Annotated Bib

Primary Sources Apollodorus of Damascus. ​Trajan’s Column​, 113 AD, Rome Trajan’s Column is a commemorative monument build in honor of said emperor’s victory in the Dacian wars. The column’s inscriptions depict scenes from his two successful military campaigns, and I used a picture of one of the ins​criptions in my website. I got the picture from the book ​Everyday Life in the Roman Empire​ by Kathryn Hinds. “Augustus of Prima Porta.” Photograph by Till Niermann, ​Wikipedia​, October 2007, Chiaramonti Museum. This ancient statue was made in the 1st century and the image was provided by wikipedia. Brogi, Carlo. “Medallion at the base of the facade", Certosa di Pavia, Catalogue # 8226. Found in Certosa di Pavia, a monastery near Pavia. The coin’s inscription reads “Romulus” and “Remus”, the two brothers who founded Rome. Carswell, John, et al. ​Splendors of the Past: Lost Cities of the Ancient World​. National Geographic Society, 1981. This book is a secondary source by I used a primary image from the book of the ruins of a plantation house with recultured fields around it. Cato, Marcus Porcrus. “De Agricultura by Cato the Elder.” translated by , ​Lacus Curtius​, University of Chicago. Cato was a Roman senator, farmer, and historian who lived from 234 to 149. Cato was a known for being conservative and professed a strict moral code that he believed was being undermined by the growing influence of hellenistic culture in Rome. De Agricultura is a treatise on farming and one of the oldest complete prose pieces written in Latin. In addition to advice on how to raise crops and cattle, Cato uses this work to detail old roman customs and the transition from small farmers to large plantations. It was helpful for me to see the reactionary perspective common in Roman politics as well as a contemporary view of the land problem and transition between styles of farming.

Madison, James. “The Constitution of the United States.” ​Wikipedia​. I used a picture of the constitution from wikipedia in my website. Plutarch, ​Plutarch’s Lives​. X, translated by Bernadotte Perrin, publisher, year. Plutarch was an ancient Greek biographer and essay writer born in 46 AD who later became a Roman citizen. Plutarch’s lives is a series of paired biographies of famous Greeks and Romans in which he compares their moral virtues and explores the effects of good or bad character on the fate of men. While Plutarch’s main motivation was to compare the men of Rome and Greece to prove that the older city of Greece was just as good as the newer Rome, his work has been an important historical resource for understanding the lives of many of Rome’s most influential men. Norwich, John Julius, editor. ​The Italians: History, Art, and the Genius of a People.​ Thames and Hudson, 1983. I used a primary source image from this book for my website. The six panels are from a large marble statue in Perugia and depict the “Labors of the Months”: June is reaping and haymaking; July is threshing and winnowing; September is treading the grapes.

Sabben-Clare, James. ​Caesar and Roman Politics, 60-50 BC: Source Material in Translation​. Oxford University Press, 1971. This is a collection of original latin texts translated by James Sabben-Clare categorized by issues over a period of ten years. The sections “Caesar’s Plans for Conquest” and “The Breakdown of the Partnership” offered particularly helpful insights on the politics of Rome and growing influence of military leaders, as well as the ability of these rising generals to challenge the senate. “US Senate.” ​Greek Reporter USA​, June 2018. I used a picture of the US senate from the global news website Greek Reporter.

Secondary Sources Adler, Eric. “Post-9/11 Views of Rome and the Nature of ‘Defensive Imperialism.’” International Journal of the Classical Tradition​, vol. 15, no. 4, 2008, pp. 587–610. JSTOR​, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/25691268. Eric Adler is an Associate Professor and Graduate Program director of Classics at the University of Maryland, has a PhD in classical studies from Duke University, and has published two books. This article is the second one published by this author on the idea of “defensive imperialism,” a school of thought popular in the 20th century that has, with the advent of the 21st century, been reclassified as an “apologist approach.” Throughout the article Adler argues that the connections between viewing Rome’s expansion as defensive and the apologist approach to modern politics are much more tenuous than they appear by citing that few believers in defensive imperialism comment on modern politics. Rather, he states in his conclusion that it is scholarly deference to primary texts, many of which present a pro-Roman bias, that gives rise to the theory of defensive imperialism in regards to Rome. This could explain the significant point of why Americans think of Rome as so uniformly triumphant, either because of the bias in the information we have left or in the idea that Adler is critiquing, that it is a conscious or unconscious excuse for American expansion and domination. Applebaum, Anne. “Polarization in Poland: A Warning From Europe.” ​The Atlantic Daily​, Oct. 2018. Anne Applebaum is a journalist and author who has won the Pulitzer Prize and National book award for her writings on the development of civil society in Europe. Although she is not a professional scholar and has no expertise in classics, Applebaum’s article was extremely helpful in establishing the significance of the Roman Republic. The article was largely focused on Poland, but in the last page Applebaum theorized on the nature and longevity of democracy itself. She notes that, while Americans tend to think of democracy as everlastingly progressive, that has not been the experience for many countries in Europe. Applebaum states that in any system, authoritarian or free market, there are always people who are losing and therefore there will always be challenges towards the government. This is significant because it means that, according to Applebaum, patterns of government are cyclical, a new lense with which to look at the Roman Republic.

Baker, George Philip. ​Sulla the Fortunate: the Great Dictator ; Being an Essay on Politics in the Form of a Historical Biography​. Barnes & Noble, 1967. George Baker is an experienced author who has published several books on individuals and battles throughout history. Although he was not a professional historian, Baker was civil servant in the Royal Artillery and a history buff who provides a perspective based on interpretation. Because this book is largely interpretation from 100 years ago, it gives a sense on what the thesis of Rome was in 1967 and, when read critically, can indicate what effect Rome had on Britain 100 years ago and can also be used as a measure of how much the perspective on Rome has changed since then. ​Sulla was a Roman general, originally training under Marius, with whom he started a rivalry that lasted throughout the rest of Marius’s career. The senate slighted Sulla, granting Marius a post that Sulla had coveted, and causing Sulla to march on Rome with his army. This was significant because it demonstrated a new trend in the army of soldiers being loyal to their general over their country, and it also began Sulla’s dictatorship, which in law was not supposed to last more than six months. Sulla was a brutal dictator, wiping out many populares and their laws, but also gave Rome a temporary stability. Sulla saw himself as selflessly serving Rome, and voluntarily retired to his country estate once reaching old age. Barraclough, Geoffrey, editor. ​Harper Collins Atlas of World History​. Borders Press, 1988. I used an image of a map from this book on my website Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro., et al. ​The Romans From Village to Empire​. Oxford University Press, 2004. Mary Boatwright is a Professor of ancient history at Duke university and has published at least two other books on Rome. Daniel Gargola and Richard Talbert, Mary’s coauthors, are are Associate History Professor at the University of Kentucky and Kenan Professor of Classics at the University of North Carolina respectively. The book was also published by the Oxford press. In the preface the authors argue that the political history of Rome is so closely intertwined with the people's history that you have to look at both to fully understand the Republic. It gives context of what the average Roman was thinking and feeling during this time period, and is important because it gives a second viewpoint on Rome’s history and presents a different idea of what was a tragedy or a triumph. Burton, Paul. “Pax Romana/Pax Americana: Perceptions of Rome in American Political Culture, 2000-2010.” ​International Journal of the Classical Tradition​, vol. 18, no. 1, 2011, pp. 66–104. ​JSTOR​, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41474687.

I found this article on Jstor but it was originally part of the ​International Journal of the Classical Tradition​, a periodical founded at Boston University and dedicated to scholarly research on how ancient Greece and Rome are perceived by other cultures. This particular article focuses on perceptions and assumptions made in modern political culture. Dr. Paul Burton is a senior lecturer at the classics department of Australian National University, and has published and edited a multitude of scholarly works. He argues that questions over the acceptable use of American power in the twenty first century, particularly surrounding major foreign operations like those in Afghanistan and Iraq, have led to an automatic comparison between Rome and America. He further argues that many of the parallels portrayed in popular culture have been informed by either the caricature presented by Hollywood or the categorical assumptions that Americans hold towards republics and democracies. Most of these distorted images portray Rome as universally triumphant, and Burton’s article is useful because it explains how comparison to that triumph has influenced America’s actions. Caissie, Todd, phone interview, December 28, 2018 Todd Caissie is a PhD ca​ndidate ​in Art History and Cultural Heritage and Preservation Studies ​at Rutgers University. While talking to him I learned about Rome’s treatment and influence towards the provinces they conquered as well as the fighting between generals which ultimately finished the Republic. This interview was important, not only for giving me greater context on a portion of history which my books did not focus on, but in shaping my argument because Mr. Cassie was able to suggest a new focus on generals that I previously hadn’t considered. “Cicero Delivering His Speech against Catiline.” ​BBC​. This was the cover image for a radio story by Melvyn Bragg and I used the image in my website. “Cincinnatus Is Told That He Is Dictator.” ​Rome Across Europe​, 8 Sept. 2015. I used this picture even though it is entirely uncited in the website on which I found it. “Curia Julia (Ancient Senate House) in Rome.” ​Wikipedia​, 2014. This is a picture from wikipedia which I used as a heading in my website.

Fagan, Garrett G. “Lectures 7-26.” The History of Ancient Rome. Garrett G. Fagan has a PhD and is a professor of Classics and Ancient Mediterranean Studies at Pennsylvania State University. This source is a series of 48 lectures that covers the entire span of Roman History. The introduction speaks to the significance of Rome be noting what parts of it we still carry today: Roman Catholicism, popular culture, and a reverence for law. He also state that, although popular culture represents one picture of Rome, the real Rome was characterized by political, military, and religious change over the course of more than 1000 years. Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith. ​The Complete Roman Army​. Thames & Hudson, 2003. Adrian Goldsworthy received a PHD in ancient history from Oxford University and was a Professor at the University of Notre Dame for 6 years. ​The​ ​Complete Roman Army​ is useful in giving a detailed account of Rome’s army, an intrinsic part of Roman society. It presents a military and political account of the Republic and goes into great detail on how the army changed, how the change affected the relationship between the military and the government, and what life was like for the average professional soldier. All these were major contributions to the fall of the republic and this book provided needed context in those respects. The book also relates to significance because it describes how Rome built up an impressive enough army that modern people people are still in awe of its accomplishments.

Gunkel, ​Friedrich​. “Hermannsschlacht.” ​Wikipedia​. Used this image in my website Haywood, John, et al. “Map of Rome's Expansion.” ​Historical Atlas of the Classical World, 500 BC--AD 600​, Andromeda Oxford, 1998. I used this map on my website. Heichelheim, Fritz M. ​A History of the Roman People​. Prentice-Hall, 1962. Fritz M. Heichelheim is a german historian who received his doctorate from the University of Gießen, later working at the Universities of Cambridge, Nottingham, and Toronto. This is one of seven books he published an has continued to be printed over 3 editions and 40 years. This book gives a solid overview of the early, middle, and late republics outlining the issues, politics, and important figures of each time period. I was

primarily interested in what this book had to say about the structure of the Roman government and the reforms of the Gracchi brothers but in was also incredibly useful in allowing me to connect the three time periods within the republic and giving me an understanding of how the actions of one stage led to the issues in the next. Homo, Léon. ​Roman Political Institutions: From City to State​. Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1962. Léon Homo is a French historian who specialized in Roman History, earning a PhD in Augustan history and worked at one of the Roman historical institutes. This particular book follows the Roman constitution and government structure in-depth over the course of Roman history. Homo argues that most of the Republic’s structure was evolved from institutions initially implemented under the kings and goes even further back in time to explain the very origin of Rome and its Kings. This book was extremely helpful in giving a more detailed view of how some of Rome’s more convoluted structures were formed. Ingres, Jean Auguste-Dominique. ​Romulus' Victory Over Acron​. 1812, Amphithéatre d'Honneur. I used an image of this painting from wikipedia on my website. Lingelbach, Johannes. ​Sack of Rome in 1527​. Used a picture of this painting in my website. Maccari, Cesare. “Cicero Denounces Catiline.” ​Ancient History Encyclopedia​, 12 Dec. 2016. I used this website for a photo of the senate. Mirys, Silvestre Davis. “Gaius Gracchus Addressing the Plebeians.” ​Wikipedia​, 1800. I used this picture in my website. Nousek, Debra. Review of ​The Roman from Village to Empire​, by Mary T. Boatwright. ​Bryn Mawr Classical Review,​ Bryn Mawr College, 3 April 2009. Reviewer Debra L. Nousek has a PhD from Rutgers university and is a professor at historiography. She is reviewing The Romans from village to Empire, a book by Mary T. Boatwright which I used to inform my website. Aside from a unbalanced focus towads the republican period and the exclusion of some minor details, most of which are relevant to the imperial period rather than the republic, Nousek finds the book to be a clear and

consistent overview of Roman history. She also notes the objectivity of information included in the book, making me feel fairly confident in the book’s information, even if it is slightly lacking in analysis. Oman, Charles. ​Seven Roman Statesmen of the Later Republic: the Gracchi. Sulla. Crassus. Cato. Pompey. Caesar​. Hardpress, 1952. Charles Oman, military historian and member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire, argues that the building up of the Roman empire was monotonous. According to him it was just a conquest of disconnected things, uninteresting because it was waged by unimportant people. After such expansion Rome was an imperial state, through her government tried to shirk the responsibilities of the empire. Their 3 responsibilities were to provide good government within the provinces, police the high seas, and protect civilized world from barbarians, and Rome failed all three. After 133 BC, however, Oman argues that there were important leaders who seriously impacted the empire and gives context as to what they did. He says there were several people who saw that things were out of joint and did their best to fix things (Tiberius Gracchus, Gaius Gracchus, Sulla, Crassus, Cato, Pompey, Caesar). Polo, Francisco Pina. “THE POLITICAL ROLE OF THE ‘CONSULES DESIGNATI’ AT ROME.” ​Historia: Zeitschrift Für Alte Geschichte​, vol. 62, no. 4, 2013, pp. 420–452. JSTOR​, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/24434040. Polo, Profesor of the Roman Republic at the ​University of Zaragoza​, wrote this article for Historia: Zeitschrift Für Alte Geschichte, ​a highly ranked journal focused on Roman and Greek antiquity. This particular article focuses on the role of consules designati, the term for a consul after being elected but before taking office. This article gave me some context of how policies within the Republic managed to maintain a level on continuity when two new consuls were elected every year. It also spoke to the extremely influential powers given to the Consules Designati, not only how they were used to effect the government but how they were implemented and which consuls pushed for their strengthening. Potter, David. “HOLDING COURT IN REPUBLICAN ROME (105-44).” ​The American Journal of Philology​, vol. 132, no. 1, 2011, pp. 59–80. ​JSTOR​, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41237381. David Potter, Professor of Greek and Roman History at the University of Michigan and author of several books, published this article in The American Journal of Philology, a

forum for the international exchange of original research in classics. Potter argues that each senatorial family held its own version of an imperial court right in their home an the only difference between these men and the eventual Emperor Augustus was that Augustus connected his proto-cout with the governmental structure of Rome. This is relevant to my thesis because is gives context on how senatorial families operated during the republic and how Augustus was able to use that structure to completely reconfigure the established government. “Roman Republic in 298 BC”​, ​History - Woodsman2b's Roman Maps. Deviant Art. I used this photo as well as five others from the same collection in the slideshow on my website. Rouille, Guillaume. “Coin Depicting King Tarquinius.” ​Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum​, 1553. A primary source picture I found on wikipedia that comes from this iconography book. Scullard, Howard Hayes. ​From the Gracchi to Nero: a History of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68​. Routledge, 2011. Scullard was a British Historian, editor of the Oxford Classical Dictionary, and author of more than ten books. The book itself contains over 100 pages of finely printed notes. Referenced by Fagan as suggested reading. The introductory portion of this book explains the context within which the Roman Republic began to fall. Rome had expanded from an independent city-state to the dominant power in the Western Mediterranean in just 53 years. This presented Rome with an entirely different set of problems than when she was a city-state, and caused instability when politicians tried to adapt their policies rather than begin a complete overhaul. It also uses the expansion of Rome to comment on the rise of the equestrian class, the conflict between Optimates and Populares, and the challenges for independent farmers, all of which are important points of context for the time in which Gracchus entered politics. Seidman, Jessica C., phone interview, January 2, 2019 Dr. Jessica Seidman, PhD is a Visiting Professor of Classics and Humanities at Reed College and a Visiting Lecturer in Classical Studies at Wellesley College. Professor Seidman’s research focuses on Roman Literature, especially the association between place and memory. She was able to provide me with information on how Romans viewed their territorial conquests, as well as the contemporary perception of the Republic’s fall.

Sullivan, William Holmes. “Mark Antony Speaks About Caesar.” ​Ancien Régime Discs​. I used a picture from this site for my website. “The Brothers Gracchi: Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus.” ​The Brothers Gracchi: Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus​, I used a photo from this website. Topino-Lebrun, François Jean-Baptiste. “The Death of Gaius Gracchus.” WikiVisually, 1792. I used this photo.

Wintner, Claude. ​Theater of Pompey​. 2016. A photo taken by my grandparents during their trip to Rome. Overlooks the ruins of the Theater of Pompey, Caesar’s death site, as well as some of the modern city. Zoffany, Johann. “Charles Towneley an His Friends in the Towneley Gallery, 33 Park Street, Westminster, 1781-83.” ​Rome: A Cultural, Visual, and Personal History​, 2011. Used a photo of this painting in my website.