Administrative-tribunals-in-india.docx

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1.

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1

2.

EVOLUTION OF TRIBUNAL SYSTEM IN INDIA .................................................................... 3

3.

ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNALS ACT, 1985 ............................................................................ 4

4.

TYPES OF ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNALS ............................................................................ 5 4.1.

Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT).................................................................................. 5

4.2.

Election Commission (EC) ..................................................................................................... 5

4.3.

Foreign Exchange Regulation Appellate Board (FERAB) ..................................................... 5

4.4.

Income Tax Appellate Tribunal .............................................................................................. 6

4.5.

Railway Rates Tribunal........................................................................................................... 6

4.6.

Industrial Tribunal .................................................................................................................. 6

SOME FEATURES OF TRIBUNALS OF INDIA ........................................................................ 7

5.

5.1.

Jurisdiction and Power: ........................................................................................................... 7

5.2.

Sources of Tribunal’s Jurisdiction- ......................................................................................... 7

5.3.

Unconstitutionality of Law ..................................................................................................... 8

5.4.

Procedure ................................................................................................................................ 8

5.5.

Disciplinary matters: ............................................................................................................... 8

6.

APPEAL FROM ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNAL TO SUPREME COURT ............................. 9

7.

JUDICIAL INTERPRETATION .................................................................................................. 10

8.

ADVANTAGES OF ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNAL ............................................................. 13 8.1.

Flexibility .............................................................................................................................. 13

8.2.

Adequate Justice ................................................................................................................... 13

8.3.

Less Expensive...................................................................................................................... 13

8.4.

Relief to Courts ..................................................................................................................... 13

9.

DISADVANTAGES OF ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNALS .................................................... 14

10.

STATUS AND WORKING OF TRIBUNALS IN INDIA ....................................................... 15

11.

TRIBUNALS AND NATURAL JUSTICE .............................................................................. 17

12.

CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................... 18

1. INTRODUCTION

Welfare nature of government is the evolutionary goal of probably every kind of government these days in this contemporary world. There has been a phenomenal increase in the functions of the government, which has lent enormous powers to the executive and also led to increase in the legislative output. This has led to more litigation, restrictions on the freedom of the individuals and constant frictions between them and the authority. The development of welfares led to an increase in governmental functions and the executive saw in this a need to perform a number of quasi- legislative and quasi- judicial functions, thus blurring the traditional positions of the various wings of the government under the doctrine of separation of powers, under which the powers of the government were divided between the legislature, executive and the judiciary which were to be entrusted with the power of making law, executing it and interpreting the law respectively. But now these welfare states changed radically and involve itself in the hosting of wide socio-economic activities; for example: providing health services, education, industrial regulation and other allied welfare measures. Now where there is these kind of activities; disputes are certain and obvious. The issues which arose from disputes on such matters raised not only legal matters but also matters which affect the society at large. The constitution and function of our court system is very traditional as well as inefficient. The inherent procedural limitations made it difficult for the courts to dispose these cases promptly thus leading to a huge backlog of cases in all levels of the judiciary. Courts therefore became deluged with litigations arising directly and incidentally from such increased governmental interventions. It was also felt in many quarters that the members of the judiciary were neither adequately trained nor equipped to deal with the complex socio-economic and technical matters at hand. Thus it was felt specialised adjudicatory bodies such as tribunals needed to be created to resolve such disputes fairly and effectively.1 

Power of adjudication must be derived from a statute or statutory rule.



It must possess the trappings of a court and thereby be vested with the power to summon witnesses, administer oath, compel production of evidence, etc.



1

Tribunals are not bound by strict rules of evidence.

Serwai ,HM, Constitutionsl law of India

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

They are to exercise their functions objectively and judicially and to apply the law and resolve disputes independently of executive policy.



Tribunals are supposed to be independent and immune from any administrative interference in the discharge of their judicial functions.

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2. EVOLUTION OF TRIBUNAL SYSTEM IN INDIA

In India, administrative adjudication increased after independence and several welfare laws were promulgated which vested the power on deciding various issues in the hands of the administration. The modern Indian Republic was born a Welfare State and thus the burden on the government to provide a host of welfare services to the people was immense. These quasi-judicial powers acquired by the administration led to a huge number of cases with respect to the manner in which these administrative bodies arrived at their decisions. The Courts held that these bodies must maintain procedural safeguards while arriving at their decisions and observe principles of natural justice-their opinions were substantiated by the 14th Law Commission Report.2 In order to avoid clogging the judicial machinery with cases which would have arisen by the operation of these new socio-economic legislations, a number of tribunals were established by the government. The tribunals were established with the object of providing a speedy, cheap and decentralised determination of disputes arising out of the various welfare legislations.3 Another important reason for the new development is that law courts, on account of their elaborate procedures, legalistic fronts and attitudes can hardly render justice to the parties concerned, in technical cases. Ordinary judges, brought up in the traditions of law and jurisprudence, are not capable enough to understand technical problems, which crop up in the wake of modem complex economic and social processes. Only administrators having expert knowledge can tackle such problems judiciously. To meet this requirement, a number of administrative tribunals have come into existence.

2 3

Nayak, R., Administrative justice In India, Butterwoths : New Delhi, 1989, p.38 Jain, M.P., Principles of Administrative Law, Wadhwa & Company : Nagpur, 1996, pp.246-248

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3. ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNALS ACT, 1985

In pursuance of Art 323-A Parliament has passed the Administrative Tribunals Act, 1985 covering all matters falling within the clause (1) of Article 323- A. This Act authorises central government to establish administrative tribunals for central services and on the application of States even for States services as well as for local bodies and other authorities including public corporation. From the date of establishment of tribunals all courts except the Supreme Court under Art 136 lose their jurisdiction with respect to the matter falling within the jurisdiction of the tribunals. A tribunal shall consist of Chairman and such number of Vice-Chairmen and other members as appropriate Government may deem fit. They are appointed by the President in the case of Central tribunals and by the President in consultation with the Governors or Governors in case of State or joint Tribunals. The qualifications regarding that are laid down in the Act.4Other aspects regarding administrative Tribunals are being discussed below different headings and sub-headings.

4

Administrative Tribunals Act, 1985 http://cgat.gov.in/act.htm

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4. TYPES OF ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNALS

There are different types of administrative tribunals, which are governed by the statues, rules, and regulations of the Central Government a sell as State Governments. 4.1. Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT) The enactment of Administrative Tribunals Act in, 1985 opened a new chapter in administering justice to the aggrieved government servants. It owes its origin to Article 323 A of the Constitution which empowers the Central Government to set up by an Act of Parliament, the Administrative Tribunals for adjudication of disputes and complains with respective recruitment and conditions of service of persons appointed to the public services and posts in connection with the Union and the States. The Tribunals enjoy the powers of the High Court in respect of service matters of the employees covered by the Act. They are not bound by the technicalities of the Code of Civil Procedure, but have to abide by the Principles of Natural Justice. They are distinguished from the ordinary courts with regard to their jurisdiction and procedures. This makes them free from the shackles of the ordinary courts and enables them to provide speedy and inexpensive justice. The Act provides for the establishment of Central

Administrative

Tribunal

and

State Administrative Tribunals. The CAT was

established 1985. The Tribunal consists of a Chairman, Vice-Chairman and Members. These Members are drawn from the judicial as well as the administrative streams. The appeal against the decisions of the CAT lies with the Supreme Court of India. 4.2. Election Commission (EC) The Election Commission is a tribunal for adjudication of matters pertaining to the allotment of election symbols to parties and similar other problems. The decision of the commission can be challenged in the Supreme Court. 4.3. Foreign Exchange Regulation Appellate Board (FERAB) The Board has been set up under the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act, 1973. A person who is aggrieved by an order of adjudication for causing breach or committing offences under the Act can file an appeal before the FERAB.

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4.4. Income Tax Appellate Tribunal This tribunal has been constituted under the Income Tax Act, 1961. benches

in

various cities and appeals can

be

filed

before

it

The Tribunal has its by

an

aggrieved

persons against the order passed by the Deputy Commissioner or Commissioner or

Chief Commissioner or Director of income tax. An appeal against the order of the

Tribunal lies to the High Court. An appeal also lies to the Supreme Court if the High Court deems fit. 4.5. Railway Rates Tribunal This-Tribunal was set up under the Indian Railways Act, 1989. It adjudicates matters pertaining to the complaints against the railway administration. These may be related to the discriminatory or unreasonable rates, unfair charges or preferential treatment meted out by the railway 'administration. The appeal against the order of the Tribunal lies with the Supreme Court. 4.6. Industrial Tribunal This Tribunal has been set up under the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947. It can be constituted by' both the Central as well as State governments.

The Tribunal looks into

the dispute

between the employers and the workers in matters relating to wages, the period and mode of payment, compensation and other allowances, hours of work, gratuity, retrenchment and closure of the establishment. The appeals against the decision of the Tribunal lie with the Supreme Court.

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5. SOME FEATURES OF TRIBUNALS OF INDIA 5.1. Jurisdiction and Power: 

After the coming into force of Administrative Tribunals Act, 19855, all judicial remedies save those of the Supreme Court under Art 2 and 136 have been abolished and the pending proceeding before other courts stand transferred before the regional Administrative Tribunals under s.29 of the Act.



Administrative Tribunal is competent to exercise all powers which the respective courts had, including declaration as to constitutionality of relevant laws. In short, the jurisdiction of the Tribunal is not supplementary but is a complete substitute of the High Courts and Civil Courts6.



In view of s.14 of the Administrative Tribunal Act,1985, in case where the suit lay, the employee will now have to seek his remedy by application under s.19 of the Act. Pending suits shall stand transferred to the Administrative Tribunal having territorial jurisdiction under section 29 of the Act.7



Section 29A (inserted in 1986) gives an appellant jurisdiction of the Central Administrative Tribunal. Appeals from judgement of Civil Courts in suits relating to service matter which are now governed by the A.T. Act shall lie to the Administrative Tribunals to the exclusion of any other Civil Appellant Court or the High Court. The central Administrative Tribunal is the Tribunal constituted under Art.323A of the Constitution and is expected to have the same jurisdiction as that of High Court.8



Orders of the Central Administrative Tribunals are nt open to challenge before the High Court.

5.2. Sources of Tribunal’s Jurisdiction-

Suit of proceeding transferred to it under s.29 of the Act

-

S.19 deals with jurisdiction of entertaining original application relating to service matters.

-

Appellant jurisdiction under s.29A

5

The Act was brought into force with effect from 2-10-1985. The Central Administrative Tribunals was set up on 1-11-1985 6 Sampat Kumar, SP v. Union of India,(1987) 1 ATR 34 7 Cf. Kaptan Singh v, UOI (1986) 4 SLR 545 (Del) 8 UOI v. K D Batish AIR 2006 SC 789

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5.3. Unconstitutionality of Law 

The tribunal can declare the unconstitutional a statute or subordinate legislation relating to the dispute before it, which contravenes provisions of the constitution.



Whether a body would be an „authority‟ within the meaning of Art.12.



In a case where enquiry has been dispensed with under the 2nd proviso to Art 311(2), the tribunal is competent to examine the legal jurisdiction for such dispensation.9



It may decide question of law, including preliminary pleas in bar, e.g. limitation; nonjoinder of party; territorial jurisdiction of the tribunal; res judicata.

5.4. Procedure 

A Tribunal is not barred by the provisions of the Evidence Act.10 In order to discover the truth, the Tribunal may resort to the inquisitional procedure, provided no principle of natural justice is violated.



Tribunals shall be guided solely by the principles of natural justice unfettered by anything in the CPC and shall have the power to regulate its own procedure.



A plea of violation of statutory provision can be taken before the Tribunal though not taken in the petition.



It is competent to execute its own order, though the A.T Act has no specific provision in this behalf.

5.5. Disciplinary matters: The Tribunal is competent to go into the facts and set aside the order passed by a disciplinary authorityWhere the conclusion arrived at is arbitrary or perverse. On the other hand , the Tribunal will not interfere 

with the finding of facts of the enquiry officers where there was some evidence before him on the basis of which he could reasonably come to the conclusion that the charges against the petitioner were proved .



with an order of rejection, by the Tribunal , of an application for reinstatement on the grounds of inordinate and unexplained delay.

9

Om Prakash Pathak v. UOI (1986) 4 SLR 251 G Mohanti v. UOI ATR (1987) 1 CAT 229

10

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6. APPEAL FROM ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNAL TO SUPREME COURT

1. Though the jurisdiction of High Court under Art 226 over service matter has been taken over by the respective Administrative Tribunals Act 1985, the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court over these Tribunals under Art.136 has been retained. 2. Appeals lies to the Supreme Court from orders of an Administrative Tribunal, by special leave under Art 136, on the following grounds

Error of Law



Finding of the Tribunal being perverse.



The order of the Tribunal being without jurisdiction or ultra vires.



The order of the Tribunals being arbitrary or mala fide.



The order of the Tribunal is such as would lead to grave injustice.

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7. JUDICIAL INTERPRETATION

As mentioned earlier, the Administrative Tribunals Act was passed in 1985 under article 323A and section 28 of this Act provided for the exclusion of jurisdiction of all courts except that of the Supreme Court under Article 13611. This fuelled a sudden spurt in the number of cases that challenged the validity of the said legislation as well as that of the 42nd Amendment that introduced Articles 323A and 323B in to the constitution. Some of the prominent case in this regard is discussed below. Sambamurthy v. State of Andhra Pradesh12 It was held in this case that Article 371D (5) of the constitution, which was inserted by the Constitution (32nd Amendment) Act,1973, was unconstitutional and void. This provision had enabled the Government of Andhra Pradesh to modify or nullify any order of the Administrative tribunal of that state. It was pointed out that such a provision was violative of the basic structure as it made the tribunal not as effective as the High Court when it comes to judicial review. Here the Court seems to be strictly adhering to the directive in Sampath Kumar’s case that the administrative tribunals should be effective substitutes to the High Court. J.B.Chopra v. Union of India13 It was held that since the Administrative tribunals are meant to be substitutes of High Courts, their power of judicial review extended to power as to decide on the constitutionality of service rules. However, soon we see a reversal of trend leading to a lot of confusion. In M.B.Majumdar v. Union of India14 the Supreme Court refused to extend the service conditions and other benefits enjoyed by ordinary High Court judges to the members of these Tribunals. Three years later, in R.K.Jain v. Union of India15, the Supreme Court opined that these Tribunals could not be effective substitutes of High Courts under Articles 226 and 227. We also find very clear expression of dissatisfaction of the apex court regarding the functioning and effectiveness of Administrative Tribunals especially with regard to their power of judicial review.

11

Joshi, K. C., Legal Status of Tribunals, IBR, Vol. 25 (2), 1998 (1987) I SCC 386 13 1987) I SCC 422. 14 1990) 4 SCC 501 15 ( 1993) 4 SCC 119 12

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Sakinala Harinath v. State of Andhra Pradesh16 In this case, the Andhra Pradesh High Court dropped a bomb shell by expressing serious doubts about the wisdom of the learned Judges in Sampath Kumar’s case. The Full Bench ruled that the ruling in the above case equating Administrative Tribunals to the High courts with respect to their jurisdiction under Articles 226 and 227 was inconsistent with the apex court’s ruling in cases like Kesavanda Bharati v. State of Kerala17 and Indira Gandhi v. RajNarain18. It was pointed out that the constitutional courts could only exercise the power of judicial review. Since the logic of alternative institutional mechanism propounded in Sampath Kumar’s case does not fit in to this scheme, it is constitutionally impermissible. As a result both Articles 323A(d) and section 28 of the Act were struck down as unconstitutional. The judicial green signal given for tribunalisation given in Sampath Kumar can be seen to be slowly fading because of the subsequent decisions.The confusion created by these conflicting decisions ushered in the need for taking a second look at S.P. Sampath Kumar’s case.

This

opportunity arrived when a three judge bench of the Supreme Court in L. Chandrakumar v. Union of India28 decided to refer the matter to a larger bench.

This eventually led to the

famous ruling of the Seven Judge Bench of the Supreme Court on L. Chandrakumar v. Union of India, which is now the law of the land.

L. Chandrakumar’s Case 19 The important issues considered by the apex court were as follows: 1. Whether Art. 323A (2) (d) and Art.323B (3) (d) of the constitution which give the power to the Union and State Legislatures to exclude the jurisdiction of all courts except that of the Supreme Court under Art.136, is in accordance with the power of judicial review embodied in Art.32 and 226. 2. Whether the power of High Courts to exercise the powers of superintendence over the subordinate judiciary under Articles 226 and 227 form part of Basic Structure. 3. The competence of the aforesaid tribunals to determine the constitutionality of any law.

16

1993 (2) An. W.R.484 (FB) (1973) 4 SCC 225 18 AIR 1975 SC 2291 19 AIR 1995 SC 1151 17

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4. Whether the aforesaid tribunals are acting as affective substitutes to High Courts in terms of efficiency. It was held that the power of judicial review over legislative and administrative action is expressly vested with the High Courts and the Supreme Court under Articles 226 and 32 respectively. The contention that the constitutional safeguards which ensure the independence of the higher judiciary is not available to the lower judiciary and bodies such as Tribunals was upheld and the Apex Court consequently held that the lower judiciary would not be able to serve as effective substitutes to the higher judiciary in matters of constitutional interpretation and judicial review. Hence the power of judicial review is vested in the higher judiciary and the power of High Courts and the Supreme Court to test the constitutional validity of legislative and administrative action cannot ordinarily be ousted. However it was held that these tribunals and the lower judiciary could exercise the role of judicial review as supplement to the superior judiciary. The court applied the provisions of Article 32(3) to uphold the same.

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8. ADVANTAGES OF ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNAL

Administrative adjudication is a dynamic system of administration, which serves, more adequately than any other method, the varied and complex needs of the modem society. The main advantages of the administrative tribunals are: 8.1. Flexibility Administrative adjudication has brought about flexibility and adaptability in the judicial as well as administrative tribunals. For instance, the courts of law exhibit a good deal of conservatism and inelasticity of outlook and approach. The justice they administer may become out of harmony with the rapidly changing social conditions. Administrative adjudication, not restrained by rigid rules of procedure and canons of evidence, can remain in tune with the varying phases of social and economic life. 8.2. Adequate Justice In the fast changing world of today, administrative tribunals are not only the most appropriated means of administrative action, but also the most effective means of giving fair justice to the individuals. Lawyers, who are more concerned about aspects of law, find it difficult to adequately assess the needs of the modem welfare society and to locate the individuals place in it. 8.3. Less Expensive Administrative justice ensures cheap and quick justice. As against this, procedure in the law courts is long and cumbersome and litigation is costly. It involves payment of huge court fees, engagement of lawyers and meeting of other incidental charges.

Administrative

adjudication, in most cases, requires no stamp fees. Its procedures are simple and can be easily understood by a layman. 8.4. Relief to Courts The system also gives the much-needed relief to ordinary courts of law, which are already overburdened with ordinary suits.

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9. DISADVANTAGES OF ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNALS

Even though administrative adjudication is essential and useful in modem day administration, we should not be blind to the defects from which it suffers or the dangers it poses to a democratic polity. Some of the main drawbacks are mentioned below. 

Administrative adjudication is a negation of Rule of Law. Rule of Law ensures equality before law for everybody and the supremacy of ordinary law and due procedure of law over governmental arbitrariness. But administrative tribunals, with their separate laws and procedures often made by themselves, puts a serious limitation upon the celebrated principles of Rule of Law.



Administrative tribunals have in most cases, no set procedures and sometimes they violate even the principles of natural justice.



Administrative tribunals often hold summary trials and they do not follow any precedents. As such it is not possible to predict the course of future decisions.



The civil and criminal courts have a uniform pattern of administering justice and centuries

of

experience

in

the

administration of

civil and

criminal

laws

have borne testimony to the advantages of uniform procedure. A uniform code of procedure in administrative adjudication is not there. 

Administrative tribunals are manned by administrators and technical heads who may not have the background of law or training of judicial work. Some of them may not possess the independent outlook of a judge.

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10.STATUS AND WORKING OF TRIBUNALS IN INDIA

Tribunals are essentially those bodies of the Executive branch of the government who by virtue of some statutory provision have the power and duty to act judicially in determining disputes which come before it.20 Tribunals as stated earlier are distinct from the ordinary courts of the land and as per Chandrakumar’s case they are not on par with the High Courts but serve a supplemental function to the High Courts. They are therefore subject to the writ jurisdiction of the superior judiciary and to the power of judicial review exercisable by the superior judiciary. In most of the tribunals appeals from their decisions lie in the High Court on substantial questions of law. There are different types of tribunals in India, ranging from single member tribunals to multimember tribunals. Tribunals such as the Industrial tribunal may consist of one or more members, and they can be appointed by the appropriate government. The chairman of the tribunal is supposed to possess judicial qualifications and is supposed to be or have been a judge of the High Court or a District judge or be qualified for appointment as a High Court judge. The other members are expected to satisfy the prescribed requirements- which are to ensure that the members are experts and will be able to speedily and effectively dispose of matters. The procedure to be followed by the tribunal is prescribed by the Act and rules made there under. Though the function of the tribunal is to adjudicate on the disputes it has only some of the trappings of the court. It is not bound by strict rules of procedure and can take decisions by exercising its discretion. While accepting the fact that such tribunals must work towards furthering social justice, it has been held in J&K Iron and Steel Co. v. Mazdoor Union that tribunal cannot act beyond the scope of the law. It can decide the dispute on the basis of the pleadings and has no power to reach a conclusion without any evidence on record. The tribunal is expected to hold the proceedings in public, follow fair procedure and decide disputes impartially and independently. All tribunals in India are arranged on the following basis:

20



Created by a statute



subject to the writ jurisdiction of the superior judiciary and to judicial review.



Manned by experts and persons with judicial experience.

Chakraverti, S., Administrative Law and Tribunals, 2nd edition, The Law Book Co. Ltd.: Allahabad

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

subject to the superintendence of the concerned High Court under Art.227



Decisions may be final or appealable within the tribunal or in certain cases to the High Court. appeals against orders of the tribunal may be heard by the Supreme Court by special leave under Art. 136.

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11.TRIBUNALS AND NATURAL JUSTICE

Administrative tribunals must act openly, fairly and impartially. They must afford a reasonable opportunity to the parties to represent their case and adduce evidence. Thus, in State of U.P. v. Md. Nooh21 where the prosecutor was also an adjudcating officer and also in Dhakeshwari Mills22 where the tribunal did not disclose some evidence to the assessee which was relied upon, the decisions were set aside. In Union of India v. T.R. Verma23 the Supreme Court held the following to be part of natural justice: a)

Party must be able to adduce all evidence being relied upon.

b)

Evidence must be taken in the presence of both parties.

c)

Must be given opportunity to cross- examine.

d)

And no material must be relied upon without giving the party opportunity to

explain the evidence. Tribunals are free to evolve their own method of procedure as long as they conform to the principles of natural justice as outlined above.

21

AIR 1958 SC 86 AIR 1955 SC154 23 AIR 1957 SC 882 at 885 22

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12.CONCLUSION

In

view

of the

increasing

role

of

administration

in

citizens'

life,

the

administrative tribunals are expected to play an important role in the redressal of citizens' grievances. In this unit we have examined the nature of administrative tribunals and the various reasons for their groping importance. Various types of administrative tribunals are set up

in the

country to address various issues, such as, the adjudication of disputes and

complaints of the public servants, redressed of consumer disputes, industrial disputes, disputes pertaining to income tax etc. They provide greater flexibility in administering justice and provide relief to the courts. But at the same time they suffer from some limitations as they sometimes violate the principles of natural justice, lack uniform pattern of administering justice and also suffer from the lack of a proper background on law or judicial work. However, with certain safeguards it is possible to rectify some of these limitations.

The administrative tribunals should have people with

legal training and experience. A code of judicial procedures should be devised and enforced for their functioning.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY  Statue  Administrative Tribunals Act, 1985  Books Referred  Chakraverti, S., Administrative Law and Tribunals, 2nd edition, The Law Book Co. Ltd.: Allahabad 

Joshi, K. C., Legal Status of Tribunals, IBR, Vol. 25 (2), 1998



Jain,M.P., Principles of Administrative Law, Wadhwa & Company : Nagpur, 1996

 Websites referred  www.lawyersclubindia.com , 

www.answers.com,



www.etymonline.com,



http://cgat.gov.in/act.htm ,

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