B.ed Proposal.docx

Topic The impact of reward system of school on student motivation towards their study Name Faiza Shahid Father name Muhammad Shahid Mehmood Roll number BN659181 Session 2017-2019

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Chapter one Introduction This study is conducted to analyze the impact of reward system of school on students motivation. Offering rewards to the students can increase their self-confidence and they pay more attention towards their studies. The poor students when awarded with financial reward it increases their self-confidence and interest towards studies. The negative effect of reward is that most of the reward offered by schools are extrinsic in nature and students learn the more when they are guided by intrinsic motivation. The extra use of rewards undermines intrinsic motivation and results is more error in learning process. Education

is unique

because the cost are up front, in terms of time and effort

expanded, while the benefits are delayed and sometimes difficult to grasp. Short –term rewards can balance that discrepancy. Rewards are nothing new in education. In the process of pursuing rewards students may learn something such as better study skills or higher self-confidence that will lead to changed behaviour even after the reward disappear. First, it is important to understand the difference between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation and why the latter is important for students success. Extrinsic motivation occurs when the cause of a behaviour arises from the factors outside of the individual and the task performed. In other words the person performs the task in order to get the reward. Intrinsic motivation on the other hand comes from within the individual. The emphasis shifts from external forces to self determination and self regulation of actions. While extrinsic motivation promotes successful learning and productive behaviour. Extrinsically motivated learners may exert minimal effort to perform a task and may stop an activity when reinforcement discontinues. Intrinsic motivation has several advantages over extrinsic motivation. First of all intrinsically motivated learners are more likely to select challenging tasks. Second, evidence suggested that learners gain more knowledge when they read material that they consider intrinsically interesting. Third, the conditions that support intrinsic motivation also promote greater creativity and better conceptual learning. Fourth, intrinsic motivation is associated with greater pleasure and more active involvement in activities.

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Poor student achievement is often attributed to a lack of motivation and rewards are given in an attempt to increase that vital students motivation. Students with learning disabilities are very often unmotivated because school is one failure after another to them. When rewards are given they often have the positive effect of what was intended. High achievement comes from students who are motivated from inside. Therefore, instead of giving rewards, teachers need to consistently teach students to become intrinsically motivated. Students motivation affects every aspect of school life, from attendance, to academic performance, to extra-cocurricular activities. Specifically students do not see the cause link between the actions they take and the things that happen to them. Repeated failures in school cause them to build barriers to protect themselves, and therefore they become uninvolved in school. Of all the rewards given grades are the most common rewards. These good intentions, though, are missing the mark. When rewards are given, children do not perceive themselves in control of learning, they approach and complete tasks differently than when rewards are not given, and the work is judge as less creative. Rewards then, should be replaced with teaching that is focused on the intrinsic motivation of students. A common goal should be to have the students interest be at the center of their learning, not a reward. Students who are taught to perceive themselves as causal agents in the classroom engage in more risktaking behaviour, and increase their achievement. Also students who perceive themselves as more in control of learning have better self-esteem. There is a need to train teachers in how to teach students so that they become intrinsically motivated, instead of just propelled along by the vision of the next external reward. The key factors are to create an autonomuous classroom environment, and teach students to peceive themselves as decision makers. While the majority of rewards given in school can be thought of as extrinsic motivators,

children learn the most when guided by intrinsic motivation.

Children who are intrinsically motivated display a number of behaviors that allow them to performance accordingly with their academic abilities. Intrinsic motivation is important to the development of life-long learners, but is often come to rely on rewards and incentive programs in order to manage behavior and learning. Rewarding students for mastering certain skills or demonstrating increased understanding is more likely to foster motivation than rewarding them for reaching a particular performance level or outperforming others. 3

Rewards are more likely to be effective if they target behaviors or tasks that students feel are achieveable, clearly articulated, and within their control. The tasks being rewarded should be challenging enough to maintain students interests, but not so challenging that they could undermine students feelings of competence. Rewarding students to do tasks they inherently enjoy can actually decreases motivation. Social rewards and privileges can be effective alternatives to cash rewards if they are sufficiently appealing to students. Some studies suggest that rewards linked directly to academics, such as books, are preferable to cash or non-academic rewards. Programs that allow students to choose whether to pursue a reward are more promising than those in which students may feel obligated to participate. Rewards are best given promptly enough for students to see a clear link between their behavior and the reward. Conditioning students to always except or become dependent on a reward is less motivating than rewarding them unexpectedly. Rewards are more effective if they come from someone of social or personal importance to the study. Classroom should be about fostering learning and curosity, not training students to perform with treats. Rewards programs are unrealistic because they can not go forever, but when the reward is taken away students no longer have a reason to continue their behaviour. If the reward is too large students may feel they have no choice but to take part, which can strip away their feelings of control and decrease motivation. Oversized rewards can also raise ethical issues about whether students are being coerced. Some rewards encourage compliance instead of cognition, and this is not what true learning is about. There is some evidence that extrinsic rewards can decrease intrinsic motivation, especially when students see the reward as a method of control, or when the activity being rewarded was initially done purely for enjoyment. A reward is given to a child if he can sit still during class not distract the others around him. The child is motivated to get the reward and his behavior seemingly improves as long as the reward is preent. When the reward stops the behavior gradually returns to the state prior to the reward. This is why rewards are not effective in the long term. Several researchers have found that rewarding a student for an activity they inherently enjoy decreases motivation to perform that activity in the future. Performance

rewards

are unfair

because

some

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students are naturally talented, while other work very hard but don’t perform well, some will earn rewards easily while others will try hard only to become frustrated.

Chapter two Literature review Many schools have developed mission statements that refer to educating students So that they become life-long learners. The people who continue to learn throughout their lives must actively make decisions and take actions to develop their education, that is, they have no teachers handing out deadlines or grades. It can be said that intrinsic motivation plays a vital part in an individual's choice to take on challenges, and keep working on them until completion. In order to develop adults with these characteristics, teachers need to focus a large part of their teaching on developing this important characteristic. This literature review addresses the impact of reward system of school on the students towards their study. The review examines the development of the use of rewards in schools, and how rewards affect intrinsic motivation and the achievement of students. Teachers typically describe good students as hardworking, interested, and motivated (Spaulding, 1992). Motivation is a word heard over and over again as crucial to a child's learning, and is often heard as being a major problem in schools today. Two types of motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, have been identified by Deci (1971; 1972). Deci describes an intrinsically motivated person as one who engages in an activity for the activity itself, the reward being the activity. A child who cleans his room for the purpose of displaying his baseball card collection is said to be intrinsically motivated. Extrinsic motivation occurs when a person completes an activity because it leads to the receipt of an external reward. A child 5

who is promised a trip to the movies after cleaning his room is said to be extrinsically motivated. While the majority of rewards given in school can be thought of as extrinsic motivators, children learn the most when guided by intrinsic motivation. Children who are intrinsically motivated display a number of behaviors that allow them to perform accordingly with their academic abilities (Spaulding, 1992). For example, children who are intrinsically motivated become deeply involved in the task at hand and experience a feeling of enjoyment (Amabile and Gitomer, 1984), and seek out challenges with the intention of conquering them (Adelman and Taylor, 1990). According to DeCharms (1972), an intrinsically motivated person feels that he can try to produce a change in the environment, and feels confident that the change will occur. Children seen demonstrating these characteristics in the classroom would be characterized as motivated, good students. Children with learning disabilities also benefit from intrinsic motivation. These children tend to work longer and harder on tasks than extrinsically motivated children with learning disabilities (Haywood, 1968), and have been shown to establish critical internal systems of self-reward and mastery goals (Harter 1978). Children exhibiting high levels of intrinsic motivation can achieve at levels that are higher than predicted by psychological testing (Harter, 1983). The development of intrinsic motivation is indeed crucial to the learning of children with and without learning disabilities. Intrinsic motivation is important to the development of life-long learners, but is Often hard to see in many classrooms. Many teachers, in both general and special education have come to rely on rewards and incentive programs in order to manage behavior and learning. For example, a teacher may give a boy a treat for entering the 6

room quietly with the hope that the reward will increase the chance that the boy will enter the room quietly the next time. The teacher may think that she is promoting a productive classroom environment, but the boy only learns what behaviors earn a treat. He does not learn about the value of a productive classroom environment. The field of behaviorism has contributed to the common use of rewards in the classroom. The field of behaviorism produced a theory in the 1950's that heavily influenced the use of rewards in schools. The theory of operant conditioning, developed by B.F. Skinner, works on the premise that if a reinforce is delivered after a certain behavior is performed, then the strength of the behavior is increased (Cosgrove, 1982). A reinforcer is any stimulus given after a behavior that increases the chance of the behavior recurring. Past and present teachers are using the principles of operant conditioning when they give out stickers, treats, and praise. The powerful idea of operant conditioning is subject to cautionary statements. MacMillan (1973) states that many reinforcement techniques are targeted for use in populations with mild handicaps, and that care should be used when choosing reinforcement with a particular group. Even with the cautions, the principles of operant conditioning have seen a widespread implementation in education. The field of study on motivation was also going through some changes beginning in the 1950's. Motivation researchers and dissonance theorists began to reject Freud's idea that man is motivated only by drives and instincts (Festinger and Carlsmith, 1959; White, 1959). White went on to explain that motivation is man's attempt to change his environment, and then feel satisfied when the desired change occurs. These ideas, along with Deci's identification of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation led 7

to the completion of many research studies on the effects of motivation on behavior. As a result, the idea began to emerge that extrinsic motivators may have a negative effect on a person's internal motivation. Since many of the rewards given in school are extrinsic motivators, school became the setting for a large body of research. During the last 50 years researchers have thoroughly investigated the effects of rewards on all aspects of school. Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) found that the payment of money to college students to lie about enjoying a dull learning task did little to change the student's opinion of the task. Similarly, Deci (1971; 1972) discovered that money as a reward has detrimental effects on motivation. Intrinsically motivated college students became less motivated when paid money as a reward. On the other hand, when intrinsically motivated students were given praise as a reward, their motivation was enhanced. In addition, in 1972 Deci found that when a person perceives a reward to be more that what is warranted for a given situation, the person puts forth more effort in an activity. The type and amount of a reward have an effect on motivation and performance. The timing of a reward also affects motivation . The authors then studied the amount of time subjects spent with the drawing supplies during free choice time. Lepper et al. found that the subjects who received no award or an unexpected reward spent significantly more time drawing than subjects in the expected award condition. Rewards contracted for before an activity begins appear to undermine interest in that activity later on, since students in the unexpected reward condition still spent considerable time drawing during free time. In addition to the type, amount, and timing of a reward, researchers also studied the effect of rewards on the process of 8

learning rewards have been shown to interfere with the quality of learning taking place. A study by Masters and Mokros in 1973 showed that a reward of food distracted the subjects from the learning task, and resulted in less learning. The subjects, nursery school students, were given pieces of candy for correct answers in learning tasks dealing with building blocks, while a control group was not given anything for correct answers. The group receiving candy proved to be slower in acquisition of the new skill, and tended to make more errors than the control group. This study supports the idea that the learning task just becomes a way to receive reward, like the boy entering the room quietly in order to get a piece of candy. Rewards in this case have no place in the classroom because they cause students to make more errors and become distracted. Using the learning task just to receive the reward has been seen in other aspects of learning also. Garbarino (1975) studied the effects of rewards on the behavior of tutors in a cross-age tutoring situation. Fifth and sixth grade girls tutored first and second grade girls on how to play a new game. Half of the tutors were told before hand that if the younger girl learned the lesson very well, then the tutor would receive a reward in the form of movie passes. The other half of girls were told nothing, and served as a control group. Garbarino analyzed the language interactions and the emotional tone of the session, and tested the young girls on their knowledge of the new game. He found that the young girls in the reward condition made more errors and demonstrated less learning than the girls in the no-reward condition. Tutors in the reward condition tended to make more negative responses during the sessions, with the younger girls showing higher levels of frustration. The emotional tone of the 9

no-reward condition was seen as much more positive, with the tutors being more concerned about the learning of the younger student. External rewards also interfere with the choices children make about their own learning. To make the most of educational potential, a child must continuallychallenge himself to new and more difficult tasks. An intrinsically motivated childtakes risks and chooses more difficult tasks, therefore increasing his learning. Maehrand Stallings (1972) examined the way students challenged themselves when gradedby a teacher, and when evaluated by themselves. Eighth grade students were given two tests of both easy and hard math problems. Students could choose a number of problems to work on, and were told that one test would receive a grade from the teacher, and that the other test was to be completed independently with the student evaluating himself. The authors found that students consistently chose easier problems when the teacher would be grading the problems, but chose the harder problems when evaluating themselves. What seems to be more important is a decent grade, and students will follow the easiest route in order to earn a good grade, even though when working on their own, students did prefer to challenge themselves. In order to make the most of the child's interest in challenging himself, the classroom environment must make him feel safe and comfortable in doing so. The results of this study indicate that the giving of grades does not promote such an environment, but takes child's attention away from the task of learning and to the task of getting the reward. The research has shown that rewards affect the learning process, and can undermine a student's intrinsic motivation. At this point, though, the effect of rewards and students with mild handicaps or learning disabilities has not been mentioned. After all, many reward or token systems are aimed specifically at these 10

populations of students, and have been traditionally used in special education classrooms (Schultz and Switzky, 1990). Many behavior oriented programs have been shown to produce an increase in academic performance of children with learning disabilities (Torgesen, 1986), but the problem with these approaches, Torgesen explains, is that the studies have focused on very narrowly defined skills, and there is no evidence of the long term effects of these approaches. Similarly, Schultz and Switzky (1990) state that in order to sustain long-term academic growth, Instructional approaches need to be tied to a broader teaching strategy or model that ultimately focuses on the internalization and the development of a intrinsic orientation toward learning. If teachers of children with learning problems are going to sustain this level and generalize the effect of their instruction, this long-term goal must be the ultimate objective of each child's. Including strategies to foster the development of intrinsic motivation should be a part of every special child's educational plan. Contrary to events taking place in most classrooms today, the use of rewards has a detrimental effect on the intrinsic motivation of students, and consequently affects student achievement in a negative way. It cannot be said, though, that extrinsic motivators have no place in school. With the many objectives that children are expected to achieve, it is unrealistic to expect children to be one hundred percent motivated all of the time (Stipek, 1993). Extrinsic motivators should be used sparingly , and so that they do not undermine intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation has been shown as a very important quality to have in order to be successful in school. The challenge is for teachers to arrange the classroom 11

environment in a way that allows intrinsic motivation to develop. A common theme in the research regarding intrinsic motivation is the development of an autonomous classroom climate. When children feel in control of their environment, they are not only internally motivated to work, but also experience positive feelings of self-worth (Ryan and Grolnick, 1986). It is also important to note that even though a teacher may feel that the environment is autonomous, the child may perceive it in a different way. A child's perception of the environment should be taken into consideration when developing an education plan (Adelman, 1989). Creating an environment where kids see themselves as having control is one where they have some choices. Giving children choices in their learning can be a very powerful tool in developing intrinsic motivation. Amabile and Gitomer (1984) studied young children making collages in a day care center. One group of children was given a choice of materials to use in a collage, and another group was given certain materials to use. The authors found that the collages of the children given a choice of materials were judged as significantly more creative, and that the same children spent more time with the collage materials during free choice time. The fact that the children spent time with the materials on their own time has important implications for the classroom. As children grow older and more demands are made on them in school, the students need to choose time to work on their studies. Students given more choices in their learning may choose more time at home and in school to work. Alfie Kohn (1993) has suggested many ways to give children choices in the classroom. With respect to academic learning, children can make choices in what they learn simply by choosing what trade book to read. Students choose how to learn 12

by deciding on what types of groups to work in, or where they will work in the classroom. Students can make choices in how well they learn by helping to determine the criteria by which their material will be graded. Finally, students need to engage in discussions about why they learn certain things in school. Kohn also point to the importance of including children in discussions about social and behavioral issues in the classroom, such as rules and procedures. Children given a choice in these issues will be much more likely to take them seriously, and with intrinsic motivation. In addition to Kohn, other researchers have stated the importance of involving students in the decision making process going on in the classroom. Amabile and Gitomer (1984) saw that giving small children a choice of materials for an art project produced better art projects. Also, giving students learning options, helping them to sample the options, and then decide on an particular option deeply involves students in their own learning process (Adelman, 1989). Not only have students made decisions about their learning, but they have also practiced monitoring and evaluation skills. Student decision making not only helps in the delivery of content information, but can also be an integral part of a behavioral management program (Adelman and Taylor, 1990). In addition to the classroom climate, children need to receive instruction covering areas relevant to intrinsic motivation. As a result of receiving personal causation training, both teachers and students felt like they had some control in their environment, and students saw increases in academic achievement (DeCharms, 1972). After receiving training, teachers designed classroom exercises In self-concept, achievement motivation, realistic goal setting, and the origin-pawn 13

concept. Specific goals for the students were to be able to determine goals for self, identify strengths and weaknesses, determine the action to take toward goals, and to tell if the action is leading toward a goal. Teaching goal setting behavior requires individualized practice, with each student practicing setting his own goals. This type of lesson would also require the teacher to provide individual conference time with each student participating. As a result, many teachers shy away from this set up because most of the class is working independently for long periods of time while the teacher holds conferences. Stipek (1993) recommends the use of learning centers in the classroom to accommodate for the need for classroom conferences, individualization of work, and the chance for students to have choices. Even though learning centers have traditionally been used with younger children, they can be used effectively with students of all ages. Another way to structure the classroom to promote intrinsic motivation is through the use of interactive journals (Rambusch, 1992). These journals, one per subject area, are used to complete lessons or learning centers, where students take as much time and space as necessary to respond to lessons. The teacher then periodically collects the journals, and writes comments in them. The journals, then become a dialogue between the child and teacher, and become a running record of the child's work during the year. Behavior management is another important part of the classroom, and motivation plays a large part in how children act. Adelman and Taylor (1990) state that it is important to identify misbehavior from a motivation standpoint before determining action on the part of the teacher. Misbehavior can be thought of as proactive or reactive. Proactive behavior is an action that a student engages in so that he can feel 14

in control of the environment. Reactive behavior occurs when a student feels that his environment is threatened, and takes actions to avoid the unpleasant feelings. Preventing and responding to misbehavior, according to Adelman and Taylor, involves designing the classroom to better match the range of abilities represented, and using logical consequences that the students understand and accept as meaningful. It is also important to empower kids by giving them options, the opportunity to make decisions, and giving them continuous feedback on their progress. Students with learning disabilities can benefit from all the ideas presented above in order to promote intrinsic motivation. It is important, though, to address the special needs of these children and motivation. The Individualized Education Plan (lEP) is the written plan of action for children in special education, and these plans rarely refer to or have objectives about the motivational characteristics of the child (Adelman, 1989; Schultz and Switsky, 1990). Adelman continues to say that objectives regarding the motivation of the individual should be a part of every lEP. Children with learning disabilities also benefit from direct instruction aimed at their specific needs. Schultz and Switzky (1990) advocate the use of mediational learning experiences (MLE) in order to promote intrinsic motivation. A MLE is used as a teaching strategy that is characterized by an objective that can be generalized, an explicit explanation of meaning and purpose, the promotion of self-regulated student behavior, and the sharing of responsibility by teacher and student to find an answer to the quest. The MLE is used with other methods, such as reciprocal teaching, that promote the active participation of the student in the activity. In order to promote intrinsic motivation and learn how to identify goals such as in 15

personal causation training (DeCharms, 1972), students with learning disabilities may need different instruction. Fewell (1984) suggests a learning strategy that systematically teaches these students how to write and evaluate goals using a mnemonic strategy called TARGETS. Each letter reminds the student of an action to take in writing goals for himself. This type of teaching strategy can be very beneficial to giving students with learning disabilities a place to start in promoting self-determining behavior. This literature review has covered the impact of reward system of school on student motivation towards their study. In summary, activities in every classroom should revolve around the development of intrinsic motivation, using extrinsic motivation only when necessary, in order to develop responsible students with the characteristics of life-long learners.

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