Biology Cell Theory

Study Guide by Narendran Sairam, Steven Kraplin and Rajat Goyal LECTURE NOTES (NARENDRAN SAIRAM) CELL THEORY In 1838 Schleiden and Schwann came up with cell theory. In 1838 cell theory consisted of three parts: a. The cell is a structure of physiology and organization. b. Cells have a dual existence: 1. as an entity 2. as a building block of live. c. Cells form from free cell formation also called spontaneous generation. CELLS Cells have two types of differences; a. Morphological differences: Have to do with structural differences. Eg. Eukayotes have a nucleus while prokaryotes have no true nucleus. b. Phylogenetic differences: Have to do with genetic differences. Eg. Bacterial, Eukaryan and Archean cells have phylogenetic differences. PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES Three shapes: Coccus: ball shaped Basilicus: Rod shaped. Spirilum: spiral • The cell walls of the prokaryotes are made up of carbohydrates and proteins. These molecules are called peptiglycans. The plasma membrane pressurizes the cell wall and helps it retain its shape. The plasma membrane and the cell wall help protect the cell. • Most bacteria have a single large circular chromosomes but some have linear chromosomes • Ribosomes are made up of three different types of RNA molecules and more than 50 types of proteins. • Plasmids are circles of DNA that are twisted. Plasmids are capable of changing rapidly according to their environment. • Flagellum: These, in prokaryotes, serve the same function the serve in eukaryotes. • Cytoskeleton: this made up of cytoplasm and stiff fibers. In prokaryotes, the cytoskeleton is very complex in comparison to eukaryotes. Eukaryotes Prokaryotes Membrane bound organelles No organelles 5-100 micro meters 1-10 micrometers Nuclear envelope delineates the nucleus No true nucleus Complex cytoskeleton Simple Cytoskeleton. Reasons/advantages of having organelles: 1. To get things done faster(improves efficiency) 2. Compartmentalization (keeps different reactions separate from one another) All structures in a eukaryotic cell are membrane bound. MEMBRANE STRUCTURE The Achaean phospholipids: ©Narendran Sairam, Rajat Goyal and Steven Kraplin

•

The Archaean membrane is made up of Phosphate(PO4-2), glycerol and isoprene.

The Eukaryan/ Bacterial phospholipids: • Made up of serine, Phosphate group, a glycerol group and a bunch of fatty acids. • Serine is and amino acid that attracts water very well. This is because both, water and serine are polarized. Essentially serine is Hydrophilic (water liking). • The fatty acids on the other hand are hydrophobic (don’t like water) because they are not charged. Actual Structure: The membrane is made up of two phospholipids placed back-to-back. This makes it a phospholipids bilayer. The chemicals and the food get into the cell through the bilayer. This process is called diffusion. Diffusion is basically a change in the concentration gradient. The diffusion of water through a membrane is called osmosis. MEMBRANE PROTIENS

The Endoplasmic Reticulum and the Golgi apparatus

There are three types of membrane proteins; a. Transport proteins: There are three types of transport proteins: • Carrier proteins: These proteins move molecules through a membrane. Eg C6H12O6. This is done by diffusion. • Channel proteins: these allow movement of ions through a membrane. • Pumps: These allow movement of ions against the concentration gradient (opposite of diffusion). b. Receptor Proteins c. Cell to cell recognition proteins: These are also called

glycoprotein. They have Carbohydrates sticking out of their cell. This carbohydrate helps recognize other proteins of the same body or organ.

ORGANELLES • Endoplasmic Reticulum(E.R.): 1. Rough ER: Cytoprotein (cellular protein) synthesis takes place in the membrane of the Rough ER. Once the proteins are made they are compartmented and left in the cytoplasm. 2. Smooth ER: Regulates C (Carbon) ion concentration. They make phospholipids ©Narendran Sairam, Rajat Goyal and Steven Kraplin

and other non-protein based molecules that help in killing toxins. The biochemical reactions that produce proteins and phospholipids are very complex. Proteins that are made in the Rough ER are transported to the cytoplasm ribosomes and to the Golgi apparatus for activation. •

Golgi apparatus: This organelle is made up of three parts. A flat membrane sac called the cisternae. This cisternae holds the lumen (everything inside itself). 1. Cisface: This part is close to the ER and receives the transport vesicles that carry the proteins. 2. The Medieval Region: This the space between the cis and trans faces (not shown in the picture). Acts as a transport between the extreme faces of the Golgi apparatus. 3. Transface: This part is closest to the Plasma membrane. It packs the altered and activated molecules and transports them to the membrane and other parts of the body. The Golgi apparatus produces lysosomes (organelles that produce digestive enzymes). They also modify proteins and activate them. The proteins are put in the lysosomes and are transported to other parts of the body.

•

Chloroplasts: This is made up of two membranes; inner and outer membrane. There is a space between the two membranes. This space is called intermembranal space. This organelle is only found in plants and protists. It is the site of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis: The thylocoids capture the photons with the help of chlorophyll and carotenoids on their membranes and house the conversion machinery. Equation: 6CO2+6H2O  C6H6O12 + 6O2 This reaction is divided into two parts. During photosynthesis, plants take Carbon Dioxide from their surroundings and use it to make glucose. a) Photophosphorylation or light-dependent reaction and b)Calvin’s cycle or light-independent reaction. Photophosphorylation coverts light energy into chemical energy. Calvin's cycle uses the stored energy, water and CO2 to give glucose. Since glucose (C6H12O6 ) has bonds that require a lot of energy and since CO2 's carbon-oxygen bonds don't have too much potential energy, their potential energy must be increased in order to make glucose. This energy is acquired from the photons of light. In order to use the energy of the photons the energy must be converted into chemical form to be stored. This process is called Photophosphorylation. Photo ("light") phosphorylation ("the addition of phosphate to a molecule") basically adds a phosphate to ADP to make it ATP and there by stores energy in ATP. The process takes place in the grana (Figure1), within the tylakoids. The environment within the grana is suitable for chemiosmosis (process where ADP is synthesized to ATP). The photons of light are captured by the antennae called photo systems and are brought into the reaction center where they are converted into chemical energy. •

Mitochondrion: This organelle is found in both, plants and animals. Its function is to produce energy by producing ATP. It converts Glucose to ATP. The mitochondrion, like the chloroplast has two membranes and space between those membranes. The outer membrane separates the cytocol(the jelly like part of the cytoplasm) from the inside. The only things that enter the mitochondrion are enzymes, proteins, glucose and oxygen.

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The actual reaction takes place in the matrix. This reaction is called cellular respiration. There are two types of cellular respiration: a. Aerobic respiration( respiration in the presence of oxygen). The steps in aerobic respiration are: • Glycolysis: occurs in the

cytoplasm of a cell. This converts the 6 Carbon atoms in C6H6O12 (Glucose) to 2C3(Pyruvate). •

Kerb’s Cycle: This part of the cycle requires oxygen. It starts with Pyruvate and O2 and produces 4CO2 and ATP.

In the end the number of ATPs produced are approximately 32-36. b. Anaerobic respiration: Since this reaction takes place in the absence of air there is no Kerb’s cycle. Therefore anaerobic respiration only produces 4 ATP which results in muscle burn and lactic acid buildup. •

Nucleus: The nucleus is an organelle that has a double membrane and pores in between the membranes. This is where the DNA is coded. The stuff inside the nucleus is called Chromatin. There are two types of Chromatin; Heterochromatin and euchromatin. Heterochromatin is chromatin that is dense and is not being coded while euchromatin is less dense and is being coded for.

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ANIMAL FORM AND FUNCTION TERMS

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Tissue: a collection of cell working together to perform a specific function. Organ: A collection of tissues working together to perform a specific function. Organ Systems: A collection of Organ working together to perform a specific function. Multicellular: consisting of more than one cell. Connective tissue: cells closely arranged in a solid, jellylike or liquid extra cellular Matrix (e.g. Blood, bone.) Cartilage: a connective tissue with a firmer extra cellular matrix. Bone: a connective tissue with a firm extra cellular matrix. Blood: a connective tissue that has a liquid extra cellular matrix. Its cells are surrounded by Plasma. Nervous tissue: tissue made of cells that are called neurons or nerve cells. Part of the nervous system. Muscle tissue: Made of fibers that only contract. Striated muscle: Muscle that helps move the skeleton and keeps it in place. Cardiac muscle: makes up the walls of the heart. Smooth muscle: line the walls of the blood vessels. Epithelial tissue: lines the surface of the body (skin). Volume increases more rapidly than surface area. Metabolic rate: over all rate at which energy is consumed by an organism. Basal metabolic rate: amount of oxygen consumed by and organism while at rest with an empty stomach and under normal conditions. Allometry: occurring where change in body size are accompanied by disproportional changes in anatomical structures. Homeostasis: the relatively standard and constant physical and chemical conditions within an animal cell and tissue. Thermoregulation: The control of the body temperature. Endotherm: Organism that produces its own heat. Ectotherm: gains heat from its environment. Homeotherm: these have constant body temperature. Heterotherms: fluctuate body temperature. Torpor: condition where metabolic rate is reduced. Hibernation: state of extended or persisting torpor. Conduction: gaining heat by contact. Convection: Change of temperature during movement of water air of through body surface. Radiation: transfer of heat without physical contact. Evaporation: phase change between liquid to gas. Counter current heat exchange: an arrangement where blood vessels are arranged in an anti parallel fashion that enables heat exchange between organisms.

ORGAN SYSTEMS   

Excretory system: gets rid of metabolic wastes. Skeletal system: provides structural support for body. Endocrine system: produces hormones for growth, development and reproduction.

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Circulatory system: pumps and carries blood throughout the body. Immune system: defends the body from foreign objects and organisms. Integumentary system: creates a protective barrier between the body and the environment. Lymphatic system: deals with excess water from the excretory system and provides places for the storage of the lymphocytes. Digestive system: breaks down food and absorbs nutrient and eliminates wastes. Nervous system: sends and receives signals from the environments and controls all the bodily functions. Respiratory system: exchanges gases (mainly O2, H2O and CO2) with the environment. Reproductive system: produces gametes and provides organs for fetal development in females.

Notes

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Blastula is a ball of cells that goes through a process called gastrulation and produces a gatrula. The Gastrula has three parts to it endoderm, ectoderm and sometimes mesoderm. Before the final stages of gastrulation take places the cells are 'told' weather they are going to become ectoderms, mesoderms or enoderms. The ectoderm forms the brain, nerves and spinal chord and skin. The mesoderms form the internal organs and the skletons.

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***most protostomes and deuterostomes have three germ layers.

THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM The skin is and up of three types of epithelial tissues. a. columnar epithelial tissue:

b. cuboidal epithelial tissue:

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c.squamous epithelial tissue:

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM There are two types of circulatory systems: a. Open Circulatory Systems are circulatory systems where all the bodily fluids are dumped into one cavity inside the organism. Some mollusks and arthropods have this kind of a circulatory system. These creatures do not posses blood. Instead they have hemolymph which is a mixture of blood, lymph and byproducts. This hemolymph is dumped into a cavity and then drained through the porous layers of the cavity. The hemolymph helps transport nutrients throughout the body. b. Closed Circulatory System are circulatory systems where the blood and the bodily fluids stay in the vascular tubes. These organisms have hemoglobin which is four proteins held together by a Fe or iron molecule. The Blood The human body has 4.2-5.4 million cells per µl (micro liter). There are three types of cells in blood. a. RBCs (RedBloodCells): these are the cells that carry oxygen and carbohydrates throughout the body. These are the most common type of blood cells in the body. b. Platelets: these are cells that are no longer functional and are essential in the clotting of blood. c. WBCs(WhiteBloodCells): there are five types of white blood cells.White blood cells or leukocytes are cells of the immune system defending the body against both infectious disease and foreign materials. Several different and diverse types of leukocytes exist, but they are all produced and derived from a multi potent cell in the bone marrow. Leukocytes are found throughout the body, including the blood.  Neurophils: these are phagocycotic cells that eat harmful bacteria by engulfing them.  Eosynaphils: these cells respond to the presence of proteins. They multiply rapidly in an allergic reaction to fight and overwhelm the unwanted proteins.  Basophils: these prevent unnecessary clotting. They prevent clotting by producing heparin. Heparin reduces your ability to clot and increases your ability to break down clots. They also produce histamine. Histamine contracts the affected tissue and pushes the fluids into the neighboring tissues and there by causes swelling.  Lympocytes: these responds and attack specific ©Narendran Sairam, Rajat Goyal and Steven Kraplin

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antigens or proteins. Every antigen has its own antibody so that every time the organism is exposed to the antigen the antibody reacts and annihilates the antigen. Monocytes: these circulate in blood for a day and produce macrophages(largest WBCs) that eat and destroy everything it their path including cells and bacteria. The Heart The heart is an organ that pumps the blood to the body. The blood leads away from the heart in arteries. These tubes are big enough to be seen with a naked eye. As the go deeper and farther away from the heart the size down and become arterioles. These arterioles go into the capillaries where the exchange of nutrients takes place. Then the deoxygenized blood goes into the ventrioles and then in to the veins and then finally back to the heart where the blood is pumped to the lungs for exchange.

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM This system returns fluids to the circulatory system. It originates in ones endpoints like the tips of fingers and toes. Therefore they are present in all parts of ones body. The Circulatory system looses water through the capillaries. Since not all of the water is regained the extra fluids are picked up by the lymphatic system are emptied into veins near the heart. The fluid carried by the lymphatic system is called lymph. The lymph goes through lymph nodes that filer the lymph by using phagocycotic cells and organisms. The lymphocytes are stored in the spleen, the tonsils and the thalamus glands. IMMUNE SYSTEM The immune system give two different kinds of responses: specific and non-specific.  Nonspecific response: the infection is kept out of ones body by barriers like the skin. The other pores in ones body are lined with mucus to purify the entering substances. Nonspecific response also occurs at a cellular level. These responses are initiated by phagocycotic cells. NK cells: these are Natural Killer cells that respond to any cells that have been altered. Heal(all metabolization) + redness(RBC) + fluid(capillaries expand)= inflammation  Specific response of the immune system to a foreign particles is initiated by antigens. The antibodies bind to the antigen that are usually proteins. There are two types of antibodies:  B cells: these cells become plasma cells in the Bone Marrow. This produces a bit of E.R and ribosomes. The plasma cells produce antibodies that are released into the body.  T cells: these cells are called T-cells because they are produced in the Thymus glands.There are three types of T-cells:

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Cytotoxic: these recognize any cells that have been altered. These have antibodies on the surface that produce perfarin to penetrate the membrane of the antigen. This process slows the reproduction of the pathogens or antibodies.  Helper: these cells also recognize the altered cells and signal to intiate the production of the B-cells and the cytotoxic T-cells. These are the cells that are first invaded by HIV.  Suppressor: these T-cells stop the production of the Tcells and the B-cells. If a person has an organ transplant then the immune system rejects the organ. This rejection can be reduced in two ways: 1. matching the donors and the recipient: blood is take from both and the Histocompability is consulted. 2. The reduction of the specific immune system. 

In the 1769 Edward Jenner observed that women who milked cows did not get small pox. Cow pox exposed people did not get small pox. He was the first person to introduce a vaccination. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM There are some requirements for the exchange of gases:  surface must be moist. Gases dissolve in a liquid before entering the membrane by diffusion.  The epithelial cells must be extremely thin in order to facilitate diffusion.  The surface itself must be thin. The lungs are contained in an air tight and water tight sac called the pleura. The esophagus is the only hole through the diaphragm. As the diaphragm contracts the ribcage expands and the pleura expands allowing the air to rush into the lungs. When the diaphragm expands the ribcage contracts and the pleura contracts pushing the air out of the lungs. THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The digestive system performs the following functions; Ingestion Digestion Absorption ©Narendran Sairam, Rajat Goyal and Steven Kraplin

Elimination The digestive system follows the tube inside a tube structure

Body wall Coelom

Digestive tract

Ectotherm makes up body wall. Endotherm makes up digestive tract. Mesoderm makes up organs in the coelom. Path of Food Inside an Earthworm Mouth-Pharynx-Esophagus-Crop(storage sac)-Gizzard(muscular organ that grinds food)-IntestineAnus. Path of Food inside a Vertebrate Mouth-Pharynx-Esophagus- Small Intestine- Large Intestine-Anus. Human Digestion Mouth: Mechanical and chemical digestion takes place here. The mechanical digestion occurs with help of the teeth, tongue and jaw muscles. Mammals have four types of teeth: Incisors;Canines;Premolar;Molar. Once the food is ground, saliva and other juices are mixed with the it. Pharynx & Esophagus: Serve as tubes to transport food. The food is taken to your stomach, through the esophagus, by a series of contractions by the tube. This process is called peristalsis and the food, while in the esophagus, is called bolus. Sphincter Muscle: A muscle at the end of the esophagus that relaxes to let the food pass through it into the stomach. ©Narendran Sairam, Rajat Goyal and Steven Kraplin

Stomach: The stomach perform these functions: a. mix food with the gastric juices. b. Churns the food. The food comes in through the sphincter muscle and forces the stomach to expand. The gastric glands in the stomach produce HCl (Hydro-Chloric acid) and pepsinogen. The HCl denatures proteins in the food. In the presence of HCl and Pepsigen becomes active and is called pepsin. Pepsin shortens the proteins that are denatured by HCl. When the food leaves the stomach it is called chyme. The chyme passes through the pyloric sphincter at the end of the stomach and goes into the small intestine. Small Intestine: The inside of the small intestine looks like fur since it is covered with tiny hair like projections. These increase the surface area for the absorption of nutrients. The small intestine receives bile and enzymes. The bile reduces the fats into tiny droplets in a process called emulsifying. The enzymes actually break down the fats and proteins. Almost all the nutrients absorbed by the digestive system are absorbed by the small intestine. Large Intestine: The large intestine is considerably larger than the small intestine. The undigested chyme passes through the large intestine. The large intestine absorbs water and sodium from the chyme. Then the useless chyme is eliminated. EXCRETORY SYSTEM(RAJAT GOYAL) 2 primary functions: •

Osmoregulation-regulates water

•

Removal of metabolic wastes

Osmosis: Diffusion of water from a high point of concentration to low concentration point. Osmotic Potential: Amount of salt in water

Osmosis occurs in order of the osmotic potential, because the amount of water is the same on both sides of the membrane. Metabolic wastes:

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Nitrogen wastes  ammonia, urea, uric acid

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Carbon Dioxide wastes(CO2) wastes

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Water(H2O) Wastes

Ammonia (NH4) is highly toxic so it is converted into urea or uric acid.

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o

Uric acid is crystallized form of urea

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Uric acid is produced by reptiles birds, and insects

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Animals that live in hot and dry regions need to convert urea into uric acid to conserve water.

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Endotherms produce their own hear, so therefore they have lots of cells that produce things and therefore endotherms have more waste products. Endotherms deal with more nitrogenous waste.

LAB WORK (Steven Kraplin) Mylohyoid: moves floor of mouth during respiration Rectus Abdominus: holds the sternum and viscera in place Pectoralis: moves forelimbs External Oblique: constricts abdomen and holds viscera in place

Ventral Surface Thigh Triceps femoris-adducts thigh, extends leg Sartorius-flexes leg,adducts thigh Gracilis major-adducts thight, flexes leg Gracilis minor-adducts thigh, flexes leg Lower leg Gastrocnemius-flexes leg, extends foot Tibialis anticus-extends leg, flexes foot

Dorsal Surface Thigh Triceps femoris-adducts thigh, extends leg Semimembranosus- adducts thigh, flexes leg Gracilis minor-adducts thigh, flexes leg ©Narendran Sairam, Rajat Goyal and Steven Kraplin

Lower leg Gastrocnemius-flexes leg, extends foot Peroneus-extends leg Tibialis anticus-extends leg, flexes foot Muscles Origin: End of muscle attached to the stationary Insertion: End of muscle attached to bone that moves, usually distal. Flexor: Muscle that bends a part Extensor: Muscle that straightens a part. Adductor: Muscle that moves a part toward the midline. Abductor: Muscle that moves a part away from the midline. PECTORAL AND PELVIC GRIDLES Table Of Comparisons of Animal Bones.

Pectoral

Perch

Frog

Turtle

Bird

Cat

Scapula

Fused to the coracoids.

The scapula seems to be well protected inside the shell.

Scapula is parallel to the back bone of the bird.

Scapula is very prominent.

Sternum

Absent

Easily spot able in frog. Extended to be called the superscapula. Connected to the scapula.

Absent

Fused to the ribs to aid in protection of the internal organs.

Humerus

Absent

Joined to the coradoids.

Protected inside shell. Kind of bent.

Connected to the corcoids.

Radius

Absent

Standard

Standard

Ulna

Absent

Standard

Standard

Elongated

Carpals

Absent

Fused to the Ulna Fused to the Radius Normal

Is structured a lot like a human Sternum. Connected to the scapula. Elongated Elongated

Standard

Normal

Metacarpals

Absent

A little longer than normal.

normal

Only two are present as bones. The others are either absent or fused to some other bone. Called carpometacarpus.

Phalanges Clavicle

Absent Absent

normal Readily seen

Normally structured. Absent

Only one in each wing. Absent

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Raised in a way as to help the jumping and running.

Tiny bones no connected to any other bones.

Pelvic

Frog

Turtle

Bird

Cat

Perch

Ischium Ilium Pubis Femur Tibia Fibula

Prominently seen Prominently seen Normal ‘Typical’ Fused to the fibula to form the tibiofibula

Standard

Present

Completely normal

Absent

Fairly Normal

Called tibiotarsus

Tarsals Metatarsals Phalanges

Absent Elongated to provide a large surface area to push off while swimming and jumping.

Fused to the tibiotarsus Absent Make up the foot.

VOCABULARY(Rajat Goyal)

Definition Words 1. Domain 2. Prokaryotic Cell 3. Eukaryotic Cell 4.Eukarya 5.Archaeabacteria (Archae) 6. Eebacteria (bacteria) 7. Plasmid 8.Cytoplasm 9. Hydrophobic 10. Flagella 11. Cell Wall 12. Plasma Membrane 13. Ribosome

Any of three divisions of living systems, consisting of the eukaryotes, bacteria, and archaea. These cells have no nuclear envelope, no nucleus, and they have plasmids. They are 1-10 nanometers in size (10 times smaller then eukaryotic cells) and they rarely have internal membrane structures. They also have a simple cytoskeleton. These cells do have a nuclear envelope, and also have a nucleus. They are 5-100 nanometers in size (10 times larger then prokaryotic cells) These cells also have very complex cytoskeletons. One of three domains, on the evolutionary tree they are the last and most developed organisms, they are eukaryotes, fungi, plants and animals. One of three domains, on the evolutionary tree these were the second kind of organisms and contain prokaryotes. One of three domains, on the evolutionary tree these were the first kind of organisms and contain prokaryotes. Circular pieces of DNA, it makes bacteria adaptable. Gelatinous substance within cell. Repels water Whip like processes used for locomotion in some microorganisms. The rigid outermost cell layer found in plants cells but not animal cells. Encloses the cytoplasm in a cell, found in both animal and plant cells. A cell structure that is not membrane bound. It is the site of protein synthesis within a cel

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14. Centrioles 15. Chloroplast 16. Chromosomes 17. Diffusion 18. Osmosis 19. Hydrophilic 20. Phospholipid Bilayer 21. Protein 22. Carbohydrate 23. Cytoskeleton 24. Channel Protein 25. Transport Protein 26. Sodium-potassium Pump 27. Membrane 28. Membrane Proteins

29. Phospholipid 30. Fats 31. Lysosomes 32. Cell 33. Plant Cell

34. Animal Cell 35. Nucleolus 36. Cell Wall 37. Enzymes

One of two cylindrical cellular structures that are composed of nine triplet microtubules and form the asters during mitosis. Site of photosynthesis in plant cells. A threadlike linear strand of DNA and associated proteins in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells that carries the genes and functions in the transmission of hereditary information. The transport of matter from one point to another by random molecular motions. It occur in gases, liquids, and solids. Diffusion of water through membrane. Attracts water Composed of two layers of phospholipids positioned such that their polar hydrophilic heads face outward and their nonpolar hydrophobic tails are directed inward, blocking entry of water and water-soluble material into the cell. Are integral, meaning bound to the hydrophobic interior of the membrane, or peripheral, meaning not bound in this way. Any of a group of organic compounds that includes sugars, starches, celluloses. The internal framework of a cell composed largely of actin filaments and microtubules. Protein forming an aqueous pore spanning the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane which when open allows certain solutes to traverse the membrane. Is a protein involved in the movement of ions, small molecules, or macromolecules, such as another protein across a biological membrane. Keeps sodium on one side of your membrane and potassium on the other. Thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separating or connecting regions, structures, or organs of an animal or a plant. Is a protein molecule that is attached to, or associated with the membrane of a cell or an organelle. More than half of all proteins interact with membranes. Membrane proteins can be classified into two groups, based on the strength of their association with the membrane. Any of various phosphorus-containing lipids, such as lecithin and cephalic, that are composed mainly of fatty acids, a phosphate group, and a simple organic molecule. 2 kinds, 1 found in Achaea and the other found in Eukarya/Bacteria Any of various soft, solid, or semisolid organic compounds constituting the esters of glycerol and fatty acids and their associated organic groups. Is a membrane bound organelle that contains digestive enzymes. The smallest structural unit of an organism that is capable of independent functioning, consisting of one or more nuclei, cytoplasm, and various organelles, all surrounded by a cell membrane. Contain Chloroplasts and Cell walls which animal cells do not. Also contain nuclear envelope, nucleolus, chromatin rough E.R., Smoot E.R., ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, vacuole (lysosomes), peroxisome, mitochondrion, plasma membrane, and a cytoskeleton element. Contain centrioles which plant cells do not. Also contain nuclear envelope, nucleolus, chromatin rough E.R., Smoot E.R., ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, vacuole (lysosomes), peroxisome, mitochondrion, plasma membrane, and a cytoskeletal element. A small, typically round granular body composed of protein and RNA in the nucleus of a cell. It is usually associated with a specific chromosomal site and involved in ribosomal RNA synthesis and the formation of ribosomes. Rigid shell that is not found on animal cells. Bring things closer together by bringing them in smaller amounts of space. Enzymes have a binding cite for all molecules it has to bring together.

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38. Mono-unsaturated Fats 39. Saturated Fat 40. Endoplasmic Reticulum (E.R.) 41. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (E.R.) 42. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (E.R.) 43. Golgi Apparatus 44. Cisface 45. Transface 46. Mitochondrion 47. Krebs Cycle 48. Glycolysis 49. Actin 50. Polymerization 51. Cytoplasmic Streaming 52. Intermediate Filaments 53. Keratin 54. Lamin 55. Microtubules 56. Tissue 57. Organ 58. Organ System 59. Multicellular 60. Connective Tissue 61.Cartilage 62. Blood 63. Nervous Tissue 64. Neurons 65.Muscle Tissue 66.Muscle Fiber 67. Striated Muscles 68.Cardiac Muscle 69. Epithelia Gland

Fats that is good for you. A fat, most often of animal origin, that is solid at room temperature and whose fatty acid chains cannot incorporate additional hydrogen atoms. An excess of these fats in the diet i thought to raise the cholesterol level in the bloodstream. Makes proteins and lipids which exports throughout cell. Regulates calcium and ion concentration. Synthesis of membrane phospholipids. It also makes lipids. Site of protein synthesis. Exports large quantities of proteins(ribosomes)

Involved in creation of lysosomes Receives transport vesicles from E.R. Closer to plasma membrane the E.R. It packages molecules into vesicles and transports them to the Golgi apparatus. Creates energy by producing ATP. A series of enzymatic reactions in aerobic organisms involving oxidative metabolism of acetyl units and producing high-energy phosphate compounds, which serve as the main source of cellular energy. An ATP-generating metabolic process that occurs in nearly all living cells in which glucose is converted in a series of steps to pyruvic acid. A protein found in muscle that together with myosin functions in muscle contraction. Formation of anything that has repeated units in it. Flow of cytoplasm specific to plants and fungi Any of several classes of cell-specific cytoplasmic filaments of 8-12 nanometers in diameter; protein composition varies from one cell type to another. Tough, insoluble protein substance that is the chief structural constituent of hair, nails, horns, and hooves. Fibrous proteins having structural function in the cell nucleus. Cylindrical hollow structures that are distributed throughout the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells, providing structural support and assisting in cellular locomotion and transport. A collection of cells working together. A differentiated part of an organism, such as an eye, wing, or leaf, that performs a specifi function. A group of organs in the human body that work together to carry out a vital bodyfunction. Consisting of more than one cell Cells closely arranged in a liquid, jelly like, or sold extra cellular matrix. A connection tissue with a firmer extra cellular matrix. It works with the bones to provide structure. Connective tissue that has cells surrounded by plasma. Tissue consisting of nerve cells or neurons Nerve cells that deliver electromagnetic signals Made up of fibers that contract A cylindrical, multinucleate cell composed of numerous myofibrils that contracts when stimulated. Moves the skeleton. Makes up the wall of the heart

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70. Metabolic Rate 71.Basal Metabolic Rate 72.Homeostatis 73. Thermoregulation 74. Endotherm 75. Ectotherm 76. Homeotherm 77. Hetereotherm 78. Torpor 79. Hibernation 80. Allometry

81. Immune System 82. Circulatory System 83.Respiratory System 84. Lymphatic System 85. Digestive System 86. Skeletal System 87. Muscular System 88. Endocrine System 89. Excretory System 90. Reproductive System 91. Integumentary System 92. Nervous System 93. Red Blood Cells (RBC) 94. White Blood Cells (WBC) 95. Cephalopods

Overall rate of energy consumed by an organism Amount of oxygen taken in by an organism while at rest with an empty stomach at norma condition. Is the relatively constant chemical and physical conditions in a n animal cell Maintenance of a constant internal body temperature independent from the environmenta temperature An organism that generates heat to maintain its body temperature, typically above the temperature of its surroundings Organism that regulates its body temperature largely by exchanging heat with its surroundings Maintaining a relatively constant and warm body temperature independent of environmental temperature of animals except birds and mammals; having body temperature that varies with the environment A state of mental or physical inactivity or insensibility. Condition of dormancy and torpor found in cold-blooded vertebrates and invertebrates. The study of the change in proportion of various parts of an organism as a consequence o growth.

Defends against foreign objects and organisms Pumps and carries blood throughout the body Exchanges gases (mainly O2, CO2 and H2O) with the environment Deals with access water from circulatory system, also produces and stores lymphocytes Breaks down food and absorbs nutrients and eliminates waste. Provides structural support for body Allows movement of body and heart. Makes hormones for growth, development, and reproduction Gets rid of metabolic waste. Produces gametes and provides organs for fetal development in a female. Creates protective barrier between the body and its environment Sends and receives signals from the environment. Controls all bodily functions. A cell in the blood of vertebrates that transports oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the tissues. In mammals, the red blood cell is disk-shaped and biconcave, contains hemoglobin, and lacks a nucleus. Any of various blood cells that have a nucleus and cytoplasm, separate into a thin white layer when whole blood is centrifuged, and help protect the body from infection and disease. White blood cells include neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes. Any of various marine mollusks of the class. They include octopus, squid, cuttlefish, or nautilus.

96. Echinoderms

Any of numerous radially symmetrical marine invertebrates of the phylum Echinodermata, which includes the sea star, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers

97. Annelids

Any of various worms or wormlike animals of the phylum Annelida, characterized by an elongated, cylindrical, segmented body and including the earthworm and leech. Four proteins held together by on iron atom.

98. Hemoglobin

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99. Platelets 100. Eosinophils 101. Basophils 102.Anti Histamines 103. Axis 104. Anterior 105. Posterior 106. Cranial 107. Rostral 108. Cephalic 109. Caudal 110. Dorsal 111. Ventral 112. Lateral 113. Medial 114. Proximal 115. Distal 116. Appendage 117. Ipsi 118. Contra 119. Superficial 120. Deep 121. Intermediate 122. Visceral 123. Longitudinal Axis 124. Transverse Axis 125. Anterior End 126. Posterior End 127. Opical End 128.Oral End 129. Aboral End 130. Superior End 131.Inferior End 132. Anterior 133.Posterior 134.Peripheral 135. Centeral 136. Saggital Plane 137. Coronal (frontal) Plane 138. Transverse Plane 139. Anemia 140. Phagocytotic 141.Cell Theory

Gives pigment in skin. Essential in blood clotting and forms the clot. Respond to presence of protein that does not belong in your system. Fights foreign proteins in your system. Prevent inappropriate clotting (inside the circulatory system) by producing heparin. Produces histamine. Reduces swelling, histamine is a haling mechanism. It is defined by each pair of opposite ends Before (rostal or cranial) After (Caudial=tail) Skull Beak Head Tail Back Abdomen To the side Middle Nearest To stand away from A structure that extends from main body Self/Same Against Surface Farther from superficial parts Between two other structures (inter, between and medius, middle) organs within the body's cavities Defined by points at the opposite ends of the organism. Defined by points on opposite sides of the organism. The end that usually points in the direction of the organism's locomotion Opposite of anterior end End farthest away from bascal end. The end of the organism with the mouth Opposite oral end The head end The feet Front end Back Farthest away from the attachment, related to appendages Closest to attachment, related to appendages Divides body into left and right parts. Divides body into anterior and posterior ends. Also known as an axial plane or cross-section, divides the body into cranial and caudal (head and tail) portions. Disease when you do not have enough red blood cells When a cell engulfs another thing to eat them. 1. All life is made up of cells

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2. Cells are the structural and functional units of an organism 3. All cells come from other cells 142.Schleiden 143.Schwann

Zoologist Botanist

Words

Definition

147. Fat Bodies

Spaghetti shaped structures that have a bright orange or yellow color, if you have a particularly fat frog, these fat bodies may need to be removed to see the other structures. Usually they are located just on the inside of the abdominal wall. A spider web like membrane that covers many of the organs, you may have to carefully pick it off to get a clear view The largest structure of the body cavity. This brown colored organ is composed of three parts, or lobes. The right lobe, the left anterior lobe, and the left posterior lobe. The liver is not primarily an organ of digestion; it does secrete a digestive juice called bile. Bile is needed for the proper digestion of fats. At the top of the liver, the heart is a triangular structure. The left and right atrium can be found at the top of the heart. A single ventricle located at the bottom of the heart. The large vessel extending out from the heart is the conus arteriosis. Locate the lungs by looking underneath and behind the heart and liver. They are two spongy organs. Lift the lobes of the liver, there will be a small green sac under the liver. This is the gall bladder, which stores bile. Curving from underneath the liver is the stomach. The stomach is the first major site of chemical digestion. Frogs swallow their meals whole. Follow the stomach to where it turns into the small intestine. The pyloric sphincter valve regulates the exit of digested food from the stomach to the small intestine. Leading from the stomach. The first straight portion of the small intestine is called the duodenum; the curled portion is the ileum. The ileum is held together by a membrane called the mesentery. Note the blood vessels running through the mesentery; they will carry absorbed nutrients away from the intestine. Absorption of digested nutrients occurs in the small intestine. As you follow the small intestine down, it will widen into the large intestine. The large intestine is also known as the cloaca in the frog. The cloaca is the last stop before wastes, sperm, or urine exit the frog's body. (The word "cloaca" means sewer) Return to the folds of the mesentery, this dark red spherical object serves as a holding area for blood. Return to the stomach and follow it upward, where it gets smaller is the beginning of the esophagus. The esophagus is the tube that leads from the frog’s mouth to the stomach. Open the frog’s mouth and find the esophagus, poke your probe into it and see where it leads. 1 of the 3 parts of a frogs heart 1 of the 3 parts of a frogs heart 1 of the 3 parts of a frogs heart The common cavity into which the intestinal, genital, and urinary tracts open in

148. Peritoneum 149.Liver

150.Heart 151.Lungs 152.Gall Bladder 153.Stomach

154.Small Intestine

155.Large Intestine 156.Spleen 157.Esophagus

158. Right Lobe 159. Left anterior Lobe 160.Left Posterior Lobe 161. Cloaca

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vertebrates such as fish, reptiles, birds, and some primitive mammals. 162. Mesentery 163. Duodenum 164. Ileum 165. Pyloric sphincter valve 166. Conus arteriosis 167. Ventricle

168. Left atrium

169. Right atrium

170. Anus 171. Arteries 172. Lymphocytes 173. Monocytes 174. Perforins 175. Lymph node

176. Spleen 177. Natural killer cells 178. Mucus 179. Alveolus 180. Edward Jenner

The posterior part of the intestinal tract in various invertebrates. Any of several folds of the peritoneum that connect the intestines to the dorsal abdominal wall, especially such a fold that envelops the jejunum and ileum. The beginning portion of the small intestine, starting at the lower end of the stomach and extending to the jejunum. The terminal portion of the small intestine extending from the jejunum to the cecum. Regulates the exit of digested food from the stomach to the small intestine. The large vessel extending out from the heart The chamber on the left side of the heart that receives arterial blood from the left atrium and contracts to force it into the aorta. The chamber on the right side of the heart that receives venous blood from the right atrium and forces it into the pulmonary artery. Can be found at the top of the heart. The left upper chamber of the heart that receives blood from the pulmonary veins. The left atrium is one of the four chambers in the human heart. It receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins, and pumps it into the left ventricle. Can be found at the top of the heart. The right upper chamber of the heart that receives blood from the vena cava and coronary sinus. The right atrium is one of four chambers (two atria and two ventricles) in the human heart. It receives de-oxygenated blood from the superior and inferior vena cava and the coronary sinus, and pumps it into the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve. The large intestine leads to this part Any of the muscular elastic tubes that form a branching system and that carry blood away from the heart to the cells, tissues, and organs of the body. Any of the nearly colorless cells found in the blood, lymph, and lymphoid tissues, constituting approximately 25 percent of white blood cells and including B cells, which function in humoral immunity, and T cells, which function in cellular immunity. A large, circulating, phagocytic white blood cell, having a single well-defined nucleus and very fine granulation in the cytoplasm. Monocytes constitute from 3 to 8 percent of the white blood cells in humans. A protein in killer cells and natural killer cells that causes lysis of target cells on contact. Any of the small bodies located along the lymphatic vessels, particularly at the neck, armpit, and groin, that filter bacteria and foreign particles from lymph fluid. During infection, lymph nodes may become swollen with activated lymphocytes. Also called lymph gland. Organ found withen the mesentry that stores blood. NK cells is their abbreviation. A lymphocyte that is activated by double-stranded RNA or lymphokines and fights off viral infections and tumors without evident antigenic specificity. Prevents bacteria from multiplying. It is clean and watery. Openings in your body are covered with mucus. Surface is thin. Exchange of Oxygen and CO2 happens here. In 1769 observed that women who milked cow from a early age did not get small pox, but did get cow pox. Cowpox was not fatal. He used this as a vaccination through villages and

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181. Vaccination 182. Antigen 183. Esophagus 184. Venule 185. Bronchiole 186. External Oblique 187. Pharynx 188.Nasal Cavity 189.Epiglottis 190. Larynx 191. Trachea 192. Glottis 193. Cytotoxic T Cells 194.Suppressor T Cells 195.Helper T Cells 196. T Cells 197. Epithelial Cell 198. Aorta 199. Mylohyoid 200.Rectus Abdominus 201.Pectoralis 202.Active transport 203. Alveolus 204. Anus 205. appendicular skeleton 206. Arm(microscope) 207. ATP 208. Atrium 209. Autotroph

had young people milk cows and this way they would not catch small pox and therefore not die. He also coined the work Vaccination Vaccination is the use of vaccines to prevent specific diseases. Vacca means Cow in Italian. Word coined by Edward Jenner. A substance that when introduced into the body stimulates the production of an antibody. Antigens include toxins, bacteria, foreign blood cells, and the cells of transplanted organs. The muscular membranous tube for the passage of food from the pharynx to the stomach; the gullet. A small vein, especially one joining capillaries to larger veins. Any of the fine, thin-walled, tubular extensions of a bronchus. Constricts abdomen and holds viscera in place. The section of the alimentary canal that extends from the mouth and nasal cavities to the larynx, where it becomes continuous with the esophagus. Either of a pair of cavities separated by a septum and located between the nasopharynx and anterior nares. The thin elastic cartilaginous structure located at the root of the tongue that folds over the glottis to prevent food and liquid from entering the trachea during the act of swallowing. The part of the respiratory tract between the pharynx and the trachea, having walls of cartilage and muscle and containing the vocal cords enveloped in folds of mucous membrane. A thin-walled, cartilaginous tube descending from the larynx to the bronchi and carrying air to the lungs. Also called windpipe. The opening between the vocal cords at the upper part of the larynx. Recognize any cell that has been altered by antigens. Opposite of Helper T cells. Suppreser T Cells stop the production of cytotoxic T Cells and B cells. No one knows how this is done Recognize the altered cells and signal to the production of B cells and cytotoxic T cells. Any of the lymphocytes that mature in the thymus and have the ability to recognize specific peptide antigens through the receptors on their cell surface. Also called T lymphocyte. There are 3 types, Helper T cells, Suppressor T cells and Cytotoxic T cells. Form the epithelial tissue that lines both the inner and outer surfaces of the body; serve a protective function and also aid in absorption and secretion. The main trunk of the systemic arteries, carrying blood from the left side of the heart to the arteries of all limbs and organs except the lungs. Moves floor of mouth during respiration. Hold the sternum and viscera in place Moves forelimbs Transport against the concentration gradient. Example pumps. Ball filled with capillaries in the lungs. They are found at the ends of the bronchioles. They are also called air sacs. They are the site of the exchange of gasses. An opening through which feces are pushed out. Part of the skeleton that includes the pectoral and the pelvic griddle. Excludes the bones of the trunk. Essentially the backbone of a microscope. Result of respiration. Produced by chloroplasts and mitochondrion. Also known as Adenosine Triphosphate. One of the chambers of the heart that receives oxygenated blood from the lungs. Organism that manufactures its own food.

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210. axial skeleton 211.Bird heart 212. Blastula 213. Bronchioles 214. Bronchus 215. Calvin cycle 216. Canaculi 217.Canines 218. Capillary 219. Salivary Glands 220. Liver 221. Pancreas 222. Gall Bladder 223. Carpal 224. cell wall 225. cilia 226. clavicle 227. cloaca 228. Closed circulatory system 229. Conus arteriosus 230. Cristae 231. Dark reaction 232. Dermis 233. diaphragm 234. elimination 235.epidermis 236. epiglottis 237. Esophagus 238. Eustachian tubes 239. excretion 240. External carotid artery 241. External oblique 242. Extracellular matrix

The frame work of what is referred to as the bones of the trunk(torso). Includes ribs and sternum. Basically the skull the bones in the chest and the vertebrate. 4 chambered heart. The hollow ball of cells that goes through gastrulation to form a gastrula. Sub-divisions of the bronchi. These lead to the alveoli. Sub-division of the trachea or the wind pipe. There are two of these, each one leading into its own lung. Takes place in the stroma in the Chloroplast. Also called the light- independent reaction or the dark reaction. one of the pointed conical teeth located between the incisors and the first bicuspids. The smallest blood vessel in the body. So small that only one can pass through it at once. Molecules diffuse through its thin membrane and get absorbed by the surrounding tissues. Glands in the mouth that secrete saliva in order to begin chemical digestion of starches. Produces bile which emulsifies fats in the small intestine. Excess bile is stored in the gall bladder. Produces enzymes that aid in chemical digestion in the small intestine. Stores excess bile that is secreted by the liver. Bones that constitute the wrist. To do with the carpus(wrist) Found only in plant cells. Provides rigid structure and protection. Short hair-like structures on a cell or microorganism, the movement of which aids mobility of the cell and transfer of materials across its surface. The collar bone. The large intestine and a passage used for eliminating fecal, urinary and reproductive discharges. A vascular system in which the body fluids stay inside the tubes at all times. A pouch above the right ventricle from which the pulmonary artery rises. (singular crista) The multiply-folded inner membrane of a cell's mitochondrion that are finger-like projections. The walls of the cristae are the site of the cell's energy production (it is where ATP is generated). Also know as the Calvins cycle. Inner layer of the skin The thin muscle below the lungs and heart that separates the chest from the abdomen. The getting rid of metabolic wastes after digestion. The top layer of the skin. The flap that closes over the glottis so that the food does not get in to the respiratory system. The food pipe. A pipe that transports food to the stomach. A tube that leads to the stomach. The dumping of wastes out side the body. the branch of the carotid artery that supplies blood to the face and tongue and external parts of the head The external oblique muscle (of the abdomen) (also external abdominal oblique muscle) is the largest and the most superficial (outermost) of the three flat muscles of the lateral anterior abdomen. Basically a muscle in your tummy. The Extracellular matrix (ECM) is the extracellular part of animal tissue that usually provides structural support to the cells in addition to performing various other important functions.

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243. Femur 244. Fibula 245. Fish heart 246. gastrulation 247. glottis 248. Gracilis major 249. Heart 250. The hepatic portal system 251.Heterotroph 252. Hormone 253. Humerus 254. Hypodermis 255. Iliac Artery 256. Ilium 257. incisors 258. internal carotid artery 259. ion pump 260. ischium 261. Kidney 262. Lacunae 263. larynx 264. ligament 265. light reaction 266. lung 267. lymph

268. lymph node 269.lymphatic System 270.lymphocyte 271.lysosome 272.macrophages

Thigh bone. The calf bone. Three chambered heart. The process through which the blastula changes into a gatrula. The opening into the wind pipe. A frog leg muscle. Flexes leg and adducts thigh. Organ that pumps blood to the entire body. a group of veins that carry blood from the capillaries of the stomach, intestine, spleen, and pancreas to the sinusoids of the liver An organism that does not make its own food. the secretion of an endocrine gland that is transmitted by the blood to the tissue on which it has a specific effect bone extending from the shoulder to the elbow A tissue or layer of cells beneath the epidermis. One of the large arteries supplying blood to the pelvic region and legs.

The broad, upper portion of either hipbone. A tooth adapted for cutting or gnawing, located at the front of the mouth along the apex of the dental arch. the branch of the carotid artery that supplies blood to the brain and eyes and internal parts of the head These are modes of active transport. They move the ions against the concentration gradient. The lowest of the three major bones that constitute each half of the pelvis

One of a pair of organs in the body which remove waste matter from the blood and produce urine. One of the numerous minute cavities in the substance of bone. A muscular and cartilaginous structure lined with mucous membrane at the upper part of the trachea in humans, in which the vocal cords are located. a band of tissue, usually white and fibrous, serving to connect bones, hold organs in place, etc.

The photosynthetic reaction that takes place in the chloroplasts of plants ( only in the presence of light.) either of the two saclike respiratory organs in the thorax of humans and the higher vertebrates. a clear yellowish, slightly alkaline, coagulable fluid, containing white blood cells in a liquid resembling blood plasma, that is derived from the tissues of the body and conveyed to the bloodstream by the lymphatic vessels. any of the glandlike masses of tissue in the lymphatic vessels containing cells that become lymphocytes. Deals with access water from circulatory system, also produces and stores lymphocytes a type of white blood cell having a large, spherical nucleus surrounded by a thin layer of nongranular cytoplasm. a cell organelle containing enzymes that digest particles and that disintegrate the cell after its death. Any of various large white blood cells that play an essential immunologic role in vertebrates and some lower organisms by eliminating cellular debris and particulate antigens, including bacteria, through phagocytosis. Macrophages develop from circulating monocytes that migrate from the blood into tissues throughout the body, especially the spleen, liver, lymph nodes, lungs, brain, and connective tissue. Macrophages also participate in the immune response by producing and responding to inflammatory

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273. mammalian heart 274. matrix 275. mechanical stage

276.membrane 278.mesoderm 279.metacarpal 280.metatarsal 281.microfilament 282.microtubule 283.mitochondrion 284.molars 285.mouth

cytokines. A 4 chamber heart. the intercellular substance of a tissue. a stage on a compound microscope equipped with a mechanical device for moving a slide lengthwise and crosswise or for registering the slide's position by vernier for future exact repositioning a thin, pliable sheet or layer of animal or vegetable tissue, serving to line an organ, connect parts, etc. the middle germ layer of a metazoan embryo. Any of the bones of the metacarpus. Any of the bones of the metatarsus. Microfilaments are the thinnest filaments of the cytoskeleton found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. Cylindrical hollow structures that are distributed throughout the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells, providing structural support and assisting in cellular locomotion and transport. Creates energy by producing ATP. Any of the teeth located toward the back of the jaws, having broad crowns for grinding food. Adult humans have 12 molars. the opening through which an animal or human takes in food. The start of the Digestive System.

286.mRNA Messenger RNA. The form of RNA that mediates the transfer of genetic information from the cell nucleus to ribosomes in the cytoplasm, where it serves as a template for protein synthesis. It is synthesized from a DNA template during the process of transcription. 287.muscle tissue 288.muscular system 289.mylohyoid 290.myosin 291.nares 292.nerve 293.nervous system 294.nervous tissue 295.nictitating membrane 296.NK cells

297.Non-specific immune response 298.Nostrils 299.Nuclear envelope 300.Nuclear pore 301.Nucleoid region

Made up of fibers that contract Allows movement of body and heart. A flat, triangular muscle that forms the floor of the mouth in a frog. the principal contractile protein of muscle. An external opening in the nasal cavity of a vertebrate; a nostril. one or more bundles of fibers forming part of a system that conveys impulses of sensation, motion, etc., between the brain or spinal cord and other parts of the body. Sends and receives signals from the environment. Controls all bodily functions. Tissue consisting of nerve cells or neurons A transparent inner eyelid in birds, reptiles, and some mammals that closes to protect and moisten the eye. Also called third eyelid. Natural Killer Cells. A lymphocyte that is activated by double-stranded RNA or lymphokines and fights off viral infections and tumors without evident antigenic specificity. The opening of your nose when your oxygen intake comes from, it is part of the respitory system. the double membrane surrounding the nucleus within a cell. An octagonal opening where the inner and outer membranes of the nuclear envelope are continuous. area in a prokaryotic cell that contains the genetic material.

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302.Nucleolus

A small round body of protein in a cell nucleus; nucleoli contain rna and are involved in protein synthesis.Part of the nucleus in eukaryotes that is set aside for the production and transcription of rna.

303.Nucleus

a specialized, usually spherical mass of protoplasm encased in a double membrane, and found in most living eukaryotic cells, directing their growth, metabolism, and reproduction, and functioning in the transmission of genic characters. A lens in the microscopes that you see through. The lenses with magnification that you can change.

304.Objective lens 305.Ocular lens 306.Open circulatory system 307.Organ systems 308.Organelle 309.Organs 310.Osmosis 311.Osmotic regulation 312.Outer membrane(3) 313.Ovaries

314.Oviducts 315.Pectoral girdle 316.Pectoralis

317.Pelvic girdle 318.Peroneus 319. Phagocytosis 320. Phalanges 321.Pharynx

322.Phospholipid

323.Phospholipid bilayer

324.Photosynthesis equation 325.Pituitary gland

a specialized part of a cell having some specific function; a cell organ. A differentiated part of an organism, such as an eye, wing, or leaf, that performs a specific function. The regulation of water potential in an organism. One of two small oval bodies situated on either side of the uterus on the posterior surface of the broad ligament. The structures in which the ova (eggs) are developed and released during ovulation. The tubular tract in female animals through which eggs are discharged either to the exterior or, in mammals, to the uterus. either of two muscles on each side of the upper and anterior part of the thorax, the action of the larger (pectoralis major) assisting in drawing the shoulder forward and rotating the arm inward, and the action of the smaller (pectoralis minor) assisting in drawing the shoulder downward and forward. any of several muscles on the outer side of the leg, the action of which assists in extending the foot and in turning it outward. The engulfing and ingestion of bacteria or other foreign bodies by phagocytes. The finger bones (the singular is phalanx). There are three phalanges in each digit, except the thumb which only has two. The cavity at the back of the mouth. It is cone shaped and has an average length of 76 mm and is lined with mucous membrane. The pharynx opens into the esophagus at the lower end. The passage to the stomach and lungs; in the front part of the neck below the chin and above the collarbone. Opens either the larnyx or the esophagus canal. any of a group of fatty compounds, as lecithin, composed of phosphoric esters, and occurring in living cells. a two-layered arrangement of phosphate and lipid molecules that form a cell membrane, the hydrophobic lipid ends facing inward and the hydrophilic phosphate ends facing outward. A small oval endocrine gland attached to the base of the vertebrate brain and consisting of an anterior and a posterior lobe, the secretions of which control the other endocrine glands and influence growth, metabolism, and maturation.

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326.Plasma membrane 327.Plasmid

328.Pleura 329.Premolars 330. prokaryote

331.Prokaryotic 332.Pubis 333.Pulmonary artery 334.Pulmonary circulation 334.Phyloric sphincter 335.Pyruvate(pyruvic acid) 336.Radius 337.Rectus abdominis

338.Renal portal system 339.Reproductive system 340. Reptilian heart 341. Respiration equation 342. Respitory system 343.Rib

344.Ribosome

345.Right atrium 346.Right ventricle 347.Rough ER 348.RNA

349.rRNA

The semipermeable membrane that encloses the cytoplasm of a cell. A segment of DNA independent of the chromosomes and capable of replication, occurring in bacteria and yeast: used in recombinant DNA procedures to transfer genetic material from one cell to another. A delicate serous membrane investing each lung in mammals and folded back as a lining of the corresponding side of the thorax. One of eight bicuspid teeth located in pairs on each side of the upper and lower jaws behind the canines and in front of the molars. any cellular organism that has no nuclear membrane, no organelles in the cytoplasm except ribosomes, and has its genetic material in the form of single continuous strands forming coils or loops, characteristic of all organisms in the kingdom Monera, as the bacteria and blue-green algae. having cells that lack membrane-bound nuclei that part of either innominate bone that, with the corresponding part of the other, forms the front of the pelvis. an artery conveying venous blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs. the circulation of blood from the heart to the lungs for oxygenation and back to the heart. A ring of smooth muscle fibers around the opening of the stomach into the duodenum. an ester or salt of pyruvic acid. the bone of the forearm on the thumb side. a long flat muscle on either side of the linea alba extending along the whole length of the front of the abdomen, arising from the pubic crest and symphysis, inserted into the cartilages of the fifth, sixth, and seventh ribs, and acting to flex the spinal column, tense the anterior wall of the abdomen, and assist in compressing the contents of the abdomen Of, relating to, or in the region of the kidneys. The bodily system of gonads, associated ducts, and external genitals concerned with sexual reproduction. Three chambered heart Exchanges gases (mainly O2, CO2 and H2O) with the environment. one of a series of curved bones that are articulated with the vertebrae and occur in pairs, 12 in humans, on each side of the vertebrate body, certain pairs being connected with the sternum and forming the thoracic wall. a tiny, somewhat mitten-shaped organelle occurring in great numbers in the cell cytoplasm either freely, in small clusters, or attached to the outer surfaces of endoplasmic reticula, and functioning as the site of protein manufacture. the right upper chamber of the heart that receives blood from the venae cavae and coronary sinus the chamber on the right side of the heart that receives venous blood from the right atrium and pumps it into the pulmonary trunk Site of protein synthesis. Exports large quantities of proteins(ribosomes) A polymeric constituent of all living cells and many viruses, consisting of a long, usually single-stranded chain of alternating phosphate and ribose units with the bases adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil bonded to the ribose. The structure and base sequence of RNA are determinants of protein synthesis and the transmission of genetic information. Also called ribonucleic acid. ribosomal Ribonucleic Acid

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350.Sartorius

A thigh muscle in a frog on the ventral surface that flexes the leg and adducts the thigh.

351.Scapula

ither of two flat, triangular bones, each forming the back part of a shoulder in humans; shoulder blade. a large muscle of the inner part and back of the thigh that arises by a thick tendon from the back part of the tuberosity of the ischium, is inserted into the medial condyle of the tibia, and acts to flex the leg and rotate it medially and to extend the thigh The first chamber in the heart of fish, amphibians, and reptiles, which receives blood from the veins and contracts to force the blood into the atrium. The bodily system that consists of the bones, their associated cartilages, and the joints, and supports and protects the body, produces blood cells, and stores minerals. the bony framework of the head, enclosing the brain and supporting the face; the skeleton of the head. The narrow, winding, upper part of the intestine where digestion is completed and nutrients are absorbed by the blood. It extends from the pylorus to the cecum and consists of the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. Regulates calcium and ion concentration. Synthesis of membrane phospolipids. It also makes lipids. covered with or formed of squamae or scales. Part of a microscope that is the black raised platform. a bone or series of bones extending along the middle line of the ventral portion of the body of most vertebrates, consisting in humans of a flat, narrow bone connected with the clavicles and the true ribs; breastbone. a saclike enlargement of the alimentary canal, as in humans and certain animals, forming an organ for storing, diluting, and digesting food. the supporting framework or matrix of a cell. the circulatory system in general. a tarsal bone, joint, or the like. One of a set of hard, bonelike structures rooted in sockets in the jaws of vertebrates, typically composed of a core of soft pulp surrounded by a layer of hard dentin that is coated with cementum or enamel at the crown and used for biting or chewing food or as a means of attack or defense. the male gonad or reproductive gland, either of two oval glands located in the scrotum. a flattened sac or vesicle lined with a pigmented membrane that is the site of photosynthesis, in plants and algae occurring in interconnected stacks constituting a granum of the chloroplast, and in other photosynthesizing organisms occurring either singly or as part of the cell membrane or other structure. The membrane of the Thyakoid. the inner of the two bones of the leg, that extend from the knee to the ankle and articulate with the femur and the talus; shinbone. A lower leg muscle of a frog on the Ventral Surface that extends the leg and flexes the foot. an aggregate of similar cells and cell products forming a definite kind of structural material with a specific function, in a multicellular organism. A large mass of similar cells that make up a part of an organism and perform a specific function. The internal organs and connective structures (including bone and cartilage) of vertebrates, and cambium, xylem, and phloem in plants are made up of different types of tissue.

352. Semimebranosus

353.Sinus venosus 354.Skeletal system 355.Skull 356.Small intestine

357.Smooth ER 358.Squamous 359.Stage 360. Sternum

361.Stomach 362. Stroma 363.Systemic circulation 364.Tarsal 365.Teeth

366.Testes 367.Thylakoid

368.Thylakoid membrane 369.Tibia 370.Tibialis anticus 371.Tissue 372.Tissues

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373. Tongue 374. Trachea

375.Trans face 376.Transcription 377.Translation 378.Tricep femoris 379.tRNA

380.tympanic membrane 381.ulna 382.ureter 383.urethra 384.urinary bladder 385.vacuole 386.ventricle 387.vertebrae

the usually movable organ in the floor of the mouth in humans and most vertebrates, functioning in eating, in tasting, and, in humans, in speaking. the tube in humans and other air-breathing vertebrates extending from the larynx to the bronchi, serving as the principal passage for conveying air to and from the lungs; the windpipe. Closer to plasma membrane the the E.R. It packages molecules into vesicles and transports them to the golgi apparatus. the act or process of transcribing. the process by which a messenger RNA molecule specifies the linear sequence of amino acids on a ribosome for protein synthesis. A thigh muscle of a frog on its Dorsal side that adducts the thigh and extends the leg. One of a class of RNA molecules that transport amino acids to ribosomes for incorporation into a polypeptide undergoing synthesis. It is a transporter Ribonucleic Acid the membrane in the ear that vibrates to sound the bone of the forearm on the side opposite to the thumb. a muscular duct or tube conveying the urine from a kidney to the bladder or cloaca. the membranous tube that extends from the urinary bladder to the exterior and that in the male conveys semen as well as urine. a distensible, muscular and membranous sac, in which the urine is retained until it is discharged from the body. a membrane-bound cavity within a cell, often containing a watery liquid or secretion. either of the two lower chambers on each side of the heart that receive blood from the atria and in turn force it into the arteries. any of the bones or segments composing the spinal column, consisting typically of a cylindrical body and an arch with various processes, and forming a foramen, or opening, through which the spinal cord passes.

388.vesicle

A small, intracellular sac, bounded by a membrane, in which various substances are stored or transported.

389.vomerine teeth

The type of teeth frogs have.

©Narendran Sairam, Rajat Goyal and Steven Kraplin