Alexander The Great Murdered

Alexander The Great – Assassinated? BY CHARLES C. SEVERS American Public University July 18, 2009 History 301 Ancient Greece Professor Robert Busek

2 Alexander The Great – Assassinated? Alexander the Great needs little introduction to most people interested in history. A stop over on the subject of Greek expansion reveals that he conquered most of the known world, and all in the short span of 11 years. Alexander was born in the summer of 356, and after his father- Philip II of Macedon was murdered, ascended the throne in the fall of 336, and after some swift ‘house cleaning’ (accusing other potential successors of Philips murder and ordering their death) he soon began the campaign for which brought him fame.1 Alexander died in 323, and while there were many original eyewitness accounts of his death, modern historians still debate as to what actually killed him. Malaria and typhoid fever are the most debated, and these theories do make a lot of sense as potential reasons for his death. However, a closer look at some of the ancient sources reveals that Alexander the Great may have been murdered, specifically by poisoning. Generals of his army, and women in his life all had reason to want him dead, besides his common enemies. Those that were near to him at the time of his death wrote about the events of his life and his death. Most of the ancient accounts describe that Alexander first began showing his symptoms while attending at a banquet. Phillips sums the list up nicely, “Five people present at the…banquet were to write accounts: Ptolemy, Alexander’s bodyguard, Nearchus, his admiral, Eumenes, his secretary, Chares, his chamberlain, and Aristobulus, his military engineer.”2

Pomeroy, Sarah B. et al. Ancient Greece: A Political, Social and Cultural History. New York: Oxford U.P., 1998. 429. 2 Phillips, Graham. Alaxander the Great-Murder in Babylon. London: Virgin Books, 2004. 3. 1

3 Unfortunately for historians today, all of these original accounts are no longer in existence, but other ancient historians had access to them, and re-wrote what they read and had access to in their day. These later authors for the most part are considered reliable and honest in their re-telling of the events surrounding Alexander life, and death. These ancient sources are; Diodorus, who based his work on the writings of Aristobulus, the Military engineer, The Historia Alexandria Magni, An anonymous work based on original writings of Alexander’s chamberlain – Chares of Mytilene, (later appointed as Alexander’s official biographer), Justinus whose writings were based on a Roman writer from the early first century AD named Pompeius Trogus who in turn based his writings on those of Nearchus, an Admiral of Alexander’s,1 the works of Arrian, who mentions that his works are based on those of Eumenes, who served as a scribe for Alexander, and also the writings of Plutarch who says he based his information on writings provided by Ptolemy, Alexander’s general that later became a pharaoh over Egypt.2 Is the Poisoning Theory Even a Good One? While historians continue to debate as to what was behind the death of Alexander, and argue whether typhoid or malaria seems to fit his symptoms best, many seem to discount the feelings of those that lived around that time, that they may have had good reason to suspect foul play. The principle of Occam's razor may apply to Alexander’s death, if we take all of the data into account and perhaps stand back to look at it, the simplist explanation and the one that makes the most sense is that he was poisoned. This idea is nothing new today, and it was chiefly suspect back then. The mother of Alexander,- Olympias herself suspected foul play, as Plutarch tells us, Phillips, Graham. Alexander the Great-Murder in Babylon. London: Virgin Books, 2004. 7. 2 Ibid. 8. 1

4 At the time, nobody had any suspicion of his being poisoned, but upon some information given six years after, they say Olympias put many to death, and scattered the ashes of Iollas, then dead, as if he had givin it him.1 So based on some information given to her she felt she had good reason to suspect that her son Alexander was poisoned, to the point that she even suspected people by name as was pointed out by Plutarch above, and as he also states,“But those who affirm that Aristotle counselled Antipater to do it, and that by his means the poison was brought, adduced one Hagnothemis as their authority, who, they say, heard King Antigonus speak of it.”2 It should be pointed out that the person Iollas mentioned in Plutarch’s first citation above was the cup bearer and son in law of Antipater that was also just mentioned as being suspect. Iollas, it is mentioned would have been able to administer the poison to kill Alexander. Justinus also reports foul play, His friends reported that the cause for his disease was excess in drinking, but in reality it was a conspiracy, the infamy of which the power of his successors threw into the shade…he was overcome at last, not by the prowess of any enemy, but by a conspiracy of those whom he trusted, and the treachery of his own subjects.3 The administration of Poison as ways and means to assassinate was definitely a popular method as is shown by these accounts. Interestingly it is reported too that Alexander’s mother Olympias was suspected for using poison to cause a disability to the

Plutarch, Life of Alexander. Edited and translated by John Dryden. http:// languages.siuc.edu/classics/Civ2004/alia/alexander.pdf (accessed July 10, 2009). 1

2

Ibid. Vs. 77.

Marcus Junius Justinus, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus. As quoted in Phillips, Graham. Alexander the Great-Murder in Babylon. London: Virgin Books, 2004. 16. 3

5 half brother of Alexander, supposedly to either kill him, or damage him to the point that he was seen as unfit to rule, thus eliminating potential competition for Alexander, Arrhidaeus, who was Philip's son by an obscure woman of the name of Philinna, was himself of weak intellect, not that he had been originally deficient either in body or mind, on the contrary, in his childhood, he had showed a happy and promising character enough. But a diseased habit of body, caused by drugs which Olympias gave him, had ruined not only his health, but his understanding.1 As we have seen, poison was a popular tool to administer death back then and it may have been commonly held at that time that Alexander was poisoned by someone. To the eyewitnesses at the time it seemed to be perhaps the most logical and simplest explanation. Malaria, Typhoid Fever, or Some Kind of Poison While scholars continue debating whether Alexander the Great may have died by Malaria or Typhoid Fever, still others propose that he was poisoned. The ancient sources describe his death symptoms thusly, “Alexander sat down beside Medius, and with his hands trembling, complained that it was as if a heavy yoke were upon his neck. When he stood again to drink to Heracles, he shouted with pain as if struck through the stomach with an arrow.”2 Another source, Justinus relates that, Taking a cup, he suddenly uttered a groan while he was drinking, as if he had been stabbed with a dagger, and being carried half dead from the table, he was

Plutarch, Life of Alexander. Edited and translated by John Dryden. http:// languages.siuc.edu/classics/Civ2004/alia/alexander.pdf (accessed July 10, 2009). 2 Historia Alexander Magni, as quoted in Phillips, Graham. Alaxander the GreatMurder in Babylon. London: Virgin Books, 2004. 5. 1

6 excruciated with such torture that he called for a sword to put an end to it, and felt pain at the touch of his attendants as if he were all over with wounds.1 Diodorus relates that Alexander’s “pain increased and the physicians were summoned. No one was able to do anything helpful and Alexander continued in great discomfort and acute suffering.”2 Of course Plutarch and others mention the fever that accompanied Alexander’s symptoms, the main symptom that links Alexander’s death to typhoid or malaria. As most people know, Malaria is transmitted by a mosquito’s bite, and some of the symptoms described by various ancient sources do indeed match that of Malaria. A credible medical source (webmd) describes malaria symptoms to include “Fever, Chills, Headaches, Sweats, Nausea, and Vomiting” and that, “Symptoms can appear in 7 days. Occasionally, the time between exposure and signs of illness may be as long as 8 to 10 months.”3 Several of the symptoms and the time frame described here do not seem to quite match the situation concerning Alexander. Phillips reminds us that nausea and vomiting are not described in the ancient accounts, and alsa that it had been about two years since Alexander could have been bitten by a mosquito in India, since then, he had been in dry arid conditions.4

Marcus Junius Justinus, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus. As quoted in Phillips, Graham. Alexander the Great-Murder in Babylon. London: Virgin Books, 2004. 6. 2 Diodorus Siculus , The Library of History, Edited and translated in the Loeb Classical Library Edition, 1963.http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman /Texts/DiodorusSiculus /17F*.html (accessed 14 July 2009) 3 “Malaria Symptoms.” 16 May 2007. http://www.webmd.com/a-to-zguides/malaria-symptoms (accessed 13 July 2009). 4 Phillips, Graham. Alexander the Great-Murder in Babylon. London: Virgin Books, 2004. 19. 1

7 Typhoid fever is the other very popular and most ecepted theory of Alexander’s death and the symptoms are similar to that of Malaria and possible poisoning. The WebMD website describes Typhoid fever as: Typhoid fever is an acute illness associated with fever caused by the Salmonella typhi bacteria…Typhoid fever is contracted by the ingestion of the bacteria in contaminated food or water. Patients with acute illness can contaminate the surrounding water supply through stool, which contains a high concentration of the bacteria… The patient experiences poor appetite, headaches ,generalized aches and pains ,fever, lethargy , diarrhea… Prior to the use of antibiotics, the fatality rate was 20%... The fever becomes constant. Improvement occurs in the third and fourth week in those without complications.1 Once again we see that some information provided here seems to discount Typhoid fever and lends some credulence to the idea that Alexander the Great was most likely poisoned. Phillips stipulates that if Alexander had gotten Typhoid from some sort of water supply or food contamination it would be likely that other people would have caught it as well, and therefore it would seem that the writers back then might have reported an outbreak of some kind.2 Additionally, the reference above mentions symptoms lasting weeks, as oposed to the seemingly quick onset of the symptoms of Alexander.

“Typhoid Fever.” 20 March 2008. http://www.webmd.com/a-to- zguides /typhoid-fever?page=2 (accessed 13 July 2009). 2 Phillips, Graham. Alaxander the Great-Murder in Babylon. London: Virgin Books, 2004. 19. 1

8 Some type of poison, on the other hand, seems to fit the theory, symptoms, and the practice associated with ancient assisination. The Center for Disease Control (CDC) describes a particuler plant based poison - Strychnyne as: ...a white, odorless, bitter crystalline powder that can be taken by mouth, inhaled (breathed in), or mixed in a solution...a strong poison; Only a small amount is needed to produce severe effects in people. The primary natural source is the plant Strychnos nux vomica. This plant is found in southern Asia (India, Sri Lanka, and East Indies) and Australia...Following the ingestion... symptoms of poisoning usu ally appear within 15 to 60 minutes...People exposed will have the following signs or symptoms: Agitation, Apprehension or fear, Ability to be easily startled, Restlessness, Painful muscle spasms possibly leading to fever and to kidney and liver injury, Uncontrollable arching of the neck and back, rigid arms and legs, Jaw tightness, Muscle pain and soreness.1 Again, we are reminded of several strong points here, as Phillips relates, “All the historical sources report that although Alexander could still move towards the end of his illness, he was unable to talk.”2 And that Alexander had been in India recently where the poison was undoubtedly available to whoever was interested in procuring it.

“Fact Sheet, Facts about Strychnine.” 14 May 2003. http://74.125.47.132/search?q=cache:frwgpczQy3gJ:www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/strychnine/ba sics/pdf/facts.pdf+strychnine&cd=2&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us (accessed 15 July 2009). 2 Phillips, Graham. Alaxander the Great-Murder in Babylon. London: Virgin Books, 2004. 237. 1

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Alexander’s Leadership and his Women’s Issues Alexander was only human, he made mistakes, he had an ego that seemed to get bigger over time, and his soldiers began to question his leadership abilities. He had several wives which may have been jealous for his attention, and likely resented each other. Was he assassinated by one of his generals, soldiers or perhaps a woman in his life? Plutarch relates how his army refused to go on while in India, and how after that, they were forced to march across the Gedrosian desert, where many had died, Alexander at first was so grieved and enraged at his men's reluctance that he shut himself up in his tent and threw himself upon the ground, declaring, if they would not pass the Ganges, he owed them no thanks for anything they had hitherto done…and lost a vast number of his men, [marching across the desert]so that of an army of one hundred and twenty thousand foot and fifteen thousand horse, he scarcely brought back above a fourth part out of India, they were so diminished by disease, ill diet, and the scorching heats, but most by famine.1 Is it too much to imagine that growing dissension over Alexander’s leadership abilities was beginning to grow to the point that either some of his soldiers (if not all of them at this point) or generals who had witnessed these events, wanted to kill him, divide up the spoils and continue on with an easier life. Plutarch continues to name at least three women in the life of Alexander. He mentions Barsine, Roxanne, and Statira.

Plutarch, Life of Alexander. Edited and translated by John Dryden. http:// languages.siuc.edu/classics/Civ2004/alia/alexander.pdf (accessed July 10, 2009). 1

10 At Susa, Alexander married Darius's daughter Statira… As for his marriage with Roxane, whose youthfulness and beauty had charmed him at a drinking entertainment, where he first happened to see her taking part in a dance, it was, indeed a love affair… Alexander, esteeming it more kingly to govern himself than to conquer his enemies, sought no intimacy with any one of them, nor indeed with any other women before marriage, except Barsine, Memnon's widow, who was taken prisoner at Damascus.1 Several keen observations are important here. Roxane was a capable killer, Plutarch tells us that she was very jealous of Statira, “Roxane, who was now with child, and upon that account much honoured by the Macedonians, being jealous of Statira, sent for her by a counterfeit letter, as if Alexander had been still alive; and when she had her in her power, killed her and her sister, and threw their bodies into a well.”2 The second point being that according to the Historia Alexandria Magni, Statira swore an oath to kill Alexander. After lighting the pyre that her dead father was laying on, it is reported, “To her sister and before her servants, it is said she swore this oath: ‘with this hand that I lit the flames, will I one day slay this king.’”3 In short, while historians continue the never ending debate as to what ended what is considered to be one of the greatest military advances of all time, reasons for considering assassination cannot be discounted, as they make good sense. Malaria and Typhoid can be argued against, and those alive at the time of Alexander’s death had good reason to suspect foul play, even if the reasons were only known to themselves. Plutarch, Life of Alexander. Edited and translated by John Dryden. http:// languages.siuc.edu/classics/Civ2004/alia/alexander.pdf (accessed July 10, 2009). 2 Ibid. Vs. 77 3 Historia Alexander Magni, as quoted in Phillips, Graham. Alexander the GreatMurder in Babylon. London: Virgin Books, 2004. 158. 1

11 Alexander’s soldiers and generals witnessed a decline in his leadership abilities, and had gone through a lot at his hands to the point that perhaps one or all of them wanted to see him dead or, as we have seen maybe his demise was caused by a woman in his life. Whatever the truth, history will continue to tempt us to explain the events surrounding the death of Alexander, and many other mysteries that have taken place in the past.

12 Bibliography Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History, Edited and translated in the Loeb Classical Library Edition, 1963.http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman /Texts/DiodorusSiculus /17F*.html (accessed 14 July 2009). “Fact Sheet, Facts about Strychnine.” 14 May 2003. http://74.125.47.132/search?q=cache:frwgpczQy3gJ:www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/strych nine/basics/pdf/facts.pdf+strychnine&cd=2&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us (accessed 15 July 2009). Historia Alexander Magni, as quoted in Phillips, Graham. Alaxander the Great-Murder in Babylon. London: Virgin Books, 2004. Marcus Junius Justinus, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus. As quoted in Phillips, Graham. Alexander the Great-Murder in Babylon. London: Virgin Books, 2004. “Malaria Symptoms.” 16 May 2007. http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/malariasymptoms (accessed 13 July 2009). Phillips, Graham. Alaxander the Great-Murder in Babylon. London: Virgin Books, 2004. Plutarch, Life of Alexander. Edited and translated by John Dryden. http:// languages.siuc.edu/classics/Civ2004/alia/alexander.pdf (accessed July 10, 2009). Pomeroy, Sarah B. et al. Ancient Greece: A Political, Social and Cultural History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. “Typhoid Fever.” 20 March 2008. http://www.webmd.com/a-to- zguides /typhoid-fever? page=2 (accessed 13 July 2009).

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