An Islamic Approach To The Environment

Towards An Islamic Environmental Ethics

Ibrahim Ozdemir, Ph.D.

The 1999 Parliament of the World’s Religions, December 1 — 8, 1999, Cape Town, South Africa

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Contents 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................3 2. What is the Environment? ...........................................................................................................4 3. Discovering The Metaphysical Dimension of Nature.................................................................5 4. Nature as Muslim ........................................................................................................................9 5. Nature as Signs of God..............................................................................................................12 6. The Case of Animals .................................................................................................................13 7. Human beings and Nature: Master or Vicegerent ? ..................................................................17 8. Sustainable Development: Not Wasting the Earth’s Resources................................................18 9. Conclusion.................................................................................................................................22 Bibliography and Further Readings ..............................................................................................25

About the Author: Ibrahim Ozdemir has received his B.A. from Ankara University and Ph.D. degree from the Middle East Technical University, Department of Philosophy. He is a senior lecturer at the Department of the History of Philosophy, Divinity School of Ankara University, Turkey. Address: Ankara University, Divinity School (Ilahiyat Fakultesi) 06500 Besevler, Ankara - TURKEY E-Mail: [email protected]

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Towards An Islamic Environmental Ethics

Earth cannot be changed for the better unless the consciousness of individuals is changed first... Towards a Global Ethic: An Initial Declaration

1. Introduction The Qur'an, the last of the chain of Divine Revelations, has been a source of inspiration, illumination and guidance for Muslim philosophers, Kalam scholars, Sufi Masters, Muslim scientists, and Jurists, in addition for the men of divergent ways and different paths of thought that may be found in the Islamic tradition. The Qur'an, I believe, can also play such a role today in our quest for conducting a meaningful life, providing a comprehensive, integrated, and holistic worldview, which is based on the unity of Reality, i.e. Tawhid. In fact, “unity is essential to Islam. Islam underscores the unity of Goo, the unity of the many streams of revelation, the unity of humanity, and ultimately the unity of existence.” 1 As we know, one of the underlying propositions of the modern understanding of nature is that nature is a machine; it has no value and expresses no purposiveness. So, if we look at that tree over there, for example, it has no value, that is, it has no intrinsic value of its own being as such. According to the modern materialistic concept of the nature, it gains its value through human intervention, i.e. when it become a chair, a table etc. If we apply this small example to the whole of nature, there will not be much difference.

The only value that nature can have is an

instrumental value. As a result, this understanding of nature provided justifications for legitimating the exploitative use of nature and natural resources. This claim leads us to rediscover the meaning of universe which may be regarded as the missing dimension of modernity or the sacred dimension of reality. In other words, it is expected that any attempt of developing an environmental ethical theory, must challenge this modern understanding of nature. Here our interest is in a Qur'anic alternative.

1

Abdul Aziz Said, “Peace in Islam: An Ecology of the Spirit”, p.1, paper presented to Islam and Ecology Conference held by Harvard University, May 8-10, 1998.

-4As we know the Qur'an, with its emphasis on the metaphysical dimension of nature, replaced the pagan Arabs’ conception of nature with a new a vivid concept. It is surprising to see the striking similarity between the pagan Arabs' view of nature as lifeless, meaningless and purposeless and the ideas put forward in the name of so-called scientific world view in modern times. So, today, the Qur'an once more is ready to challenge the modern materialistic conception of nature and to suggest and provide a more comprehensive and holistic approach to developing an environmental ethical theory. So, the questions we face are as follows: • Does nature have any objective and independent existence? • What is the meaning of nature? • What does nature stand for? • How does the Qur'an look at nature as a whole? • What is the place of human beings in the great chain of being? It is my firm conviction that once the metaphysical foundation for an environmental ethic is discovered within the Qur'anic value system, it will not be difficult to develop an environmental ethic on this basis.

2. What is the Environment? We know that the problem of the environment is one of today’s most serious problems. It is a problem that threatens not only ourselves, but the whole world, and future generations and their right to live in a healthy environment. It is therefore causing humanity to approach the 21st century in a state of anxiety. This compels us to understand the environmental problems and to help in solving them. We should therefore first of all ask: what do we understand by ‘the environment’? That is, what is the environment? One scientist answered this question by saying “we have 4095 environments.” By this he wanted to emphasize that when saying “environment,” it is insufficient to understand only the natural environment. As a Muslim, I understand the phrase “Sustainer of All the Worlds” as meaning this. The Sustainer of all the worlds, that is, all environments; our Sustainer, Who embraces and encompasses all environments. The Qur’an expresses this truth as follows: To God belong the East and the West; whithersoever you turn, there is God’s countenance. For God is All-Embracing, All-Knowing. 2

2

Qur’an, 2:115.

-5Another noteworthy point of the Qur’an’s related to the environment is this: In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. All praise be to God, the Sustainer of all the worlds. 3 This induces us to consider the environment from a broad perspective. We should not forget that the Creator and Owner of all environments is at the same time our Creator.

3. Discovering The Metaphysical Dimension of Nature Firstly, I should say that according to Islam, everything in the universe is created by God. It is God Who adorns the skies with the sun, the moon and the stars, and the face of the earth with flowers, trees, gardens, orchards, and the various animal species. It is again God Who causes the rivers and streams to flow on the earth, Who upholds the skies (without support), causes the rain to fall, and places the boundary between night and day. The universe together with all its richness and vitality is the work and art of God, that is, of the Creator. It is again God Who creates all plants and animals as pairs, in this way causing their procreation. God created humanity subsequently to all these. Nature, from the Qur'anic perspective, can be seen best in the first revelations to the Prophet Muhammad in the cave Hira on the Mount Jabal an-Noor. We know that the first verse was a command from God "Read! (or Recite!) to the Prophet who immediately responded "I do not know how to read". And Gabriel, the bearer of revelation, insisted "Read!" The third time Gabriel repeated it saying "Read in the name of your Lord and Sustainer who created-" The point is that the Prophet Muhammad was not literate, * and there was not yet a text in any form to be read, so what was the meaning of this first holy command "Read!"? One answer, I think, is that reading here means a completely new way of looking at the world. The key notion is that this reading should be in the name of our Sustainer. So, at the very beginning it is taught that God, as the Sustainer and Creator, gives existence and meaning to everything else. Thus, God, according to the Qur'an, is the real Creator, Owner and Sustainer of all reality. Hence, all reality should be seen and read with this point of view in mind. Thus, when the early and first verses of the Qur'an are examined carefully it will be seen that they invited people to examine and investigate the heavens and the earth, and all they see in their

3 *

Qur’an, 1:1-2.

The earliest classical sources are unanimous that he did not know how to read and write.

-6environment: Birds, sheep, clouds, seas, grapes, dates, olives, flies, the moon, the sun, fish, camels, bees, mountains, rain, wind, in short all natural phenomena. For example: We shall show them our signs in the [furthest] regions [of the earth], and in their own souls. 4 Behold! In the creation of the heavens and the earth; in the alternation of the night and the day; in the sailing of the ships through the ocean for the profit of mankind; in the rain which God sends down from the skies, and the life which He gives therewith to an earth that is dead; in the beasts of all kinds that He scatters through the earth; in the change of the winds, and the clouds subjugated between the sky and earth — [here] indeed are signs for a people who thinks. 5

See you the seed that you sow in the ground? Is it you that cause it to grow, or are We the cause? Were it our will, We could crumble it to dry powder, and you would be left in wonderment, [Saying], “We are indeed left with debts [for nothing]; “Indeed are we shut out [of the fruits of our labour].” See you the water which you drink? Do you bring it down [in rain] from the cloud or do We? Were it our will, We could make it salt [and unpalatable]; then why do you not give thanks? See you the fire which you kindle? Is it you who grow the tree which feeds the fire, or do We grow it? It is We Who make it a means to remind [you of Us], and an article of comfort and convenience for the denizens of deserts. Then celebrate with praises the name of your Sustainer, the Supreme! 6 By its often repeated insistence on this crucial inquiry of nature, needless to say, the Qur'an was aiming at developing an active and dynamic individual. The basic characteristic of this individual, as far as we understand from these verses, is that his mind is open to new happenings 4

Qur’an, 41:53. Qur’an, 2:164. 6 Qur’an, 56:62-74. 5

-7and he is aware of what is occurring around him, in the heavens and on the earth. He also questions all these things from a Qur'anic perspective. Then he reaches the conclusion that nature is not there just by accident, as a result of the process of evolution or chaotic configurations without meaning or purpose. According to the Qur'an, on the other hand, nature reflects, just like a mirror, the power, beauty, wisdom and mercy of its Creator. For example, the Qur'an sees in the humble bee a recipient of Divine inspiration and constantly calls upon the reader to observe the perpetual change of the winds, the alternation of day and night, the clouds, the starry heavens, and the planets swimming through infinite space! In other words, the Qur'an invited the pagan Arabs, who were illiterate, to ponder over nature and the universe for at least two purposes, firstly to have an idea about God's existence and His presence through whatever He creates, then to have a moral feeling of obligation towards a transcendental being, that is God. It is obvious that the Qur'an rejects the argument that nature is meaningless and purposeless and the resulting conclusion, that is, that human life also is meaningless and purposeless. In contrast, if there is meaning and purpose in nature, then there must be meaning and purpose in human life, too. The basic point seems to be that there is a relationship between the purposefulness and meaningfulness of natural world and human's conduct of life. In this context the following verse and its implications is very significant: So glory to Him in Whose hands is the dominion of all things: Ant to Him will you be all brought back. 7 According to Yusuf Ali the message conveyed in this verse is the core of Revelation; it explains the Hereafter: All things were created by God; are maintained by Him; and will go back to Him. But the point of special interest to human beings is that they will also be brought back to God and is answerable to Him, and to Him alone. 8 The concept of Divine unity is the basis and essence of Islam. Divine unity is apparent in the unity of humanity and of nature. God’s vicegerents on the earth, the holders of His trust, are therefore primarily responsible for preserving the unity of creatures, the integral wholeness of the world, the flora and fauna, and wildlife and natural environment.

7 8

Qur'an:36:83. Yusuf Ali, The Holy Qur'an, (Maryland: Amana Corp., 1983) p. 1188, ff.4029.

-8Thus, ‘unity’, ‘trust’, and ‘responsibility’ are the three basic concepts of Islamic. These principles are at the same time the chief pillars of the Islamic environmental ethic. They form also the fundamental values taught by the Qur’an. When we read the Qur’an’s verses about the earth, we find that they suggest strongly that it is for human being a peaceful place which he should take heed of. Thus, the Qur’an draws our attention to nature and to the events that occur in it: The seven heavens and the earth, and all beings therein, declare His glory; there is not a thing but celebrates His praise; and yet you understand not how they declare His glory! Verily He is Oft-Forbearing, Most Forgiving! 9 See you not that to God bow down in worship all things that are in the heavens and on earth — the sun, the moon, the stars; the hills, the trees, the animals; and a great number of mankind? 10 Who has made the earth your couch and the heavens your canopy; and sent down rain from the heavens; and brought forth therewith fruits for your sustenance; then set not up rivals unto God when you know [the truth]. 11 Or who has made the earth firm to live in; made rivers in its midst; set thereon mountains immovable, and made a separating bar between the bodies of flowing water? [Can there be another] god besides God? Nay, most of them know not. 12

Another conclusion of the Qur'anic perspective, which is can be elicited from these verses and also very important for an environmental ethic, is that God does not create as "frivolity, pastime, or sport, without a serious purpose. It is incompatible with the power of the Powerful and the mercy of the Merciful that He should produce toys for amusement or as sheer whim- a blind Fate can do this but God cannot". One immediate conclusion, from an environmentalist perspective, is that every individual creature or being has an ontological existence of itself as a sign of God, and by its being manifesting and revealing His Majesty and Mercy. Therefore, every creature deserves attention and consideration for its relations with this divine ground.

9

Qur’an, 17:44. See also, 57:1; 62:1. Qur’an, 22:18. 11 Qur’an, 2:21-2. 12 Qur’an, 27:61. 10

-9Again, it is evident that in the Qur’anic discourse justice and balance are universal laws [of God], and that (as a result) human beings should conduct a just and balanced life. It might reasonably be argued that these verses alone would be enough for developing a theory of environmental ethic from the Qur'an itself. Therefore, I think, the Qur'an's insistence on the Absolute and Infinite character of God on the one hand, and finitude of everything other than God on the other, is very important. For it infers that any economical and developmental theories that are claimed to be Islamic, should presuppose this fact at the very beginning.

4. Nature as Muslim The very idea that nature is created by God and it is an indication and sign of its existence leads to another Qur'anic term, that is, all nature is muslim. 13 For, as we discussed above, the whole of nature works according to God's laws, i.e., the so-called natural laws, and according to the way God designed and created it for. The Qur'an, therefore, applies the term islam to the entire nature and universe insofar as it obeys God's law. As a result of its position, nature does not and cannot disobey God's commands and cannot violate natural laws, as is underlined in the following verses: Don't you see that to God bow down in worship all things that are in the heavens and on earth the sun the moon the stars; the hills the trees the animals; and a great number among mankind? 14 The seven heavens and the earth and all beings therein declare His glory: there not a thing but celebrates His praise; and yet you don't understand how they declare His glory! 15 Since every thing in the universe behaves in accordance with laws enacted by God, the whole universe is therefore muslim, surrendering to the Will of God. In other words, the term muslim, at is most inclusive level of meaning, includes all human beings and all of creation, with the capitalized form, ‘Muslim’, used for those who derive their religious orientation from the prophethood of Muhammad. All things are necessarily muslim because, consciously or unconsciously, they perform the will of Allah; Muslims are those who consciously follow the revelation given thorough Muhammad.” 16 So, for the pious Muslim, “islam shows itself everywhere in the universe- in the blood circulation, the movement of the stars in their orbits, in 13

The term muslim comes from the word islam and the latter is derived from the root s l m, which means " to be safe"; "to be whole and integral", "not to be disintegrated". The basic idea is that by accepting the law of God and "surrendering" to it, one avoids disintegration. See, Fazlur Rahman "Some Key Ethical Concepts of the Qur’an", Journal of Religious Ethics 2 (1983) p. 183. 14 Qur'an 22:18. 15 Qur'an 17:44;24:41-42.

- 10 the growth of plants- everything is bound by islam…” 17 As it is emphasized by the Qur'an itself, human beings are the only exception to this universal law, for he/she is the only being endowed with the free choice of obeying or disobeying the Command of God. Another important point related to nature as being muslim, I think, is that the Islamic way of prayer is a synthesis of the methods of prayer of all the beings in the universe. Muhammad Hamidullah, a contemporary Muslim scholar, attests that one day reciting verse 22:18, he began to think of the significance of the acts of Islamic prayers with regard to the prayer of nature as a whole: he universe consists of three kingdoms, minerals, animals, and vegetables. Their particularities are respectively resting, erect, and motionless, remaining perpetually bent, and resting perpetually prostrate. I mean to say that since the roots constitutes the mouths for the plants, they are perpetually posed on the ground. A Muslim purifies himself/herself like water, praises God aloud like thunder, remains erect like hills, bends himself like animals, and prostrates like plants. Service means obeying to the orders of the Lord. God has ordered mountains to rest immobile and (to Muslim the Qur'an 2:238 says) " and stand before God devoutly"; to animals to remain perpetually bent and (to Muslim the Qur'an 2:43 commands) "and to trees to remain prostrate and (to Muslim the Qur'an 53:62 orders) "But you fall down in prostration to God and adore (Him)!. 18 Thus, with his daily prayers, the Muslim is firstly participating in the call of all creation on the one hand, and realizing the integration of his self with all realty on the other. Then, he looks upon all creation as his brethren before God. 19 It is needless to point out that the Qur'an aimed at the realization of an integrated and holistic selfhood. Still another important point is that "there not a thing but celebrates His praise; and yet you don't understand how they declare His glory!" 20 This has led many Muslim thinkers to think of nature

16

Said, p.4. Annemaire Schimmel, Deciphering the Signs of God: A Phenomenological Approach to Islam, (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1994), p. 255. 18 Muhammad Hamidullah, "Religious Symbolism", Hamdard Islamicus, vol. II, No. 4, p. 7. 19 There are many examples of Muslim Sufis who call other creatures as "my brother" and treat them with respect. See, for example, Annemarie Schimmel. Deciphering the Signs of God: A Phenomenological Approach to Islam, (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1994). 20 Qur'an 17: 44. 17

- 11 as a whole as a living being. For example, al-Ghazali, when commenting on this and similar verses, regards it as a new language, i.e. the language of creation. (....) you suppose that in the universe there is only the language of statement. This is why you did not understand the meaning of the words of God (may He be exalted!) "there not a thing but celebrates His praise". Nor do you understand the meaning of the words of God (may He be exalted!) "They[i.e. the heavens and the earth] submitted [to You] willingly(41:11)", unless you suppose that the earth has a language and life. 21

Rumi, the great Sufi Master and thinker of the 13th century, makes similar observations on the same subject and warns us saying: Since God hath made Human being from dust, it behoves thee to recognize the real nature of every particle of the universe, That while from this aspect they are dead, from that aspect they are living: silent here, but speaking Yonder. When He sends them down to our world, the rod of Moses becomes a dragon in regard to us; The mountains sing with David, iron becomes as wax in his hand; The wind becomes a carrier for Solomon, the sea understands what God said to Moses concerning it. The moon obeys the sign given by Mohammad, the fire (of Nimrod) becomes a garden of roses for Abraham. They all cry, “we are hearing and seeing and responsive, though to you, the uninitiated, we are mute.” Our second example is from Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, a contemporary Muslim scholar. The verses which were the sources of Rumis’s thought were reflected as follows in his writings: Glory be to the One who made the garden of the earth an exhibition of His art, a gathering of His creatures, a place of manifestation of His power, the means of His wisdom, the flower-bed of His mercy, the tillage of Paradise, a place of passage of creatures, for the flood of beings, a funnel for His artefacts.

21

Al-Ghazali, The Jewels of the Qur'an, , tran: M. Abul Quasem, (London: Kegan Paul, 1983), p. 57.

- 12 The adorned animals, decorative birds, fruit-bearing trees, and flowering plants are miracles of His knowledge, wonders of His art, gifts of His munificence, propitious signs of His grace. The blossoms smiling at the embellished fruits, the birds twittering in the breezes of the early morn, the pattering of the rain on the petals of the flowers, the tender affection of mothers for their infants and young all show to jinn and men, and spirits and living creatures, and angels and spirit beings a Loving One making Himself known, a Merciful One making Himself loved, a Tenderly Kind One bestowing His mercy, a Gracious Bestower manifesting His kindness. 22

So, the Muslim lives in a world that is alive, meaningful, purposeful and more importantly muslim like himself, and prostrates before God. The immediate result is the discovery of wholeness of all creation and integration with it, physically and spiritually.

5. Nature as Signs of God. The universe and everything in it, the Qur'an claims, are signs (ãyat) pointing to something "beyond" themselves, that is something without which the universe, despite all its natural causes, would be nothing. Therefore the Qur'an invites humanity with the following and other similar verses to read the universe as signs of God: We shall show them Our signs upon the horizons and within their own souls, until it is clear to them that He is the Real. 23 So, a sign, which is repeated in singular or plural form 288 times in the Qur'an, is " any phenomenon that gives news of God. It may be a prophet, a prophetic message, a prophetic miracle, or simply the things of the natural world. (....) In short everything in the universe is a sign of God." When the pagan people of the time, demanded proofs, "signs" or miracles for the existence of God, the Qur'an's usual response was to point out to the complexity, the regularity, and the order in nature, and to emphasize that the universe and all that is in it could not have come into existence by themselves.

22 23

Abdülaziz Hatip. Risale-i Nur’dan Dualar, (Istanbul: Gençlik Yayınları, 1993), 57-9.

Qur'an 41: 53.

- 13 It is obvious that every masterpiece of art deserves not only attention, appreciation and, admiration but also protection from us. If a masterpiece of painting belong to a great master, it deserves every sort of care and appreciation. Then, nature, which is full of signs of God and furthermore a masterpiece of God, deserves our watchfulness, gratefulness, and respect. In addition, nature, being signs of God, has somehow intrinsic value other than what human beings attribute to it as instrumental values. The overall influence of this understanding of nature as signs of God, is very evident in the history of Islamic thought. Muslim thinkers regard nature as a sacred book, that is full of symbols and signs. As a result, it can be deducted that the book of the universe has been entrusted to us in order to be preserved and protected. Should those believers who hold the Qur’an in respect and awe, not touching it unless purified by ablutions, not also treat the book of the universe respectfully and lovingly? Our duty, therefore, as God’s vicegerents and trustees on earth, is to show respect for the primal trust, and to preserve it carefully, and this means not wasting natural resources when making use of them.

6. The Case of Animals Another important question related to the environment is the proper treatment of the animals, the protection which is due to them; or more correctly, extending and expressing our kindness and compassion to them. But, unfortunately, today many animal species are becoming extinct. The first thing about animals, which may surprise an environmentally sensitive reader of the Qur'an, is the fact that some important chapters of the Qur'an bear the names of animals. For example: al-Baqara (The Cow); al-Nahl (The Bee), al-Anqabut (The Spider), al-Naml (The Ant). Moreover, one of the striking expressions, which the Qur’an uses about animals, is that they are a “community” (umma) just like us. It is especially noteworthy that this concept, which is a significant concept in Islamic tradition and literature, should also be used for animals: There is not an animal [that lives] on the earth, nor a being that flies on its wings, but [forms part of] communities like you. 24 Further, the Qur'an emphasizes the fact that the natural world has not been created just for human's use. Even if human beings are the Vicegerent of God on the earth, it does not necessarily mean that the whole nature and its resources are designed for their benefits only. This can be seen from the following verse:

- 14 And the earth has He spread out for all living beings, with fruit thereon, and palm trees with sheathed clusters [of dates], and grain growing tall on its stalks, and sweet-smelling plants. 25 Here, the meaning of "anam", which means "all living beings" is very crucial for our study. From this verse it can easily be deduced that the bounties of the earth and all other resources are not solely for human's use, but for all creatures of God that live in the same earth. In addition, the Qur'an draws our attention to another aspect regarding animals, that is it is possible to communicate with them, although the extent and nature of this communication is not defined. For example, while the Qur'an narrates the story of the Prophet Solomon it informs us that he had been taught the language of birds by God. 26 Thus, the Qur'an, says that Solomon could understand the languages of birds and ants, which may imply at least two points: First, to communicate with animals is possible, though the extent of this not defined for the time being. Further as it is pointed out, this may be pointing to a new horizon, that is, to transmission of meaning to other living beings in this context. Second, it gives us the feeling that the animals are just like our fellowmen in some respects. It is obvious that, unlike our experience in modern times, there is no clear-cut distinction between humans and non-humans and they are both creatures of the same Creator. As with the important place given to animals by the Qur’an, the Prophet Muhammad also insisted on the protection of animals and the kind treatment of them. His concern that they should be well treated, protected, and not abused or degraded is truly noteworthy. While at the present time torture and oppression of every sort are meted out to man/woman, whom God created as the noblest of creatures, the Prophet prohibited torture and abuse of animals even. Thus, God’s Messenger (PBUH) taught that Muslims should act kindly not only towards human beings but to all living beings: The Most Merciful One is merciful towards those who are merciful. Act kindly to those on the earth so that those in the heavens [the angels] will be merciful to you. 27 And as given above: “Anyone who kills a sparrow without good reason will be called to account by God at the Last Judgment.” 28 God’s Messenger Muhammad also commanded that birds’ nests

24 25

27 28

Qur’an 6:38. Qur'an 55:10-12. 26 Qur'an 27:16-18.

Tirmidhi, Birr, 16. Abu Dau'd, ii, 11.

- 15 should not be disturbed, or the eggs or chicks stolen. 29 On one occasion he ordered someone who had filled his bag with fledglings stolen from nests and brought them to the town to return them to their nests immediately. The young birds were thus able to grow to maturity in natural surroundings in their mothers’ nests.

The Prophet Muhammad thus enjoined the protection of animals and birds, that they should not be ill-treated, but should be well looked after and kept clean, and employed in work suitable to their natures, and should not be loaded with burdens greater than they can bear. He put a ban on hunting, forbidding the arbitrary hunting of animals for pleasure. He one day related the following story to those sitting by him: A traveller felt a great thirst as he went on his way, so stopped at well and drank of its water. As he came up from the well he saw a dog licking the damp soil with its thirsty, lolling tongue. Saying to himself: ‘This animal is thirsty like I was,’ he went back down to the well and filled his shoe with water. Then holding it firm returned and held it for the dog to drink. God praised that servant of His for his act and forgave all his sins.” His Companions then asked him: “So are we rewarded for watering animals?” God’s Messenger replied: “There is a reward for giving any living creature to drink. 30 The Prophet prohibited the ill-treatment of animals, and warned us concerning this question when he said: A woman was sent to Hell because she tied up her cat and neither gave it food nor allowed it free to hunt the cockroaches. 31 He stated that like men, animals employed in various tasks had the right to rest, and when stopping to rest on journeys, in particular insisted that the animals’ needs should be met and that they should be rested. Anas ibn Malik, one of the Companions, related:

29

Bukhari, al-Adab al-Mufrad, 139. Bukhari, Tajrid al-Sahih, vii, 223, No: 1066. 31 Bukhari, Adhan, 90; Musaqat, 9; Muslim, Birr, 133; Musnad, iv, 351. 30

- 16 “Whenever we arrived at a stopping-place, we would never start the prayers until we had removed the loads from the pack-animals [and left them free to rest].” 32 Reynold A. Nicholson, for example, is very impressed by Muslims treatment of animals. In his book The Mystic of Islam we find the following story: Bayazid [ninetieth century Muslim mystic] purchased some cardamom seed at Hamadhan, and before departing put into his gabardine a small quantity which was left over. On reaching Bistam and recollecting what he had done, ho took out the seed and found out that it contained a number of ants. Saying, "I have carried the poor creatures away from their home" he immediately set off and journeyed back to Hamadhan-a distance of several hundred miles. We see then that Islam permits that no living creature is tormented or abused. Whether human or beast, all living creatures have rights. Those who violate their rights or disregard them will be punished in the hereafter by God if it not possible for them to be punished by the authorities here. The Prophet expressed this in the following way: It is a fact that in the next life you will render their rights to those to whom they are due. The hornless sheep even will receive its right by way of retaliation from a horned sheep that butted it. 33 This stance of the Prophet, and his admonitions, have had a powerful effect on Muslims down the ages. Being imbued with the Prophet's attitude, Muslims have always looked kindly and tolerantly on people of different faith and backgrounds. They have never tortured their enemies even. Members of other religions and faiths have lived in security amongst them. Animals too have received their share of this loving, compassionate, and tolerant civilization.

‘Izz ad-Din ibn ‘Abd as-Salam, the thirteenth century Muslim legal scholar, formulated the following principles of animal rights which appears to be based on the very teaching of the Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Prophet: that he spend on them the provision that their kinds require, even if they have aged or sickened such that no benefit comes from them; 32 33

Abu Dau'd, Jihaad, 48. Muslim, Birr, 60.

- 17 that he not burden them beyond what they can bear; that he not put them together with anything by which they would be injured, whether of their own kind or other species, whether by breaking their bones or butting or wounding; that he slaughter them with kindness; that when he slaughters them he neither flay their skins nor break their bones until their bodies have become cold and their lives he passed away; that he not slaughter their young within their sight but that he isolate them; that he make comfortable their resting places and watering places; that he put their males and females together during their mating seasons; that he not discard those which he takes as game; and neither shoot them with anything that breaks their bones nor bring about their destruction by any means that renders their meat unlawful to eat. 34 We saw, moreover, from the Prophet’s Hadiths that treating animals well is a means of a person entering Paradise, while ill-treatment of them may be the cause of a person going to Hell. It is not difficult to see the fact that the animals are not mentioned here for their instrumental use as such, and our relationship with them cannot be only based on the principle of utility. Of course, humanity will make use them and benefit from them, but this is not the only legitimate relationship with them. It is expected from us that we should see nature and all its inhabitants in a broad and more holistic perspective, appreciating its metaphysical, esthetical and other aspects as well.

7. Human beings and Nature: Master or Vicegerent ? At this juncture the Qur’anic discourse about human beings and their position in the overall scheme of being and their legitimate relationship with them should be clarified. It is known that after the publication of Lynn White's provocative article, 35 the Judeo-Christian tradition has been held responsible for environmental degradation. Some critics also have been trying to include Islam to the same category. What is interesting is that a piecemeal and oversimplified approach to some verses of the Qur'an, supports such a position and leads to impression that "everything 34

‘Izz ad-Din ibn ‘Abd as-Salam, Qavaid al-Ahmak fi Masalih al-Anam, (Beirut: Daru'l- Ceyl, 1980), vol.1, p. 167; Fazlun Khalid and Joanne O’Brien. (ed.), Islam and Ecology, (New York: Cassell Publishers Limited, 1992). 35

Lynn White, “The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis”, in Man and The Environment, (eds.) Wes Jackson and Kansas Wesleyan, (Dubuque, Iowa: W.M. C. Brown Company Publishers, 1971).

- 18 on earth created for sake of man" and that "man's authority over nature is unlimited. He might use it as he pleased, 'for profit or for pleasure.'” For example, the following verses may support such a position if taken by themselves: It is He who has created for you all things that are on earth; 36 It is He Who has made the earth manageable for you so you traverse through its tracts and enjoy of the Sustenance which He furnishes: but unto Him is the Resurrection. 37 To be sure, human beings are at the top of the great chain of beings, but they are not the owner of nature as such. When the history of Islam, especially the history of Qur'anic exegesis is studied from such a perspective it can be seen that Muslims deduced from the above-mentioned and other related Qur’anic verses that “although the various components of the natural environment serve humanity as one of their functions, this does not imply that human use is the sole reason for their creation.” Both classical and contemporary Muslim scholars have interesting views on this matter. Al-Biruni, one of the most learned of Muslim scholars and compilers of the tenth century, for example, argues that "man does not have a right to exploit the other kingdoms for his own desires, which are insatiable, but may use them only in conformity with the law of God and in His way." Thus, it is apparent that nature has been entrusted to us as we are God's vicegerents on the earth. Since we are not the lords of nature and the world; the world is not our property, at our disposal to be used haphazardly and irresponsibly. What is important here in the Qur'anic context is that we are answerable for all that we do, both the good and the evil. As God’s vicegerent on earth, at the Last Judgement human beings will be called to account for their actions in relation to the trust. In short, all things were created by God; are maintained by Him; and will go back to Him. But the point of special interest to human beings is that they will also be brought back to God and are answerable to Him.

8. Sustainable Development: Not Wasting the Earth’s Resources A further important Islamic principle related to the environment is the Islamic prohibition concerning thoughtless consumption; that is, wastefulness and extravagance. Wastefulness is not only the thoughtless consumption of natural resources, it is at the same time disrespectful towards God, the Creator and Owner of all the bounties. For this reason, in Islam, eating and 36 37

Qur'an 2:29. Qur'an 67: 15.

- 19 drinking of licit food is lawful, but wastefulness is forbidden. At this time we know better than at any other that the world’s resources are limited. Extravagance and over-consumption will affect not only ourselves, but forthcoming generations. We are therefore compelled to be aware and sensitive concerning this matter. In the Holy Qur’an, God says: Verily We have created all things in proportion and measure. 38 If we keep this in mind, we see that carefully preserving the balance and measure is a human obligation. The science of ecology shows us that the universe contains extremely sensitive eco systems and balances, and that human beings have therefore to maintain these ecological systems.

Modern understanding only came to realize the environmental problems with the help of ecology when the problems became apparent, whereas the Qur’an draws our attention to this balance in particular, which now everyone is trying to maintain. The obligation of maintaining this balance, which is God’s work, is humanity, whom God created on “the best of patterns,” and who is His vicegerent or deputy on the earth. No Muslim therefore will spoil the universe’s balance, nor will any Muslim look on indifferently while other’s spoil it. For the natural balance is at the same time a mirror reflecting Almighty God’s Most Beautiful Names. Islam permits utilization of the environment, but this should not be arbitrary. Wastefulness and extravagance are prohibited by God: O children of Adam! Wear your beautiful apparel at every time and place of prayer; eat and drink, but waste not by excess, for God loves not the wasters. 39 The eating and drinking in this verse refer to utilizing the resources necessary for the continuation of our lives. This should not be uncontrolled. The elements that support life should be conserved so that they can be utilized continuously. More than this, such conservation should be unselfish. That is, it should not only have human interests in view. Thus, while utilizing the world’s bounties, the Muslim should not do so with an unconstrained and irresponsible approach to consumption. On the contrary, he is obliged to base all such 38 39

Qur’an, 54:49. Qur’an, 7:31.

- 20 actions and the measure of his consumption on Islamic economic principles. Every passing day it is becoming better understood that the world’s resources are limited. The following commands of the Qur’an are striking at a time feasible development and economic models are being widely discussed: And render to the kindred their due rights, as [also] to those in want, and to the wayfarer; but squander not [your wealth] in the manner of a spendthrift. Verily spendthrifts are brothers of the Evil Ones and the Evil One is to his Lord [Himself] ungrateful. 40 Those who, when they spend, are not extravagant and not niggardly, but hold a just [balance] between those extremes. 41 The Qur’an commands us to eat and drink, but waste not by excess, for God loves not the wasters 42 so that we become accustomed to avoiding wastefulness and extravagance in our daily consumption of food and drink. It frequently points out that frugality and consuming what one has without being over-lavish is the measure of what God loves. In some verses, God states that He “created every animal from water,” showing in a most interesting and meaningful way that water is the basis of life and living. 43

In some verses, Almighty God states that He “created every animal from water,” showing in a most interesting and meaningful way that water is the basis of life and living. 44

The Prophet also attached great importance to water, and forbade the excessive use of it even when taking the ablutions, saying that to do so was ‘detestable’ (makruh). He thus prevented people using too much water even for something like ablutions, when they are preparing to enter the Divine presence and court. A Hadith about this is the following: “God’s Messenger (pbuh) appeared while Sa‘d was taking the ablutions. When he saw that Sa‘d was using a lot of water, he intervened saying:

40

Qur’an, 17:26-7. Qur’an, 25:67. 42 Qur’an, 7:31. 43 See, Qur’an, 24:45; 25:54. 44 See, Qur’an, 24:45; 25:54. 41

- 21 ‘What is this? You are wasting water.” Sa‘d replied asking: “Can there be wastefulness while taking the ablutions?” To which God’s Messenger replied: “Yes, even if you take them on the bank of a rushing river.” 45 While interpreting this Hadith, scholars have pointed out that it does not refer only to using less water while taking the ablutions, but to a basic principle of Islam. They have emphasized the following points in connection with it: • God’s Messenger is stating an important prohibition. • The prohibition concerns something for which no effort was exerted in obtaining it, nor money spent, but is free: the water of a flowing river. • Moreover, the excessive use of water causes no deficiency to nature, nor does it cause pollution, nor spoil the ecological balance. • It causes no harm to living beings. • Furthermore, the matter in question, that is, taking the ablutions, is not some trivial matter; it is a necessary condition for the obligatory prayers. If then, despite all the above, it is ‘detestable’ to use excessive water from a river while taking the ablutions and it was prohibited by the Prophet, how much stronger is the proscription on being wasteful and extravagant in some matter in which the above statements are not applicable? That is, if wastefulness • is in something that required the expending of effort, expense, or at least time; • if it caused deficiency to or pollution of nature, thus spoiling the ecological balance; • if it harmed living beings; • if it violated the rights of forthcoming generations to live in a healthy environment; • if it was arbitrary and meaningless, and merely for enjoyment; • if it was contrary to the basic aim; then what would the situation be? The Qur’an and Sunna stipulating that water is the basis of life lays a number of obligations and responsibilities on Muslims: the conserving of existent water supplies in the best possible way; the prevention of any activity that might lead to the pollution of water sources or spoil the purity

45

Musnad, ii, 22; Ibn Maja, Tahara, 48, No: 425; i, 147.

- 22 and characteristics of the water; never adopting an extravagant and irresponsible attitude in the consumption of water; rational and regular utilization of water and water sources. There are very good reasons for Islam prohibiting wastefulness and prodigality so forcefully. We may put it this way: there are between five and six thousand million people living in the world today. Just think of each individual person cutting down a tree or killing an animal just for the fun of it. Six thousand million trees or six thousand million animals would perish. Or think of the water they would waste, or the bread or other foodstuffs they would throw away. The serious consequences of those apparently insignificant actions are clear. Moreover, for the greater part it is not possible to reclaim the resources we have polluted, destroyed, or annihilated. It is in this light that we may understand how meaningful was the point God’s Messenger (PBUH) was emphasizing when he said: “Even if you take the ablutions in a flowing river, do not waste the water,” and how important it is for the preservation of the ecological balance.

9. Conclusion Our discussion of the Qur'anic view of the environment makes it plain that everything in the universe is created by God. The universe with all its richness and vitality is the work and art of God. Therefore, this paper concludes that the Qur'anic value system has the necessary elements for developing and constructing an environmental ethics. Thus, the following principles, which are necessary for any environmental ethic, can be elicited and deduced from the Qur'an: •

The natural world has an ontological and objective existence as has been created by God and which reflects His Divine Names and Attributes.

•

Nature as a whole, being created and sustained by God, has intrinsic and inherent value, independent of its usefulness for human beings.

•

Human beings, though being at the top of creation, are only members of nature. They have responsibilities towards the whole environment as they have responsibilities towards their families.

- 23 •

Human beings are the vicegerents of God on earth and therefore they will be judged in the Hereafter for their actions here. They would be held accountable also for their actions related with the environment.

•

Bio-diversity and the richness of the ecosystem is a result of God's creation and His Will, therefore it should be respected and maintained.

•

Nature has been created in order, balance and with extraordinary esthetic beauty, and all these aspects of nature while enhancing people's life here, should be honored, developed and protected accordingly.

•

All patterns of human’s production and consumption should be based on an overall order and balance of nature. The rights of human beings are not absolute and unlimited. We cannot consume and pollute nature as we wish, carelessly.

•

To prevent the appearance and emergence of corruption in eco systems, to prevent fasad fi'l-ard, (i.e. corruption on earth) is one of the primary responsibilities of all believers.

In short, the Qur'an changed the hearts and minds of its followers when it dawned on the Arabian Peninsula, enriching people and providing a vivid view for humanity through which they could look at nature. Today, at the close of the twentieth century and in a time of environmental crisis it again can play such a role and give us, its followers, a fresh perspective and consciousness of nature, if we are ready to open our hearts and minds to it. The relationship that the Qur'an tries to foster between humans and non-humans is stated very eloquently by Yunus Emre, a Sufi poet of the thirteenth century: “We love all creation for the sake of its Creator”! This Islamic attitude of love and respect for nature is also beautifully depicted by Assad Ali, Professor of Arabic Literature at the University of Damascus, as follows: God, I love you and whoever and whatever loves You. I’ve recognized that every creature loves You in a certain way, So, I thought of loving every creature, too, for each is your creation. 46

The world belongs to all of us. We are all obliged to conserve and protect it. So, we must cooperate and work together for a better world, a better future, and a better environment. We must love and preserve our environment and all the living creatures within it in the name of our Lord

46

Assad Ali, Happiness Without Death (Putney. VT: Threshold Books, 1991), p.70

- 24 and Sustainer, Who created the all natural phenomena and entrusted it to us. In this way, the 21st century will be the century of justice, peace, tolerance, sustainable development and as a result happiness. Not only for men, but for all creatures, animate and inanimate. I conclude with the following prayer which Muslims say many times during five daily prayers: Our Lord! Give us the best of this world as well as the best in the Hereafter.

- 25 Bibliography and Further Readings The Holy Qur’an. Tarns. Yusuf Ali Maryland: Amana Corp., 1983). and also A.A. Razwy' edition, (New York: Tahrike Tarsile Qur'an Inc., 1995). Kütüb-ü Sitte (Turkish trans.), (Istanbul: 1982). Atik, M. Kemal, Kur’an ve Çevre, (Kayseri: E.Ü. Yayınları, 1992). Bayraktar, Mehmet, İslâm ve Ekoloji, (Ankara: TDV Yayınları, 1992). Chittick, W. “God Surrounds All Things: An Islamic Perspective on the Environment”, The World and I, vol.I, no.6, June,1986. Danişmend, İsmail Hami, Garb Menbalarına Göre Eski Türk Seciye ve Ahlakı, (Istanbul: Kitabevi, 1961). Hatib, Abdülaziz, Risale-i Nur’dan Dualar, (Istanbul: Gençlik Yayınları, 1993). Husaini, W. A. Islamic Environmental Systems Engineering, (London: 1980). Iqbal, Sir Mohammad. The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, (Lahore: The Ashraf Press, 1958). Izzi Deen, Mawil Y. (Samarrai), “Islamic Environmental Ethics, Law, and Society”, in Ed. J. Ronald Engel ve Joan Gibb Engel. Ethics of Environment and Development. Global Challenge, International Response. (London: Belhaver Press, 1990). Khalid Fazlun and O’Brien, Joanne. (ed.), Islam and Ecology, (New York: Cassell Publishers Limited, 1992). Manzoor, S. Parvez. “Environment and Values: the Islamic Perspective”, in The Touch of Midas: Science, values and environment in Islam and the West, ed., Ziauddin Sardar, (Manchester: Manchester University Press,1984). Mevlana, Mesnevi [Turkish trans. Veled İzbudak], (Istanbul: MEB Yayınları, 1988). Mevlana, Fihi Mafih [Turkish trans. Meliha Ambarcıoğlu], (Istanbul: MEB Yayınları, 1989). Nasif, Abdullah Omar. “The Muslim Declaration of Nature”, Environmental Policy and Law, 17/1 (1987). Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, Man and Nature, (Chicago: Kazi Publications, 1997). ------------------- “Islam and the Environmental Crisis”, in Spirit of Nature, (edts) Steven C. Rockefeller and John C. Elder, (Boston: Beacon Prass, 1992). Nicholson, Reynold, The Mystics of Islam, (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1975) Nursî, Bediüzzaman Said, Risale-i Nur Külliyatı, (Istanbul: Yeni Asya Yayınları, 1996). -------------------, The Words, trans: Sükran Vahide (Istanbul: Sözler Publication, 1992). Özdemir, Dr. İbrahim, Çevre ve Din, (Ankara: Çevre Bakanlığı Yayınları, 1997)

- 26 -------------------, The Ethical Dimension of Human Attitude Towards Nature, (Ankara: Ministry of Environment, 1997). -------------------, "Science and Environment: Is Science Responsible for the Environmental Crisis?" The Journal of the Environment and Social Sciences, vol.1, no. 1-2, 1996. ------------------, “Towards An Understanding Of Environmental Ethic From A Qur’anic Perspective”, Paper presented to Islam and Ecology Conference, Harvard University, Center for the Study of World Religions May 7-10, 1998. Rahman, Fazlur, "Some Key Ethical Concepts of the Qur’an", Journal of Religious Ethics 2 (1983). Vahide, Sükran. Bediüzzaman Said Nursi (The Author of Risale-i Nur), (Istanbul: Sözler Publications, 1995).