to make 3, 6 carbon intermediates. 2. The 3, 6 carbon intermediates make 6, 3 phosphoglycerates molecules. 3. Turns ATP into ADP to produce the 1, 3-bisphosphoglycerate molecule. 4. The bisphosphoglycerate molecule turns into 6G3P using NADPH to NAPP+ energy. 5. 1G3P (a sugar) is let off. 5G3Ps turn into 3 RuBP by the energy of ADP to ATP. 6. Repeats once 7. 1G3P + 1 G3P = C6H12O6 =

SUGAR!

16

RESPIRATION:

Process that involves oxygen and breaks down food to release energy The mitochondria is the center of cellular respiration and respiration only occurs in the presence of oxygen Aerobic: Considered aerobic because process requires oxygen Anaerobic: Does not require oxygen (fermentation) EQUATION FOR CELLULAR RESPIRATION: 6O2 + C6H12O6  6CO2 + Energy One glucose molecule = 36 ATP

GLYOLYSIS:

Production of ATP by the conversion of glucose to pyruvate

Occurs in the CYTOPLASM 17

1. ATP splits glucose to two 1,3 bisphosphoglycerate 2. 1,3 bisphosphoglycerate is changed into 3 phosphoglycerate. Gives off two ATP 3. 3 phosphoglycerate is changed into pyruvate, giving off 2 ATP Requires: 2 ATP Releases: 4 ATP Net Gain: 2 ATP Creates 2 pyruvate -Pyruvate is picked up by Coenzyme A with NAD+ to NADH energy. Releases CO2 and produces Acetyl Co-A -Now crosses Mitochondrial membrane, entering matrix. -Respiration: Co-A releases ‘the acetyl group’ into Krebs cycle.

KREBS CYCLE:

Takes place in the MATRIX

1. 4-C joins with Acetyl Co-A to create citrate 2. CO2 is released into atmosphere 3. NAD+ is turned into NADH; CO2 is released into atmosphere again 4. NAD+ is turned into NADH; ADP is turned into ATP; FAD is turned to FADH2; NAD+ is turned into NADH

18

Produces: 3 NADH 1 FADH2 1 ATP

ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN: -The FADH2 and NADH drop their hydrogen’s resulting in NAD+ and FAD+. -The H+’s are actively transported through the christae membrane. -H+’s pass through ATP synthase and turn from ADP to ATP -Electrons used in E.T.C. are given to O2 to combine with H+ to create H2O 19

FERMENTATION:

Energy production without oxygen, and allow the cycle to restart again

Lactic Acid: -NAD+ is regenerated allowing glycolysis to continue -The conversion of pyruvic acid into lactic acid requires NADH

Alcoholic: -Occurs in yeast

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27