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Gordon Willard Allport (November 11, 1897 – October 9, 1967) was an American psychologist. Allport was one of the first psychologists to focus on the study of the personality, and is often referred to as one of the founding figures of personality psychology. He rejected both a psychoanalytic approach to personality, which he thought often went too deep, and a behavioral approach, which he thought often did not go deep enough. He emphasized the uniqueness of each individual, and the importance of the present context, as opposed to past history, for understanding the personality. Allport had a profound and lasting influence on the field of psychology, even though his work is cited much less often than other well known figures. Part of his influence stemmed from his knack for attacking and broadly conceptualizing important and interesting topics (e.g. rumor, prejudice, religion, traits). Part of his influence was a result of the deep and lasting impression he made on his students during his long teaching career, many of whom went on to have important psychological careers. Among his many students were Jerome S. Bruner, Anthony Greenwald, Stanley Milgram, Leo Postman, Thomas Pettigrew, and M. Brewster Smith. Personality-trait theory According to Allport's Personality-trait Theory, the individual's personality traits are the key to the uniqueness and consistency of his or her behavior. One of Allport's early projects was to go through the dictionary and locate every term that he thought could describe a person. From this, he developed a list of 3000 trait like words. He organized these into three levels of traits.

1 Cardinal trait—This is the trait that dominates and shapes a person's behavior. These are rare as most people lack a single theme that shapes their lives. 2

Central trait—This is a general characteristic found in some degree in every person. These are the basic building blocks that shape most of our behavior although they are not as overwhelming as cardinal traits. An example of a central trait would be honesty.

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Secondary trait—These are characteristics seen only in certain circumstances. They must be included to provide a complete picture of human complexity.

Allport was one of the first researchers to draw a distinction between "motive" and "drive." He suggested that a drive formed as a reaction to a motive may out-grow the motive as a reason. The drive then is autonomous and distinct from the motive, whether it is instinct or any other. Allport gives the example of a man who seeks to perfect his task or craft. His reasons may be a sense of inferiority ingrained in his childhood but his diligence in his work and the motive it acquires later on is a need to excel in his chosen profession.

Eysenck's model of personality (P-E-N) Eysenck was one of the first psychologists to study personality using factor analysis, a statistical technique introduced by Charles Spearman. Eysenck's results suggested two main personality factors. The first factor was the tendency to experience negative emotions, which Eysenck referred to as Neuroticism. The Neuroticism (N) trait is measured on a bipolar scale anchored at the high end by emotional instability and spontaneity, and by reflection and deliberateness at the low end. Individuals high on the N trait are susceptible to anxiety-based problems. The second factor was the tendency to enjoy positive events, especially social events, which Eysenck named Extraversion. The Extraversion (also spelled Extroversion) (E) trait is measured on a bipolar scale that is anchored at the high end by sociability and stimulation-seeking, and at the low end by social reticence and stimulation avoidance. These two personality dimensions were described in his 1947 book Dimensions of Personality. It is common practice in personality psychology to refer to the dimensions by the first letters, E and N. E and N provided a 2-dimensional space to describe individual differences in behavior. An analogy can be made to how latitude and longitude describe a point on the face of the earth. Eysenck noted how these two dimensions were similar to the four personality types first proposed by the Greek physician Galen. •

High N and High E = Choleric type

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High N and Low E = Melancholic type

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Low N and High E = Sanguine type

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Low N and Low E = Phlegmatic type

The third dimension, Psychoticism, was added to the model in the late 1970s, based upon collaborations between Eysenck and his wife, Sybil B.G. Eysenck (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1969; 1976). The Psychoticism (P) trait is a bipolar scale anchored at the high end by aggressiveness and divergent thinking, and at the low end by empathy and caution. One common misconception about the P scale is that it is diagnostic for psychosis. The EPQ is not a diagnostic instrument. While appropriateness of the label “Psychoticism” for the trait has been debated, it has nevertheless been retained. Eysenck's measurement instruments also contain a Lie (L) scale that has been shown to function as an index of socialization or social conformity. The L scale is a measure of the degree to which one is disposed to give socially expected responses to certain types of questions. Eysenck's studies of antisocial behavior (ASB) in children revealed that individuals at risk for developing ASB had above average P scale scores. In addition, individuals who were also high on the E and N scales and below average on the L scale were at the greatest risk. Eysenck proponents have suggested implementing preventive programs targeting children at-risk for developing ASB based on temperamental predispositions. The major strength of Eysenck's model was to provide data supporting a clear theoretical explanation of personality differences. For example, Eysenck proposed that extroversion was caused by variability in cortical arousal; "introverts are characterized by higher levels of activity than extraverts and so are chronically more cortically aroused than extraverts" (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985). While it seems counterintuitive to suppose that introverts are more aroused than extroverts, the putative effect this has on behavior is such that the introvert seeks lower levels of stimulation. Conversely, the extrovert seeks to heighten their arousal to a more optimal level (as predicted by the Yerkes-Dodson Law) by increased activity, social engagement, and other stimulation-seeking behaviors.

Comparison with other theories

The major alternative to Eysenck's three factor model of personality is a model that makes use of five broad traits, often called the Big Five model. The traits in the Big Five are as follows: 1. Extraversion 2. Neuroticism 3. Conscientiousness 4. Agreeableness 5. Openness to experience Extraversion and Neuroticism in the Big Five are similar to Eysenck's traits of the same name. However, what Eysenck called the trait of Psychoticism corresponds to two traits in the Big Five model: Conscientiousness and Agreeableness. Eysenck's personality system did not address Openness to experience. He argued that his approach was a better description of personality (Eysenck, 1992a; 1992b). Aside from Jung's basic premise of an association between the dichotomy of introversion-extroversion and the type of neurosis they were liable to develop, Eysenck accepted none of Jung's formulation. In fact, Eysenck went to great lengths to point out that the concepts of introversionextroversion were not originated by Jung, but by many others, going back as far as Galen and Hippocrates. Eysenck's theory of personality is closely linked with the scales that he and his co-workers developed. These include the Maudsley Medical Questionnaire, Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI), Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), and Sensation Seeking Scale (developed in conjunction with Marvin Zuckerman). The Eysenck Personality Profiler (EPP) breaks down different facets of each trait considered in the model. There has been some debate about whether these facets should include impulsivity as a facet of Extraversion, as Eysenck declared in his early work, or Psychoticism. Eysenck declared for the latter, in later work.

Raymond Bernard Cattell (20 March 1905 – 2 February 1998) was a British and American psychologist known for his exploration of a wide variety of substantive areas in psychology. These areas included: the basic dimensions of personality and temperament, a range of cognitive abilities, the dynamic dimensions of motivation and emotion, the clinical dimensions of personality, patterns of group and social behavior, applications of personality research to psychotherapy and learning theory, predictors of creativity and achievement, and many scientific research methods for exploring and measuring these areas. Cattell was famously productive throughout his 92 years, authoring and co-authoring over 50 books and 500 articles, and over 30 standardized tests. According to a widely-cited ranking, he was the 16th most influential and eminent psychologist of the 20th century. The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire

Cattell's The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire grew out of the research on self-report data that he directed over a period of more than thirty years. This well-respected and widely used personality test is based on the hypothesis that there is invariance across the media of observation, which means that some of the same important features of personality are seen, and can been measured, in different kinds of data—namely, behavior ratings and objective tests as well as self-reports. Cattell's research, on which he developed the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire, proceeded as follows: 1. Establishing, by factor analytic means, independent dimensions of personality within behavior-rating data; 2. Writing self-report items to represent these dimensions; 3. Factoring to determine factors among the responses to these items. Several forms of the 16PF have been produced—some for different language and culture groups, and some for poor readers. Several different norm tables are available. Interpretation of the factors of the questionnaire derive from research and practical applications in a variety of social, clinical, industrial, and educational settings. The 16PF has been used and studied in thousands of published investigations. As debates about the strengths and weaknesses of the 16PF continue, use of the questionnaire has remained high.

Carl Gustav Jung (26 July 1875 – 6 June 1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist, an influential thinker and the founder of analytical psychology known as Jungian psychology. Jung's approach to psychology has been influential in the field of depth psychology and in countercultural movements across the globe. Jung is considered as the first modern psychologist to state that the human psyche is "by nature religious" and to explore it in depth. He emphasized understanding the psyche through exploring the worlds of dreams, art, mythology, religion and philosophy. Although he was a theoretical psychologist and practicing clinician, much of his life's work was spent exploring other areas, including Eastern and Western philosophy, alchemy, astrology, sociology, as well as literature and the arts. His most notable ideas include the concept of psychological archetypes, the collective unconscious and synchronicity. Jung emphasized the importance of balance and harmony. He cautioned that modern people rely too heavily on science and logic and would benefit from integrating spirituality and appreciation of unconscious realms. He considered the process of individuation necessary for a person to become whole. This is a psychological process of integrating the conscious with the unconscious while still maintaining conscious autonomy. Individuation was the central concept of analytical psychology. Jungian psychology After his break with Freud, Jung and his followers began the school of analytical psychology. Although Jung was wary of founding a "school" of psychology, (he was once rumored to have said, "Thank God I'm Jung and not a Jungian."), he did develop a distinctive approach to the study of the human psyche. Through his early years working in a Swiss hospital with psychotic patients and collaborating with Sigmund Freud and the burgeoning psychoanalytic community, he gained a close look at the

mysterious depths of the human unconscious. Fascinated by what he saw (and spurred on with even more passion by the experiences and questions of his personal life) he devoted his life to the exploration of the unconscious. However, he did not feel that experimental natural science was the best means to this end. Ultimately, Jung sought to understand psychology through the study of the humanities. In his letter to the Psychoanalytic Review (Fall 1913), he wrote, It is beyond the powers of the individual, more particularly of physicians, to master the manifold domains of the mental sciences which should throw some light on the comparative anatomy of the mind... We need not only the work of medical psychologists, but that also of philologists, historians, folklore students, ethnologists, philosophers, theologians, pedagogues and biologists. The overarching goal of Jung's life work was the reconciliation of the life of the individual with the world of the supra-personal archetypes. He came to see the individual's encounter with the unconscious as central to this process. The human experiences the unconscious through symbols encountered in all aspects of life: in dreams, art, religion, and the symbolic dramas we enact in our relationships and life pursuits. Essential to the encounter with the unconscious, and the reconciliation of the individual's consciousness with this broader world, is learning this symbolic language. Only through attention and openness to this world (which is quite foreign to the modern Western mind) is the individual able to harmonize his life with these suprapersonal archetypal forces. Jung made the exploration of this "inner space" his life's work. He went equipped with a background in Freudian theory and with a seemingly inexhaustible knowledge of mythology, religion, and philosophy. Jung was especially knowledgeable in the symbolism of complex mystical traditions such as Gnosticism, Alchemy, Kabala, and similar traditions in Hinduism and Buddhism. From this foundation, Jung's life work was to make sense of the unconscious and its habit of revealing itself in symbolic form through

archetypes of the collective unconscious. Later in life, Jung spoke of the transcendent function of the psyche, by which the conscious and unconscious are united. He believed this would lead to the full realization of the potential of the individual self. Analytical psychology primarily explores how the collective unconscious, the part of consciousness that is cross-cultural and common to all human beings, influences personality. It is utilized not only for those with a mental disorder, but also for those who desire to promote their own psychological development and well-being. Jung's approach to psychology emphasized understanding the psyche through exploring the worlds of anthropology, astrology, alchemy, dreams, art, mythology, religion, and philosophy. Jung was a strong believer in the importance of integration of opposites (e.g. masculine and feminine, thinking and feeling, science and spirituality). Though not the first to analyze dreams, his contributions to dream analysis were influential and extensive. Although he was a theoretical psychologist and practicing clinician for most of his life, many of his studies extend into other realms of the humanities: from comparative religion and philosophy, to criticism of art and literature. While these Jungian ideas are seldom mentioned in college psychology courses, they are often explored in humanities courses. Although Jung learned many concepts and tools from Freud's method of psychoanalysis, such as the unconscious, dream analysis, and free association, many more pioneering psychological concepts were originally proposed by Jung. Some of these are: •

The Archetype

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The Collective Unconscious

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The Complex

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Synchronicity

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Individuation

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Psychological Types

Paul T. Costa, Jr. and Robert R. McCrae The Revised NEO Personality Inventory, or NEO PI-R, is a psychological personality inventory; a 240-item measure of the Five Factor Model: Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness to Experience. Additionally, the test measures six subordinate dimensions (known as 'facets') of each of the "FFM" personality factors. The test was developed by Paul T. Costa, Jr. and Robert R. McCrae for use with adult (17+) men and women without overt psychopathology. The short version, the NEO-Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI), has 60 items (12 items per domain). Personality dimensions A list of the personality dimensions measured by the NEO PI-R, including facets, is as follows: 1. Neuroticism

1. Anxiety

2. Hostility 3. Depression

4. Self-Consciousness 5. Impulsiveness 6. Vulnerability to Stress 2. Extraversion

1. Warmth 2. Gregariousness 3. Assertiveness 4. Activity 5. Excitement Seeking 6. Positive Emotion 3. Openness to experience

1. Fantasy 2. Aesthetics 3. Feelings 4. Actions 5. Ideas 6. Values 4. Agreeableness

1. Trust 2. Straightforwardness 3. Altruism

4. Compliance 5. Modesty 6. Tendermindedness 5. Conscientiousness

1. Competence 2. Order 3. Dutifulness 4. Achievement Striving 5. Self-Discipline

6. Deliberation

Name The original version of the measurement was the Neuroticism-ExtroversionOpenness Inventory (NEO-I). This version only measured three of the Big Five personality traits. It was later revised to include all five traits and renamed the NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI). In this version, "NEO" was now considered part of the name of the test and was no longer an acronym. This naming convention continued with the third and latest version, the NEO PI-R. A mnemonic device for the five primary factors is the acronym "OCEAN," or alternatively "CANOE".