Annotated Glossary Final

Dennis Zheng December 14, 2007 Final Glossary

AD HOMINEM FALLACY Ad hominem fallacy: Attacks on the opposing speaker’s character, rather than the ideas presented. Example: “Bill Clinton was obviously an immoral philanderer. How can we trust his work on NAFTA?”

AD POPULEM FALLACY Ad populem fallacy: (bandwagon) appeal to popular opinion when the speaker asks the listener to become part of a supposedly overwhelming group in favor of some person, product, or idea. Example: “So many teenagers do drugs that it must be good for you.”

ALLITERATION Alliteration: The repetition of initial identical consonant sounds or any vowel sounds in successive or closely associated syllables, especially stressed syllables. Example: “…said my book was a total waste of time, a boring, sentimental, self-indulgent sack of spider puke” (Lamott, xxv). Function: Lamott mentions a notice she receives about her soon-to-be-published book about her father’s life. Her description is a highly negative collection of thoughts, and what makes the criticism even worse is the collection of “s” sounds. The repetition of the consonant adds an almost-hissing auditory image, helping the reader feel the damaging effects that depress Lamott. Certainly the opposite of encouraging, the alliteration deflates the author’s tone and mood while maintaining a hint of humor.

ALLUSION

Allusion: A figure of speech that makes a brief reference to a historical or literary figure, event or object outside the primary text. Example: “Your publisher will be so excited that they will have hired the Blue Angels precision flying team to buzz your squalid little hovel” (Lamott, 213). Function: Placing the allusion in the paragraph about the date of publication is a move that associates the popular feelings about the air show with the release of a book. The Blue Angels, with their high-flying routine, bring to mind a sense of excitement, danger, and crowd-pleasing ability. The fantasizing about the myth of publication is enriched by adding the allusion to the exaggeration, because the specific allusion evokes a striking emotion in the reader’s mind.

AMBIGUITY Ambiguity: The state of having more than one meaning, with resultant uncertainty as to the intended significance of the statement. In other cases, since language can function on levels other than that of denotation, words are capable of operating with two or more meanings at the same time, adding a richness and a complexity to the text. Example: “Put money in thy purse” (Othello, 1.3.342). Function: As Roderigo’s mood takes a downturn, Iago aims to maintain his plan by convincing him to go to Cyprus and be patient. A heavily-repeated piece of advice, Iago’s statement to place money in its holder is fairly ambiguous, for it carries multiple meanings for Roderigo. He is reminded to keep spending money (and giving it to Iago) in order to win Desdemona’s love, yet the term money also has a figurative function. Iago wishes for his companion to stay committed to his goal, investing not only money but also time, so that in the end he can be assured of success.

ANADIPLOSIS Anadiplosis: Repetition of the last word of one sentence (or clause) as the first word of the next. Example: Luke wished to be a Jedi, but the Jedi were not everything he had expected.

ANALOGY Analogy: A comparison of two things alike in certain aspects; a method by which something unfamiliar is explained or described by comparing it to something more familiar.

Example: “Here was I, the white man with his gun, standing in front of the unarmed native crowd—seemingly the leading actor of the piece…” (Orwell, 73). Function: The focus of his narrative is the realization of the true effect of imperialism, and Orwell points out the absurdity of the situation by comparing his position to that of an actor on stage. Due to his race and ranking, he ought to be at the forefront, the star of the show. Yet when shown to the crowd, he is an imposter, “an absurd puppet” controlled by the natives themselves. Once the analogy falls away, his plight becomes clear.

ANAPHORA Anaphora: Repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of clauses or sentences. Example: Die, rebels! Die a long, hard death! Die and never challenge the Empire ever again!

ANECDOTE Anecdote: A short narrative detailing particulars of an interesting episode or event. Example: “My own version of this is that the other day, Sam and I were at the mall…” (Lamott, 216). Function: The account of Lamott’s interaction with the clothing store owner is incredibly well-paced and achieves its purpose. One cannot truly understand the price of being a writer until visualizing this painful scenario from the writer’s point of view. Through a critical selfcommentary, Lamott lets us hear the inner thought processes of the author as she deals with the relentless conversation, and though the audience knows the ending of the anecdote far before it is reached, the last few words are just as painful to the reader as they were for her.

ANTECEDENT Antecedent: The word, phrase, or clause that determines to what or whom a pronoun refers, such as the children in The teacher asked the children where they were going. Here, the children is the antecedent of the pronoun they. Example: “A Los Angeles man is discovered, bloodshot, banging the trunk of his white El Dorado following a night and day trapped instead; he says his captors went on joyrides and picked up women” (Weiss, 129).

Function: N/A

ANTIMETABOLE Antimetabole: Repeating words in reverse order. Example: Luke must kill his father, or his father will kill Luke.

ANTITHESIS: Antithesis: Opposition, or contrast of ideas or words in a balanced or parallel construction. Example: To the outsider, Star Wars was just a movie; to the boy, it was a religion.

APHORISM Aphorism: A concise statement of principle or precept given in pointed words that usually implies specific authorship. Example: "Don't mind, don't pay no mind. Sticks and stones may break your bones, but words... You know, I been working for her for twenty years" (Angelou, 36). Function: Although Angelou herself is quite distressed, here the speaker Miss Glory does not seem too troubled about the name crisis. The use of the age-old adage evokes a feeling of tired reassuring, reminding the reader of the difference between young indignation and the accepting nature of the wizened. The older lady has likely experienced much worse treatment, so her sympathy is reduced to a concise statement of comfort, subtly implying that the slight should be ignored for Angelou’s own good.

APOLOGY Apology: A defense of or explanation for a topic or treatise. No admission of wrongdoing or expression of regret is intended. Example: "The Moral Law tells us the tune we have to play: our instincts are merely the keys..." (C.S. Lewis, Mere Christianity). Function: In this example, C.S. Lewis explains and defends the topic of his work, which itself is an example of apology. He wrote the book in order to defend the fundamental teachings of Christianity; the basis of his writing is a belief in the existence of a Moral Law governing right

and wrong. Later he talks about how comprehension of this basic Moral Law, common to each human being, is key to understanding the Christian religion. A concise introduction of the subject of his writing makes for easier reading.

APOSTROPHE Apostrophe: A figure of speech in which someone absent, some abstract quality, or a nonexistent personage is directly addressed as though present. Example: “Move back, Tio, I tell him. I don’t want to hear what you have to say. Give the dancers room to move. Soon it will be midnight. Who is the New Year’s Fool this time?” (Cofer, 66). Function: When the narrator is saying these words, she is, in fact, speaking in the context of her dream, not real life. Cofer directly addresses her absent uncle after the home movie has ended, when all she is left with is her own mental conflict. By exposing that she struggles with the memories of her family, the author reveals that her uncle is a symbol of the costs of assimilation. Despite the receiver of the message not being present, the vivid image resonates strongly with the reader.

APPEAL TO AUTHORITY Appeal to authority: Using a famous name to support a claim though the person is not a true authority. Example: “Chuck Norris told me to buy a Toyota, so I did.”

ARCHETYPE Archetype: A pattern or model of an action, a character type or an image that occurs consistently enough in life and literature to be considered universal (recognizable as an element of one’s literary experience as a whole). Example: “I hate the Moor: my cause is hearted; thine hath no less reason” (Othello 1.3, 367369). Function: Iago plays the role of the archetypal villain in Shakespeare’s Othello. He is very hateful of the protagonist and almost incomprehensible in the motivations for his pure malevolence. The play’s beginning establishes Iago’s hatred of Othello, but his love for manipulation and deception is never truly explained. In the end, he is the archetype of

undiluted evil, a bad person wishing bad things on others for his own enjoyment. He is an incredibly deep character yet still easily comparable to the devil, the ultimate force of evil.

ASYNDETON Asyndeton: Omission of the conjunction that usually comes just before the last item in a parallel series. Example: As Vader walked, one could hear the harshness of his steps, the clank of metal, his raspy flow of breath.

BEGGING THE QUESTION Begging the question: To support a claim with the claim itself. Example: “God exists, because the Bible, which He wrote, says so.”

CATHARSIS Catharsis: A beneficial cathartic (purging) effect produced by witnessing a tragic action. Example: “Blow me about in winds! Roast me in sulfur! Wash me in steep-down gulfs of liquid fire! O Desdemon! Dead, Desdemon! Dead! O! O!” (Othello, 5.2.288-290). Function: Seeing Othello break down as the final result of his growing jealousy, the audience experiences a powerful catharsis. Despite his heinous wrongdoing, Othello’s misfortune induces great pity from the reader. Furthermore, witnessing the dangers of jealousy and pride leaves the reader shaken yet purified. The frightening possibilities of the depths of human nature terrify and cleanse. By the play’s close, with the two lovers reunited in death and the villain punished, we feel somewhat relieved with a sense of closure.

CHIASMUS Chiasmus: Reversal of grammatical elements. Example: He was a rebel to the enemy, but to his allies a moderate.

CONFLICT Conflict: The struggle that grows out of the interplay of two opposing forces, providing interest, suspense, and tension. The conflict can be man against man, man against nature, man against society or man against himself. Example: “Both father and son were stubborn and high-strung. Given Walt’s need to exert control and Chris’s extravagantly independent nature, polarization was inevitable. Chris submitted to Walt’s authority…but the boy raged inwardly all the while” (Krakauer, 64). Function: This quote incorporates Chris’s conflict both with man and with himself. His relationship with his father is quite tenuous, a bond characterized by aggressive and angry love. Chris’s inability to see past his father’s mistakes was what drove the fight with his family. Also mentioned in the quote is Chris’s conflict against himself. His struggles to constantly challenge and rediscover his inner persona were what motivated him to embark on his monumental journey. Never satisfied, he went into the wild to learn how to live a better life. Throughout the book Krakauer makes clear that Chris experiences all four types of conflict, which truly define his character.

CONNOTATION Connotation: The emotional implications and associated meanings a word carries. Example: “Maybe there will be a couple of interviews and then probably somewhere along the line, just when you thought things were settling down, your first really devastating review, the review that says your book is dog doo” (Lamott, 214). Function: Obviously Lamott is not using denotation here. Instead, her words “dog doo” carry a more multi-layered message than simply comparing a book to animal feces. The comparison brings to mind so many common feelings; the vivid image effects such negativity that the reader immediately understands her point about the possible outcomes of publication. Not all authors will be pleased with their newfound recognition, and Lamott emphasizes this lesson with a small but evocative phrase.

CONTRAST Contrast: The presentation of two unlike elements whose purpose is to reveal distinctive characteristics of each. A device which underscores important elements by pointing out their opposites.

Example: “A certain light was beginning to dawn dimly within her, - the light which, showing the way, forbids it” (Chopin). Function: Chopin uses contrast in her description of the light “beginning to dawn dimly within” Pontellier to uncover the epiphany of the story’s main character. Upon recognizing the two different aspects of this inner awakening, the light and the dark, the positive and the negative, the reader finds a woman undergoing a massive transformation. And like many monumental transitions, this comes with a price. Though Pontellier is ascending to a better level of understanding with herself and the world “about her,” she encounters a world that is unfriendly and incomprehensible, said to be “vague, tangled, chaotic, and exceedingly disturbing.” The obvious contrast highlights Pontellier’s plight, for as she gains worldly enlightenment she also takes on the weight of the world. Despite a troubling, tumultuous beginning, she is unable to resist the “soft, close embrace” of the “voice of the sea.”

DENOTATION Denotation: The dictionary definition of a word. Example: “The elephant was standing eight yards from the road, his left side toward us” (Orwell, 72). Function: Orwell is not using the image of the elephant for any symbolic purpose or deeper meaning. His intention is strictly to describe a large pachyderm that appeared to him as a part of his story.

DICTION Diction: Vocabulary and word choice. Example: “I found myself stoned on all the attention… needing a new fix every couple of days and otherwise going into withdrawal” (Lamott, 220). Function: In this section Lamott equates the attention publication brings to an addictive drug. The vivid, powerful wording she chooses helps the reader to understand the published writer’s situation. The pleasure derived from the attention of others could be considered the writer’s high, but the perils of this addiction are what make up the center of Lamott’s message. Words like “stoned,” “lost and derailed,” “needing a new fix,” and “going into withdrawal” indicate the use of familiar terms in a far different context, in order to reveal the darker side of publication, an aspect rooted in man’s self-centered nature.

DIDACTIC Didactic: Intended for instruction, material written for the purpose of teaching a lesson. Example: “Publication is not going to change your life or solve your problems” (Lamott, 185). Function: Most of Lamott’s writing in this book is didactic. She presents her varied experiences for students so they can learn from her mistakes and successes. Merely one example of this style, here she begins the section on publication by making clear the plain facts about becoming a published writer. Her warning stands as a stark contrast to preconceived notions an innocent writer might possess, but her seasoned knowledge can only help those trying to improve at writing. In the following pages, she goes on to explain and elaborate on that main point about publication, but all of it can be linked to the purpose of instruction.

DIGRESSION Digression: The insertion of material often not closely related to the subject in a work. Example: “I have too long digressed, and therefore shall return to my subject” (Swift, 386). Function: Swift’s discussion of his “Modest Proposal” takes a turn into a description of the despondent conditions of his countrymen. He describes the painful existences of both the old and the young, explaining the various problems of their lives. This social commentary he provides helps clarify the dire need for his extremist solution, injecting a sense of realism to the satirical work. We are reminded by his digression that though he is not serious about eating children, a serious issue does exist.

ELLIPSIS Ellipsis: Omission of one or more words. Example: The Death Star was evil; its operators, worse.

EPANALEPSIS Epanalepsis: Using the same word or phrase at the beginning of a sentence and at the end. Example: Lousy light-sabers make their Jedi lousy.

EPANORTHOSIS Epanorthosis: Correction. Example: Wookies are impressive monsters—no, lovable beasts—that are very capable of anything.

EPIGRAPH Epigraph: A quotation or other short paragraph set at the beginning of a literary work or one of its divisions to suggest its theme and/or give insight as to its subject. Example: “Here is her life as she told it to me, and betwixt and between the pages of her life you will find mine as well” (McBride, xix). Function: McBride begins his powerful work with an introduction of background, and this sentence is the ending of the initiation into his world. The words create an air of mystery around his mother’s life, enticing the reader to continue through the pages and learn about the woman’s “remarkable story.” Not only does this epigraph touch on the memoir’s themes of inner strength and racial relations, but it also presents the unique structure of linking McBride’s writing with his mother’s words. Thus, from the very beginning, the reader gains insight about the personal truths the work is intended to reveal.

EPIPHANY Epiphany: An intuitive grasp of reality achieved in a quick flash of recognition in which something, usually simple and commonplace, is seen in a new light. A sudden revelation or insight about oneself and his or her place in the world. Example: “Are there no stones in heaven but what serves for the thunder?—Precious villain!” (Othello, 5.2.242). Function: After Emilia protests vehemently for Desdemona’s chastity and reveals the truth behind the handkerchief deception, Othello finally realizes at that instant that the real villain is in fact his right-hand man, to whom he had entrusted so much of his well being. The new situation leaves his world turned upside down, as the guilty and the innocent parties have reversed places. He now wishes that the death he had brought upon his wife would leave Iago struck dead.

EPISTROPHE

Epistrophe: Words or phrases at the ends of clauses and sentences. Example: Not studying will result in your death; failure to practice will result in your death; listening to your instructor will prevent your death.

EUPHEMISM Euphemism: A device in which indirectness replaces directness of statement, usually in an effort to avoid offensiveness. (For example, senior citizens instead of old people) Example: “O thou public commoner!” (Othello, 4.2.75). Function: Othello uses the euphemism “commoner” instead of simply saying prostitute to add a sarcastic air to his rebuke of his wife. During his interrogation of Emilia and Desdemona, his accusations grow increasingly passionate and exaggerated, indicating that his jealousy is causing him to lose a grip on reality. The euphemism, by avoiding bluntness, is actually more insulting in its subtlety. Othello’s reaction shows just how much he values his reputation and his wife’s faithfulness.

FALSE DILEMMA False dilemma: Suggesting a limited number of choices. Example: “Either you are with us, or you are with the terrorists.”

FOIL Foil: (Character Foil) A character, who, by comparison or contrast, highlights the qualities or characteristics of another character. Example: “Nor I neither by this heavenly light; I might do‘t as well ‘I the dark” (Othello, 4.3.68). Function: Here Desdemona and Emilia discuss women’s unfaithfulness toward their husbands. Desdemona, who does not think she would ever commit adultery, asks Emilia if she would cheat, and the experienced maid replies that she should, but not just for anything. Emilia follows her answer by describing how many women of the world share the sexual appetites of their male counterparts. Thus Emilia is Desdemona’s foil, a worldly perspective willing to deal practically with and accept sin, contrasted with young, romantic innocence naively believing in the good of people’s hearts.

FORESHADOWING Foreshadowing: The presentation of material in a work in such a way that later events are prepared for. Example: “The bush is an unforgiving place, however, that cares nothing for hope or longing” (Krakauer, 4). Function: The foreboding statement that Krakauer places at the beginning of the novel gives a sense of danger and warning. He knows the ending of the tragic tale, but the audience remains yet unaware. Thus his hints at the negative forces of the wild are especially powerful at this point of the narrative. Later on, the reader recognizes the triumph of nature over Chris, who failed to survive despite all the hope and love his soul possessed.

HAMARTIA Hamartia: The error, frailty, mistaken judgment or misstep through which the fortunes of the hero of a tragedy are reversed. Not necessarily a flaw in character. Rather, it can be an unwitting, even a necessary misstep in doing rather than an error in character. Hamartia may be the result of bad judgment, bad character, ignorance, inherited weakness, accident, or any of many other possible causes. It must, however, express itself through a definite action or failure to act. Example: “I have no spur To prick the sides of my intent, but only Vaulting ambition, which o’erleaps itself And falls on the other” (Macbeth 1.7, 25-28). Function: Here, Macbeth himself admits that his fatal flaw is his overwhelming, uncontrollable ambition. The weakness of his character manifests itself in his conscious choice to forsake morality and pursue his "vaulting ambition," which he says is his sole motivation. Killing King Duncan sets him on an irreversible path that can only lead to more death and tragedy. Most indicative of the hamartia is that Macbeth recognizes the battle between his humanity and ambition and yet remains a slave to the potential power of the throne.

HYPERBOLE

Hyperbole: An exaggeration, which may be used to heighten effect or provide humor. Example: “After being on the phone all morning reading each other passages from your book, they agree that it is the most embarrassingly bad book ever written, and they are honking and screaming with laughter. At one point your editor is laughing so hard that she has to take some digitalis, and your agent ruptures a blood vessel in his throat” (Lamott, 210). Function: Obviously, this event is far from realistic. It is yet another example of an integral part of Lamott’s style—humorous exaggeration. Her amplifications go so far beyond typical writing that one is almost forced to laugh at their outlandish quality. Here she is explaining the worries a writer has when waiting to learn if he/she will be published. The envisioned situation is so strong (people laughing at your work to the point where they physically injure themselves) that the audience sees how tough the anticipation of publication can be. The hyperbole truly conveys the message that one’s worry can join in with imagination to create a vividly terrible scenario.

IMAGERY Imagery: The pictorial quality of a literary work achieved through a collection of images. At times, the images provide a key to the deeper meaning (themes) of a work. Example: “I felt the jungle drums start to beat, warning me to keep my mouth shut” (Lamott, 217). Function: This particular image pops up during Lamott’s anecdote about buying a dress at the mall, a story that tells of the hazardous life of published writers. One can almost hear the reverberations of the bass, echoing and increasing as Lamott fails to heed her inner warning signs and knowingly treads into the dangerous waters of authors discussing their work. While the auditory image is fleeting and used only once, its true impact is felt once the climax of the story has been reached, when the reader can truly understand how dire the drums’ warnings had been.

INVERSION Inversion: A departure from the customary arrangement of words, moving the complement, or part of the complement, to the head of the sentence. Example: Talk like this Yoda did.

IRONY Irony: The recognition of a reality different from appearance. Verbal irony is a figure of speech in which the actual intent is expressed in words that carry the opposite meaning. Example: “Here was I, the white man with his gun, standing in front of the unarmed native crowd—seemingly the leading actor of the piece; but in reality I was only an absurd puppet pushed to and fro by the will of those yellow faces behind” (Orwell, 73). Function: Orwell writes about the highly unusual position in which he found himself. The incident of shooting the elephant causes him to realize that conquerors of countries end up losing their own freedoms. Because he represents the powerful empire of Britain, it is unexpected that Orwell, the authority figure, would be controlled by the natives. The narrative truly displays irony at its best, as it is the armed police officer who is figuratively dominated by the public will, and thus, powerless, forced to shoot the elephant.

METAPHOR Metaphor: A figure of speech in which a word or phrase literally denoting one kind of object or idea is used in place of another so suggest a likeness or analogy between them. An implied analogy. Example: “I knew it was a nice big plate of cocaine for my ego” (Lamott, 219). Function: Because Lamott has had past troubles with drug abuse, likening her self-esteem boost to narcotics is quite accurate on many different levels. Her initial joy was certainly quick, reaching a rapid, impressive high, but once that euphoria wore off, she was left with nothing but painful after-effects and feelings of wasteful withdrawal. Furthermore, her endless quest for recognition would remain, and she would need more and more of the drug-like attention in order to stay satisfied. This metaphor goes along with her diction on pg. 220.

MOTIF Motif: A recurring image, work, phrase, action, idea, object or situation that appears in various works or throughout the same work. Example: “Reading of these monks, one is moved by their courage, their reckless innocence, and the urgency of their desire. Reading of these monks, one can't help thinking of Everett Ruess and Chris McCandless” (Krakauer, 97). Function: Krakauer uses the image of the Papar monks to clarify and add depth to the personalities of Everett Ruess and Chris McCandless—both adventurous, kindred souls living

life on the limits. Unafraid of the unknown, they actually welcomed the uncertainty of undiscovered locales. This monk motif is repeated later, most notably in the book’s conclusion, as Chris left this world as peacefully as a monk. The repetition emphasizes numerous elements of his character, such as his peaceful nature, eternal serenity, and his fervent desire to explore.

NEGATION Negation: Presenting the negative aspect of an idea; a form of affirmation by denial. Example: “They were not the quietest people on earth…” (Lamott, XI). Function: Lamott does not outright say that her father and his friends were very loud; her method of negation softens the blow of a potentially-insulting remark. It turns a negative statement into a humorous one, and her carefully chosen wording adds a nuance to the description. Thanks to the technique of emphasizing the opposite, the reader must take a moment to contemplate her exact meaning.

ONOMATOPOEIA Onomatopoeia: Words that suggest their meaning by their sound. Example: "They would hiss and recoil" (Dillard, 10). Function: The word “hiss”, while on paper quite ordinary, is made much more powerful when verbalized. Repeated, elongated “s” sounds come to life in the reader’s mind, reminding of the authentic sizzling of insects in flame. The auditory device adds an element of realism to the visualization.

OXYMORON Oxymoron: A self-contradictory combination of words or smaller verbal units. “Oxymoron” is itself an oxymoron, from the Greek meaning “sharp-dull.” Example: "They will have days at the desk of frantic boredom…" (Lamott, xxix). Function: Here Lamott is relating lessons that she teaches her student writers. While at first glance, the concept of being frantic, the mind working hurriedly, seems to contradict the dullness of being bored, she is actually revealing the reality of writing. Some days, writers will be burdened by the slowness of their mental processes, the boredom in their mind troubling

them to the point of extreme anxiety. What at first appear to be incongruous terms becomes a reminder that the writer’s words will not always flow so easily.

PARADOX Paradox: A statement that although seemingly contradictory or absurd may actually be well founded or true. Example: “Sometimes I can see it most clearly if I close my eyes” (Lamott, 79). Function: At first glance, this statement does not appear to make much sense. The reader would initially wonder how restricting the very instruments of vision would augment one’s sight, but upon further consideration Lamott’s point becomes clear. When envisioning the movie sets, she can visualize best by shutting her eyes, closing her mind and imagination off from the distractions of the world. This mental solitude would logically be quite effective, and it is a strategy many can relate to. A seemingly contradictory concept now becomes reasonable.

PARALLEL SENTENCES Parallel sentences: Sentences containing repetition of words or repetition of kinds of words. Example: Watching Star Wars was painful for the jock, tolerable for the drunkard, and heavenly for the science-fiction enthusiast.

PARALLELISM Parallelism: The balanced repetition of syntactical structures for rhetorical effect. Example: “We can never be satisfied as long as the Negro is the victim of the unspeakable horrors of police brutality. We can never be satisfied as long as our bodies, heavy with the fatigue of travel, cannot gain lodging in the motels of the highways and the hotels of the cities. We cannot be satisfied as long as the Negro’s basic mobility is from a smaller ghetto to a larger one” (King, 464). Function: This is a prime example of anaphora, the repeating of words at the beginning of successive sentences. MLK, Jr., places the powerful words “we can never be satisfied” to emphasize the everlasting nature of his people’s fight. He uses parallelism to evoke intense passion, as his audience must pay attention to such an eloquent speaker. His speech leaves no doubt about his heart being in the battle, an encouraging and uplifting reminder that there is so much work to be done.

PERSONIFICATION Personification: A figure that endows animals, ideas, abstractions, and inanimate objects with human personalities, emotions or intelligence. Example: “Others will step out of the shadows like Boo Radley and make you catch your breath or take a step backward” (Lamott, 136). Function: Lamott discusses the process she goes through when beginning her writing process. She tackles the problem of finding material by utilizing note cards, but sometimes ideas simply arrive out of thin air. These thoughts or images are given the human quality of being able to suddenly appear and surprise another being with their significance. The device is included to emphasize the importance of notability of such landmark occurrences, as Lamott once again reveals the vivid details of being a writer.

POINT OF VIEW Point of View: The vantage point from which an author presents a piece. Possibilities include first, second and third person, and omniscient, limited, or naïve. In some works, authors employ several methods. Example: “When I became a double amputee at the age of 29, I was forced to shed many misconceptions I had unknowingly embraced regarding the importance of physical perfection. In the space of one hour I changed from an acceptably attractive female to an object of pity and fear” (Davis, 202). Function: What makes this writing shine is the author’s first-person, highly personal perspective. As she explores the world around her, the reader is able to accompany her in both the proud and humiliating moments, and later when she realizes the innocence of children and her own previous shortcomings. She explains her new discoveries on life from a point of view that most of us will never get to experience, adding to its value. A similar piece written by a person with a more “perfect” body perhaps could come close, but could never match the insight achieved by Davis.

POLYSYNDETON Polysyndeton: Addition of conjunctions where they are not normally present in a series. Example: The Ewoks and Wookies and Banthas gave the audience warm and fuzzy feelings.

POST HOC FALLACY Post hoc fallacy: After the fact, therefore because of the fact. Example: “I used a new font and got an A, so next week I will get another A as long as I use my lucky font again.”

REPETITION Repetition: Reiteration of a word, sound, phrase, idea or motif for the purposes of emphasis and/or unity. Example: “I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed…I have a dream that the state of Mississippi…I have a dream that my four little children…I have a dream…” (King, 464). Function: The expressive words of MLK, Jr., use the device of repetition to emphasize a specific concept, that he possesses a clear dream for the country to be a better place. The rhythm of his repetition is a major component of the effectiveness of his oratory. It adds an element that sticks in one’s memory and commands attention to his message.

SARCASM Sarcasm: A caustic expression of strong disapproval. Sarcasm is harsher than irony. Example: “Mrs. Cullinan was right about one thing. My name wasn’t Mary” (Angelou, 37). Function: Angelou concludes her narrative with a concise example of sarcasm that brings together the entire passage. By stating that Cullinan was finally correct about her name, the narrator subtly criticizes the white woman and also signifies Angelou’s victory over her boss. The reminder that her name was Margaret, not Mary, is a scathing remark towards Cullinan and implies the risk in disrespecting others. Angelou condemns the actions of her superior through sarcasm.

SATIRE Satire: A blending of a censorious attitude with humor and wit for improving human institutions of humanity. The ridiculing of social vice or folly with a desire to inspire change.

Example: “I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London, that a young healthy child well nursed is at a year old a most delicious, nourishing, and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled, and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee, or a ragout” (Swift, 386). Function: Swift’s idea, selling poor children born into poverty as food for rich Englishmen, is not a serious proposal, but has a purpose nonetheless. His satirical presentation of cannibalism enables him to express his contempt for materialism and landlords, whom he says “already have devoured most of the parents.” The satire also attacks England by mentioning that it would be happy to eat up Ireland. Swift’s mocking argument is almost believable, but this only adds to his credibility in his desire for social and economic progress in his country. He makes a powerful statement on the plight of the poor through the essay.

SIMILE Simile: A figure of speech in which a similarity between to objects is directly expressed using some overt indicator of resemblance such as like or as (or even such a word as compare, liken or resemble.) An expressed analogy. Example: “It looks like the typesetter typed it with frostbitten feet, drunk” (Lamott, 212). Function: An example of supreme hyperbole, this simile manages to put a humorous spin on the writer’s reaction to seeing his/her work in print for the second time. In Lamott’s scenario, not only is the typesetter using feet instead of hands, the feet have lost all feeling, and the typesetter is intoxicated. The extended, fantastical simile is a prime example of Lamott’s humorous style, as she piles on the hypothetical writer’s sense of despair. Her colorful imagination manages to paint a worsening situation until the reader understands how the pain the writer feels.

SYMBOL Symbol: A symbol is something that is itself and also stands for something else. An image that evokes an objective, concrete reality and prompts that reality to suggest another level of meaning. Example: “I didn’t want my friends seeing my white mother out there riding a bicycle. She was already white, that was bad enough, but to go out and ride an old bike that went out of style a hundred years ago? And a grown-up no less? I couldn’t handle it” (McBride, 8). Function: Ruth’s bicycle is an example of multi-faceted symbolism. First, it emphasizes her force of character. Just like it took much will power for her to marry a black man, found a

church, and put twelve kids through college, the bicycle requires a great deal of exertion from its rider. She could have driven the old car, but refused, out of inner strength or stubbornness (or both). This makes her character clear to the reader, as does another aspect of the bicycle as a symbol. Ruth is oblivious to what the world thinks of her and her bicycle, and so many parts of her life follow this trend. She is independent from society’s opinion of her life, who to love, how to raise her children, and how important race really is. As she pedals her bicycle she keeps moving forward in life, her method of transportation representing her most admirable traits.

SYNECDOCHE Synecdoche: A figure of speech in which a part signifies the whole, such as “hired hand” for hired laborer. Example: “He and his black antagonist looked at each other in the rearview mirror; in a second the windbreaker and porkpie hat were gone” (Mebane, 43). Function: Mary Mebane’s account of a memorable bus ride features synecdoche near the end of the passage. The conclusion of the conflict between the resolute black man and the white bus driver is coming to an end, much to the relief of the narrator. In writing about the event, she describes the articles of clothing as being gone, instead of stating that the black man himself had left. By using his jacket and hat to represent the entire character, Mebane generalizes the situation, reducing the importance of the individual wearing the attire. This simplification of detail underlines her assertion of universality—what she witnessed could have occurred in many different places and involved many different men.

SYNTAX Syntax: The rule governed arrangement of words in a sentence. Example: “However” (Lamott, 219). Function: Lamott places the word “however” by itself, confined in its own private sentence, to make an abrupt interruption in her writing. The rhythm of her prose is instantly disrupted by her unusual arrangement, breaking the rules of grammar. Like a sudden u-turn, she reverses from her positive feeling of getting invited to the charity event, and quickly jumps to the seemingly minor hiccup in the plans. The placement of the transition word is significant in that separating the word by a period, instead of a comma, the seriousness of this perceived slight to the writer’s ego, however immature and insignificant it may be, is made quite clear.

TONE Tone: The attitudes toward the subject and toward the audience implied in a literary work. Example: “I think about the most seriously disadvantaged, not simply Mexican-Americans, but of all those who do not ever imagine themselves going to college or becoming doctors: white, black, brown. Always poor. Silent. They are not plaintiffs before the court or against the misdirection of Affirmative Action” (Rodriguez, 51). Function: At first, Rodriguez’s tone towards Affirmative Action would appear puzzling to an outsider. He is a Chicano that actually holds clear disdain for a system that was devised to benefit him (or at least, people of his race). The contrast between the expected and the reality, that a minority himself is acknowledging the failings of such a misguided program, is what makes the piece so effective. The details of his guilt-ridden, embarrassed attitude towards affirmative action indicate that he believes it is unfair to whites, but more importantly, does not give aid to the ones who truly need it. In the final paragraphs the intensity of the tone increases, making his point even stronger.

TRIPLETS/TRIADs Triplets/triads: Three-part parallelism. Example: He fired the torpedoes, primed the laser beam, and shifted into hyper drive.

UNDERSTATEMENT Understatement: A figure of speech in which the literal sense of what is said falls detectably short of the magnitude of what is being expressed, which creates emphasis. Example: “It was a tiny incident in itself; but it gave me a better glimpse than I had had before of the real nature of imperialism” (Orwell, 70). Function: Orwell uses the word “tiny” to great effect here; the incident may have been tiny in the sense that it was short, and it could have happened on any day in Burma, but the event was certainly gigantic in significance. To the average reader, shooting and killing an elephant would definitely be out of the ordinary, certainly remarkable at least. The inclusion of the diminutive word serves a couple of purposes here, for it helps to introduce the story of the elephant without being overly dramatic, and it also emphasizes the contrast in size between the duration of the incident, and the considerable meaning behind it. The revealed lesson about imperialism was significant for such a minute incident.