An introduction to power system stability Stability studies evaluate the impact of disturbances on the electromechanical dynamic behaviour of the power system. Maximum power transfer: The maximum power transferred between 2 nodes will occur when the impedance between the nodes is equal to the conjugate of the load impedance at the receiving node i.e. node 2. This means that half of the total power transferred is wasted in the transmission line impedance. For a Power System Engineer, a maximum of 15 % transmission loss would be acceptable. Furthermore, the Power System Engineer is faced with a variable load ranging from a minimum to a maximum value at or near a constant voltage level. If the voltage variation is more than a specified value, the performance of the equipment suffers and the life of most of the connected & energized devices are sacrificed. For example, the output of a lamp is reduced drastically when it operates below a certain voltage level. The induction motor draws more current for the same torque when operated at lower than rated voltages and under extreme conditions of low voltage, the motor may stall. On the other hand, synchronous generators (on the source side), when are forced to transfer power more than certain levels (known as steady state stability limits) may fall out of stepand supply to customers may be affected in the form of brownout or black out conditions. The magnitude of power that can be transmitted from a source to asynchronous loads (like heaters, lighting, SCIM ) depends on the range of voltage that is available from the source and may be tolerated at the load centers as well as the current carrying capacity of the various components of the grid (network). When 2 or more synchronous machines are running on the same power system, it is found that a power transfer limit exists even though the voltages at both nodes (buses) at the specified values The reactive power flow between 2 nodes is function of the voltage levels on the 2 buses while the active power flow is function of the pahse angles at the 2 buses. If a synchronous motor is connected to a synchronous generator, loss of synchronism will cause the motor to stall. When 2 generators are connected to the power network, loss of synchronism will result in wild fluctuations in the transmission network currents & voltages. The power transfer between the sources is alternatively positive & negative with average transfer equal to 0. Separation of the out of synchronism machine through the openning of the pertinent circuit breaker is the only solution for such a condition. Forms of instability in power systems: There are 2 forms of instability in power systems, the stalling of asynchronous loads and loss of synchronism of the synchronous machines. The synchronous stability can be further subdividrd into steady state and transient state. The former is the system stability under conditions of gradual or relatively slow change os load. It is assumed that the load is applied at a rate which is slow when compared to either natural frequency of oscillation of the major parts of the system or to the rate of change of the field flux in the rotating machine (in response to change in load current). The latter refers to the maximum flow of power through a point when sudden & large changes take place in the network without loosing stability (loss of synchronism of connected generators). These changes may be brought by when faults occur or when addition or shedding of large increments of loads take place. Dynamic stability is a term used when synchronous machines are operated alongwith fast acting voltage
regulators, the stability limits of the system are higher than when rather slower acting regulators are used. Dynamic stability is made possible by the action of the fast acting voltage regulators which are capable of changing the flux at a rate faster than that causing the system to fall out of step. In steady state stability, the regulator acts slowly in order to adjust the terminal voltage to the preset value. Stability studies usually solve the following problems: finding the inertia constant of the rotating components of the machine (H) from the moment of inertia (I or J), finding the frequency and period of oscillation of the machine under slight temporary disturbance condition, finding the equivalent H for 2 units operating in parallel, calculating the crtical clearing angle & critical clearing time under 3phase fault condition, finding the load angle equation under normal & fault conditions, calculating the swing equation for multimachine system during & post fault (after removing faulty portion of network) conditions.In general, the disturbances that may affect the stability of a system are: short circuit conditions, loss of a tie circuit, switching operations, loss of a portion of an onsite generation, impact motor loading and starting of a large motor as compared to the generating capacity. Synchronous generators: The stator as well as the rotor are connected to a power source. The rotor is connected to a d.c. source. The stator is connected to an a.c. one. The synchronous speed is 120 times the frequency of the system divided by the number of the poles in the machine. This is the speed of the rotor of the machine. Its frequency / speed characteristics is a vertical line. hen a synchronous generator is operating as a single unit, it is necessary for the rotor speed to remain constant and independent of the torque in order that the frequency to be maitained constant. The synchronous machine can be viewed as a special case of a transformer (current transformer). When the current transformer is operated with a constant primary current (in the synchronous machine it is the dc field current), it has a large flux variation between no load & fullload. At no load, its flux is fixed by the MMF (magneto motive force) of the primary current alone, while at load the the resultant flux is determined by both the primary & secondary MMFs. In synchronous machines, the secondary current is that of the armature (stator). The generator operation can be fully described by the following characteristics: noload & airgap, short circuit (Potier triangle), load, external, regulation curve, short circuit ratio & directaxis synchronous reactance. The angle d between V & Ef is the basic variable of the synchronous machine, it is known as the power angle or torque angle. V is the machine terminal voltage & Ef is the EMF induced in the armature winding (by the field flux). For a constant field current (i.e. constant Ef), the electromagnetic power & torque of the synchronous machine depend solely upon the angle d. If the regulator of the prime mover (a turbine for example) allows the prime mover to receive added input (steam), the generator will tend to be driven at an increased speed. But since the RPM of the machine is fixed by the number of poles of the machine and the line (bus or node) frequency (n = 120 f / rpm P), then the increased input will ewsult in an advance of the pole structure i.e. Ef will be moved ahead of the line voltage to a new angle d. Under such condition, additional curent in the armature (Ia) will be delivered to the line (and consequently to the connected loads & load centers). Ia is almost in phase with V, this means that the output power is an active one. Thus, if the output of a synchronous generator, which is operating in parallel with other generators, is to be increased, its prime mover must be accelerated by supplying it with more mechanical power (through the use of steam for example) and vice versa. On the other hand,
a variation in the field current at a fixed load and voltage level will cause the reactive current (power) injected into the line to change.