Art Of Oceania

Slide 2 Oceania is a vast area in the South Pacific composed of thousands of islands, with a great diversity of peoples. Oceania can be divided into 3 distinct areas: Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia. Slide 3 Some scholars also include Australia and Indonesia as part of Oceania as well.

Slide 4 The name Polynesia is derived from Greek, and means “many islands”. The islands of Polynesia are contained within a triangular area with the Hawaiian Islands to the north, Easter Island to the southeast, and New Zealand to the southwest. The islands of Polynesia have a relatively homogeneous culture, and many of the islands are still uninhabited today. Slide 5 Though it is difficult to make broad, sweeping statements about cultures, some generalizations can be made about culture in Oceania. The Polynesian culture believed that elite society members, such as priests, nobles, and even artists, could trace their ancestry back to the gods. In Polynesian art, this ancestry is often represented artistically by depictions of the human spine or vertebrae. Rank and status was based on complex systems of genealogy, which is the study of families and the tracing of their lineages and history. Slide 6 In Polynesian culture, mana is believed to be a supernatural energy or force that is present in every living and non-living thing. The higher the rank of an individual, the more mana they possess. Priests, artists, and noble people possess more mana than a common person. These people believed their ancestry could be traced back to the gods. It was believed that mana was inherited through ancestors, and could be transferred by physical contact by a person with strong mana as well. Additionally, an artist would chant and pray when creating a piece, which would ensure the object had strong mana. To protect this sacred energy, a tapu, (or taboo) would be assigned. A tapu would be a prescribed action or avoidance that the owner must practice in order to ensure the mana would not lose power due to negative influences.

Slide 7 Melanesia stems from the Greek word ‘melanos’, the word for black, referring to the after the darkskinned people who inhabit this area. The islands of Melanesia (New Guinea and the nearby islands) are more diverse than Polynesia, where languages and culture vary greatly between groups of people, even within the area of a single, small island.

Slide 8 Micronesia has a small population of about 110,000 people and is made up of thousands of tiny islands, thus receiving the name ‘micro’, which means ‘tiny’ in Greek. Slide 9 The three voyages of Captain James Cook piqued European interests in Oceania. Cook collected thousands of objects from Polynesians and brought them back to Europe. Europeans became quickly convinced that people of Oceania were ‘savages’ when they heard reports of cannibalism, infanticide, and human sacrifice. Thus, missionaries were sent to convert them to Christianity. The Europeans systematically destroyed the culture of Oceania by destroying religious artifacts. European diseases killed the majority of the population. The lands of the islanders were turned into great plantations, and islanders were sold into slavery to work as slaves on what was once their land. European contact changed the life of island cultures forever. Today, we will look at artifacts from Oceania which do remain with us today, and explore the rich culture that was found in the warm seas. Slide 10 What might this represent? How would you describe the shape and form?

Slide 10 Because of its rarity and hardness, this dark green stone was the most precious stone to the Maori people. Pendants were especially valuable because they possessed strong mana due to the long amount of time it took the artist to create the piece, and its prized material. Hei Tiki pendants were owned by an individual and inherited by a relative. These pendants were worn primarily by women, yet high ranking men could wear them as well. The meaning of the pendant’s form is debated. Some scholars suggest the form represents a corpse, a fetus, or a woman during childbirth. The pendants are often associated with fertility. What does the form look like to you? Discussion Questions: Considering what you know about mana and the importance of ancestry, who may have worn a pendant like this? Think of a family heirloom you own. How is it similar to the idea of the hei tiki? Slide 12 Though this figure is attributed to the Tonga islands, it could have come from Fiji as well. There was an inter-island exchange of goods, services, and artisans between Tonga and Fiji. This exchange makes it difficult to say exactly where the piece was created. The piece is carved from the ivory of a beached whale. Until the Europeans came to Tonga, this was only source of ivory. In Tongan culture, it was very desirable for women to have smooth, soft skin- often rubbing their faces with oil and staying in the shade.

This figure exemplifies the ideal woman’s skin tone and texture. Most likely, this figure represents a goddess or ancestor and serves a religious purpose. There are two small holes on the back of this figure which would have allowed the piece to be hung on a string or wall. The figure is only about 3” tall, making it portable- and also very smooth suggested it was handled often. Slide 13 This is a carved handle to a fly-whisk. There are only 5 of these handles known in existence, and one of them is on display at the Indiana University Art Museum. The piece ivory lashed together with vegetable fibers. Feathers and or fibers would have been attached to the end, creating a fan to swat flies and keep cool in the humid temperatures. Look closely at the top of the fly whisk. Can you make out a person doing a back bend with their belly in the air? The form of the person is repeated down the the piece, suggesting stacked people. Often, this repetition signifies the importance of ancestors. Because of the rarity of the material and the intricacy of the carving, this fly whisk was most likely owned by someone of high importance. Slide 14 This drum has hundreds of people carved into its base. Because of the intricacy of the carving, metal tools must have been used. The Austral people used sharp shells, stones, and nails from ship wrecks to make art. Whoever made this drum must have been a member of the elite, for carving was considered a sacred activity to be accompanied by prayers and chants that infused the piece with mana. The repetition of human forms on this drum once again points to the importance of genealogy in Oceanic culture. Look closely again at the drum. Can you see the heads halfway up the drum? The head relates to another concept of mana. The head was thought to be a sacred part of the body, where mana resided. Look at the horizontal, braided rope, just above the top half of the drum. Loosening and tightening this rope around the head of the drum change the tone of sound. How would play this 5’ drum? During what types of occasions would this drum have been used? Slide 15 This carved piece of wood would have been used as a stilt. A person would stand on this step, and tie this stilt onto their feet with brightly colored beaten barkcloth. The ties would have been dyed red or black to increase their beauty and mana. In Marquesan culture, games and acrobatics were performed on silts during special occasions. These stilt games were meant to attract the attention of the gods, and show the strength of the mana in the person performing. Notice the human form on this stilt. Marquesan people call the representation of a human form tiki. Tiki is also the name of the deity who is credited with introducing wood carving to people in many parts of Polynesia. Look at the central figure and notice the flaring nostril, large google eyes, and broad mouth. These are all trademarks of Marquesan artistry.

Slide 16 This chest piece would have been suspended by a cord and worn on the chest of a high-ranking person. Observe the crescent shape of the piece, as well as of the human faces on either end. On Easter Island, as well as throughout Polynesia, time was organized according to the phases of the moon, which was believed to balance the sun, creating harmony in nature. Though this chest piece is made of wood, other chest pieces on Easter Island were also made from bone or shell. Important chiefs of Easter Island were said to have worn two chest pieces, as well as two pieces on their shoulders. This chest piece was carved from toromiro, the only tree found on Easter Island. The tree grew in a crooked form, and was the main source of wood (aside from driftwood). In present day, what do important leaders wear to show their importance? Slide 17 Information about these figures is fragmentary due to the turmoil which was caused when the Europeans came to Easter Island. Easter Islanders were subjected to disease, missionising, and political intervention by Western influence. In 1862, slave ships came to Easter Island and captured about 1,000 peopleincluding the paramount chief, to work in the islands off of Peru. Though they were eventually returned home by the Peruvian government, 900 died in Peru, and most perished on the journey back home. Only 15 Easter Islanders made it home, but they brought with them smallpox, and an epidemic followed. By 1872, the once flourishing culture of Easter Islanders numbered only about 100 people. Maoi kavakava means ‘statue with ribs’. These figures are always male, and have the face of a live human, but the body of a skeleton. These figures would have been used during special occasions such as feasts or harvests. This piece would have been worn on a cord, or carried during dancing. What type of new meaning might this piece have to an Easter Islander, considering the brutality that was inflicted upon them? Slide 18 This lei, or necklace, would have been worn by a distinguished man or women from the Hawaiian Islands on special occasions, as a most prized possession. Reports from European explorers tell of noble women spending much time braiding intricate strands of hair for these types of necklaces. This lei is made of 8 ply braids, which have approximately 90 strands of hair in each braid. Although all the braids appear to pass through the hook, only a few actually do. Most of the braids are tied closely to the hook without passing through it. As mentioned before, the head was the most sacred part of the body where mana resided. Thus, hair was sacred as well- making this lei very special. The ivory on this necklace is from a walrus, which was available to Hawaiians after contact with Europeans. Until European contact, Hawaiian people’s only source of ivory was from beached whales. How long do you think it would have taken someone to braid all the strands of hair to make this lei? What is something you own that you wear on special occasions?

Slide 19 This is a utilitarian object, meaning an everyday, useful object. This object was important piece of equipment for Maori war canoes. These war canoes could measure up to 100 feet long and 6 feet wide. The bottom of the boat would have been covered with mats, and 2 men would be stationed with bailers like this to keep out excess water. The chipped end of the bailer and sheen on the handle lets us know this bailer was heavily used. This utilitarian object has been carved intricately,making it a thing of beauty. Notice the figure 8 mouth-shape at the bottom of the bailer. This is a trademark of Maori wood carving. Look now at the base of the handle, above the mouth. This may represent a nose- notice the nostrils. The eyes of this bailer would be off set, each one next to the mouth on the far sides of the bailer. Slide 20 This carving would have been secured to the front of a canoe. These canoe ornaments are said to protect or shield the passengers of the canoe from troubling seas or enemies. A prominent researcher of Solomon Island art has suggested that the heads on the front of the canoe may have also served as a signal to people back on the island about the outcome of a raid. If the head was on the canoe it would signal success, if the head were absent it would signal failure. The head depicted shows many common elements of the islander’s traditional dress. Hats, headdresses, and large wooden earrings worn by both men and women. What visual signals do we have in our culture to indicate success or failure? If we were to make a head depicting common dress of an American 7th grader, what would it look like?

Slide 21 Munga Dukna means “image of a deity. This figure was used exclusively by men and would have been placed on an altar in a man’s home or a communal men’s house. This piece had the ability to bring wealth or poverty, good fortune or bad, sickness or health. Men would pray to the munga dukna, addressing it as if it were a person of high status. Munga Dukna were also rubbed with ceremonial oils and dressed with ornaments. These figures number few, for the European missionaries encouraged the destruction of objects of local religion as they tried to convert the people to Christianity. Furthermore, if the figures were not completely destroyed, the missionaries would seize them and sell them to traders to fund their missions. Slide 22 An uli is a commemorative figure honoring the death of a leader. The uli would have been displayed during the year following the leader’s death. During this time, other uli would be brought out as well. This uli has both male and female body parts. This could be a reference to the importance of the moon. People of New Ireland thought the moon contained both male and female identity. Additionally, the depiction of both genders could symbolize the role of a leader to both protect (male) and nurture (female) their people. Look closely at the eyes of this uli; they are surprisingly life-like being constructed of inlaid shell. The face also shows remnants of white paint indicating that the face would have originally been painted white.

What details here can you see that would identify this figure as a leader? Slide 23 This figure is life size, and most likely represents an ancestor or mythological hero. Like the munga dukna, it would have been kept in a communal men’s house and used to invoke good fortune. Look closely at the strange shaped head- it looks almost inhuman. The shape of the head may be a reference to a ceremonial mask the ancestor may have worn. This ceremonial figure is dressed in a fine ensemble. The woven basket on his head originally would have had two birds perched atop. He also wears a bilum, a decorative bag worn by both men and women around their necks. His bilum is also decorated with two carved shell rings on either side. The red color of the figure is also important as it symbolizes male strength and virility within the area of Papua New Guinea. How do we remember our ancestors? Slide 24 Like the figure in the last slide, this mask represents an ancestor or hero. It is made using various materials found in the environment. The clay making up the facial area is molded onto a wooden frame and basket backing. The cowry shells and tusks on this mask are indicators of wealth and prestige. The boar tusks are also a sign a man’s importance and wealth, and men were often judged by how many pigs he owned. The variety of shells on the mask reflects the importance of these shells in inter-island trade. The lower tusks of a male pig, which would grow into a curled circle, were an especially prized ornament. What words would you use to describe the different textures in this mask? Using what we have learned this far about Oceanic art, what other conclusions could you draw about this mask? Slide 25 This figure would have been placed as a stop in the end of a sacred flute of the Biwat people of Papau New Guinea. Sacred flutes were extremely valuable, and often decorated so elaborately with shells, feathers, and ornaments that they could not even be played. Sacred flutes were used only by special members of certain religious sects. Sacred flutes were so valuable that they were fed the finest food and referred to by kinship terms in the home. The owner of the sacred flute would also have to cover all expenses associated with the flute, such as initiating new members into the religious sect and paying for the subsequent feasting. Though most activities of the Biwat were sexually segregated, the flute cults were unique for both men and women were able to join. The sound produced by the sacred flutes was thought to be the voices of the ancestors communicating with the men and women in the flute cult. How would you describe the facial expression of this figure? What might that have to do with the type of religious group this figure was a part of?

Slide 26 This mask is only part of the entire mask. It would have originally been attached to a large fiber cone and decorated with shells, feathers, and leaves. The person wearing the mask would make the mask ‘talk’ by making sounds with bamboo tubes concealed by the mask. These masks usually appeared in pairs during important ceremonies. The pairs symbolized an ancient brother and sister pair, which reflected the importance of both the male and female in Iatmul culture. Research also shows that these masks would have been worn by leaders during a formal execution of captives, or worn as a protective amulet during raids. What forms and shapes do you see in the mask? Can you think of modern events where people wear masks? Slide 27 The elbows to knees and hands to chin pose is common of the Asmat peoples. In one story, a creator named Fumeripistj is lonely and decides to create wooden people for company. In their seated pose, the carvings were not very good company. However, when Fumeripistj played his drum, the figures sprang to life and began to dance. The pose of this figure not only reflects the story of Fumeripistj’s creation, but also mimics the birth and burial pose of the Asmat people. These figures would have been carved in honor of a deceased ancestor or relative, and given the name of the deceased person. The figures were to serve as a reminder that death must be avenged. The Asmat people believed death was caused by their enemies, either through physical or supernatural means. Because this figure resembles a praying mantis this figure may also signify the importance of head hunting to the Asmat people, which would have avenged death. A praying mantis eats the head of her mate after they have mated. A master carver would have made this piece. Though any man could carve a utilitarian object, only master carvers were allowed to carve figures with spiritual and religious purposes.

Slide 28 The shell used for this mask is from a hawksbill turtle, which was favored for its rich amber color, highlighted with both dark and light streaks. Notice the intricate parts of this mask: the clam shell eyes, the zigzag tortoise shell surrounding the mask, and the engraved cones upon the top of the head. Not much is known about this mask. Researchers did not begin studying the island until after the Europeans sent missionaries. Though practices vary across the islands, this mask would have most likely been used when senior males initiated young men into the lessons of manhood. What do you find beautiful about this mask? Where do you see repetitious patterns in the mask? Slide 29

This horn would have been owned by a datu, a powerful priest. His duties included sorcery for both offensive and defensive warfare, and healing the sick. This type of horn would have held a material needed by the datu .Look closely at the head of the horn. Can you see any animal forms? This figure is a composite form of an elephant, buffalo, and serpent. This composite form is called singa, and is influenced by Hinuism. Thought most Batak people are Christian, they had contact with Hindus from India when they traded with them. Can you see other animals? The lizard sliding down the spine of the horn represents a deity who was concerned with the fertility of the land. What steps would you take to construct a horn like this?