Adem Alo

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

A STUDY OF GENDER-RELATED TRADITIONAL PRACTICES HARMFUL TO WOMEN AND GIRLS (THE CASE OF DODOLA DISTRICT IN BALE ZONE)

By

ADEM ALO

JUNE 2003

A STUDY OF GENDER-RELATED TRADITIONAL PRACTICES HARMFUL TO WOMEN AND GIRLS (THE CASE OF DODOLA DISTRICT IN BALE ZONE)

A Thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies Addis Ababa University

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of Masters of Art in Educational Psychology (Educational Measurement and Evaluation)

BY

ADEM ALO

JUNE 2003

Declaration I hereby declare that the Thesis is my original work, has not been presented for a Degree in any other University and that all sources of materials used for the Thesis have been duly acknowledged.

Name of the Candidate: Adem Alo

Sign_________________________Date_________

Name of the Advisor: - Dr. Belay Tefera

Sign.___________________________ Date_________

Acknowledgment In the course of this Thesis, I have received valuable assistance from various professionals and friends. These give me a great pleasure to express my heart-felt gratitude to those people who deserve my acknowledgment.

First and foremost, my deepest gratitude goes to my advisor Dr. Belay Tefera whose invaluable advice; critical comments and constructive suggestions were the major factors for the completion of this study. In addition to his unfailing and unreserved commitment and meticulous comments, Dr. Belay has generously shared his precious materials through out my writing of the thesis. I believe that this study would have been impossible without his unreserved dedication and encouragement.

My special thanks and limitless appreciation go to my mother Bulli Wabe and my father Alo Fatanaa for they put me in the world of education. Therefore, their persistent financial, technical and moral support and encouragement will remain engraved in my heart. My brothers, particularly, Abdurahim Tura and Mohamed Alo and sisters also deserve special attention.

I am also indebted to many of my friends and relatives. Hussien Taffo; my best friend, deserves special thanks, together with his family, for their unreserved moral and financial support through out my life in the world of Education. My deepest thanks go to Haji-Woliyyi Dalu and his family for their moral and technical support to this stage. I am very grateful to Aman Muda and Teshome Segni, for their material support and moral encouragement.

My heartfelt thanks also go to Yazid Rashid, my favorite instructor while I was in high school, and who have also been with me, heartedly, through out my life in the university.

Mamo Edris, my friend, deserves special thanks for his assistance both, in providing me with his own Computer and, for his professional assistance, during editing this manuscript. Finally, not the least by any means, I have no words to thank Abebaw Minaye, my classmate, for his encouragement during undertaking this study.

Table of Contents Acknowledgment Table of Contents List of Tables Acronyms Abstract

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Page

1.1. Problem and its background--------------------------------------------------------------1 1.2. Background of the Study area-------------------------------------------------------------6 1.3. Statement of the Problem------------------------------------------------------------------8 1.4. Objective of the Study--------------------------------------------------------------------12 1.5. Operational definition of terms ---------------------------------------------------------------13 1.6. Significance of the study-----------------------------------------------------------------15 1.7. Scope of the study-------------------------------------------------------------------------17 1.8. Limitation of study --------------------------------------------------------- --------------17

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE 2.1. Theories of human rights violation-------------------------------------------------------------------19 2.1.1. Psychopathological theory---------------------------------------------------------------19 2.1.2. Sociopsychological theory---------------------------------------------------------------20 2.1.3. Sociocultural theory-----------------------------------------------------------------------21 2.2. Historical development of “Sex” and “Gender”-----------------------------------------------------26 2.2.1. Biological theory-----------------------------------------------------------------------------28 2.2.2. Environmental theory-----------------------------------------------------------------------29 2.2.3. Mentalistic theory----------------------------------------------------------------------------30 2.3. The concept of Human Rights and the International Standards----------------------------------31 2.3.1. Gender-based Violence and the Human Rights------------------------------------------34 2.3.1.1. Gender-based violence: Background------------------------------------------34

2.3.1.2. Gender- based violence as violating the Human Rights of Women and Girl-Children------------------------------------------35 2.3.1.2.1. Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)----------------------------------------37 2.3.1.2.2. Forced marriages: Abduction and Early Marriage----------------------------------------------------------------------45 2.3.1.3. Harmful Traditional Practices in Ethiopia---------------------47 2.3.1.3.1. Classification by the Demographic Characteristics----------47 2.3.1.3.2. Classification by the Type of Harmful Practices--------------------------48 2.3.1.4. Overview of the marriage and marriage-related Factors in Oromia ------------------------------------------------------------ --------------57

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN 3.1. Subjects, Sampling and Sampling techniques-----------------------------------------------------61 3.2. Procedure of Data collection-------------------------------------------------------------------------68 3.3. Data analysis ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------70 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS OF THE STUDY 4.1. Quantitative results-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------73 4.2. Qualitative results------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------93 4.3. Discussion of the Results-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------105

CHAPTERFIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS------------------------------------------------------------------------113 References --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------120 Maps Appendices (A-F)

List of Tables Tables

Page

1. Type of Subjects, Sample Size and their age-------------------------------------------62 2. Centers/Settings, Population and the Sample------------------------------------------63 3. Ethnicity and religion of the respondents-----------------------------------------------66 4. Marital status and educational background of the respondents------------------- 67 5. The respondents’ response to female circumcision (FGM)--------------------------74 6. The respondents’ opinion about abduction----------------------------------------------78 7. The respondents’ response to early marriage-------------------------------------------81 8. Perceptions attached to men-women equality-------------------------------------------84 9. The respondents’ opinion about female circumcision (FGM)------------------------86 10. The respondents’ reply to abduction------------------------------------------------------88 11. The respondents’ expectation on early marriage---------------------------------------90 12. Summary Table of the opinions of the respondents------------------------------------91

Acronyms

DEVAW-Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women FGM-Female Genital Mutilation MOH-Ministry of Health NOP-National Office of Population NCTPE-National Committee on Traditional Practices in Ethiopia. MOE-Ministry of Education TGE-Transitional Government of Ethiopia UN-United Nations UNICEF-United Nations Children's Fund UNESCO-United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

Abstract The purpose of this study is to examine and understand the prevalence, problems and the magnitude of some of the major gender-based Traditional Practices with special reference to female circumcision, abduction and early marriage in the rural areas of the Dodola District in Bale Zone. The study aimed also at exploring the ideology of the people regarding these issues. The subjects who took part in the study include students (boys and girls), girls- out- of school, men and women and the key informants. The major sampling techniques employed in selecting these subjects were stratified, purposeful, availability and simple random sampling. The major instruments used for the data Collection were the structured and semi-structured Questionnaire and Interview. Depending on the nature of the data collected, both the Descriptive (Percentages, Frequencies, Averages and standard deviations) and the inferential statistics (the Chi-square and the t– test) were employed to systematize and analyze the data. The findings have shown that both the female circumcision and abduction of girls are common practice in the study area with the exception of the early marriage. There were statistically significant differences between the male and female respondents with respect to these points. However, while the act of abducting girls is gradually declining at the escalating rate, female circumcision tends to persist, as one form of cultural exercise, in the society under discussion. This is such a sensitive issue that a girl can never be involved in marriage without undergoing circumcision. The findings have indicated also that circumcision of girls and marriages are the two interdependent cultural practices and the former is regarded as a pre-requisite for the latter. Early marriage is not common in this society and, rather it was revealed that a girl is expected to get married after the age of twenty. Some recommendations were made, based on the findings, towards minimizing, if not eliminating, these practices. Integrating such issues in the school curriculum, establishing committee at the regional, zonal and District levels and research undertakings at various academic institutions (for instance, regional colleges, schools etc), were the major points of recommendations to play a lion’s share. The utilization of the mass media, and the educated women, would also contribute much to advocate the harmfulness of these practices, particularly, the

circumcision

of

females

and,

to

gradually

minimize

and

eradicate

them.

Chapter One: INTRODUCTION

1.1. Problem and its Background It might be valuable to acquaint readers, at this early stage, with the intention of this paper. The whole essence of this study, in general, is to address the problems and prospects of some of the major traditional practices namely female circumcision, abduction and early marriage.

Equality is the cornerstone of every democratic society, which aspires to social justice and human rights. In virtually all societies women are subjected to inequalities. This situation is both caused and aggravated by the existence of discrimination of women in various levels. Besides, with respect to the equality of human rights, I would like to borrow a statement of the ex-UN Secretary General, Boutros Boutros Ghali (cited in National Office of Population, 1999:5) that reads as follows: “… human rights are not worthy of the name if they exclude the female half of humanity. The struggle for women’s equality is part of the struggle for a better world for all human beings, and all societies.”

The reality should be that the concept of equality means much more than treating all persons in the same way. In other words, equal treatment of persons in unequal situations will operate to perpetuate rather than eradicate injustice. True equality emanates only from efforts directed toward addressing and correcting these situational imbalances. This broader view of equality contributes to the underlying principle and the final goal in the struggle for recognition and acceptance of the human rights of women.

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The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which is the cornerstone of the human rights system, asserts (WHO, UNICEF & UN Population Fund, 1996) that:

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. It protects the right to security of person and the right not to be subjected to cruel inhuman or degrading treatment.

Through out the world there exist various forms of gender-based violence and other cultural and traditional practices that violate the human rights of women and the girl-children. These traditional practices reflect values and beliefs held by the community members for periods and, they are often spanning generation.

The increasing attention paid by the international community to gender-based violence underscores its global importance. In the years 1990s alone, valuable social policies have emerged in this regard. The Beijing declarations of the year 1995 stressed violence against women, as one of the major and critical areas of concern and as an obstacle to the achievement of women’s human rights. Particularly, the world conference on Human Rights (Vienna, 1993, and http://healthlinkswashington.edu/nwcphp/nph/f2002/gender violence f2002.pdf.) Stated that, “Women’s human rights are a fundamental part of all human rights and must be protected not only in courts, prisons, and other areas of public life, but also in their homes".

The United Nations and, Economic and Social Council (2002) revealed that cultural relativism is often used as an excuse to permit inhumane and discriminatory practices carried on women and girls in the community.

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Taking into account the dignity and worth of the human beings and the equality of both men and women, and considering further that, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights Stressed the principle of non-discrimination and proclaimed that all human beings are born free, equal in dignity and rights. Everyone deserves the right and freedoms set forth with out distinction of any kind irrespective of their sex (United Nation, 2000). Nevertheless, the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action (part.1, Para. 18) (1993) asserts in its Fact sheet 22 that, The human rights of women and of the girl child are an inalienable, integral and indivisible part of universal human rights. The full and equal participation of women in political, civil, economic, social and cultural life, at the national, regional and international levels, and the eradication of all forms of discrimination on grounds of sex are priority objectives of the international community.

In accordance with the human rights perspectives, the rights of women and girls, to physical and mental integrity, to freedom from discrimination and to the highest standard of health are universal. And to this effect, culture claims can’t be invoked to justify their violation.

Gender-based violence is recognized as a form of discrimination, which seriously inhibit a woman’s ability to enjoy the full range of rights and freedoms on a basis of equality with men. Besides violating the rights of women, girls and children, its effect, one way or another, is believed to result in a significant proportion of the population at community, national and global levels. The frequent effects include the physical and psychological suffering, with many negative physical and health outcomes. It also has an impact on many important reproductive health issues such as safe-motherhood, family planning, sexual health, and the prevention of HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases.

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Many literatures revealed that particularly some of the traditional practices exert a profound influence and disrupt the life of women and children. These practices however, are seen as cultural practices that deserve tolerance and respect. Depending on their prevalence, these threatening gender-related violence include female genital mutilation (FGM, then after), early marriage, abduction, food taboos, son preference and female infanticide, and similar others that occur in the name of culture.

Nevertheless, Conventions and Declarations are very clear to show the equality and humanity that ought to prevail among individuals and, in mainstreaming the possible short and long term consequences of each of this practice (UN and Economic & Social Council, 2002).

A joint statement by the WHO, UN Children’s Fund, and UN Population Fund (http://www.amanestyusa.org/women) reads as:

It is unacceptable that the international community remains passive in the name of a distorted vision of multiculturalism-Human behavior and cultural values; however, senseless or destructive they may appear from the personal and cultural stand points of others, have meaning and fulfill a function for those who practice them. However, culture is not static but is in constant flux adapting and reforming. People will change their behavior when they understand the hazards and indignity of harmful practices and when they realize that it is possible to give up harmful practices without giving up meaningful aspects of their culture.

Art. 4 of the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women state that states have an obligation to “exercise due diligence to prevent, investigate and in accordance with national legislation, punish acts of violence against women, whether those acts are perpetrated by the state or by private persons”. 4

The convention of the rights of the child (1997) obliges states to ratify and implement it towards taking all appropriate measures to protect children from all forms of physical and mental violence. Similarly, the 1996 resolution of the world Health Assembly declares violence to be a public health priority and also endorsed the possible recommendations to be made at prior international conferences, fight the problem of violence against females and, to address its health consequences. This is mainly because the frequency and impact of genderbased violence complicate, the significance of the public health and has adverse effects on the population of all levels (community, national and global). The consequence would be that, such a threatening gender specific violence results in extensive psychological trauma.

Historically, the main duty of women was to bear children, preferably boys, and the health related issues to this process have not been recognized. Moreover, the consequences of early, frequent and excessive child bearing were explained by fate, destiny and divine, rather than being associated to the results of oppressive cultural and social practices. Studies reveal that, in Ethiopia, women and children who constitute the vast majority of the population are subjected to harmful traditional practices, which are deep-rooted in the cultures and traditions of the ethnic groups and passed from generation to generation. Of course there are many positive practices that are to be appreciated and encouraged. These include breast feeding of children, postnatal care, settling quarrel, social gathering, taking care of the orphanages within the family and so on, and they are beneficiaries for the health and psychosocial well-being of the society as a whole and, for women and children in particular. What is more threatening is the severe harmful traditional practices such as female genital mutilation (FGM), Early marriage, abduction, son preference, food taboos and others, that violate the human rights of women and children.

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The attempt of this paper, therefore, is not to deal with all of these problems. Rather, it aims at identifying and investigating the problems and prospects of some of the major gender-based practices that are under taken in the name of culture. To be specific, the practices of female genital mutilation (circumcision), early marriage and abduction, will be considered as priority areas of this study. This is mainly based on the evidences from observations of the researcher. In light of these, an attempt will therefore, be made to focus on the cultural ideologies of the study area, that perpetuate such practices violating the human rights of women & girls.

The study concludes with the possible recommendations on ways to minimize, if not eliminate, these gender-related harmful traditional practices.

1.2

Background of The Study area

It is very important to aquaint the readers with the general overview, if not in detail, of the study area with especial reference to its geographical location, climate and the people.

1.2.1 Topography and the geographical location

Oromia region is composed of twelve administrative zones, 180 Districts and 375 towns. One of these zones is Bale administrative zone. This zone is situated in southeastern Ethiopia, which geographically is bounded by the rivers of Ganale to the south and west and, Wabe Shabale to the north and east. Bale zone is situated between 5022'and 808' north and, between 38052' and 42014' east latitude. Rivers, mountains and wild animals characterize it. In addition to Wabeshabale and Ganale rivers, other rivers such as Manna, Weyib and wolmal are among several others that are notable in this zone. However, Bale is known for its national park

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where there is distinct wild animals such as the mountain Niyala and other varieties of mammals and birds that are endemic to Ethiopia (Daniel, 2002 and, Oromia Planning and Economic Development Bureau, 1996).

The province of Bale is divided into three major altitudinal zones. These are "baddaa" (highland), "badda-dare" (intermediate/midland) and "gammoojjii' (lowland). The "badda" (highland) climatic zone embraces areas, which are conducive for agricultural activities. The topography of these Districts, including the district of Dodola, is largely plain with an average elevation of over 2,200 meters. This climatic zone has a mean annual rainfall of 800 to 1000 millimeters. Thus, the climatic conditions and its altitude largely determine the settlement and the occupation of the zonal population. Among the total inhabitants of Bale zone, the majority of the people reside in the highland areas with a population density of about 20 persons per square km. The 1984 statistical report shows that, the three highland districts of Goba, Sinana and Dodola are the most densely populated areas with a total population of more than 200,000 and, the cultivation of barley wheat and teff etc are widely practiced (Ketema, 2001).

1.2.2 Population, language and religion

Bale zone is divided into 17 Districts with a total area of 67,280 square kilometers. As it is stated

and

reported in

some

literatures,

the

zone

of

Bale constitutes

nearly

about18.8%(49.59% males and 50.41% females) of the total population of Oromia (Oromia Planning and economic development Bureau, 1996).

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The District of Dodola is one of the seventeen Districts found in Bale zone. The name "Dodola" was said to be named after one of the person who was believed to be the first settler in the District town of Dodola (Daniel, 2002), which has a distance of 320 km south of Addis Ababa.

It is stated in the statistical abstract for Oromia region (1996:49) that this District has a total area of 1521 square kilometers and, has the total population of 134802. About 13.49% of the people live in the towns and the majorities (86.51%) live in the rural areas.

The population & Housing Census of Ethiopia (1994) reveals that, among the total population of the District, while the majorities (83% are Muslims, nearly 15% of them belong to the Orthodox Christians and, the rest belong to Protestants, Catholic and Traditional believers. Nonetheless, as far as the language composition is concerned, the majorities (90.33%) of the population are the speakers of "Afan Oromo" (Oromo language) and about 8.77% of them are Amharic speakers. Others are the speakers of Gurage, Silte, and Sidama etc languages.

1.3 Statement of the Problem As a matter of fact, about half of our world population is women. Even in some countries it is said that the number of women are greater than the number of men. Since the existence of human beings on the earth, women are with men; indeed they both are intimate friends and supporters of each other. And yet, in every known culture of the world, women are considered to be inferior to men. Particularly in many of the traditional societies, peoples assume that

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there exist much difference between men and women, and the subordination of women is justified. This is contrary to the advocacy of the human rights. It is vividly argued and stated in various international conventions that women and girls, as human beings, have every right. Because their rights, are a human rights which are inalienable birth rights for every human beings, irrespective of their sex, religion, race or ethnicity. The two, men and women & girls, are the inseparable and rather, complementary entities. At this juncture, it might be stimulating to borrow a short but pertinent and meaningful slogan of Herbert Spencer (cited in Nelson – Jones, 2001: 460) that tells us the inevitability of the relationship between men and women that reads as: “No one can be perfectly free until all are free; No one can be perfectly moral until all are moral; No one can be perfectly happy until all are happy”.

The protection of their human right in the eye of the international community means, securing their equal rights and opportunities. They have the right to be free from all sorts of violence, discriminations and any form of harmful practices.

In traditional Ethiopia too, females have denied for so long the opportunity to education and, their school enrolment ratio, as compared to males, is quiet low and this is attributed to many sociocultural beliefs, religious outlooks of parents, early marriage and other traditional bias. The year 1990 data reveals that 48% of Ethiopian women are found between 0 and 14 years of age, and 49% are between 15 and 64. Among the total female population of Ethiopia, 88% of them live in rural areas and only 12% have an opportunity to live in urban areas. Total fertility rate; the estimated number of children that a woman will have over her entire reproductive time periods, is estimated at 7 children, on the average, and the median age for mothers’ first birth is 17 years old. Between 19-60% of women suffer from inadequate nutrition due mainly

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to various complex reasons. Only 5% of pregnant women have access to the trained midwives and the rest 95% are left to traditional midwives. However the first child birth complications, which have a direct relationship to early marriage &early childbearing, is said to be the major cause of morbidity in Ethiopia. For instance, infant mortality rate; the probability of dying between birth and age one per 1000 live births in a given area, is 105 per 1000 and, the maternal mortality; the number of deaths to women due to pregnancy and child birth complications per 100,000 live births in a given area, in the year 1995-2000 is 560-850 per 100,000. These and other factors make Ethiopia to be the top, among other thirty-seven least developed nations, particularly, with respect to the childbirth complications and the health situation of women (MOH, 1998 and TGE, 1993). The attempt here is, therefore, to show the impact of traditions like early marriage and other social beliefs on the health status and human rights of women and the girl.

Nevertheless, the gender based violence that is exercised by the community at large, challenges the lives of many women & girls both during the prenatal and postnatal, and continues to be detrimental through out their lives.

Among several other forms of Harmful traditional practices that violate the human rights of women and children, the nationwide survey study (1997) (NCTPE, 1998) revealed that, female genital mutilation (FGM), Abduction and Early Marriage were observed to occur in a high rate, and which victimizes many girls. FGM is examined to be practiced by both sexes.

Muslims and Christians in many ethnic groups of this country and about 90% of women are believed to have undergone it. Its prevalence rate is 73% at the National level, among which 60.4% and 69.1% of the practice is applied on girls of age 10 to 14 and, 15 to 19 respectively.

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On top of this, abduction is increased dramatically (Tekalign 1998). During the last years of 1993 to 1997 alone, about 311 cases on abduction were reported, on the average. These gender related and harmful practices, not only violate the human rights of the victims but also are mercilessly disrupting the health of many innocent children, regardless of their demographic variables. Among the serious issues related to FGM, Abduction and early marriage is the HIV /AIDS incidence, which is said to increase in an alarming rate. Negatu Mereke, head of the National AIDS secretariat, describes the state of the HIV/AIDS in Ethiopia as follows (The Daily Monitor, vol. X, № 6 of 2002).

Our country is among other countries in leading at the forefront of the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Since the first cases, the pandemic has been spreading rapidly --- and affects every age & ethnic group in the country. The prevalence was 3.2% in 1993, and it is now 7.3%. About 2.6 million are living with HIV/AIDS, and about 250,000 are children below the age of five years. There are also about 900,000 AIDS orphans.

This is to say that, apart from the lifetime psychological and physical trauma, the traditional practices mentioned above, have the capacity to exert a great influence on individuals of both sexes, to the extent of the risk of HIV/AIDS. It is in light of these problems, that challenge the human rights advocacy in general, and violating the human rights of women and girls, in particular, the following research questions are stated and cautiously treated throughout this study. 1. Is there a practice of female circumcision, abduction and early marriage in the study area under discussion? 2. What are the beliefs or opinions of the society towards these practices? a) Do the societies, irrespective of their sex, accept or reject the practices? b) Does the culture encourage or discourage these practices? 3. Is the society aware of the health, Psychological & the physical effects of these practices?

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4. Is there difference between the opinion of males and females as regard to the occurrence and the problem of these practices? 5.Which of these three (Female circumcision, Abduction and the Early marriage) is/are more common in this study area? 6.

What are the major reasons for which the society practices the circumcision of females, abduction and early marriage?

1.4 Objectives of the Study The general objective of this study is to examine and understand the prevalence of female circumcision, abduction and early marriage and, to explore their magnitude. Studies show us that the world violence of the male violence against women has recently increased at an alarming rate in every culture and in various traditional practices. Furthermore, in almost all societies of past and present, it is said that women have been subjected to unjust discrimination and violence. Chinkin (1995) examined that the major reasons for which these problems have not been recognized include: first, the extent to which the problems prevail has been usually kept concealed and secondly, the incidence usually remain widely unreported and is not officially recorded. Thirdly, the economic and social dependence of women on men has hindered many women or girls from disclosing the issue against their health psychological and physical conditions.

On the other hand, others argue that the problem of violence against females should not be gender-specific but rather it is the human rights problem of both men and women. However, numerous researchers conclude that although men could also be part of those, in some cases, who could face these problems, violence against them is too low to give reliable data.

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The specific objectives of this study, therefore, are to: 1. Assess and understand the view of many groups of the society, regardless of their demographic variables like age, sex, religion and ethnicity. 2. Document the incidence of violence against women and realize the set of problems that women and children have to face in the name of tradition and culture. 3. Sensitize in various aspects the innocent girls, who due to lack of awareness, are made to face multitudes of problems, with relevant information about the seriousness of some and major traditional practices. 4. Underscore the different reasons given by the society to these practices. 5. Recommend corrective measures and procedures.

1.8 Operational Definition of Terms It might be hardly possible to arrive at the common understanding with respect to the definition of certain terminologies. A given term could mean many things for different individuals and, in most cases, such variations can be attributed to the prior orientation and the cultural background of persons. It is by taking this relativity of the meaning of terms that the following definitions are given.


Violence against Women: - The Universal Declaration of Human Rights defines violence against women as “an extreme violation of the basic human rights, especially the right to life, liberty and the security of persons” (Hellum, 1996). Similarly, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination (UN, 1996) defined it as a “violence that is directed at women because she is a woman or that affects women

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disproportionately”. For the purpose of this study, the definition offered in the Declaration on the Elimination of violence against Women (WHO, 1997) is adopted. It reads as: Any act of gender based violence that results in or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or private life. This definition encompasses, among other things, “dowry related violence, marital rape, female genital rape, female genital mutilation, and other harmful traditional practices harmful to women, … violence related to physical, … and psychological … occurring within the general community.


Discrimination against Women: - This term in this study refers to any distinction, exclusion or restriction, made on the basis of sex with the purpose of impairing the recognition or exercise by women, regardless of their marital status, on the basis of equality of human rights &fundamental freedoms in their social, cultural or any other sphere.
Female Genital Mutilation: - FGM is one of the predominant cultural practices that are highly prevalent in numerous third world countries. “Mutilation” literally means, “to cut of” or “damage” an important part of the body. It also means, “to cut short,” “to amputate”. The term could also have specific meaning in each and every culture (Hirut, 2000 and Amare, 1996). For example, experience shows us that, in a community who live in the study area under discussion, many people know female genital mutilation as “Kittannaa,” to mean “circumcision”. Above all, in this study, the term female genital mutilation, therefore, shall mean, the removal of parts or all of the most sensitive female genitalia.
Abduction: - The term abduction is said to be related to the term “kidnapping,” which comes from two different words: kid-child and, nab, to mean, suddenly arrest or capture. 14

The Random House Dictionary of the English language (Stein and Urdang, 1973) defines abduction as the act of carrying off or lead away a person illegally, in secret and by force. In this study, the term abduction has a meaning of the unlawful kidnapping of a girl, without her knowledge and consent, for the purpose of marriages or defilement.
Forced Marriage: - In this definition, as it is stated in various literatures, for example, (Mintiwab, 2000 and UNICEF 2000), the term forced marriage, shall mean, a type of marriage which constitute a form of violence as it undermines the human rights of the girl. It is a kind of marriage that takes place without the consent & knowledge of the girl (the case of abduction) and, with/without the consent and knowledge of the girl (the case of early marriage).

1.5 Significance of the Study The significance of this study of course, cannot be overemphasized. A drop of water that is added to a large river might not raise the volume of the water in the river but still it can disturb for a while. Sigmund Freud says, “The interpretation of dreams is the royal road to a knowledge of the unconscious activities of the mind”. Studies related to identifying and investigating such kinds of problems, in the form of research, in the context of this country can be said minimal, as compared to the ethnic diversities of various cultural back ground and the total number of the population, in general. The relativity of the culture and tradition, as it could make the whole processes complex, usually deserve and adheres itself to a great care. Those people, be it the practitioner and/or the victim may not realize the drawbacks of their traditions. Several others may appreciate what others are criticizing. Narrowing this discrepancy, particularly, in Ethiopia, where the varied cultural compositions exist, can be difficult and time taking. This complexity and other things being equal, is possible to

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generally sensitize the community as to what is desirable and not desirable. The writer believes, therefore, that this study is significant in that,

1. In general sense, it acquaints people with, and strengthens the human rights advocacy. Particularly, although both men and women could be hurt by the existing culture, it creates awareness that women and girls are the one to taste the bitter of those genderspecific societal practices, in the name of culture. 2. It gives an insight into the multidimensional problems of these traditional practices that violate the health, Psychological and the physical settings of women &children. Particularly, it reveals the health and psychological consequences and/or implications of the problems. 3. The findings of this study may help a concerned body in providing them with persuasive feedback that could lead them to develop a baseline survey towards minimizing, if not eliminate the problem and designing the possible strategies. 4. It could also help women and girls to be conscious enough and assertive and, know their human rights. 5. It may also initiate and invite those who are interested in doing further study in the area. 6. Above all, there is hardly any research conducted in the District under study with respect to these problems. Therefore, this paper could contribute to address, if not solve, the existing problems in the area.

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1.6 Scope of the Study

This study is delimited only to Dodola District, among other Districts found in Bale zone, due to certain reasons. Because of the time and financial constraints, one can hardly include all other Districts and/ or other zones in the study. However, Dodola District was selected for its relative geographical proximity to the main road.

1.7 Limitations of the Study In undertaking professional research, obviously there are problems and drawbacks that one could come across, due to certain problems. Some of the major constraints the researcher has faced in undertaking this study were the shortage of time and money, without which the task cannot, by any means, be effectively and efficiently undertaken as intended. Besides, since there are only few studies conducted at the national level, in general, and almost none in the study area, in particular, the findings that would have been the basis for fair generalization were not free of limitation.

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Chapter Two: REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

Violence against women is the most pervasive abuse of human rights. The worldwide prevalence of the male violence against women has recently become more evident to occur in every culture and society in various forms such as domestic verbal & physical abuse, abduction, sexual harassment, female genital mutilation, female infanticide etc. Although their forms and prevalence vary from place to place, cross-cultural studies reveal that there is no society in which women have not been attacked by men. In almost all societies of past and present, women have been subjected to unjust discrimination and violence. Many of these prevail with alarming frequency, which adversely affect the rights, liberty and the security of women. Despite the constitutional rights and advocacy on violence free life, women are subjected to subordination, sexual abuse and to many traditional practices that are carried out in the name of culture, many of which are contrary to the human rights advocacy in general, and to females, in particular. Despite the worldwide incidence of gender-related violence, it is only very recently that it has become an issue of an international legal concern. It has been used for centuries as a mechanism through which the society sustains its family to obedience. It is also evident that the traditional and cultural expectations about gender roles within society are used to justify continued expression and subordination of females to males. The expectation and the belief of many, particularly men, is that women are portrayed as weak, ignorant and incapable of acquiring knowledge. They are believed to be short minded, i.e. unable to think in advance and are considered as defective and incomplete naturally. Thus, many people tend to conclude that women are incompetent and are unfit for every activity (Ahuja, 1987,Chinkin, 1995 and French, 1992).

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2.1. Theories of Violence Fawcett (1996) state that with respect to the why of violence against women and its occurrence, there are various theoretical analyses. More specifically some theories have attempted to explain violence through individual pathology, psychodynamic developments; stress, frustration, and blocked goals and, socialization and learning theories.

The following theories might have relevance for understanding violence against women and the girl-children. These theories, range from an intra psychic to macro-sociological perspectives classified under three theoretical levels of analysis (Ahuja, 1987 and Dallos &McLaughlin, 1993).

2.1.1. The Psycho-Pathological Theory This theory is a psychiatric in nature focusing mainly on personality characteristics of the offenders, as the sole determining factors causing violence against women. It relies, for the analysis of behaviors of the offenders, on the mental illness and other intra-individual phenomena, although there is no adequate and dependable data to support either of the explanations mentioned below. Specifically it provides two different explanations: The first is that the causes of violence against women arises from the offenders’ psychological or adjustment problems. The second explanation is that violence against women arises out of the psychological problems of the women themselves (the victims).

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2.1.2. Socio-Psychological Theories This model asserts that violence against women can best be understood in terms of the careful examination of the external environmental factors that exert an influence on the individual offender. Besides, it gives emphasis to the types of every day interactions such as the threatening situations and other family interactional patterns and so on, which are prerequisites to violence. This theory explains violence against women in terms of the frustration-aggression and the individuals’ self attitude models, as follows: The frustration-aggression model is said to be stated for the first time in 1939 by Dollard et al and derived many of its basic postulates from Freudian Theory. It believes that frustrations linked to aggression, or an innate drive; which helps us explain an individual’s violence, as he/she is the focus of both the high personal involvement and high frustration in the family. In other words, whenever the individual’s attempt toward achieving certain goal is blocked, he feels frustrated and, frustration, in turn, leads him to some form of aggressive behaviors. Such a psychodynamic theory begins to occur at the early infant life when tension, rage and aggression etc are seen to result when the primary caretaker does not satisfy the infant’s basic needs. In such situation, rage is assumed as a form of defense against underlying fears of dependency or rejection. If this tension is not released, the individual will become ill and exercise power over others.

The second model, which the SocioPsychological theorists base their theory is on Self Attitude model. It states that in a society, culture, or group who value violence, individuals who have low self esteem take initiative to practice and perform violent acts so as to show their male egotism to get approval by others and by themselves. Although there is no empirical data to support this assumption, the tendency according to this theory, is that those

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individuals who depend on violence against women, as resolving certain problems, are those who suffer from low self-esteem.

2.1.3. Socio-Cultural Theories These theorists argue that, usually violence is examined and explained in relation to the socially structured inequality that, social and cultural attitudes and, norms regarding antisocial behavior and interpersonal relations are emphasized or regarded as a macro-level, used for the behavior analysis. It encompasses the following specific theories. One is the structural model, which emphasizes on the idea that there is hardly any relationship between the violent acts of individuals and their personalities or values. Therefore, violence can’t be understood and described in terms of conflict or other defense mechanisms such as suppression, sublimation, guilt etc. similarly “rationality” doesn’t play any role in social action. The core element of this approach, in general, is that the social groups of individuals vary with respect to their typical levels of stress, deprivation and frustration. They also differ in their value resources at their surrounding to deal with these stresses. In other words, those individuals, who combine high stress with low resources, would be more violent. Thus, what is important here is the explanation of an individual’s act of violence, in relation to what has already been determined by social forces of one kind or another. In this case, the act of an individual is judged and is determined by the degree of his integration in the system. In its second model, the socio-cultural theorists explain violence in terms of what they call Anomie model. It was developed in 1938 by Robert Merton, in which he examined the socially learned needs, goals and aspirations, as the restricted structural access to their attainment. This theory stresses that some social structures impose restrictions on certain individuals in the society to engage in non-conformist, instead of conformist way of behavior.

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When it is needed to overemphasize the goals, disregarding the sufficient attention to institutional means (social structures), it leads to a willingness to use any avenue, irrespective of their legality, to achieve and see that the goal is attained. In such cases therefore, due attention is given to crystallize the relationship between one’s social position, the strain which accords that position, and the resulting deviant and non deviant adaptations. However, Robert Merton in this theory has outlined the possible adaptations that can occur when the individual has internalized the goals, although not legitimately attained. Furthermore, he gave a major concern to the person who uses illegitimate means to goals, but who can’t be effective. Their third model is the patriarchy model. Dobash and Dobrash, the founder of this model (1979) explained that, throughout history to date, Violence has been systematically directed towards women. A priority in his theoretical argument is that patriarchy directs individuals to the subordination of women and contributes to a historical pattern of systematic violence directed against them. In so doing, economic and social pressures function, one way or another, to assist a patriarchal social system and family structure.

This theory, as commented by others, perhaps, remains the most influential among the sociocultural theories, although it relies only on essentially a single factor (patriarchy) in explaining violence against women.

The question here is how to substantiate, integrate, approve or disprove, the models mentioned above. There exist various views regarding the violence of men towards women and, these views support some and, reject other theories. Let’s consider the preceding ideas that many have used to base their theories.

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In the first instance, some people argue that, in ‘making sense’ of violence towards women or girls, they necessitate the clear understanding of the historical context, instead of attributing the matter, to a specific theory. They argue, therefore that, it is important to know and understand how much violence has been accepted, condoned, normalized and/or ignored by the society. Men’s perceptions of violence to the opposite sex are affected by the definitions, and constructions, produced and reproduced in a group members. In other words, it is only by considering the dismal historical context of violence in a society that enables us understand, define and perceive the contributing factors, in a social context. It is also important that, for example, men generally define violence in such narrower terms than do women. Thus in order to vividly see and conceptualize the occurrence of violence, the formulation of the historical and cultural definitions of meaning, individual action, social structure, the rethinking of power and the deconstruction of “the self” are acknowledged. It is contended, therefore, that the most usual model of interpersonal relations is of the ‘rational individual’ with a ‘unified self’ who conducts ‘his’ affairs in a liberal and reasonably tolerant way. In this scenario, violence is portrayed as relatively isolated exceptions to normal life. And it doesn’t often figure out prominently in debates in social theory. In such formulation, therefore, violence against women or girls is not understood as an integral or embedded or imminent in social relations and, social relations are not understood as characterized by violence, as an actual or potential event (Fawcett, 1996). This view puts that, there are at least three possible standpoints based on which one can define and understand violence against women:



The point of view of those directly involved, either as violator or the violated



The point of view of those solid actors involved in dealing with violence and,



The point of view of the analyst, who may or may not involve in such intervention.

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These standpoints, however, are not distinct or separate, as someone may occupy all locations simultaneously. These view underline, in general, that violence is not and could not be one thing nor attributed to a single theory and therefore prioritizes more the historical context than the models mentioned earlier.

The second analogy, based on which we can see the practicality of the models mentioned, focuses on the subordination of females by males and the attempt is made to contextually relate the matter, for good or bad, to certain themes framed below.

Ruth (1995) argues that, although great diversity exists among peoples of the world, for the most part, in society after society, and across time and space, men dominate the upper levels of economic and social power and, females are only partially included. The work of men is highly valued than that of women and usually men are typically valued more as a matter of social customs, rites and laws. Their privilege is frequently built on the service of women. They raise problems by saying for example that, if the dominance of males has indeed been universal in time, how can this superiority be explained, so that the possible factors for their violence can easily be known? Are behavioral differences biologically or culturally based? What differences do the differences make? They argue that some answers to these questions are scientific or quasi-scientific and, others are a myth. They attest that, men and women are “different” in a variety of ways. And Psychologists and Biologists are carefully reexamining the studies of males- females difference and hence, dominance, together with their relation to behavioral characteristics, in order to deal in a more objective way, with a traditional assumptions and theories. In searching for an expression of the issues, some social scientists prefer to use the concept “sexual asymmetry”, to mean stratification or dissimilarity based on ‘sex’. These people further warn that, in a culture where males are deemed intrinsically more

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valuable than females, solely on the ground of maleness, sexual asymmetry occurs. It refers to a whole range of situations in which, (1) policies regarding control over the wider community and the freedom to participate in actions affecting all members of a group are determined solely on the ground of sex. (2) And, judgments of worth are made primarily on the basis of sex.

As to the biological theorists, sexual asymmetry implies difference, constitutionality and the subordination or domination of females by males and, in such a varied factors as physical, sexuality, aggressiveness etc, the domination are due to the innate, inherited physical differences. The sociological or cultural perspectives, on the other hand, argue that although nature, our physical selves and our genes constitute the raw materials and thus impose their own limits on our development, nurture contributes a lion’s share to the behavioral development of individuals. And, so is true for domination or subordination of females by males. The cultural-evolutionary theorists, similarly, put that, priority should be given to the cultural and social and environmental context, as a basic unit, if one is to explore, demarcate and exemplify the behavioral mode of existence that males show against females. In other words, as Anzaldua (cited in Ruth, 1995) one has to take the society rather than the individual as a determinant factor.

In sum, it can be concluded, in general that, theories that explain only the fact of separation or categorization (men do this and, women do that) and, omit the judgement of devaluation (favoring one and disfavoring others), may not be valued. At the same time, theories that disclaim the existence and/or the importance of devaluation are missing the central point. Therefore, we may face difficulty to stick only on a single theory and thus, those strong points would rather be preferable.

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2.2 Historical Developments of ‘SEX’ AND ‘GENDER’

Trew (1998) examined that with in social and personality psychology gender identity and the gendered self are increasingly looked upon, as integral components in any description of the relationship between gender and social behavior. Depending on the context, the term gender can imply many things; it may be defined in terms of its use. At various times, for instance, it has been described as an attribute of individuals, as a feature of interpersonal relationships, as a type of social organization or in terms of ideology of a society. Furthermore, the many alternative meanings attributed to the term ‘gender’ might be that it is an analytic concept, used by researchers from socio-cultural orientations.

Although gender could be viewed as a ‘subject variable’ most theoretical accounts of gender concentrate almost exclusively on ‘gender as a social category’, that implies the differences between men and women in terms of their relative power and prestige in society. These realities in turn, are assumed to have an impact on how an individual thinks, acts and feels.

It is during the 1990s that the multiple theories began exploring the meaning of gender at the interpersonal level. Constructionist theories argue that gender is not a stable internal characteristic of the individual but exists in particular transactions, and is understood to be appropriate to one sex. At the other extreme, other theorists locate gender in primarily biologically or genetically determined sex differences. According to the social psychologist theories, the idea of ‘self’ or ‘identify’ is a central concept for labeling ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ at the individual level, in the context of the role of both the biological and social dimensions. Thus, these theories, therefore, assert that, the diverse meanings of ‘gender’ as an identity can be complemented based on the four major approaches.

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•

Multifactoral approaches: - assert that the gender identity is seen as a self-label with in a multifaceted construct, which involve personality traits and attitudes as well as self- perceptions.

•

Schematic Approaches: - view gender as schema for self-categorization.

•

Social identity approaches: - understand gender in terms of membership in the context of the social group and as a collective identity, and

•

Self-construal approaches: - argue that the self-concepts of men and women are seen to differ in structure and function, and the content as well.

More specifically, Hawke worth (cited in Trew, 1998) summarized a number of important terminologies and concepts. Accordingly, the term gender is thought of either in terms of:

•

Sex, which refers to the biological terms.

•

Sexuality; encompassing sexual practices and erotic behavior

•

Sexual- identity, implying designations, heterosexuality and so on.

•

Gender- identity, as a psychological sense of oneself- man or woman.

•

Gender–role identity; which can be defined as the degree to which one approves or recognizes, and involve in feelings and behaviors, considered as appropriate to his/her culturally constituted gender.

Nelson–Johns (2001) reveals that the definition of many terms, particularly, those related to culture and gender mainly depend on the Way individuals define them and it all varies with individuals who define them. Bearing this in mind, sex refers to the biological differences between male and female including reproductive functioning, bone structure and size etc.

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Where as, gender is the cultural and social classification of characteristics, attitudes, values, behaviors and the like, that are appropriate for either males or females.

Whyte (1998) examined that, right after birth, our gender continues to influence both our physical and social development. Together with age, they influence the person.

His assertion is highly emphasized on the idea that there is a direct relationship between gender development, gender differences and gender inequalities. Gender development is assumed to be a possible cause for the gender differences, which in turn, leads to gender inequalities. Thus, central to the understanding of gender inequality, is the gender development, beginning from early stage of childhood. Nevertheless, the knowledge of gender development within psychology is derived from three inter-dependent models namely; the Biological, the Environmental and the Mentalist Models.

2.2.1 The Biological Model This model, which also includes the Sociobiologists, explains that the individuals’ differences are attributed to the biological or genetic materials in which the contribution of the environment or the cognitive factors is, minimal.

The model maintains that, due to their biological predisposition, men have the greater physical strength, which gave them an opportunity to perform their present roles, out of the domestic spheres. Where as, women’s child bearing and milk production capacities predispose them to nurturing role. It is these gender roles that act in a complementary fashion, enabling the human kind to adapt to their environment. However, some specific biological

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differences such as men’s y–chromosome, testosterone etc, and the women’s monthly hormonal change, contribute to the behavioral, abilities and aptitudes, rates of development and psychological functioning between men and women. The biological model on the other hand, would find it more difficult to explain how one gender, just because of its biological make ups, come to be socially dominant, which rather could be determined by other factors like cultures.

2.2.2 Environmental Model Freudian theorists believe that, females are both sexually and morally inferior to males and their psychological functioning is essentially different. They argue that the underlying reasons for the female inferiority is the biological constitutes, which females miss some part of it unlike males. Besides, the environment also contributes to the difference of the psychological make up of girls and boys particularly, in their interpersonal relationships at their childhood stage. Erickson treats the issue of feelings of ‘inferiority’ or superiority versus ‘difference’, in relation to the different bodily experience, of males and females. The males tend to be seen as projecting and out ward while females are inner-directed and more contained. He further explained that, their difference is also that males are hardly able to create life unlike females, and therefore, they constitute career achievement as an alternative means of creation of life.

The social learning theorists, who are Behaviorists, stress the local norms and the social pressures, rejecting the biological determinants, as the most significant influence on gender development. They argue that the gender appropriate behaviors are a function of modeling and, parents, peers, teachers etc, who are the socializing agents, shaping the behaviors of individuals through reinforcement. In doing so, both boys and girls are expected to behave in accordance with the social standard and rules established by culture. Stressing the idea that

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social forces largely contribute to the differences between the gender stereotypes of males and females, Millet Kate (cited in Nelson- Johns (2001: 43) stated that,

“ Because of our social circumstances, male and female are really two different cultures and their life experiences are utterly different”.

In one study, by Sandra Bern, the American researcher (cited in Nelson Johns, 2001), who aimed at characterizing a person as masculine or feminine, masculine is illustrated as aggressive, ambitious, analytical, assertive, competitive, dominane, analytical, independent, self-reliant, willing to take risks etc. Where as, the femininities regarded as affectionate, compassionate, eager, gentle, loving children, sympathetic, warm etc. And these traits are the social expectations maintained and, demarcating the gender-role that is inculcated and exercised during their lifetime.

2.2.3. Mentalist Model These are the cognitive developmental theorists who propose that the individual knows which gender identity is appropriate through his or her active construction of the world with in which he/she interacts. Kohl berg, a cognitive theorist, argued that, a child, as his/her conceptual understanding increases, is motivated to search for more novel information in detail about gender and gender roles. This is by identifying first the potential models of gender appropriate behavior and later on organizes their own behavior to ensure mastery of their own gender role. The understanding of gender and the gender identify according to Kohl berg, develops in steps, each of which is a base for the preceding stage. For example, at the page of 2–3½ years, a child sees him/herself and others, as being in the same category but not necessarily for life. This is just a gender labeling. Within 3½ – 4/½ years time, the child will

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be aware of the durability of one’s own gender (gender stability). The physical concepts of gender such as clothing etc, are exemplified to identify the gender category. The advanced knowledge of the permanence of gender and gender constancy, disregarding the physical concepts, begin from nearly five to seven years (Whyte, 1998).

2.3 The Concept of Human Rights and the International Standards

The history of human rights can be said to begin a very long time ago after successive centuries. These rights will continuously exist. The right for justice, freedom, equality and dignity will be eternal. Through the enforcement of these rights, therefore, the human rights are respected in all places and at all times that the values enshrined in them will always constitute a benchmark for humanity.

The human rights have special components that are interrelated and through which the rights of individuals are reflected or manifested. These components include dignity, freedom, equality and justice (ibid).

Dignity: - Every individual, regardless of his/her social and cultural backgrounds, is entitled to recognition of his/her inherent worth and the dignity of being human resides, in nature, in each of the individuals that should be recognized and respected by all. Regarding this, the preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights reads, in its first paragraph (Ferguson, 1999) as: “Where as recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice

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and peace…”. And, more specifically it states that; (art.1) all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.

Freedom: - Human beings by the virtue of their dignity are entitled to rights, and are creators and holders of rights. Freedom is with a principle and value. Nonetheless, although the fundamental freedom is accountable for making this principle, in reality it is far from being enjoyed by all and, can be said that human beings may not achieve them in similar ways. The values on which human rights are based are universal and every individual deserve and are entitled to all. To this effect, the preamble to the charter of the United Nations, attests (Hellum, 1999) that: Human rights and fundamental freedoms are the birth right of all human beings; their protection and promotion is the first responsibility of governments.

Equality: - All human beings, irrespective of their cultural and socioeconomic origins are born free and, are equal, in the eyes of the law and, this is the underlying principle of the universality of human rights. As a universal value, equality concerns among individuals, the freedoms and rights of each individual, and forbids any form of discrimination based on race, sex, religion, age and so on. And the combined effect of these elements lastly will make us arrive at the value of justice.

Justice: - Human beings establish the requirement of justice as an ideal and necessary event for a just every day life, and those who fail to respect them show disregard for equality between people and hence, denying others’ freedom. This is because, all human beings have equal rights and those who deny others’ rights and freedom are supposed to answer and be responsible for their deeds. And thus, the application of the principle of human rights to

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everyday life of individuals necessitate an ethical attitude in which values and moral judgments play a decisive role. It is the definition of the values and ethical principles in terms of the relationships that exist between individuals that make the social lives meaningful. This is because, a human being is not an isolated entity nor is human dignity exclusively individualistic and rather, it encompasses all the social and collective dimensions of individuals and their experience in their natural and cultural environment.

Nevertheless, apart from the natural rights, all human beings, are also a product of social and cultural experiences and manifestation and no one can live in isolation with other social group members to satisfy him/her self with socially ascribed needs and values. His/her mode of interaction in time could, therefore, shape his/her behaviors in some way, either benefits or harms. Thus possibly one can say that, initially human rights of a person arises from human nature and human nature, in turn, is a cumulative effect of both the biological and the social product. Thus, the social and cultural pressures can be said to exert a significant influence on the individuals’ human rights (Emezat, 2001).

The issue of cultural diversity is of paramount importance in the universality of human rights of individuals. The cultural diversity doesn’t invalidate the universality of human rights and, can’t be evolved as grounds for not respecting human rights and rather, cultures of every society can play a great role to promote human rights, including cultural rights of individuals. This is mainly because all cultures, as a product of the societal and individuals’ values and practices, are equal in dignity when they are expressions of individuals’ freedom. At different times and places, men, women and children were able to lead or guide real life versions of human rights in the context of their cultures. The universality and individuality of human rights therefore, set forth in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, do not preclude the

33

strengthening and advancement of rights based on certain particularities such as sex, race, religion etc. The human rights in principle, give more concern, among other things, for people who are more vulnerable than others due to certain reasons and these vulnerability of specific groups has necessitated and initiated the formation of conventions and resolutions complement to the 1948 Universal Declarations of Human Rights (UNESCO, 1997).

The Beijing Declaration and the platform for Action (UN, 1996) reaffirms among other things: 

The equal rights and inherent human dignity of women and men,



The human rights of women and of the girl as an inalienable, integral and indivisible part of all human rights & fundamental freedoms,



Women’s rights are human rights.

2.3.1 Gender-Based Violence and the Human Rights 2.3.1.1 Gender-based violence: Background The issue of violence against women and girls can be said to be a recent phenomena. It has only recently that it has found its place on the international human rights agenda. In 1970s issues related to women were generally considered and regarded as problems of political and economic discrimination and other processes of development including the participation of women of the developing nations in development. The 1979 Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) is the major International legal instrument concerned with women’s rights with its concern on “discrimination”. And in this convention too, the issues of gender-based violence is not specifically addressed, despite its concern to it. Since then this issue was raised again at the world conference held at Nairobi, in

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July 1985 aiming at Reviewing and Appraising the Achievements of the United Nations; Decade for Women: Equality, Development and peace. Finally, the integration of the issue of violence against women and girls into the mainstream of the United Nations in the field of human rights is ought to be seen as an important step in this direction (UN, 1996).

2.3.1.2 Gender-based violence as violating the Human Rights of women and the girl-children Violence against women and girls is rooted in a global culture of discrimination that denies the victims’ rights. It is a violation of their right to physical integrity, liberty, and to their life itself (Amnesty International 2001). It is rampant in all corners of the world and it is a human rights violation that manifests itself in a number of ways and is a global pandemic. Many international conferences and regional treaties have made major pronouncements about gender-specific violence and, declared that women’s human rights are a fundamental part of all human rights and must be protected not only in courts or prisons but also in other areas of public life. The 1996 resolution of the world Health Assembly declares gender based violence, after fully addressing its health consequences, as a public health priority and endorsed

relevant

recommendations

to

protect

them

against women

and

girls,

(http://healthlinks.washington.edu/nwcphp/nph/f202/gender violencef200.pdf).

The United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of tolerance and of discrimination, based on religion or belief, protects the rights of the child, regardless of his/her sex, against abuse and violence that is carried out in the name of a particular belief or cultural tradition. More specifically it states that (UN, 1996):

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“Practices of a religion or belief in which a child is brought up must not be injurious to his physical or mental health or to his full development … (art. 5, par.5)”.

In every social environment, to a greater or less degree, women and girls are subjected to physical and psychological abuses. The term violence against women implies any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm. It also includes threats of such acts like coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether it occurred in public or private life. Violence against women and girls therefore, encompasses but is not limited to the following (http://www.un.org/womenwatch/draw/beiging/platform/violence.htm.). a) Physical, sexual and psychological violence, occurring in the family, including dowry related violence, marital rape, FGM, and other traditional practices harmful to women. b) Physical, sexual and psychological violence within the general community, including rape, sexual abuse, … and intimidation at work, in educational institutions and elsewhere, and c) Physical, sexual and psychological violence perpetrated or condoned by the state, wherever it occurs.

It is revealed also that violence against women violates and impairs or nullifies the human rights of women and the girl child. The long-standing failure to protect & promote their rights & freedom is a matter of concern to States. Such violence is a manifestation of the historically unequal power relations between men and women, which led to domination, discrimination and the prevention of women’s right.

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Many literatures have documented that gender-based violence derives throughout the life cycle, essentially from cultural patterns and exacerbated by social pressures. Particularly, the harmful effects of certain traditional or customary practices perpetuate the lower status accorded culturally to women in the family. Many factors can possibly be mentioned to have contributed to the prevalence of various traditional practices that are harmful to women and girls in many ways. These include women’ s lack of access to legal information, aid or protection, the lack of laws that effectively and timely prohibit these violence, failure to promote reform and enforce existing laws. Others also include absence of educational and other means to address the causes and consequences of violence and the absence of gender disaggregated figure and data on the incidence (UNESCO, 97). This is mainly because women’s right is an issue that could affect virtually all human beings in a very direct and personal way. The United Nations’ Fourth World Conference on Women, and the Vienna Declaration (1993) on human rights have clearly concluded that, in the world, women probably suffer more human rights violations than men. And at the very least, they are subjected to some gender-specific violations that must be understood and addressed. Some of the major gender-related traditional practices, that exert an adverse effect on the health and psychological adjustment of women and girls and, which are the focus of this study, are presented here below.

2.3.1.2.1 Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) Around the world, women and girls suffer from the harmful and life threatening effects of traditional and cultural practices that continue under the guise of cultural and social conformism and religions beliefs, one of which, is female genital mutilation (UNICEF, 2000).It is a terrible violation of girls’ human rights; based on traditions and beliefs that

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female’s sexuality must be controlled and, is one of the major human rights and public health problems in the world to day (Mackie, 1996).

FGM is the deliberate infliction of severe pain and dangerous practice that involve the removal of part or all of the external female genitalia. The practice is perpetuated in many countries around the world as one element of a rite of passage, on girls from birth to adolescence, preparing young girls for woman hood and marriage. It is a human rights abuse that functions as an instrument for socializing girls into prescribed gender roles within the family and the community (Althus, 1997, and http://www.amnestyusa.org/women). In the platform of the Fourth World Conference on Women (Beijing 1995), FGM was cited as both a threat to women’s reproductive health and a violation of their human rights. Everyday, thousands of girls are targeted for mutilation and it is a manifestation of gender based human rights violations and one of many forms of social injustice that any girls and women face worldwide. It is estimated that more than 135 million girls and women in the world have undergone FGM and, 2 million girls a year, are at risk of mutilation (UN and ECOSOC, 2002, Meron, 2000 and UNICEF, 2000). FGM is performed Approximately at the rate of 6000 girls per day, 250 per hour and 5 girls per minute. Nevertheless, studies reveal that, currently, there are more than 100 million women who have suffered or undergone genital mutilation in the continent of Africa alone. It has been affecting too many girls and women (Mackie, 1996) across some two-dozen countries in Africa. Among other international human rights law, the practice of FGM violates the right of every child to “a standard of living adequate for the child’s physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social development,” as laid down in article 27 of the convention on the rights of the child. It is attested (UNESCO l997) also that, “No child shall be subjected to … cruel, in human or degrading treatment or punishment” (Art. 37).

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Though FGM takes place mainly in 28 African countries, evidence shows that it has been a common practice in almost every country of Africa (Meron 2000). On the other hand, Althaus (1997) examined that, the practice of FGM excludes Southern Africa and the Arab Speaking North African countries, with the exception of Egypt. In general it occurs among Muslims, Christians and one Jewish sect, although none of these religions require it. Apart from the 28 African countries (both eastern and western), the FGM takes place in some regions of Asia and the Middle East, and in certain immigrant communities in North America, Europe & Australia (UNICEF, 2000). Balding et al (1996) studied that the top five African countries in which the FGM is highly practiced include Djibouti and Somalia (98%), Sierra Leone (90%), Ethiopia and Eritrea (90%) and, Sudan (89%). The following table summarizes the existence, and the rate of prevalence of the FGM in African nations:

Estimated percentage of girls and women in Africa that are supposed to have undergone Female genital Mutilation, by country. Country

%

Ghana

30

Togo, Central Africa, Egypt, Kenya, Nigeria, Senegal &Benin

50

Chad, Cotedvoire, Gambia, Guinea & Liberia

60

Burkina Faso

70

Mali

75

Sudan

89

Eritrea, Ethiopia & Sera Leone

90

Djibouti & Somalia

98

Source:( http://www.womankind.org.uk/fa%20fgm.htm)

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The practice is still widespread in more than 20 Sub Saharan countries. Certain religious sects in Malaysia, India, Pakistan, South Yemen and the UAE etc practice different forms. Sadly, despite their Law against such a violation, FGM is practiced in the UK, USA, Australia and France. The UNICEF’s convention on the Rights of the child, and the Resolution passed against it in 1994 by the World Health Organization have also underlined that FGM is a violence against the rights of girls and is to be banned. Female genial mutilation, although it may be performed during infancy, adolescence or even during a woman’s first pregnancy, the procedure is usually carried out on girls between ages four and twelve (Althaus, 1995). The UN office of the High Commissioner for Africa indicates that (UN, 1996) the specific age at which mutilation is carried out varies from area to area and across ethnic groups of many countries. It is performed on infants as young as a few days old, on children from 7 to 10 years old, and on adolescents. Adult women also undergo the FGM at the time of marriage. Thus, possibly one can say that, since it is performed on infants as well as adults, it can no longer be seen as marking the rites of passage into adulthood.

A. Types of Female Genital Operation The methods and types of surgical operation differ across countries and ethnic groups. The type of mutilation for instance varies through tribes and ethnic groups. This is particularly true throughout Africa, Asia, the Middle East, Australia, Latin America and so on. But FGM, in general, can be broadly classified, based on the nature and the magnitude (painfulness) and the ceremony attached to it (UN and ECOSCO, 2002 and, Mackie, 1996).

a) Circumcision or “Mild Sunna”(traditional): This involves the cutting of the tip of the clitoris, known in Muslim countries as “Sunna” (tradition). It is of the mildest form, affecting only a small proportion of women. This is the

40

only form of circumcision to be correctly termed circumcision, although there has been a tendency to categorize all forms of mutilations under the misleading term “female circumcision”. The pain accorded to this one is relatively minimal as compared to others.

b) Excision/Clitoridectomy: This involves the removal of part or all of the clitoris as well as part or all of the labia minora. It is the most common operation and is practiced throughout Africa, Asia the Middle East and the Arabian Peninsula.

c) Infibulations or pharonic circumcision: This is the most severe and painful operation, involving clitoridectomy and the excision of the labia minora and, at least the interior two thirds and often, the whole of the labia majora. The two sides of the vulva are then pinned or sewn together by silk or, held against each other with thorns. Its operation takes place from a few days after birth to before the birth of the next child depending on local custom, but mostly it seems to be performed around age eight, safely before puberty. In Somalia, 99% of women are mutilated among which, 83% of them, are infibulated.

d) Intermediate circumcision: This is the removal of the clitoris and some or all of the labia minora. The practice also varies according to the demands of the girl’s relatives.

The origin of FGM cannot be evidently established but records show that the practice predates the spread of both Islam and Christianity. Some evidence that has not been proved reveals that, in ancient Egypt, both excision and infibulations were performed. In tsarist Russia as

41

well as 19th century England, France and America, records indicate the practice of clitoridictomy. Particularly, in England and America, it was performed on women as a “cure” for numerous psychological ailments. Meron (2000) reported that although its exact origin is obscure and is exactly unknown, certain sources claim that the practice of FGM was most likely originated in the Middle East, most likely in Egypt.

The Geographic distribution of FGM, on the other hand, suggests that it originated on the western coast of the Red sea, where infibulations is most intense, diminishing to clitoridectomy in west ward and southward radiation. Particularly, it has close relationship with the Egyptians when they raided and traded the black south for slaves, from dynastic to Byzantine times. Some sources therefore claim that Egyptians had used FGM as a means of preventing pregnancy against the slave captives who come from south.

B. Why FGM is practiced FGM is traditionally practiced as a ritual, signifying the acceptance of a woman into society, and establishes her eligibility for marriage. It is believed to contribute in inspiring fertility and ensuring chastity and, in FGM practicing societies it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, for a woman to marry, if she has not undergone mutilation (http://www.amnestyusa.org/women). In other words, she is not considered as an adult or complete woman, until she goes through the operation.

On the other hand, although FGM predate Islam (UN and, Economic & Social Council, 2002), religious reasons are given for the continuation of the practice. Some argue that, FGM is often defined and defended as a religious practice, as required by Muslim Law. Their justification is that, although it existed in Africa, prior to Islam and has been later on

42

incorporated into Islam (Balding, 1996) and the kur’an itself makes no mention about it, the practice can be and is seen by scholars and falls under Muslim Law in that it was practiced during the time of Muhammad (the Prophet). They also believe that, a woman can’t be a true or proper Muslim if she is not circumcised. She can’t go to mosque, marry or, in some cases she may also be ostracized. However, several others are in different to such a controversy. Another reason is also that, in many societies, FGM is believed to reduce a woman’s desire for sex, reducing the chance and preventing woman from indulging in illegitimate

pre-

marital sex, and protecting them from unwilling sexual relations. This is said to be vital because it is believed to be honor for her family and, respect and tradition for the girl (http://www.amnesty.org/ailob/inticam/femgen/fgm1.htm).

In general, the reasons given vary from country to country and, even with in the countries themselves, there is a variation with different ethnic groups. Many have revealed that the possible reasons include: cultural identity, Gender identity, control of women’s sexuality and reproductive right functions and, beliefs about hygiene, aesthetics and health conditions.

C. Implications of FGM for the rights of women and Girls A human rights framework affirms that the rights of women to physical & mental integrity, to freedom from discrimination and to the highest standard of health are universal. FGM is a practice that compounds unspeakable violence against woman and young girls and it can never be justified. Its severe consequences of the psychological and physical health of women and the girl-children are understood within the scope of the human rights instruments. Such practice is a graphic illustration of the indivisibility and interdependence of all human rights and its violation of the right to physical and mental integrity of women and girls. It is an act of violence that cannot be addressed in isolation from the context of systematic deprivation of

43

women’s civil, social and economic rights and from issues of access to education and economic development (Amnesty International 2001). The FGM that is performed on the grounds of race, ethnicity, sexual identity, social status, class and age etc, not only restrict women’s choices but also increase their vulnerability to violence and make even harder for them to obtain justice.

The effects of FGM have both the short-term and long-term implications that can cause grave damage to children and women and, results in serious physical, psychological and mental consequences. The conditions under which the operation is carried out are often poor and not hygienic. On top of this, the instruments used include a kitchen knife, razor blade etc that are crude and unsterilized and are used, at the same time, for many girls. The operation takes usually about 10 to 20 minutes, depending on its nature and, in most cases the operation is made by people who have not any training in the area through trial and error. The victims are not given any anesthesia or antibiotics. These factors or constraints are more likely to easily cause the spread of HIV/AIDS and, other communicable diseases. As a result, the lives of many women and young children are threatened with the fatal and fast spreading disease, that can disrupt the, life of many other individuals both men & women. Studies also reveal that in addition to women’s vulnerability to HIV/AIDS in general, violating the rights of women, in particular, FGM is increasing the high rate for many girls & women to be infected with HIV/AIDS (Meron, 2000 and http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menv6/2;fs23/htm).

In rural areas, where untrained traditional birth attendants perform the operations, complication resulting from deep cut and infected instrument can cause death to the girl-child. Most physical and health complications can occur. Accidental cuts to other organs can also lead to a heavy loss of blood and the application of traditional medicine can also lead to acute

44

infection resulting in tetanus, anemia and even to sterility and death. Many revealed also that, the psychological effects of FGM are more difficult and more chronic than the physical ones. Despite the lack of numerous scientific studies, a small number of clinical cases of psychological illness of FGM and other personal accounts of mutilation reveal certain implications. These are feelings of anxiety, terror, humiliation and betrayal, all of which would

be

likely

to

have

long-term

negative

effects

on

the

victims

(http://www.amnesty.org/ailob/inticam/femgen/fgm1.htm).

In general, it is argued that while the Hemorrhage, infection and acute pain are the immediate consequences, infertility; obstructed and psychological complications etc are identified as the long-term effects of the female genital mutilation (Althaus, 1997 and http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu6/2/fs23.htm).

2.3.1.2.2 Forced Marriage: Abduction and Early Marriage Unlike an arranged marriage, forced marriage is understood, as a form of marriage in which at least one party, usually the girl, doesn’t have consent to the marriage. This form of marriage may involve both abduction and early marriage and, in both cases it is the girl who is forced to engage in marriage. According to UN and, Economic and Social council (2002), forced marriage is a violation of internationally recognized human rights standards and can’t be justified on religions or cultural grounds.

Article 16(2) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 (Harvey, 2002) states that: “Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses”. Throughout the world, marriage is regarded as a moment of celebration and a milestone in adult life. But the types of marriages mentioned above give no such cause for celebration and

45

rather, the fundamental rights of the girl child are compromised. The fact that these practices violate human rights provisions in many international conventions and treaties particularly, the

Universal

Declaration

of

Human

Rights

and

the

Women’s

conventions

(http://www.unescobkk.org/ips/arhwb/resources/laws/ch3.pdf.).

In many societies young girls are prepared for marriage from a very early age and there is a great social pressure for daughters to be married at an early age. This is believed to give a longer reproductive period for the girl to produce more children. Practically the connection between early marriage and early childbearing is acute. Early childbearing occurs through out the world with about 10.6% of all babies born each year to adolescent mothers. Of this, about six million babies are born to adolescent mothers in Asia-pacific alone. On the other hand early childbearing is an indicator for a continued cycle of ignorance and poverty that could pass to the next generation.

Early marriage constitutes a form of violence as it undermines the health and autonomy of millions of young girls. However, the legal minimum age of marriage is usually lower for female than for males. In many countries, the minimum legal age for marriage with parental consent is considerably lower. In many parts of the developing world, especially in rural areas, girls marry shortly after puberty and are expected to start having children immediately. It can have harmful consequences for both young mothers and their babies. It can lead to childhood/teenage pregnancy, and can expose the girl to HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases. It is also associated with adverse health effects for her children, such as low birth weight high infant mortality rate. Furthermore, it has an adverse effect on the education and employment opportunity of girls (UNICEF, 2000).

46

In general, marriages are forced upon early adolescent girls for various reasons. These include strengthening family links, protecting perceived cultural and religious ideals, protecting family honor and controlling female behavior and sexuality etc (UN and Economic &Social Council, 2002).

In the preceding sections therefore, we try to have a look at some of these gender-related traditional practices in the context of Ethiopia.

2.3.1.3 Harmful Traditional Practices in Ethiopia The profiles of Harmful traditional practices that exist in Ethiopia are found to be above 140 in number, as it is reported after the comprehensive baseline survey study in the country. Based on these reports and the present knowledge, the major types of Harmful Traditional practices that are common in Ethiopia can be classified in different ways (Amare, 1998) as follows:

2.3.1.3.1 Classification by the Demographic Characteristics The harmful traditional practices that are categorized under this classification scheme include those, which particularly affect. a) Mothers: -These are female genital mutilation, early marriage, Abduction, giving Kosso (herbal medicine) to pregnant women, promoting excessive fertility, messaging the stomach of pregnant women, throat piercing etc. b) Children: - These include vulva cutting, milk teeth extraction, skin burning, food taboos and others.

47

c) General: - These are the practices that could, one way or another, affect both mothers and children, irrespective of their age, and some of them are: Tribal marks, skin burning, Tattooing, taking unlimited traditional practices etc.

2.3.1.3.2 Classification by the Types of Harmful Practices These are some of the major Harmful Traditional Practices (HTPs) that are related to: a) Skin Cutting: - Which include FGM, Tonsillectomy, Tattooing, Vulva cutting, Tribal marks, cupping and similar others. b) Marriage: - Abduction, Early marriage, excessive dowry, or bride-price, drinking kosso prior to marriage, old age man marrying too young girls and so on. c) Pregnancy and Delivery: - Messaging abdomen before and during delivery, food taboo to pregnant women and children etc. d) Child Rearing Practice: - Keeping a baby out of the sun, feeding fresh butter to a new born child, preference of sons over daughters, food taboos etc.

Having seen these as a very broad and general background, now let’s specify ourselves to those Harmful traditional practices that are particularly, aimed at in this study and exerting a significant influence, both on women and the girl-child. These are Female Genital Mutilation & Forced Marriages (Abduction and Early Marriage).

2.3.1.3.2.1 Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) Ethiopia has about 61.7 million people and is the third largest in Africa. It has a great number of ethnic groups, whose cultures are varied as the ethnic groups’ composition. It has one of the least educated populations in the world. The literacy rate in 1994 was only 24.1% for female and 44.5% for male and, a higher proportion of girls in rural areas are out of school

48

(NCTPE, 2000). In other words, while the majority of people in this country have little or no education (Teshome, 2002), women are generally less educated and about 45.5% of the total population live under the absolute poverty line; which one way or another, contributes for the harmful traditional practices that violates the rights of women and girls. Women and children, who constitute the vast majority of the population (75%) in Ethiopia, carry the brunt of harmful traditional practices. Every woman in Ethiopia on the average gives birth to 7.07 children (2000 est.). And societal abuse of the young girls continues to be a problem. In Ethiopia, between 70 and 90% of females undergo female genital mutilation. The country remains one of Africa’s most traditional societies even when it comes to legislation and

the

law

does

not

specifically

prohibit

FGM

(http://www.afrol.com/catcgories/women/profiles/Ethiopia_women.htm).

The practice of FGM in Ethiopia is well entrenched in 23 ethnic groups and, if factors like differences in age at mutilation & other variables are kept constant, it could be said that almost all women have been mutilated. Due to the extensive distribution and the high proportion of women, who are subjected to it, there fore, FGM can be said to be a panEthiopian. It is considered in some ethnic groups as a mark of ethnic identity. The baseline survey in the country (NCTPE, 1998:102 and 2000) reveals also that the people’s level of awareness of the harmfulness of FGM is very limited and only about one third of the general population has said to have shown awareness. It is reported that only 18% of the population in Oromia, 23% of the Amhara and, 27% of the Afar regions, are aware of the adverse effects of the FGM, compared to 61% in Addis Ababa.

FGM is a national problem. It does affect the physical, mental and social life of more than half of the Ethiopian population (women and children), but also the socio economic

49

development of the nation. Nonetheless, the health status of the country’s population is too low (NCTPE, 2000). Forty five percent of the people have no access to medical services (http://www.afrol.com./categories/women/profiles/Ethiopia_women.htm).

Ethiopia is among the few countries in the world with the highest rate of maternal death and the contribution of FGM to such an incidence can’t, by any means, be underestimated. With the practice of FGM, girls and women are subjected to life long physical and emotional problems (NCTPE, 1999 and 2000). The baseline survey of 1997 indicates that FGM is commonly practiced in all regions of Ethiopia, both in rural and urban community, with the exception of Gambella, and by various religious groups. About 90% of women in this country are believed to undergone one of the three forms of mutilation (clitoridectomy, excision and infibulations). Moreover, Ethiopia is still a country where FGM is enormously practiced (Meron, 2000). For instance, it is indicated, in the Base line Survey on harmful traditional practices in Ethiopia (NCTPE, 1998) that the largest proportion of FGM is practiced by Afar region (94.5), Harari (81.2%), Amhara (81.1%) and Oromia (79.8%) respectively. Regions that contribute the least in this regard include Gambella (0.0%) and relatively, SNNPR (46.3%), respectively. And the estimated prevalence of FGM at the national level is 73.6%.

Reasons for FGM in Ethiopia include respect for tradition, keeping the moral behavior of women or girls in the society, preservation of virginity, avoidance of shame, ostracization & stigmatization, to control women’s emotions (tranquilizer), hygienic and esthetic reasons and so on. The severe bleeding (hemorrhage) is said, among other effects, to be the most common immediate complication that occurs following FGM and, numerous evidences reported its severe incidence. The other serious problem is that of HIV/AIDS, that has grown into one of the most serious public health problems in the country. Among some 22,000 HIV/AIDS cases

50

that have been reported by hospitals in 1996, for the 10% of them the mode of transmission was hardly known and the harmful traditional practices have been suspected. This is while the number of people, who are infected by HIV/AIDS, is estimated in Ethiopia alone, to be about 1.2 million with the potential of growing (NCTPE, 1999 and 2000).

2.3.1.3.2.2 Abduction Marriage by abduction is the unlawful act of taking away a girl for the purpose of marriage without her will, consent or awareness. It is also called marriage by kidnapping (mostly a girl below 15 years old). A girl is abducted without her knowledge or her parents’ will. It can therefore, be an informal and illegal means of acquiring a wife. The processes are made after careful planning and the necessary preparations are made in advance and, it is kept confidential so that both the girl and her parents would not be conscious about it (Teshome, 2000 and Hirut, 2001).

Mintiwab (2000) examined that abduction is a form of forced marriage as it is done without the will of the girl and her parents. It is unlawful act, which usually takes place while the girl is going to market, school, fetching water or visiting relatives etc. Most of the time it occurs by a person whom, both the girl herself, and the parent rejected to give him their daughter. How ever, in most cases and in most countries where it is practiced, it is impossible to think abduction without rape that follows it. Because most abductors take for granted that raping the girl would make them succeed in keeping her, if only they forcefully control her virginity. In other words, it is a guarantee that the abductor (Teshome 2002) will most likely succeed in keeping her after some negotiation and, by paying the required compensation to the parents of a girl.

51

Abduction is an offense, which constitute the most shocking crimes against human conscience and morality; it is a violation of human rights of a girl as well as contradicting the constitutional principles, declarations and other International conventions, which give special respect for fundamental human rights (Tekalign, 1998). The act is not only ordinary offenses but also is aggression of the basic human rights of the girls. The common event between abduction and rape is that, mostly the two comes one after the other that, abduction is inevitably followed by an act of rape in practice which is adherent to the strong traditional belief of the society. In order for the person to end with marriage, raping the girl must immediately follow abduction. Then after, a girl who is abducted has no choice to get another husband or going back to her family, because of the tradition. The baseline survey study on 65 ethnic groups involving about ten regional states, 57 zones (both urban and rural), in Ethiopia (NCTPE, 1998) reveals that, marriage by abduction is practiced by most ethnic groups in the country, among which particularly the SNNPR, Oromia and the Benishangul Gumuz respectively, constitute the highest proportion. And it was found to be 69%, on the average, at the national level. The survey study however, based on the findings from opinion leaders, both on the occurrence of & popular support to marriage by abduction, has systematized and formed four distinct groups as follows:

A matrix – table showing the prevalence of Abduction & its popular support Group

Region

Occurrence Popular Support

1

Afar & Gambella

High

Relatively high

2

SNNPR & Oromia

High

Very low

3

Amhara & Somali

Low

Relatively high

4

Addis Ababa, Tigray & Harari

Low

Low

Source: NCTPE, sep. 1998, P.106

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It is shown that SNPPR stands out the first to be a problem area where marriage by abduction is highly prevalent with very low popular support of the practice, followed by Oromia. Furthermore, Tekalign (1998) argues that the occurrence of abduction is rising at a high rate in Ethiopia more than any other forms of gender-related violence. There are two types of abduction that is common in Ethiopia (Mintiwab, 2000, Tekalign, 1998 and NCTPE, 1998). In the first category the act of abducting a girl is carried out with the slightest clue or =information to the girl’s family, relatives or friends. Such kind of abduction is frequently named as simple abduction. It is usually done because of the fear of rejection or refusal by the parent of the girl due mainly to economic and social status, or ethnic reasons and the consequence could therefore be disastrous. The second type is the “arranged abduction,” which is done with some kind of understanding between the family, relatives or friends of the girl. It is done usually for economic reasons. Most of the time, the possible factors contributing to marriage by Abduction in various ethnic groups of Ethiopia are the following (NCTPE, 2000, Teshome, 2002 and Amare, 1996). 1. Poverty: - inability to pay excessive dowry (bride price). The wedding expenses are too high that the bridegroom is supposed to provide ornaments, gifts, money and clothes etc for the bride and her parents. 2. Ignorance and illiteracy 3. Fear of rejection: - The person who abducts will anticipate and reject refusal of the family of the girl. This happens due to reasons such as difference in economic and social status or ethnic background. 4. False sense of power: - the abductor some times, if he is from well-to-do family is proud of the matter that, his money can make him do anything including forcefully abducting a girl whom he like.

53

5. Voluntary Abduction: - This occurs sometime, based on the prior commitment of the two couples. The reasons here include shortening the marriage processes, and is usually common in Sodo Gruage and Zey) and, to avoid exchange marriage (eg. Shinasha). The girl will also involve in abduction when her parents intend to give her to someone else beyond her will or interest. The consequences of marriage by abduction include the following major problems: 

Health related problems



Physical injury: - because force is used there is a high risk of physical injury such as fracture of some parts of the body, suffocation and possibly death that could result from beating and/or conflict.



Childbirth related complications.



Unwanted pregnancy and, early child bearing & high fertility



Psychological trauma which can lead a girl to a deep psychological crisis that can hardly be healed she can be traumatized & humiliated.



Marital difficulties, because of the immaturity of the girl physically, biologically and psychchologically she may face problems of adjustment that could lead to marriage instability.



Reproductive health problems.



Denial of education: - many girls who are abducted or exposed to abduction will have no chance to pursue their education. Parents do not send or determine not to send their daughters to school for fear of exposing them to abductors.



Denial of human rights.



Instability, conflict and insecurity among the community.

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2.3.1.3.2.3 Early Marriage Early marriage is a parent centered marriage arrangement between different linkages. It is a practice that is carried out between a very young girl aged between 8-15 and in most cases; a girl is forced to marry a very senior boy who coincides to the age of a girl. It is predominantly performed in most third world countries including Ethiopia (Mintiwab, 2000). In Ethiopia it is, practiced widely in the northern parts of the country where it stands out prominently by Amhara & Tigray. The rate of early marriage in this country, as it is revealed by the baseline survey study is 54.5% at the national level. This figure is 82% for Amhara, 79% for Tigray and 64% for Gambella & Benishangul Gumuz regions. The mean ages of marriage for Amhara & Tigray regions respectively, are 14.5 and 15.9 years. It is also said that the percentage of women married below the age of 15 was found to be 43.0% for Orthodox and 28.8% for Muslims and, others contribute the rest. In general, 33% of women in the country are subjected to early marriage, with the average age of 17.1 years (NCTPE, 1998 and 2000). Other evidence shows that although the civil code prohibits marriages of girls under the age of 15 years and boys under the age of 18, to the contrary girls are marrying at the age of 12, 13 and 14 years and at a younger age (National office of population, 1999). Early marriage, although its prevalence could relatively be low, also exists predominantly in other regions such as Oromia, SNNPR, Harari, Benishangul, Gambella and Addis Ababa etc, and the underlying factor is related mainly to underdevelopment, poverty, illiteracy and so on. For example in accordance with the 1994 data, 77% of the people of Ethiopia were reported to be illiterate, and only 23% are literate among those who have age of 50 and above. Moreover, it is only an estimate of 16.7% of women are literate (read & write) among those who are 10 and above years of age. In general, the following table may give us an insight into the state of the early marriage in the country (NCTPE, 1999).

55

Average age at which the first marriage takes place Region Amhara Tigray Benishangul Oromia Afar Somali Harari SNNPR Gambella Age

14

15

16

17

17

18

18

19

20

Source: NCTPE Dec. 1999; p.6 (Amharic Version)

The possible causes of early marriage in such a traditional society include the following major factors (NCTPE, 2000, and http://www.law_libutoronto.caldiana/age.htm).




Poverty: - early marriage is viewed as a means of economic survival in which the family has one less mouth to feed, and hope that the girl herself will be better off.




Desire to protect the girl: -in most societies where virginity is valued, early marriage is seen as a way of promoting a girl from unsanctioned premarital sex and pregnancy which is honor the parent & respect for the girl.




Conformity: - people tend to be abiding by the tradition and custom, and fear of stigma. Many parents fear the lose of appreciation by others if they fail to engage their daughter early in marriage. Other wise, the girls would-be considered as unaccepted and they would be made to gossip.




Threats to cultural survival: - the society also believes that marrying a girl to someone within the same culture is a way of promoting the culture by ensuring that the children will be born & raised in the same culture.

Nevertheless, although one could list down too many reasons underlying the practice of early marriage, it would not by any means be free from some problems and consequences. The major health related risks include the following (UNICEF, 2000, NCTPE, 1999 and 2000, Mintiwab, 2000, Tekalign, 1998 and, http://www.law_lib.utoronto.ca/diana/age.htm).

56




Poor health including poor reproductive health: - girls who marry young are at risk of earlier exposure to sexually transmitted disease including HIV/AIDS.




High maternal mortality rats: - The most serious problem of early child bearing is pregnancy and birth related death of mothers.




Early pregnancy & early child bearing: - for girls who marry early, there is a high chance to give birth to many children and thereby high fertility rate.




Illiteracy: - girls who marry at their young age tend to drop out of school and are more likely to assume domestic affairs & responsibilities & to bear children.




Psychological disadvantages: - girls who are forced to marry early usually face social isolation and they can hardly adjust to the marriage life.




A cycle of poverty: - finally the consequence would be that children of young and illiterate mothers are more likely to face some sort of deprivation and possibly, they suffer from economic problems.

2.3.1.4 Overview of the Type of Marriage in Oromia It will be very important to have a look at the nature of marriage and marriage related rights of girls and women in Oromia, with special reference to abduction, in the study areas. There are various kinds of marriages among the people of the study site mentioned. To this effect a study findings by Hirut (2000), Mamo(1995) and Teshome (2002) are substantial. The types of marriage include:

57

1. Marriage by bride wealth (“Gabbara”) It is a type of acquiring a girl for marriage. Such a marriage type involves the payment, by the boy’s parent, of too many or much bride price, either in kind or in cash, to the daughter’s parents and her self. The amount of the bride price to be paid is as small as five heads of cattle and two woven clothes (“Woyaa”) and, as large as twenty heads of cattle and two woven clothes. Depending on the physical maturity, the relationship between the two parents and their socioeconomic background, the bride price may also include, in the case of Gabbara, a specified amount of honey and money.

2. Marriage by Sister Exchange (“Wolgara”) This is a kind of marriage where by two girls are being exchanged from their respective parents, one from the bride’s side and, the groom on the other side. Usually, the two girls, from both sides are supposed to be equal in physical maturity and they are of identical age brackets. Although the two types of marriages (by “bride price” and by “sister exchange”) are the most dominant and culturally favored, there are also, some means of acquiring a wife. These include “abduction”, “persuasion”, “levirate”, “sororate”, and “biidhaa” For the purpose of this study, it is important to look at a highlight of each of this, and if not in detail, so as to have an insight into their occurrence and their marriage-related impacts on girls.

3. Abduction ("Buttaa") This is an informal and illegal type of marriage, in which a girl is forcefully kidnapped without mere knowledge and consent of both the girl and her parent. Although it is illegal violating the human rights of girls abduction as form of marriage still is widely practiced in Oromia region (www.afrol.com/categories/women/profiles/Ethiopia-women.htm).

58

In Oromia a study revealed that one in five women marry by abduction. Particularly a study was conducted (Teshome, 2002) on 227 spouses in two rural Districts of Asasa and Dodola; which are situated in the periphery of the Wabe Shabale river in Arsi and Bale, respectively, has shown considerable outcome. It was reported that 60% of the women were abducted at the age of less than 15 years and 93% were found to be abducted before the age of 20. With respect to the victims’ education, the study revealed that when they are abducted, 36%of the girls had no education, 54% were found to join elementary education and the rest 10% were in secondary education. On the other hand, 42% of the abductors were aged 16-20, 28% were between the age of 21-25, 17% were aged 26-30 and 13% of them were above age 30. Furthermore, among them, 53% had a chance to primary education, 29% were with no education, while 18% of them were with some secondary education.

This shows that, in general, considerable number of girls are forced in rural areas to enter into marriage by abduction at their early stage of life and many of them are abducted at adolescence age and before they complete primary education.

A baseline survey of the year 1997 (NCTPE, 1999: 11) shows us that, about 80.4% of the people included in the study responded that abduction prevails in Oromia. Besides, they argued that rejection/refusal on the side the girl’s parent to give their daughter to some one else, when asked, avoidance of wedding ceremony, and fear of the payment of the pride-price were respectively the major reasons contributing to abduction.

59

3.

Marriage by Persuasion (“Hawata”)

This usually occurs in the form of convincing or persuading a girl in suitable areas such as in the market or in areas where youngsters are gathered together for ceremonies like weeding and so on. The guy, after convincing the girl, takes her to one of his friend or relatives’ home on her consent. He then sends a socially acceptable elder to his own parents to inform them that he established marriage with a girl. As a result, his parents in turn send an elderly people to the girl’s parent, to settle the occurrence in peaceful way, which usually is ended, in positive way.

5. Marriage by Levirate (“Dhaala”) This is a kind of marriage, in which case, up- on the death of a husband, one of his young brothers inherits the deceased brother’s widow. Any children born to the union is considered as progeny of the deceased person (Mamo, 1995: 98).

6. Marriage by Sororate (“Miilbetoo” or “Beenbetoo”) This is also another social and cultural practice where by up on the death of his wife, a person is given the sister of the deceased woman with out any payment. This is a custom, although not very common, done to express their sorrow both to the person and his deceased wife. But it is not mandatory for the parents to give their girl. It rather depends on their strong relationship that exists between them. The intention is that she would manage his home and the children of the deceased mother carefully. Besides, the sister of the deceased wife inherits all the properties so that other woman, particularly, in the case of polygamous society, does not have opportunity to claim for this possession.

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Chapter Three: THE RESEARCH DESIGN

The purpose of this paper is to identify and understand some of the gender-based traditional practices that, directly or indirectly, harm women and the girls. Specifically, the study focuses on the investigation of the female circumcision, abduction and the early marriage. To this effect, the relevant data were gathered, by the use of various tools, from the study area of the District of Dodola, in Bale zone.

This section of the paper focuses on the description of subjects taken, the sampling techniques and its procedures, the instruments used and, the statistical methods employed for the analysis of the data.

3.1 Subjects, Sampling and sampling techniques

The subjects of this study consist of individuals from heterogeneous groups in terms of sex, age, occupation, educational background and the marital status. The participants include parents (male & female), students (boys & girls), girls-out-of school and the community elders. This study was undertaken both in rural areas and the rural towns (in the case of schools).

The following Table (Table 1) will display the profile of the subjects who were included in the study. It indicates the proportion of each of the samples taken and also summarizes the average age of the respondents.

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Table 1. Profile of Subjects, Sample size and their Age Age(min.12, Max.90) Respondents

Sample Size

% Mean

Sd

Men

50

14.08

46.86

12.07

Women

50

14.08

38.06

7.96

Male Students

70

19.72

17.90

2.21

Female Students

130

36.62

16.37

1.51

Girls-Out- of School

50

14.08

17.00

1.67

Elders

5

1.41

70.20

11.88

355

99.99

34.40

4.55

Total

As it is indicated in many literatures (for instance, Howell, 1987 and Thorndike, 1982), the correct sample size is determined by the nature of the population and the purpose of the study. Some argue that, about thirty cases seem to be bare minimum and, others regard hundred cases as the minimum. Besides, irrespective of the size of the population, the determination of the sample size required to reflect the population value of a particular variable depends also on the amount of the heterogeneity of the group with in the population.

Other things being equal, the general principle in sampling the required number of subjects states that, “the larger the sample, the smaller the likelihood of the sampling error”. Keeping this principle, the researcher included a total of three hundred fifty five subjects in the study and, believes that, this is a considerable number, if not too many, provided that, the time and the financial capacity is very limited.

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Accordingly, as it is shown above (Table1), there were a total of 355 respondents who have been included in the study, among which female students (36.62%) constitute, relatively, the higher number, followed by male students (19.72%). The age of these heterogeneous groups also varies considerably that, on the average, the respondents have 34.40 years of age with the cumulative standard deviations of 4.55. In this table, in general it can also be summarized that, there are a total of 230 (64.79%) females and 120 (35.21%) males.

Furthermore, Table 2 below describes the settings/centers, from which the subjects were drawn and, it also indicates the size of the population, among which the samples were taken, particularly, the student population. For instance, the total student population, who was in grades 10,11 and 12, in Dodola senior school, was 599. This figure was 214 for the total student population, who were eighth graders, in Heraro junior school.

Table 2. The Settings/Centers, Population and the Sample sizes Population Size Centers/Settings Name of the Center

Schools

Out-of-Schools

Sample size

M

F

Total M

F

Total

Dodola Senior school*

290

309

599

40

90

130

Heraro junior School*

168

46

214

30

40

70

Baranda Batu and Katta**

-

-

-

55

50

105

Baka***

-

-

-

-

50

50

458

355

813

125

230

355****

Total

*Schools from which the students were drawn (Grades 8, 10, 11 and 12) **The rural villages from which the parents and elders were drawn ***The rural village from which the girls-out-of-schools were drawn ****The total number of sample size

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However, these figures indicate only the size of the student population, who were in grade eight and from which the samples have been taken and, do never show the total population of the students in the school. It is to be noted also that, the total population, from which the samples have been taken, has not been indicated, for the subjects taken from the rural areas.

Table 2 above indicates that, the samples were taken, for this study, from two settings, in general, one of which is the school and, the other is the out-of-school setting. That is, 200 students that constitute about 56.34% of the total sample size were taken from the school settings and, 155 parents, out-of-school girls and elders (43.66%) altogether, were drawn from the out-of-school settings. These were from the rural villages that were relatively close to the main road.

With respect to the sampling techniques, the stratified random sampling, the purposive and the availability sampling methods were employed, to select the samples among their respective population. The sampling procedures also follow that, among a total of 309 female students in grades 10,11 and 12 and, 290males in grades 10 to 11, at the Dodola senior school, 90 girls and 40 boys were, respectively, selected by a stratified random sampling technique. Similarly, among 46 female and 168 male students, who were in grade eight, at the Heraro junior school, 40 girls and 30 boys were drawn, respectively, by a technique of stratified random sampling. These make a total of 200 students, irrespective of their sex, among 813student population. Besides, fifty girls, who were out- of-schools, 50 men and 50 women, were added to the sample. These subjects were taken on the basis of their availability from three rural villages that were close to the rural town of Heraro (see Table 2 above). The reason for their inclusion

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was that, it is hoped that individuals with different ages and experiences could be obtained and, this in turn could contribute to the fair generalization of the findings of the study. They were responded to the structured and semi-structured interview formats.

Again, to further diversify the subjects and obtain relatively valid and dependable information, five key informants were purposely added from the community elders who live in the rural villages mentioned and, they have given their responses to the in-depth key informant interview series. Studies reveal that, in purposive sampling technique, the researcher uses his own judgment about which respondents to choose and which subjects best suit the purpose of the study. The researcher can also use his prior knowledge and experience to choose the suggested informants (Gall and Borg, 1996). Therefore, The key informants were drawn based on these practical evidences, after talking to some of the elders in the villages in the rural areas.

Indeed, The participants of this study, in general, are found regardless of their sex, between the age brackets of twelve and ninety years old, with an average age of 34.40 and standard deviation of 4.55 years of age.

Pertaining to the ethnicity of the subjects taken, the majority of the respondents (82.82%) belong to the Oromo ethnic group followed by the Amharas (11.55%). The rest 5.63% of them were from other ethnic affiliations such as Gurage, Silte and so on.

The next Table below (Table 3) describes and summarizes the religion and the ethnic backgrounds of the respondents.

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Table 3. Ethnicity and Religion of the Respondents Parents

Students

Girls-Out-of Total

Men

Women

Boys Girls

School

Ethnicity •

Oromo

47

47

42

109

49

294

•

Amhara

8

3

16

13

1

41

•

Others

-

-

12

8

-

20

Total

55

50

70

130

50

355

Religion •

Islam

45

35

47

74

39

240

•

Orthodox

7

12

18

43

9

89

•

Others

3

3

5

13

2

26

55

50

70

130

50

355

Total

Similarly, with regard to the religious compositions, a large pool of the respondents (67.61%) were found to be Muslims and, 89 (25.07%) and 26(7.32%) of them belong to the Orthodox Christianity and other forms of religions, respectively. These were from Protestants, Catholics, Makaris and those who believe in traditions.

The marital status and the educational background of the respondents will be summarized using Table 4 below.

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Table 4. Marital Status and the Respondents’ educational back ground Parents

Students

Girls-Out-of Total

Men

Women

Boys Girls

School

Marital Status •

Married

55

50

3

3

-

111

•

Engaged in

-

-

27

31

19

77

•

Single

-

-

40

96

31

167

55

50

70

130

50

355

• Literate

2

-

70

130

-

202

• read and write

7

4

-

-

7

18

• Illiterate

46

46

-

-

43

135

Total

55

50

70

130

50

355

Total Educational Status

Table 4 above depicts the marital and the educational status of the respondents. As regards their marital status, while all the parents are married, only 6(3%) students have reported to get married. But about 58 (29%) of them have reported to engage in the processes, as the wouldbe ‘couples” in the future. Of course the majority of them (68%) were found to be single (neither married nor engaged). When we come to Girls-out-of school, a considerable amount of them (38%) have engaged and 31(62%) are single. In general, of the total respondents, 111 (31.27%) of them have married, 77 (21.69%) of them have engaged and, 167 (47.04%) of them were single.

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It is to be noticed also that, we might conclude from this data that, there is a practice of engaging both boys and girls, in the processes of marriage, before even they get married to each other and/or jointly live together.

To sum up the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents, irrespective of their sex, the subjects included in the study were characterized by ethnic and religious backgrounds. And their marital and the educational background also vary in the same fashion.

3.2 Procedure of data collection

The instruments used to collect relevant data were designed, both for the quantitative and the qualitative data and, they include the following:

3.2.1 The Quantitative data The quantitative measurements used for the data collection include Questionnaire and structured & semi-structured interview items. Through these instruments, the researcher attempted to chart the respondents’ perceptions and opinions regarding the different social and cultural values attached to the practices mentioned so far. The questions themselves needed to be simple, direct and relevant in providing commentary by the participants, with pre-formulated items composed of the multiple choices that could reflect tendencies identified from various sources. In some cases, the questions also give the respondents a chance to comment on issues that are highly relevant to the study.

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The researcher was aware of the limitations of the questionnaire format and, in particular, the ways in which questions can embody assumptions and response formats. The aim was not to reify or reinforce particular conceptual frameworks, or to accept the data generated at face value but to obtain what the respondents directly perceive or to generate their opinion. In other words, the instruments were developed to gather information on the perceptions and beliefs of the participants with a clear focus on perceptions of differences between the two sexes.

Initially, the items were formulated in “Afan Oromo” (Oromo language) and then transcribed into English for the purpose of comparison. The English version was then transcribed back to Afan Oromo with the help of a student of Linguistics, who then compared and commented on both versions. Apart from the mode of administering and answering the items, the whole content of the questionnaire was the same for all the respondents. That is, the first part is composed of thirty items each, most of which are closed-ended, with some open-ended items. The next part is composed of twenty items or statements in which the respondents were asked, firstly to indicate their agreement or disagreement on issues that are directly related to female circumcision, abduction and early marriage. The respondents were then requested to rate their judgment on a four point-scale with a continuum, “strongly agree”, “agree”, “disagree” and “strongly disagree”.

Before writing the final draft and administering the questionnaire, the items were pre-tested on ten individuals (four males and six females) who belonged to the study area and, they were taken on availability basis. As a result, the necessary modifications and refinements (for

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instance, words or phrases that were ambiguous were refined) and, the plausibility of the distracters were maintained.

The introductory part of the questionnaire clarified that the responses of the questionnaire will remain anonymous or that the information given would be kept confidential. Despite the clear guidelines already given in the questionnaire, important clarifications were given, during administering the inquiries to the respondents, with the help of the research assistants. The fact that the researchers were available in administering the questionnaire and the interview enabled them back to collect the entire questionnaire and, therefore, the return-rate was very high (100%).

3.2.2 The Qualitative data To confirm, supplement and substantiate the quantitative data, the qualitative data have also been collected using an in-depth unstructured interview with the key informants that were drawn from the community elders. The interview was made in their respective language (Afan Oromo) and then translated in to English. The basic aim was to identify the distinct themes expressed with respect to the practices mentioned and, to use these as a set of supplementary evidence in the thematic analysis of the whole data. In so doing, the researcher was very attentive to looking for the counter-examples and similarities in the quantitative and qualitative data and evidence of contrasting opinions, on the same issues.

3.3. Data Analysis For the data analysis, both the quantitative and the qualitative methods were used. The response given were analyzed and presented by the use of simple descriptive statistics such as

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Percentage, Frequencies, Means and Standard deviations. Moreover, the appropriate inferential statistics were also used. Accordingly, both the Chi-square and the independent t-test were used in data analysis. The Chi-square test was employed to test for the association of the opinions, given by the male and female respondents, with respect to the practices under discussion. It is to see whether the male and female respondents have the same idea on issues related to female circumcision, abduction and early marriage.

The t-test (two-tailed) was used to test whether there are significant differences between the male and the female respondents, in terms of the mean ratings computed for this purpose. This was made on the basis of the statements that were directly related to female circumcision, abduction and early marriage, on four point-scale, on which important contrasts were made, between the two sexes.

Having seen these as a general guide of the research design and methodology, we know presume with the analysis of the subjects’ responses, on the gender-related practices, beginning with Female Genital Mutilation (Circumcision), and then Abduction and finally Early marriage. Accordingly, the next Tables (Tables 5 up to 12) will display the opinions given by the respondents. On the top of each of the Tables, the headlines that imply the issue with which the Tables deal were indicated.

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Chapter Four: RESULTS OF THE STUDY

In the presentation and Analysis section, the focus is to display and systematically analyze the respondents’ view, both quantitatively and qualitatively. This is mainly integrated by using Tables. In many cases the analysis of those open-ended items will be made following the closed-ended responses for each item. To this effect, it would be more sounding to remind of the basic research questions to be treated here. These were the following:

1. Is there a practice of female circumcision, abduction and early marriage in the study area under discussion? 2. What are the beliefs or opinions of the society towards these practices? c) Do the societies, irrespective of their sex, accept or reject the practices? d) Does the culture encourage or discourage these practices? 3. Is the society aware of the health, Psychological & the physical effects of these practices? 4. Is there difference between the opinion of males and females as regard to the occurrence and the problem of these practices? 5.Which of these three (Female circumcision, Abduction and the Early marriage) is/are more common in this study area? 6.What are the major reasons for which the society practices the circumcision of females, abduction and early marriage?

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4.1. The Quantitative Results

In this section, the quantitative analysis of the data obtained will be made. This is by using Tables, Percentages, Frequencies and the inferential statistics. Accordingly, the following Tables (Tables 5 to 12) were used to logically and coherently analyze and present the opinions of the respondents. And, for each of the responses given, the relevant statistics was used to determine and understand the extent to which the opinions were significant or not, in accordance with what have been intended. For example, Table 5 below presents the views given concerning the circumcision of females. The items that deal with abduction and the early marriage will also be presented and analyzed, respectively, using Table 6 and 7 below. The Chi-square test was used to see the association of the opinions given by the male and the female respondents, against each of the items in the Tables.

Furthermore, the opinions of the respondents on the statements that were stated in four pointscale, to see the extent to which the respondents were “agreed” or “disagreed” with the statements, were presented using Tables 8,9,10, 11 and 12. The independent t-test was computed, to determine the statistical significance between the male and the female respondents, based on the mean ratings that were computed.

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Items

Table 5. The Respondents’ response to items on Female Circumcision (FGM)

1

Sex

Categories of items on female Male (n=120)

circumcision (FGM)

χ2

Is there practice of female circumcision in your locality? (Yes)

2

Female (n=230)

111(92.50)

211(91.74)

0.06

To what extent does female circumcision occur in your community?

3

a) Very high

13(10.83)

51(22.17) 11.77*

b) Low

31(25.83)

75(32.61)

c) Very low

76(63.33)

104(45.22)

What are some of the major reasons for female circumcision in your society? a) A mark of transition from the girlhood to womanhood b) Respect for religion c) Respect for tradition d) To check & preserve virginity

4

Do you accept or reject FGM? (Accept)

5

Can a girl get married without being circumcised in your culture? (Yes)

6

10(4.35) 29.78*

13(10.83)

16(6.96)

45(37.50)

153(66.52)

45(37.50)

51(22.17)

22(18.33)

69(30)

5.58

7(5.83)

20(8.70)

0.91

93(77.50)

178(77.39)

0.00

102(85.00)

173(75.22)

Do you belief that female circumcision has health & physical effects? (Yes)

7

17(14.17)

How do females perceive FGM in your culture? (Good)

* P<0.01 ** The numbers in parentheses refer to percentages.

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4.48

There are about seven items dealing with different aspects of questions on female circumcision (Table 5) in accordance with which the respondents’ replies were shown in frequencies, percentages and the inferential statistics, that is the Chi-square Test. The numbers in the parentheses refer to the percentages of the respondents. Each of these items will be discussed here below.

The first item is about the presence or absence of the female circumcision and its practice in the locality of the respondents. Among the total respondents, 111(92.50%) males and 211(91.74%) females argue that there is a common practice of female circumcision in their community. However, there is no significant difference between male and the female respondents’ opinion, pertaining to this particular item (χ21 =6.63, p>0.01).

The next question posed to the respondents was the extent to which the aforementioned practice takes place in their area. The majority of them, 63.33% of males and 45.22% of females have responded that, its rate of occurrence is very low. The rest, 31(25.83%) males and, 75(32.61%) females have said that it occurs in a low rate.

As it is marked clearly, there is apparent difference between the responses of males and females that, the computed chi-square (χ2=11.77) value is much more than its critical value (χ22 =9.21, P<0.01). We can, therefore, conclude that there is a significant difference between the responses of the two sexes, with regard to the rate of the occurrence of the practice of female circumcision. Which is the same as saying that there is no similarity between the two sexes in replying to the magnitude of the problem.

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The third item requires the respondents to indicate some of the major reasons for which the community under takes female circumcision. All the four alternatives were taken to be the possible reasons, although their magnitude varies. In accordance with the male respondents, both ‘respect for tradition’ and the issue of ‘checking & preserving virginity’ were the major reasons. Some of them have also marked that; it is a ‘mark of tradition’ as well as ‘respect for religion’. A high percentage, favoring the idea of the ‘respect for tradition’, come from female respondents (66.52%) and, 51(22.17%) of them have attributed it to the last option of ‘checking & preserving virginity’. Nonetheless, there is a significant difference between the two sexes, with respect to the major reasons for the practice (χ23 =11.34, P<0.01).

In the next question, they were requested to mark whether they accept or reject the practice of female circumcision. Only 22(18.33%) males and 69(30%) females have answered, favoring the practice and, there is hardly any apparent difference between them in their responses to the item.

In their response, the respondents have also marked with a great similarity (item5) that, in their respective cultural & societal belief, there is no way for a girl to get married without undergoing circumcision. That is, only 5.83% and 8.70% of the male & female respondents have said, respectively, 'yes' to the item and the majority of them; 94.17% of males & 91.30% of females were in different. However, it was found that there is no variation in the responses given by them.

On the other hand, the respondents were asked whether they believe in the idea that female circumcision has the health & physical effects. Most of them, 77.50% of males and 77.39% of

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females, have shown that it has a remarkable health & physical effects and, there is no significant difference between the two sexes (item 6).

Lastly, the respondents have indicated also that the females themselves perceive the practice of circumcision as something good and favorable and that they support the practice, as one aspect of their cultural exercise. No differences were indicated between males' & females' opinion in this regard too and thus the differences are not statistically significant.

In general, as revealed in the table above, for the most of the items on female circumcision, the non-parametric test of the Chi-square shows that, there is a similarity between the male & female respondents and there are no statistically significant differences in their opinion. The only apparent differences were observed between them, in the case of items two and three (Table 5), which were found to be statistically significant. Explicitly, this can also be said that, the two sexes, males & females, do not respond to these items in a similar way or, has not any commonality in their opinion, as each of them see these problems, in different ways.

The Table below summarizes the respondents' opinions on other form of the traditional practice of marriage with especial emphasis on abduction.

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Items

Table 6: Respondents' Opinions on Abduction

1

Categories of Items on Marriage by

Sex

Abduction

Male (n=120)

Female (n=230)

a) Marriage by sister exchange

33(27.50)

78(33.91)

b) Marriage by bride price

66(55.00)

87(37.83)

4(3.33)

16(6.96)

17(14.17)

49(21.30)

92((76.67)

136(59.13)

χ2

Which type of marriage is common in your culture?

c) Marriage by abduction d) All of these three are common 2

Is there marriage by abduction in your society? (Yes)

3

10.28*

10.68*

What major factors contribute for the abduction of girls in your society? (if any) 25(20.83)

a) Her beauty

3(2.50)

b) If her parents are wealthy

8(6.67)

c) To save weeding expenses

68(29.56) 32(13.91) 10(4.35)

d) Refusal of parents to give their 84(70.00)

daughter 4

120(52.17)

17.66*

71(30.87)

6.35

Does your culture encourage marriage by abduction? (Yes)

22(18.33)

* P<0.01 ** The numbers in parentheses indicate percentages.

There are about four items above (Table 6) all of which have much to do with marriage by abduction.

In the first item, the individuals were supposed to just indicate the types of marriage that occur in their community. Accordingly, in relative terms, both males & females tend to mark

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their response on ‘marriage by bride price’ followed by that of ‘marriage by sister exchange’. In general, the distribution is so scattered that, possibly, all the options were found to be evident. That is to say, all the three types of marriage mentioned seem to be a common practice and, there are no significant differences between males & females with respect to their response to the item. The observed value of the Chi-square was below the critical value (χ23 =11.34, P>0.01), as a result of which one can conclude that there are no apparent differences between the opinions of the two sexes, with respect to the item.

The next question directly goes to the issue of existence or absence of abduction, in which the respondents were needed to say ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to the item. Many of the male respondents (76.67%) and, a considerable number of females (59.13%) have pointed out that there is marriage by abduction in their society. Only 23.33% of the male and, 40.87% of the female respondents have indicated that there is no abduction. This, however, was found to be statistically significant (χ21 =6.63, P<0.01) that, there exists a difference between the two sexes, pertaining to this particular question.

Following this, they were asked to give their own opinion as to what major reasons are there to aggravate abduction. The central reason given by about 70% of males and 52.17% of females was that of the ‘refusal of parents,’ to give their daughter to a person who asks, for marriage. The next possible reason was that, if a girl is happened to be a beautiful, it is more likely for her to be abducted by individuals. On the other hand, abduction sometimes could occur, as the respondents reveal it, simply due to the possession of the parent of the girl and, to save the weeding expense on the side of the abductors, that is males. Likewise, irrespective of these reasons, there is statistically significant differences between the opinions of the

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respondents that, the two, males & females, vary and not similar in their opinion (χ23 =11.34, P<0.01).

The last question in Table 6 above aims at whether the culture of the people under study encourages or discourages abduction. For the direct question raised with this intention, the majority of them, nearly, 82% of males and 69% of females, have marked that their culture doesn’t encourage abduction of girls. And this was found to have no significant differences (χ2 1 = 6.63, P>0.01)) between the opinions of the two sexes.

In sum among all the four items to which the respondents have reacted in their opinion, with the exception of two items, for the rest, there were no statistically significant differences between males and females’ opinion. And in many cases, they tend to be similar in giving responses to the item. Similarly, the Table below (Table 7) summarizes the opinions, given by the respondents, pertaining to the items on early marriage.

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Table 7: Respondents’ reply to early marriage and the Chi-square value for the

Items

differences of their responses Categories of Items on Early Marriage

1

Who is the responsible person, in your

Sex Male (n=120)

Female (n=230)

Chi-square

culture, to choose a marital partner for a girl?

2

a) Parents

83(69.17)

163(70.87)

b) The girl herself

24(20.00)

41(17.83)

c) Her friends

13(10.83)

26(11.30)

61(50.83)

139(60.43)

2.97

108(90.00)

200(86.96)

0.69

Is there practice of getting girls to marriage at the age of 15 and below? (Yes)

3

0.25

Is it boys or girls whom the community encourages more to early marriage? (Girls) P>0.01 *The numbers in parentheses are percentages

In the first item the attempt was to get feed back from the respondents for the question, ‘who is the right person in their community, to choose a marital partner for a girl’. Accordingly, 83(69.17%) males and 163(70.87%) females have said that it is the parents who are responsible to do so, and the majority of the respondents have shared this idea. Some of them, 20% of males and, nearly 18% of females, have a position that, it is the girl herself who takes the responsibility and, very few still, have given this responsibility to the friends of the girl. The responses given by males &females were similar and, there are no statistically significant differences between the two sexes (χ22 =9.21, P>0.01). 81

The next item is whether there is a practice of engaging girls in marriage at their early age of life. A considerable amount of the respondents, nearly 51% of males and, 60% of females, argue in favor of this question that, there is such a practice in their locality. Only 49% of males and 40% of females have replied in opposite direction to the item. There is also similarity in the responses between males & females that there is no difference between their opinion ((χ21 = 6.63, P>0.01).

In the third item, they were required to mark their opinion, whether the boys or the girls are more encouraged, by the community, to get married early. Almost all of the respondents, 90% of males and, nearly 87% of females have indicated that, it is the girls who are encouraged & expected more, by the society, to get early in marriage. Only a few have opposed this argument and, the two sexes tend to be similar in their opinion, to this item too (χ2 1 = 6.63, P>0.01).

Lastly, for all of the items dealing with early marriage, there are no statistically significant differences (χ20.01, 2, 1 & 1). Therefore, we can conclude that, there is a similarity between the male and female respondents in replying the items and, they tend to go in a similar fashion in their opinion.

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In order to further explore the respondents’ view and perceptions associated with the three kinds of gender-related traditional practices namely, female circumcision, abduction and early marriage, they were presented with a series of different statements. The first five statements do not directly deal with these practices and they rather focus on men-women equality, from the viewpoint of the pre-dispositions of the respondents. The next six statements deal with the circumcision of females. Again another five and four of them are directly related, respectively, to abduction and the early marriage.

Respondents were asked firstly to indicate whether they agree or disagree with each of the statement and then, to rate the extent to which they agree or disagree, on a four-point scale (1=strongly agree, 2=agree, 3=disagree and 4=strongly disagree). Thus, the lower the mean score, the more likely that the respondents tend to agree with the statement and, vice versa. The "undecided" option has been avoided purposely, as the respondents could easily give their responses to the four alternatives.

The aim of these statements was to explore again what suggestive differences there might be in the information males & females have acquired about these practices, through the grid of perceptions of gender differences.

To this effect, an independent t–test (two-tailed) was computed. The preceding four Tables (Tables 8, 9,10 and 11) report the mean ratings given by both sexes, to each practice subsequently. Table 12, at the end, will give us a summary of all the four categories mentioned so far.

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Table 8: Perceptions attached to men-women equality (mean ratings)

Statements

Male

Female

(n=120)

(n=230)

t-result

P-value

1

The issue of women is the men’s issue

2.07

1.95

0.04

0.9680

2

Inherent equality of men & women

1.83

2.32

-0.07

0.0556

3

In our locality, females are more 1.94

1.61

0.05

0.9602

2.42

2.33

0.03

0.9760

1.50

1.80

-0.05

0.0398*

1.95

2.00

-0.24

0.1896

vulnerable to harmful traditions 4

Our community usually prefers, and encourage girls more, to marriage than to education

5

The Rights of women is the Rights of human beings Mean Ratings (average) *P<0.05

As it is mentioned earlier, Table 8 above depicts the difference or similarity that could exist between males and females, regarding their perceptions about the men-women equality, from human Rights point of view. Their difference was shown in terms of their mean. It is also important to notice that, the lower the mean, that is computed for both sexes separately, indicates that, it is more likely that the respondents have agreed up on the series of the statement(s).

Accordingly, some contrasts can be made from the data in the table. In the first statement that deals with the men-women equality, female respondents tend to agree with the idea, as compared to the male respondents. Meaning, the issues of both males & females are interdependent and are not mutually exclusive, as it is suggested by mean ratings.

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On the other hand, in the case of the inherent equality between men and women, other things being equal, the response is reversed from that of the first item. That is, the male respondents seem to agree that the two, men and women are equal in nature or, they are more convinced than the female respondents on the matter, relatively speaking.

In the other items, females, as compared to males, are more likely to agree that, females are more vulnerable, in their locality, to various forms of traditions that are carried out in the name of culture. At the same time, they are optimists to believe that; girls are more preferred to get married rather than to go to school.

Moreover, females are more likely than females to say that the Rights of women is the Rights of human beings, as it is revealed in the last item and, therefore, there is statistically significant difference between the male and female respondents (Table 8).

Nevertheless, none of these were found to be statistically significant, with the exception of the little variations observed, with in the individuals of the same sex, above. Thus, we conclude that there are no statistically significant differences between the means of the respondents and, the two sexes go in a similar direction in rating their responses.

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Table 9: The respondents’ orientation about FGM (Mean Ratings)

Statements 1

2

Female circumcision should be stopped

3

FGM violates the Human Rights of

(n=120)

(n=230)

2.19

1.79

t–result

P-value

2.31

2.31

-0.03

0.0240*

0.14

0.8886

2.03

2.11

-0.02

0.0160*

2.78

2.97

-0.05

0.0398*

1.78

1.79

0.00

1.0000

any) should undergone circumcision

2.73

2.93

-0.06

0.0478*

Mean Rating

2.22

2.40

-0.68

0.5034

females Female circumcision, being our tradition, should not be avoided 5

Female

A girl shouldn’t get married unless she is circumcised

4

Male

Female circumcision, besides other health effects, could result in HIV/AIDS, on a girl

6

I personally believe that my daughters (if

*P<0.05

When comparisons were made between males & females on the statements on FGM, opinions of "agreement" or "disagreement", there are statistically significant differences between the

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opinions of the two sexes for statements numbered 1,3,4 and 6 (Table 9 above). For other items in the Table, there is a striking similarity in their responses, either to agree or disagree, with the statements. Particularly, Mean Ratings below 2.00 were observed, for both sexes, for the item that deals with the “health & physical effects of female circumcision”. It tells us that the two sexes were more likely to, strongly agree with the statement.

High means conversely indicates that the statement tended to be rated or judged as disagreement. The statements with the highest means, relatively, from both sexes, suggesting shared disagreements focus on:

 “Female circumcision, being our tradition, should not be avoided”  “I personally believe that my daughters (if any) should undergone circumcision”

There is a strong consensus here that the respondents have showed their opinion that, both sexes disfavor and negatively agreed on these two statements. The same analogy works, though the rate of disagreements tend to be less, for the two statements that read as:



“A girl should not get married unless she is circumcised”



“Female Genital mutilation (FGM) violates the Human Rights of females”

The respondents of both sexes have rated in a similar way that they disagree with these statements.

A relative disparity is observed between the mean ratings given by the

respondents on whether female circumcision should be stopped or not. Here, the lower mean

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rating, which implies a state of agreement, is evident on the side of males, as compared to females.

The only statement with relatively lower mean ratings from both sexes is that of the statement that has dealt with health & the physical effects of female’s circumcision. The respondents, irrespective of their sex, have shown their agreement on the statement.

Table 10: The Respondents’ opinion on Abduction (Mean Ratings)

Statements 1

Abduction is an illegal & sanctioned act

2

Abduction, being our culture, shouldn’t be avoided

3

Male

Female

(n=120)

(n=230)

t-result

1.94

1.91

0.01

0.9920

3.03

2.91

0.02

0. 9840

2.27

2.33

-0.02

0.0160*

2.73

2.60

0.05

0.9602

1.88

1.81

0.02

0.9840

2.37

2.31

0.20

0.8414

P-value

In our community, the societal request for the bride price to a marrying person makes him to resort to abduction of girl

4

Abduction is the respected & favored act in our respective society

5

Abduction is considered as violating the Human Rights of a girl Mean Rating

*P<0.05

For the statements that focus on abduction the respondents tend to disagree to many of them. These include three statements that talk about:

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“Abduction, being our culture, should not be avoided”



“In our community, the societal request for the bride price to a marrying person, makes him to resort to abduction of a girl”



“Abduction is the respected & favored act in our respective society”

For these statements, the mean ratings are relatively high, indicating that they (the respondents) have shown their disagreement. This is particularly true for the second item in the Table, which was disagreed by both sexes of the subjects. A statistically significant difference was observed on the idea that deals with the "payment of the bride price" and its possibility to lead the persons to "abduct" a girl. Likewise, the respondents have indicated their agreement in a more similar way, for two statements each that include:



“Abduction is an illegal & sanctioned act”



“Abduction is considered as violating the Human Rights of a girl”

For these particular items, we see a striking comparison that the mean ratings given for the two statements each are very close to one another. The fact that they are relatively very low in magnitude, as mentioned earlier, implies that the respondents have agreed on them in a similar way.

In general, most of them have found, not to be statistically significant, item 3 is exceptional, suggesting that the observed t-value (two-tail) is safe. Thus, we can conclude that there are no sufficient reasons to justify the differences in the mean ratings, based on the responses given by individuals of the two sexes.

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Table 11. The Respondents’ expectation on early marriage (Mean Ratings) Male

Female

(n=120)

(n=230)

Statements

1

P-value

I believe that a girl ought to get married earlier than 15 years old

2

t-result

2.86

2.50

0.12

0.9044

1.97

2.03

-0.02

0.0160*

3.20

3.00

0.05

0.9602

of payment, in cash or kind

2.63

2.27

0.12

0.9044

Mean Ratings

2.66

2.45

0.61

0.5418

It is my belief that, a girl who is married at her early age, would face a problem that could also affect her children

3

As to our religion, a girl is expected & is ought to get married prior to 15 years old

4

In our locality, the reason behind making a girl get married early is to obtain some sort

*P<0.05

The Table above summarizes statements that rely on early marriage in terms of the mean ratings of the respondents and, the t-result.

Many of the mean ratings, as judged by the subjects seem to reveal that, the respondents have shown their disagreement, if not significant and, there are some variations in the magnitude of the disagreements, between the two sexes. For instance, the male respondents tend to disagree, as compared to females, with the first, third and fourth statements. On the other hand, for the statement that refers to early marriage & its associated problem (statement 2),

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while the male respondents’ mean rating tends to be low, indicating their agreement, the female respondents, as compared to males, seem not to agree with the idea and, there is apparent difference between the males' and the females' responses.

Eventually, many of the mean ratings that have revealed above, except the statement number two, were statistically significant, based on which one can say that there were no marked differences between the means of the two sexes and their opinion.

Table 12: Summary Table of the opinions of the respondents (Mean Ratings) Categories of Practices

Male

Female

(n=120)

(n=230)

t-result

P-value

1

Men-women Equality

1.95

2.00

-0.24

0.1896

2

Female circumcision (FGM)

2.22

2.40

-0.68

0.5034

3

Abduction

2.37

2.31

0.20

0.8414

4

Early marriage

2.66

2.45

0.61

0.5418

2.30

2.29

0.37

0.7114

Mean Ratings P>0.05

Finally, we can summarize what we have said so far, in a very condensed manner, if at all, there is some unique generalization (Table 12).

In the first category of the statements on "men-women quality", the mean ratings of both subjects were almost the same. We can make use of this figure in such a way that, the two

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sexes have marked their opinion that they do not strongly disagree, if not strongly agree, with men-women equality. In this regard, the t-result shows us that, there are no statistically significant differences, between the opinions of the respondents, with respect to the mean ratings.

In the second category of the statements on female circumcision, the mean ratings seem to be close to one another and, tends to be high, implying that both sexes were more likely to disagree with the statements on circumcision. However, there are no statistically significant differences between the two sexes, in rating their judgment.

The conclusion drawn for circumcision above could also be applied for abduction. Both males & females have shown, relatively, high mean ratings. This indicates that, irrespective of their sex, the respondents have disagreed with the statements on abduction and, there is no marked difference in their mean ratings.

In the case of early marriage too, although males have marked, relatively high mean ratings, both males & females, disagree with the statements on early marriage and their differences were not significant.

Eventually, one can, therefore, give such a conclusion, based on the weighted mean ratings, which were nearly equal (2.30 for males and 2.29 for females) for both sexes that, in many cases the respondents seem to reveal their disagreement, to some extent for all the four categories. There were also no apparent and statistically significant differences, in general, for all the cases. And thus, we can conclude that the respondents tend to have similar opinions or positions on the gender – related practices under discussion. Above all the mean ratings

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computed for all the practices imply that both sexes have shown the inclination to disagree with the statements in the series, although there were no apparent differences for many of the statements.

4.2 The Qualitative Results

An attempt is made, in this section, to qualitatively present the opinion of the key informants. To this effect, it is necessary to thematically integrate issues that are similar to each other, in the context of the objectives of the study. For instance, it is inevitable for us to give a highlight on the marriage and marriage related issues while discussing about female circumcision and its operation. It is also important to notice that; most of the inhabitants in the rural areas of this study area are the Oromos (Daniel, 2002, Mamo, 1995) who belong to the “Arsi tribes”. They are thus, Arsi Oromos; the name that does have nothing with the name, Arsi zone, other than the people of the Dodola district. The themes of the problems and issues to be discussed here below tend to appear more coherent and condensed and, they include the following points.

•

The historical background of the female circumcision, the cultural and social beliefs associated with it, the appropriate age at which the girls are expected to undergone it, the rituals and process attached to it. It also includes the possible effects that the practice could have on girls.

•

The practice of marriage by abduction in the study area, its possible reasons, processes and problems, and

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•

The issues on early marriage and marriage-related cultural practices that would deny the Rights of females, both as girls and women.

Why people perform the circumcision of females? And, to what extent it prevails? It was aimed at knowing, in detail, the historical background of female circumcision. Unfortunately, the key informants have responded that it is hardly possible for them to attribute its background exactly nor tell as to when and how it was started. They underlined that it must have a history of so long period that it has been carrying out, as a matter of tradition, or custom, generation after generation and, to-date.

The major reason for which the circumcision of females is undertaken, according to the informants, has got its own deep rooted cultural beliefs that a girl is supposed to pass through it as a precondition before they get married. They stress that a girl is circumcised means she is given to someone and, even if she stays at the home of her parents, no one is allowed, under any circumstances, to ask her for marriage. It is a sign of respect and honor. In this particular area for instance, it is said that, a girl who is circumcised is known, culturally as “Luba”, to literally means, the respected and reserved for someone and, is considered as though she has got married. On the other hand, those girls, who have not yet undergone circumcision, are said to be “ Raaba”-meaning, not asked for marriage. Therefore the issue of female circumcision in this society is directly related to marriage. Besides, it is culturally forbidden for a girl to engage in premarital sex and, if she happened to do so, it is regarded as "taboo" and no one take initiative to ask that girl for marriage. In such a case the community condemns and blames not only the girl but also her parents and the clan (“gosa”) to which they belong. This is to mean that in accordance with my informants, the specific day in which the girl is circumcised gives them an opportunity to identify and know whether the girl is virgin or not.

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The girl is also well oriented culturally to preserve her virginity for the respect of her self, her parents and, her clan or “gosa” at large.

The major reasons behind female circumcision have also been raised in an open-ended question, to all other respondents, in addition to the key informants. The reasons given by most of them, in order of their magnitude, were that it is valued and perceived by the society as a: • • • • •

Sign of respect for culture and is a cultural heritage Sign of honor, both for the girl and her parents Precondition for marriage Means of preserving virginity & guaranteeing premarital sex Religion demand

Some of them, many of whom were males, have also replied that this practice is done to make the girl conform both to her parents and her husbands and, to behave well. They also believe that, it helps the girl to play maternity roles in a more faithful and effective way. Some of them have also said that, circumcision is important for a girl as it reduces pain during her first sexual intercourse and, simplifies delivery. Few of them have said that it is carried out for no reason that people are ignorant about its problems and consequences.

Is there a specific age limit at which girls are supposed to undergone circumcision? This is another question that was raised to the informants. In response to this question their belief is that there is a specific time period, if not possible, to determine it in terms of age. This is possible only after she is given to some one and specifically; it takes place immediately before marriage. It is culturally discouraged to do it unless the “would-be” a husband is identified. They have also pointed out that, now days there is some sort of doing it at the early age of the girls even before the girl is being asked by someone. The reasons for this is usually that, the

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girls themselves prefer to pass through it and waiting for the husband and, this doesn’t mean of course, that they engage in pre-marital sex.

Under normal conditions, there are cultural rituals and beliefs attached to, the pre-requisites to be fulfilled and, the processes to pass through, female circumcision. The data obtained from the informants reveal that as it is mentioned above, after a girl has been asked formally by someone, there is a series of steps that would follow. Therefore, it would be important to see some of the basic steps associated with the two interdependent practices (circumcision and marriage), based on the feed back obtained, so that we can easily show that the two are not treated separately.

A person who has decided to marry a girl is supposed to officially send the mediator or the “go-between”, to the parent of the girl. Usually priority is given for the social affiliation & the acceptance and, the socioeconomic background of the parent, rather than the beauty of the girl. The processes, after being facilitated by the mediator for so much, would result in that the “go-between” convinces the girl’s parent and present the progress or success to the other party. Right after this, the latter party initiates the mediator to facilitate conditions for what is known as “Qubee” (“Nikah”) ceremony-meaning, betrothal. It is a kind of ceremony which gives opportunity to formally publicize that their daughter is given as marriage for someone. It means also that now on no, one takes initiative to neither formally ask nor forcefully ask ones wife for marriage and, if it happened to do so it would lead to so much complications as we see later on.

On the other hand, before formally taking the girl to his home, the would-be husband or his parents initiate, right before marriage, the parents of the girl, for the circumcision of their

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“would-be” groom. After the two parents have fixed the date for the circumcision, at least three persons; the bride, one of his uncle’s son and an elderly person, go to the home of the parent of the groom. In accordance with their culture they take, sheep (“Hoolaa”), a wovencloth (“Woyaa”) to be worn by the girl, coffee (to the mother-in-law) and, a tiny woven made belt (“sabbata”), to the home of the groom, a day before the date fixed for the circumcision. The Sheep is to be slaughtered, right after the circumcision, to congratulate and to please the girl and, the “woyaa” is worn by her while she stays in the ward. The rituals and the processes at the verge of the practice include also that a day before the practice, the girl, to be circumcised, is made to drink “Heexoo”-which, literally, is a mixture of water and the herbal plant, known scientifically as “Hagenia-abyssinica”. As to my informants the reason for drinking “Heexoo” is to purify the whole internal bodies after which she is allowed to eat and/or drink only selected food items. During the “Heexoo” ceremony, many friends of the groom accompany her and take part in the drinking process. The circumcision is then to be done early in the morning of the next day, in the presence of friends and the neighbors. The “would-be” husband and his courtiers would not be allowed to attend the ceremony and they are rather kept apart to stay somewhere around, just until the ceremony is over. As to my informants, the girl is to be circumcised usually early in the morning for its own reason. The reason is that, at the specified time the chance is too high to reduce bleeding due to absence of the heat of the sun. The operation is conducted exclusively by those elderly women, who have no special skill, except that of the training they acquired over time, through practice and courage, to perform it. The type of the instrument they use for the operation include crude materials, particularly, razor blade without applying any drug or anesthesia to stop bleeding. They rather believe that, a girl is assumed to urinate right after the operation and therefore, the urine facilitate blood clotting and stops bleeding and gradually, heals the wound. Therefore, the “would-be” husband and his companionships ought to stay, before going back to their

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own home, until the girl urinates; the sign that indicates the operation is promising and is fairly done. The girl then would stay in a ward for a minimum of ten to fifteen days until she is fully recovered. During her stay in a ward she is furnished with a kind of delicious and cultural food items by her friends, age-mates and relatives and, is known culturally as “Gumaata”-to literally mean, incentives. It is done to please her up on the transition that she is transformed from girlhood (“Raaba”) to womanhood (“Luba”), irrespective of where she is and her virginity.

Other respondents, other than the key informants, have also pointed out that, female circumcision will not be carried out only during the marriage. There is also a case during which the girls are circumcised earlier than seven months after she is born. For instance, some female respondents have written their reply to the question on which they were asked to indicate their retrospect about the problems they might have faced during circumcision. These were the following:

“I was too baby to exactly remember what happened to me” “Too much pain at that very moment but no specific problem later on” “Extreme bleeding during that particular time” “I have not faced any particular problem” “ That time I did not face any problem but then after I usually suffer from problem during delivery” .

The informants have also described that a girl, after having been circumcised, is ready to get married within one or two months time, depending on the request and the readiness of the other party, that is the parent of the “would-be” husband.

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Here below we look at the informants’ viewpoint on marriage and marriage related issues with particular reference to abduction & early marriage. When and how abduction of girls began?

The informants have pointed out that marriage by abduction doesn’t have its own remarkable history and they could not exactly tell how and when it has begun. They say that basically abduction is one of the socially and culturally sanctioned forms of marriage.

There is precaution that is universal and practical among the community as regards to the acceptance or rejection of marriage by abduction. That is, if in case a girl is happened to be abducted by someone, the father of the girl resorts to the culturally and universally justified norms and regulations by saying, together with his clan (gosa), the following precautions. “Intalti tiyya; duutu guma’a, Jiraattu xinso’o”. To mean, My daughter, if she happened to die is regarded as crime and, If she is alive, you remain to be my enemy forever.

Basically, as indicated by the informants, a given girl is assumed to be “Wolaba” meaning she has got her own dignity, that no one is there to abduct her illegally.

On the other hand, although these culturally justified rules & regulations are there my informants have mentioned that there is marriage by abduction in their locality, in general, but the rate of its prevalence, particularly, at the present time is very low.

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What are the possible reasons for such a practice? The reasons for abduction vary from one another. For example, it is customary in this community; as it might be true for others too, to look for the socially and economically respected parents, both of who are at the same level in their society. In most cases, therefore, their marriage pattern is more likely to follow this kind of trend. If someone who doesn’t fit, both socially and economically, to these people ask their girl, obviously it is hardly possible for him to get their daughter as a wife, even though he sends the mediator.

The informants, therefore, say that one of the major reasons for abduction is the refusal of a parent to give their daughter to a person who asked for marriage. This is due to certain reasons, one of which is the disparity that could exist in terms of socio-economic background between the two parents. In other words, there are three major conditions for which the person resorts to abduction of a girl.
A parent may fail to approve the request by their son, if he decided to marry a girl & as a result, he takes his own action, or
The parent of the girl themselves refuse to accept the request on the side of the son’s parent, or
When the girl’s parent tend to prolong or show a sign of regression, for some reasons, the parents of the son resort to abduction as a form of retaliation.

Thus in the case of the first condition, it is solely the determination of the son to involve in the act merely without the consent & knowledge of both parents. Where as in the second and third occasions it is more likely that the parents of the son would be the pioneers to take the action, in favor of their son.

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Is there any relation between abduction and circumcision? Yes, there are common features that the two share in common. For instance, my informants have explained that when a person abducts a girl by force, the first thing he does is to circumcise her before having any sexual relationship with her. The person who abducted then is accused culturally of two reasons. One is that, abduction basically is culturally disfavored and illegal. Secondly, in addition to the act of abduction, he could also be condemned for the circumcision he performed. That means, he transformed the life of the girl from “Raaba” (neither given for someone nor circumcised) to “Luba” (circumcised, or married), against the will of the girl and the parents. It is also considered as violating the social norm. Thus he is requested to compensate his wrong doing by paying what has already been predetermined, in the form of “Yakkaa” to mean, to atone for the offense he did. The “Yakkaa” to be given to the girl’s parent varies in that, if he abducted a girl who has not been circumcised and, therefore, not yet given, he is supposed to pay a minimum of five heads of cattle and, two heads of cattle if otherwise, as stated by the informants. This is just the payment to be made for the illegal act. Following this, the person who abducted and/or his parents ask the parent of the girl for their approval & to confirm the marriage between the groom & the bride. This is facilitated by the mediator,the “go-between” and if the girl’s parents are positive towards the mediator & trust the parent of the abductor, the issue will then be formally discussed whether it could be finalized in the form of “Gabbara” (marriage by bride price) or “Wolgara” (marriage by sister exchange). If in case the parent of the girl is reluctant to confirm and, reject the other party, they remain to be the enemies – “Xinsoo”, that could result in inflictions between them unless it is settled in a peaceful manner. If it is not settled in the course of time, the death of either the girl abducted and/or her child or infant is announced by her parents to be “Gumaa” – that spark a huge conflict between the respective clans of the two parents. It is a kind of clash that could lead to compensation of ones own blood price.

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What specific problems could a girl encounter during abduction and what kinds of conflicts occur during the processes? The informants reveal that the abducted girl could face, depending on the situation, many problems. Usually it occurs on the way to and from market, or fetching water while she is collecting firewood alone. Since it is against the will or awareness of the girl, in many cases, she doesn’t submit herself and, therefore, they resort to use of force. For instance, slapping, beating with whip, warning etc may take place, which are very threatening for her. This is also common that under such pressures the girl does not eat or drink for some days. From the viewpoint of their culture, it is not favorable to miss a girl once she is abducted and, therefore, when the abductors suspect that the parent of the girl are following them during the act, the would-be husband takes measure to diverging the girl even before circumcising her. This is so because, once she is disvergined, the maximum cost he spends is the “Yakkaa” – a payment to be made either in cash or kind to her parent. And her parents will then have no options, as they do not, under normal conditions, take their daughter back once she is disvergined.

What is the appropriate age at which a girl is supposed to get married? The view of the elderly informants on the thematic issues of early marriage is as follows. In their surrounding the appropriate age at which their girls are involved in marriage seems to be twenty and beyond that, under normal conditions. For the normal and culturally encouraged marriage types, the priority is absolutely given to that of the socioeconomic background of the girls’ family and, not to the beauty of the girl. The assumption is that, if her parent, particularly her mother, is the one whom the community loves very much and, effectively and efficiently manages her maternity roles her daughter is chosen. The mother is also judged on the basis of the respect she has for her husband’s relatives and, usually they have a proverb in their local language, as

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follwos: “Haadha laalii intala fuudhi”. This literally means, see and judge the mother of the girl first, so that you can easily know about her daughter.

If a family or parent fulfills these criteria, it was common in this study area, to give a daughter to one of the respected and loved family at the age five or six and/ or below that. This is, of course, possible if only the two children; the boy on one side and the girls on the other, are of the same age so that they grow relatively at the same time until they reach for marriage. This is meant to prolong and strengthen the love and respect that exist between the parents of the two children. But this tradition is said to be minimal and very rare these days.

Are there circumstances under which the girls are made to marriage at their early stage of life? Besides that of the harmonious relationship between the two parents, as a result of which they are initiated to form a marriage partner between their sons and girls, there are other reasons that could force girls to get married at their early ages. The two circumstances, under which early marriage of girls could occur, according to the informants, are as follows:

•

“Beenbetoo/Miilbetoo”(Sororate): -

This is one form of marriage that occurs in rare case as a result of some incidence. In the community under discussion, when a wife of a given person is happened to be deceased, by death, usually at her early reproductive age, the person seeks the sister of the deceased one (if any), for marriage. It is right after the incidence that he proposes his request to the parent of the deceased for substitution, without any payment. The response on the side of the parent requested depends mainly on the trend and magnitude the relationship they have with the person.

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If they have warm and good relation with him they give him one of their daughters (if any). This is to please him and, take care of the children and the possession of the deceased wife.

•

Biidhaa: -

This is also a rare form of marriage and there are two conditions under which it could occur as the informants said. One is that, when at the day of marriage, the betrothed girl is happened to have gone away with someone else, refusing the former person due to some reasons, such as that he is either too old or she doesn’t want him at all. In such occasions it is inevitable for this person to get another girl, usually from the former girls’ parent or from their close relatives, at the outset. Because, it is regarded as “Taboo” to return home empty hand. The parent of the girl is also more concerned as it is culturally known to be both unusual and sensitive issue.

The Second condition is that when a person went out to abduct a girl and unable to succeed due to some reasons. Or, some times people who are on the side of the girl interferes by force and take her back to her home. In these situations, the abductor and his colleagues would resort to other options and decide that they should get and be able to take any girl to their home usually by force. But unlike the first condition, this is not favored and is sanctioned. Everyone is reluctant to it although the abductor and his companions perceive it as such.

Indeed, in accordance with my informants, both of these types of marriage; “Beenbetoo” and “Biidhaa” are no more functioning or they are very rare.

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4.3 DISCUSSION of the Results

As it has been clearly stated in the presentation and analysis section, almost all of the respondents (92.50% of males and 91.74% of females) have indicated that female circumcision is a common practice in their locality. Besides, the key informants have also underlined that as part and parcel of their respective culture, girls are supposed to undergo circumcision prior to the time of marriage. It means that the practice prevails and many of them associate it with marriage. However, one can notice here that female circumcision is practiced, irrespective of the religion and the ethnicity of the subjects, that, in this study individuals who belong to Islam, Orthodox, traditional beliefs and other religion have shown their judgment that such a practice is evident. As examined by the national committee on traditional practices in Ethiopia (NCTPE, 1998 and 2000), female circumcision, from its prevalence point of view, can be said to be a pan - Ethiopian. In its baseline survey study of the year 1997, the committee have reported that this practice is prevalent both in rural and urban areas and, nearly about 90% of females are believed to pass through it. Moreover, the occurrence of female circumcision at the national level is said to be 73%, among which the region of Oromia alone contributes 79.8% of it.

Therefore, one can say that the data obtained from this study reveals some evidence that is universal and common in the country, in general, and in this study area, in particular.

Regarding the magnitude of the female circumcision, however, the respondents tend to say that the extent to which it occurs is very low. This is probably due to the reason that some parents circumcise their daughters at their early age or, they do not attach it to her marriage.

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Meaning, a girl could be circumcised, in rare case, before even given to someone and, therefore, there will not be rituals that accompany the practice. This could also vary relatively, from religion to religion and among ethnic groups. However, although this seems to be contrary to the view of the key informants, the practice does exist in the area at the regular time as usual.

The major reasons for female circumcisions vary. For example, 37.50% of males and 66.52% of females have indicated that the reason underlying it is the respect for tradition. About 37.50% of males and 22.17% of females attribute its reason to the belief of checking virginity and preventing the girl from pre-marital sex. Some of them have said that, it is the religious order. For some of them, it is a mark of transition from girlhood to adulthood. But according to the key informants, the major reason for female circumcision is that, it is perceived as a ritual through which a girl is transformed from the girlhood to womanhood. Different researchers both at the national and international levels have said the view of the key informants mentioned above. With respect to the underlying reason for the society to practice female circumcision, it has been reported that, the practice is one form of rituals through which the female gets acceptance by the society at large. Furthermore, it is a means of creating eligibility for marriage. Unless a girl has undergone it, it is less likely that she involves

in

marriage

and

rather,

she

is

considered

as

an

incomplete

girl

(http://www.amnestyusa.org/women). In Ethiopia too, various reasons have been given, for which female circumcision is done by the society. Some of these include respect for tradition, preservation of morality, avoidance of shame, stigma & ostracization (NCTPE, 1999). In relation to this, 94% of the male and 91% of the female respondents share this idea in which they have indicated that a girl in their respective locality can never get married if she is not circumcised. Furthermore the finding have also revealed that although individuals personally

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reject the circumcision of girls (82% of males and 70% of females), the respondents have pointed out that, in their society females, in general, have good perception and positive attitude for it. The key informants have also added that females in the rural areas does never reject circumcision and even sometimes they themselves take initiative to push their parents to circumcise them even before they are given to someone as the would-be wife.

This is possibly something that has much to do with the course of their development where by they have been overwhelmed by social traditions and/or beliefs and, as a result of which; they have been oriented and shaped to enforce the cultural practices. For instance, many of the respondents (77.50% of male and 77% of female) believe and are aware of the health and physical affects of the circumcision of females.

Furthermore, the respondents have marked their disagreement to those statements on female circumcision that have been listed in the result section (Table 8). For many of these statements, their responses were opposite, although the statements seem to be general and personal. We can therefore, say that the respondents, in general, and the females, in particular, are well aware of the adverse effects of the circumcision of females and, oppose the practice. But the fact that they take initiative to pass through it, can be attributed to the cultural orientation in which they have grown up. In other words, whatever the reason may be, they are subjected to face the consequences of the practice. The worst of all is that the circumcision ceremony is carried out under poor conditions, by individuals, usually women, who have not any skill or training in the area. These all however, are contrary to what have been revealed in various literatures. Amnesty International (2001) has reported that, the severe consequences of the psychological & physical health that occurs due to female circumcision is unjust and are understood interms of the human rights of women and the girl-children.

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The practice can cause lifetime damage to the girl and, results in serious physical, psychological and mental problems. The fact that the operation is carried out by the traditional and crude materials through trial & error, under poor hygienic environment and without applying any antibiotics could lead a girl to the most serious disease of HIV/AIDS. This, in turn, could negatively contribute and disrupt the life of several others, irrespective of their sex.

Nonetheless, though the respondents have shown, in their response, that they are conscious or aware of the possible consequences of the circumcision of females, it seems to contradict with the data available at the national level. Just for the sake of comparison, the base line survey at the national level revealed that (NCTPE, 1996), the individuals’ level of consciousness is too limited. At the regional level, the study has shown that among the total subjects included in the study, it was only 18% of the people of Oromia, who have reported to be aware of the seriousness and the adverse effects of the practice. This figure was 23% for Amhara and, 27% for the Afar region. This discrepancy of the level of awareness between the subjects could also be due to the time factor and possibly we may say that the individuals’ level of consciousness increases from time to time. However, it could also vary from place to place, depending on various factors.

As regards to the issue related to marriage, a large number of the male respondents (nearly 77%) and considerable number of the female respondents have indicated that there is marriage by abduction. Here it is the female respondents who tend to say, as compared to males that, its occurrence can be said to be very low. Similarly the key informants share the latter idea and they have indicated that although it had been common for so long, currently abduction doesn’t take place most of the time. They also believe that the trend, in general, is not reliable and, is

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declining. The possible reason for its occurrence at a low rate could be due to several reasons. Firstly, once a person is involved in such an act, it is getting customary that it usually results in conflict between the two parents, mainly due to the payment the parents of the girl fix and to be paid by the abductor. The other reason could be that from ones own observation one may infer that, let alone, getting wife by forceful abduction, many youngsters would not be seen to engage in marriage even through culturally recognized means. This could also be due mainly to the economic constraints. The informants have also shared this idea that many people seem to refrain from marriage in any means simply because of the lack of courage that they couldn’t withstand the associated problems. The type of marriage that is common in their surrounding, according to the respondents is that of marriage by bride price. As its name implies, the person that determines the economic capability of the individuals, directly relates it, to the payment. In many literatures, on the other hand, there are several reasons that contribute for abduction. These include poverty, fear of rejection, illiteracy, false sense of power etc.

The respondents believe that there are some factors that contribute for abduction. For example, 70% of the male and 52% of the female respondents have pointed out that the refusal of parents to give their daughter for a person is among other reasons that lead the person to forcefully abduct girls. The other reason is the beauty of the girl. The key informants have also underlined that the solely reason is that of the refusal of the parent to allow for a person in his request for marriage.

On the other hand, although it exists, the extent to which abduction occurs in this study area seems to be contradictory with the literatures that are available both at the national & the regional level. Tekalign (1998) has reported that within the five years beginning from the year

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1993, over three hundred case, were reported in Oromia alone and he also said that, it is getting increased alarmingly.

It has been reported in another study (Teshome, 2002) that in Oromia alone, 20% of women get marry by abduction. A study conducted on Dodola District and its periphery, about 60% of women were reported to have been abducted before fifteen and 93% of them were abducted before the age of 20 years. The baseline survey study of the year 1997 (NCTPE, 1999) also shows that nearly 80% of the people have supported the occurrence of abduction. The study by NCTPE (1998) has revealed that abduction occurs in Oromia in a high rate. It is also evident that, various ethnic groups in Ethiopia carry out abduction, both in rural and urban areas and, its rate of prevalence, at the national level, was reported to be 69% on the average.

Thus, one can confidently say that, as compared to the data that have been documented earlier, the existence and the rate of occurrence of marriage by abduction in this study area can’t be over emphasized. Nevertheless, many respondents (82% males and 69% females) have marked that abduction can never be justified by their culture. It is rather among those practices that are socially sanctioned and culturally denounced. That is, their culture does never encourage abduction. The key informants have also underlined that it is considered as an act of theft and, is crime that goes against the human rights of a girl. All the respondents have agreed that it violated the inherent human rights of females and, therefore, it is not respected nor favored in their locality and rather they have showed their position to insist that abduction should cease. With respect to the overall nature of abduction, in general, the respondents tend to have similar idea and the standpoint.

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With the same token, considerable numbers of the male and female respondents believe that there is a practice of involving girls in marriage at the age of 15 years and below. About 49% of males and 40% of females do not accept this idea. To the contrary, what has been common in this particular society, according to the key informants, is that, it doesn’t usually occur for girls to get married at the specified age mentioned above. They rather put that, in most cases, what is culturally evident is that the maximum age at which the girls enter into marriage is twenty years. In several literatures (UNICEF, 2000) it is stated that the ages of marriage for girls with the consent of their parents tend to be lower. This is particularly evident or common in third world countries, where the girls are entered by force, into marriage at their early adolescent ages, due to several reasons. Some of these include underdevelopment, illiteracy, ignorance, poverty etc.

In another study (NCTPE, 1998) early marriage was said to be practiced widely in the northern parts of Ethiopia. For example, its rate of occurrence in the region of Amhara was reported to be 82% and 79% for Tigray, respectively with 14.5 and 15.9 mean ages of marriage. What is more stimulating here is that, its rate of occurrence varies also with religion. It is also revealed that (NCTPE, 2000) the rate of the prevalence of the early marriage was found to be 54.5%, on the average, at the national level and 33% of women have been subjected to it with the average of 17 years.

Other evidences show that, early marriage, although it exists in Oromia too, it prevails in a relatively low rate and the average age at which a girl is involved in marriage is found to be seventeen years, on the average.

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Therefore, the fact that the key informants stick to the absence of such practice could be related to their religion. That is, as it is clearly indicated in the result section, the majority of the respondents were Muslims. If this is the case, it has some sort of relation with what others have pointed out as mentioned above. So, the disparity between the respondents’ view and other literatures could be understood in the same manner.

However, most of the respondents (69% of males and 71% of females) say that in their respective culture, girls do not have the right to choose their own marriage partner for themselves. This is said to be the responsibility of their parents. Few of them have of course indicated that the girls themselves have the chance to decide for themselves. But many respondents including the key informants have told that usually it is the parents who should do this, as they are capable to identify the appropriate person from the appropriate socioeconomic background. This study also shows that in this society, girls as compared to boys are more encouraged to get married. The majority of the respondents that is, 90% of the males and 87% of the females, share this idea. The reason could be that, as it has been said, one way or another, in different contexts, since the girls are supposed to preserve their virginity without being involved in premarital sex, to maintain such beliefs, it may culturally be preferable to do so. Otherwise, both the girl and her parents could be criticized for an act against the will of the culture and the mass.

Finally, as it can be observed, for most of the gender-related practices mentioned in the result section of this text, the differences between the respondents’ opinion is too minimal. They do not have much difference in their belief. It might be that the issues under discussion are so sensitive that individuals can be said to have similar predisposition and cultural orientation in this study area.

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Chapter Five: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The main purpose of the study was to investigate the problems and prospects of female Circumcision, abduction and early marriage. The attempt was made to look at the Prevalence and the magnitude of the problem and, to assess the respondents’ cultural Ideologies and the level of awareness that they have about the harmfulness of these practices.

A group of subjects that was composed of students, adults and the Girls- out of school were included in the study as the sources of data. Specifically, one hundred adult individuals of men and women, seventy male students, one hundred thirty female students and, fifty girlsout of school, were the major participants of the study. The students were taken both from high school and junior elementary school by means of stratified sampling techniques. Where as the parents and, the girls–out-of school, were drawn using the availability sampling method and, the key informants were purposely selected.

In seeking answers to the aforementioned questions, the researcher employed Questionnaire, structured and unstructured interview. Although the results of the study cannot by any means be generalized for the whole population in the District, the study has inevitably shown that these practices are not peculiar in this study area. In light with the research questions raised and the analysis made, the most important findings obtained were as follows:

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1. Female Circumcision •

Female circumcision is highly practiced in the study area and, there are different reasons for its occurrence. The major reasons, according to the respondents were that, it is regarded as custom and tradition that have been practiced for so long. Another important justification given was that, female circumcision gives an opportunity to check virginity and discourage pre-marital sex.

•

The “when” of female circumcision is not clearly known and yet people kept on exercising it simply because their fathers and stepfathers had been practicing it, as a mark of transition from girlhood to womanhood.

•

Because of the reasons associated with it, as mentioned above, in this particular area, a girl can never get married without being circumcised and the failure to do so will result in an out caste. It is a sign of honor and respect both for the girl and her parents. And, therefore, the girls themselves do not oppose the practice, as a matter of tradition.

•

Female circumcision usually is accompanied by different procedures and it is closely related to marriage, or the two are not, by only means, independent of each other. In other words, the former is a pre condition for the latter. In many cases, a girl is circumcised a month or two before marriage.

•

The majorities of the respondents, of course, do not appreciate and even oppose female circumcision.

•

The respondents believe that the practice of female circumcision has health and physical consequences. It could also result in HIV/HAIDS. That is to say, they are well aware of the adverse effect of the practice.

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•

In most cases, the majority of the respondents have similar understanding and opinion regarding the problems and prospects of female circumcision.

2. Marriage by Abduction •

In accordance with the view of the respondents and the informants, abduction is denounced and rather regarded as an act of theft and, their culture strictly opposes it. But once it occurred, it is less likely to bring the girl back to the home of her parents and it is approved, usually through reconciliation between the two parents.

•

Although the male and female respondents argue that there is marriage by abduction in their society, its occurrence is very rare and is minimal. The type of marriage that is common, rather, is marriage by bride price.

•

The major reason for which people involve in abduction usually is due to the refusal of parents to give their daughter to a person who may ask for marriage. This is due to many factors such as the socio-economic background of the person, his social affiliation etc. The other reasons include the beauty of the girl and the wealth of her parents.

•

The respondents of both sexes tend to have similar opinions about the issues related to abduction.

•

Almost all the respondents stress that abduction violates the human rights of a girl.

3. Early Marriage •

Considerable number of the respondents believe that it happens when a girl is involved in marriage at the age of 15 years and below. But it can be said that, in most cases, it is not a common practice in the study area under discussion.

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•

In many cases, girls do not have right to choose the marriage partner for their own and this responsibility is given to her parents, particularly, her father.

•

The respondents also believe that girls are usually encouraged to get in marriage unlike boys, who are encouraged to go to school.

•

There are no statistically significant differences between the male and female respondents, as far as issues related to early marriage, are concerned. They respond, in most cases, in similar ways. This is also true for all the three major practices, namely circumcision, abduction and early marriage.

It is to be assumed that this study cannot be claimed to be free from certain limitations that are symptomatic of both the instrument and the subjectivity of the respondents. The subject matter of the investigation itself seems to be sensitive from the social and cultural points of view, which intern influence the provision of pertinent and reliable data. It is, therefore, with the appreciation of these factors that the following conclusions were drawn, in light of the results of the study.

1. Both the circumcision of females and abduction have been indicated in the survey study that they are not uncommon in this study area. And yet they couldn’t exactly indicate the history of these practices nor attribute it to any evidence. It might be the case that, regardless of the possible consequences of the practices, the people perform them simply because their grand parents used to do and have been performing it. 2. Many of the respondents, as revealed by the findings, were reported to have awareness about the health and physical effects of the female circumcision. On the other hand, they have also indicated that this practice is widely common till today. It can, therefore, be concluded that, although they believe theoretically in the health and

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physical effects of female circumcision, the respondents do not appear to practically understand and identify its consequence or, they failed to clearly appreciate the problems nor act against these problems. 3. While other respondents believe that female circumcision tend to occur relatively, in a low rate, the key informants stress and tend to believe that it occurs as a part and parcel of the cultural manifestations. This might be due to the reason that, the community at large keeps on enforcing such a practice even if the youngsters could probably tend to be reluctant to it. 4. Unlike female circumcision, abduction was found to exist at a very low rate. As it was indicated in the result of the study, the culture of this study area basically encourages female circumcision and discourages abduction. Moreover, as a matter of cultural expectation and demand, the occurrence of early marriage is almost minimal. It can, therefore be said that unlike the circumcision of females, the two (abduction and early marriage) seem to be socially sanctioned, if not absolutely be absent or terminated. 5. In most cases, the male and female respondents were found to respond in similar ways with respect to these practices. That is, the young persons, irrespective of their sex, tend to have the same opinion in their response. As compared to the opinions given by the adults and the key informants, the former one can be said to have limited knowledge about the overall aspects of these practices and the demand of their culture. 6. In this study area, the findings show that the roles played by the girls in deciding for their own, particularly, in the case of marriage is very limited. For example, a girl will not be given a chance, in the rural area, to choose her marriage partner for herself and instead, it is her parents who could do this. From this, we may conclude that, in such a culture, at least in certain aspects, the rights of females can be said to be violated and

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the culture doesn’t pave the way for them to be assertive. And thus, the psychosocial well being of the females is largely determined by the culture and the social demand. 7. In this society, there is close relationship between female circumcision and marriage and, the two are highly interdependent that the former is expected to be the prerequisite for the latter. Possibly, the people failed to associate many hazards, especially the incidence of HIV/AIDS that could result from the circumcision of females. 8. The majority of the respondents do not favor female circumcision. At the same time, the majority have pointed out that a girl can never get married without undergoing circumcision. This discrepancy might be that the culture highly encourages this practice and therefore, the individuals are assumed to enforce it as part and parcel of their custom.

Therefore, on the basis of the findings obtained and the conclusions drawn we can recommend the following few but central points, in their order of priority: 1. The issue of harmful traditional practices such as female circumcision, that violate the human rights of women and children, should be integrated in school curricula, with a view to create and raise awareness among young people at the grass root level. This could help them aware of the adverse effects of the practices. 2. Establishing a national committee at the regional, zonal and District level would give a good opportunity to sensitize the community at large. This enables to look into the magnitude of the problem and, therefore, devise possible strategies to ameliorate the incidence, with the community. 3. Effective training programs should be offered to religious & the community leaders, birth attendants and paramedical personnel, to equip them with the necessary skills

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and knowledge of the health and physical consequences of the traditional practices, particularly, female circumcision and abduction.

4. Further research should be conducted periodically on some of the major practices, (for example, female circumcision and abduction) both at the national and the regional levels. It is important at this juncture to identify and understand of course the priority areas across the existing Districts. Efforts should be made to generate information from regions, zones and Districts and then, to disseminate the findings to legislative bodies and the community at large. 5. Research activities in such areas should be encouraged in schools, regional colleges and senior academic institutions, with the view of eliminating the occurrence and teaching the community about the health and the Psychological effects of these practices. 6. The issue of female circumcision, abduction and early marriage and their adverse health, Psychological and physical hazards should be disseminated regularly, through the mass media such as TV, Radio and the newspapers. That is to say, the community ought to have access to the mass media so that one can easily report any form of incidence in the area. The mass media, therefore, should play a vital role in changing the attitude and behavior of the public in this regard. 7. Those women who had a chance to know the harmfulness of these traditional practices should be initiated and mobilized as role models, with the aim of sensitizing and raising awareness to the society at large. Experience sharing should be made among women themselves, on issues related to Human Rights, Traditional Practices and the Reproductive health.

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and

ill

treatmentofWomen.RetrievedDecember16,20002,from http://www.amnestyusa.orglwomen. The East African (Kenya) (1999). Marriage by Abduction. Ethiopia Women Fight to endHarmfulTraditions.Retrieved12/25/2002from http://www.rrz.uni.hamburg.de/IAK/women.rtf. Deglman Douglas and Lorenzo Harris (2002). APA Style Essentials. Retrived Dec.5, 2002 from http://www.vanguard.edu/faculty/ddegelman/index.cfm?doc. Harvey Heather (2002). The Children’s Legal Center. Forced Marriage: The Work of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office Child Right. №–189. Retrieved on 12/25/2002, from http://www.children’slegalcenter.com. Teshome Segni (2002). Eradication of Early Forced Marriage and Abduction Through Poverty reduction and literacy programmes in the rural areas. Retrieved Dec. 22, 2002 from http://www.womankind.org.uk/Main/teshome.htm. What is the Accepted Age of Marriage in the International Conventions?(n.d). Retrieved.Nov.20,2002fromhttp://www.law.lib.utoronto.ca/diana/age.hm. Gender-Based Violence challenges the public Health Community (n.d.) Retrived on December 14, 2002, from Http://health linds. Washington. edu/nwcphp/nph/f2002/ gender violence f2002. pdf. Violence against Women (n.d). Retrived on December 16, 2002, from http://amnestyusa. Org/women. htm/ . Gender Based Violence: Challenges the public Health Community (2002). University of Washington,

School

of

Public

Health

Community.

Retrieved

November

22,2002fromhttp://healthlinks.washington.edu/nwcphp/nph/f2002/genderviolencef20 02.pdf. UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (n.d.). Fact Sheet № 23, Harmful Traditional

practices

affecting

the

Health

of

Woman

And

Children.

RetrivedOctober16, 2002 from http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu6/2/fs23.htm. Women’s Human Rights, Female Genital Mutilation. A Fact Sheet, PDF format (n.d.) Retrieved Dec. 18,2002 from http://www.omllestyusa.org/women.

124

What is Female Genital Mutilation? Section one (n.d). Retrieved on Dec. 30, 2002 from http://www.amnesty.org/ailob/inticam/femgen/fgm1.htm. FGM (n.d). Retrieved from http://www.womankind.orgUK/7a%20fgm.htm.

125

Appendix-A: Gaaffiiwwan barattootaaf qophaa'an (Afan Oromo Version)

Addis Ababa University School of Graduate Studies Department of Educational Psychology

Kabajamoo Hirmaattoata Qo’annoo kanaa, Kaayyoon qo’annoo kanaa Aadaa fi Gocha tokko tokko, keessumaanuu , Gocha dubartoota irratti raawwatamuu fi akkaataa isaa irratti xiyyeeffata. Qaamni qo’annaa kana raawwatu, gargaarsi isin asirratti gootan gayee guddaa taphatuu qofa osoo hinta’in, yaada isin kennitanii fi hirmaannaa keessan malee qo’annoon kuni fiixan bayuu hindanda’ua jedhee amana. Hirmaannaa keessaniif ammoo Galata guddaa isinii galchaa, gaafiiwwan asii gadii kana deebisuuf qabxiiwwan kanniin irratti akka xiyyeeffatan isin hubachiisa. 1.Gaafiiwwan kana keeessatti, deebiin “sirrii” ykn “dhugaa” ta’e inumaa hinjiru. Kan dhugaa jedhamee fudhatamu, yaada gara keessaniin argamu qofa. 2.Maqaa keessan katabuu hinbarbaachisu. 3.Yaanni isin kennitan Qaama biraatiif dabarfamee hinkennamu. Icciitiin qabama. 4. Gaafiiwwan Filannoo qabaniif deebii sirrii ta’e qofa filatuudhaan deebisaa. Filannoo ka hinqabneef ammoo, gabaabinnumaan katabuun deebisaa. 1.Gaafiiwwan haala Hirmaattotaa ibsu 1. Saala: 2. Umrii:

a) Dhiira

b) Dhalaa

___________

3. Amantii : a) Musliima

b)Orthodoksii

c)Kan biraa,__________

4. Fuudhaa fi Heeruma : a) Heerumee/Fuudhee jira

b) Qubee hidhadhee jira

c)Hinheerumne/Hinfuune Kan heerumte yoo taate,woyita heerumte umriin kee meeqa ture? _________

5. Saba: a) Oromoo b) Amaara c)Guraagee d) Kan biraa, (ibsi)___________ 6. Barumsaa fi sadarkaa barumsaa: _____________________________________ 7. Yoo ta heerumte/ka fuudhe taate, Ijoollee niqabduu? A) Ee

b) Lakki

8. Ijoollee yoo qabaatte baay’inni isaanii meeqa? a) Durba_____Dhiira______ 9. Dubartii kittaanuun Aadaa keessan keessatti jiraa ?

a)ni jira

b)hinjiru

10. Kittaanniin dubartii isin biratti yoo jiraate, yeroo baay’ee namoota ,saalaa fi umrii kammiittu kittaana ?______________________________________________.

126

11.Ati gara keetiin kittaannii ijoollee durbaa ni deeggarta mo’o nimormita? A)ni deeggara

b) ni morma

12.Ati amma sirni kittaannii sirratti raawwatee jiraa? a) Ee

b) Lakki

13.Yoo sirratti raawwatee jiraate, rakkinni sirra gaye yoo jiraate mee gabaabbinnumaanibsi. 14.Isin biratti yeroo baay’ee durba yeroo kami kittaanani? 15.Akka yaada keetiitti sababni durba kittaananiif maal sitti fakkaata? 16.Mee sababa kittaannii qabxiiwwan asii gadii kana keessaa kamtu isa dhuga jettee yaadda? Sababa irra caalu filadhu. a)Sirna durbummaa xumuranii gara heerumaatti seenuu agarsiisa b)Amantitu ajaja

c)Kabaja Aadaaf kennamu agarsiisa

d)Durbummaa qabaatuu isii

ittiin hubatuuf 17. Akka Aadaa keesaniititti, durbi takka osoo hinkittaanamin heerumuu dandeessii? a) Ee

b) Lakki

18. Osoo hinkittaanamin yoo heerumte maal taati jettee yaadda? 19.Hawaasa keessan keessatti,Yeroo baay’ee dubartiin sirna kittaannii kana akkamitii ilaalti? a) haala gaariin ilaalti

b)haala badaan ilaalti

20. Namoonni durba kittaanan kuni meeshaan isaan ittiin fayyadaman maali? ____ 21.Dimshaaahumatti, kittaanniin fayyaa fi qaama dubartii irratti rakkinna ni fida jettee yaaddaa?

a) Ee ni fida

b) Lakki, womaa rakkinna hinqabu

22.Haala Fuudhaa fi Heerumaa keessaa, isin biratti kamtu bay’innaan beekama? a) Wolgara

b) Gabbara

c) Butiinsa d)Hundinuu bay’ee beekama

23.Durba butuun isin biratti jiraa? a) Ee nijira

b) Hinjiru

24.Durba butiinsi yoo jiraate, Aadaa keessanitti fudhatama qabaa? a) Ee

b) Lakki

25.Yeroo ammaa kana durba butuun isin biratti, hagam baay’ata? a) Bay’ee jira

b)nixiqqaata

c) bay’ee xiqqa

26. Isin biratti, sababni durba butaniif keessumanuu maali? a) yoo isiin bareeda taate

b) yoo maatiin isii qabeenna qabaate

c) Baasii cidhaaf bayu

hambisuuf d)yoo maatiin intalaa nama isii kadhate sani dhoowwate 27. Aadaa keessan keessatti durbi umrii xiqqeennaatti, fakkeennaaf woggaa 15 gaditti heerummun jiraa?

a) Ee nijira

b) hinjiru

28. Umrii jedhame kanaa gaditti heerumuun yoo jiraate, sababni isaa maali ? 29. Intalli takka heerumaaf yoo geesse, akka aadaa keessaniitti, nama itti heerumtu eennutu filaafi?

a) maatii isiiti b)ufumaa filatti

c) Hiriyyatu filaafi

127

30.Hawaasa keessan keessatti durbaa fi dhiira keessaa kamtu yowaan heerumaa akka deemu taasifama?

a) dhiira

gara fuudhaa fi

b) durba

Yaanni addaddaa kan haalaafi gocha dubartii illalutu asii gaditti tarraawee jira. Yaada kana keessatti wonti “Dhuga” ykn “Sirrii”ta’e hinjiru.Yaaduma isin kennitanitu sirriidha jedhamee fudhatama. Kanaafuu,yaada kana erga sirritti dubbiftanii hubattaniin booda deebii isin “sirri” jettanii amantan qofa filadhaa.Yaada hundumaafuu laakkofsi”1”irraa hanga “4”kennamee jira. Laakkofsi kunniin hiikkaa asii gaditti kenname qabu. Isinis haaluma kanaan, yaada kenname kanaaf, deebii ufii itti amantan, qajeela lakkofsa dalgatti tarreeffame jelatti mallttoo “X” godhuudhhaan deebisaa. “1” jechuun yaada kana baay’ee deeggara jechuu yoo ta’u,

2= ni deeggara, 3=ni morma, 4=Baay’ee morma,

jechuudha. Qabxii Iskeelii Afuritti hirame La kk.

Yaada 1

1

Dhimmi dubartii dhimma dhiiraati

2

Uumamumaan dhiiraa fi dubartiin wolqixa.

3

Hawaasa keenna keessatti, dubartiin dhiira caalaa gocha miidhaa qabuuf saaxil baati.

4 5

Hawaasa keenna keessatti yeroo baay’ee durbi akka barattu osoo hinta’in akka heerumtu barbaadama. Mirgi dubartii mirga dhala nammati.

6 7

Durbi takka osoo hinkittaanamin heerumuu hinqabdu . Durba kittaanuun hafuu qaba.

8 9 10

Durba kittaanuun mirga dhala namaa, keessumaanuu kan dubartii dhiiba. Kittaannaan dubartii Aadaa keenna waan ta’eef baduu hinqabu. Durba kittaanuun fayyaa isaanii irratti rakkoo kan fidu yoo ta’u,keessumaanuu dhibee Eedsii itti fiduu danda’a. Ani gara kiyyaan ijoollee durbaa, yooqabaadhe, kittaanamuu isiiitti ni amana. Durba butuun gocha fudhatama hinqabne. Durba butuun Aadaa keenna waan ta’eef baduu hinqabu. Hawaasa keenna keessatti, dhiirti intala fuudhuuf Horii fi Qarshii baay’ee waan gaafatamaniif,haalli kuni butiinsa intalaatiif sababa ta’a. Aadaa keennatti intala butuun akka dalagaa gaariitti ilaalama. Durba butuun mirga intalaa dhiibuudha. Durbi takka yoomiyyuu umrii woggaa 15 gaditti heerumuu qabdi jedhee amana. Intala takka umrii xiqqeennaatiin heerumsiisuun, isii fi ijoollee isiin deessu irrattis rakkoo uuma jedhee amana.

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

19

Akka amantii keennaatti, durbi takka umrii woggaa 15 gaditti heerumuu qabdi.

20

Yeroo baay’ee sababni intala takka umrii xiqqeennaatti heerumsiisaniif, Horii fi Qarshii ittiin argatuufi.

2

3

Galatoomaa ! 128

4

Appendix – B (English Version)

Addis Ababa University School of Graduate Studies Department of Educational Psychology A questionnaire to be completed by the students (English Version)

Dear participants, the purpose of this study is to look at and investigate some major gender-related Traditional practices with especial focuses on Female circumcision, Abduction and Early marriage. To this effect your genuine cooperation in providing us with relevant information is highly acknowledged. Please notice that, 1) There is nothing “right” or “wrong” answer here and, rather what you respond is just regarded and taken as a correct answer. 2) No need of writing your name. 3) The information you give will be kept confidential. 4) For the multiple choices, choose the letter you think “correct” and for the openended items, give your own comment shortly.

1. The Socio- demographic Characteristics of the Respondents

1. Sex: a) male

b) female

2. Age: ____________ 3. Religion: a) Muslim 4. Marital Status

b) Orthodox Christian c) Other (Please Specify)______

a) married

5. Ethnicity a) Oromo

b) engaged but not yet married

c) Single

b) Ahmara c) Gurage d) Others, (Please mention) ______

6. Educational Status _______________________ 7. If you are married, do you have Children, 8. If you have children, how many?

a) Yes

b) No

a) Girls ____ b) boys _______

129

1. Issues Related to Circumcision, Abduction and Early Marriage 9. Is there practice of female circumcision in your culture? a) Yes

B) No

10. If there is female circumcision, who operate it? ________________________ 11. Do you personally accept or reject the circumcision of females? a) Accept

b) reject

12. Have you undergone circumcision so far? a) Yes 13.

If

you

were

circumcised,

would

you

b) No please

tell

us

the

problem

you

faced?

____________________________________________________________________ 14. In your culture, when do girls are being circumcised? ______________________ 15. In your opinion, what are the reasons for female circumcision? 16. Which of the following do you think is the major reason for female circumcision? a) a mark of transition from girl hood to womanhood b) religions demand c) respect for tradition

d) to check virginity

17. In your culture, can a girl get married before being circumcised? a) Yes

b) No

18. What if, she get married before passing through circumcision? _______________ 19. How do girls in your locality perceive female circumcision? a) Good b) Bad 20. What instruments are used for the operation of circumcision?_________________ 21. Do you think, in general that, female circumcision could have the health and physical effect? Yes

a)

b) No

22. Which type of marriage is the most common in your locality? Marriage by: a) Sister exchange

b) bride price c) abduction

23. Is there abduction in your community? a) Yes

d) all are common

b) No

24. If there is abduction, does your culture encourage it? a) Yes

b) No

25. To what extent does abduction occur here? a) very high b) low c) very low 26. Which of the following is the major reason for abduction in your locality? a) the beauty of the girl

c) to reduce wedding Ceremony

b) If her parents are rich

d) When the parents refuse to give their daughter

27. Do girls happen to get married at their early age, for example below 15? a) Yes

b) No

28. If the girls get married at their early age, why it happens so? ________________ 29. Who is responsible, in your culture, to choose a marital partner or husband, for a girl? a) Parents b) the girl herself

c) her friends

30. In your Society, is it boys or girls that are encouraged more to get married early? a) boys

b) girls 130

These are twenty Statements below. For each of them, the possible answers range from 1 to 4. In other words, each of the statements has a four point-scale. Read thoroughly and choose the number of the correct answer that you want. The numbers have such a meaning that:

1 = Strongly agree 2 = agree 3= Disagree and, 4 = Strongly disagree. Four Point- Scale

Statements The issue of females is the males’ issue too. Inherently, males and females are equal.

In my own culture, girls are more vulnerable to harmful traditions than boys. In my society, girls are more encouraged to “marriage” than to “education”. The Rights of females is the Human Rights. A girl should not get married before being circumcised. Female circumcision should be eliminated. FGM violate the Human Rights of females. Being it is our tradition; Female circumcision should not be eliminated. FGM could result in health effects on girls, particularly Can cause HIV/AIDS. I Personally believe that my daughters (if any) should be circumcised. Abduction is an act to be condemned. Abduction is our tradition and, therefore, shouldn’t be avoided. The major reason for abduction is to reduce wedding expenses. Abduction is encouraged in our locality. Abduction violates the Human Rights of the girls. A girl should get married earlier than 15 years old. Early Marriage could have adverse effects, both on the girls and her children. As to our religion, a girl is supposed to get married before 15. Usually the major reason for early marriage is to get money either, in cash or in kind.

Thank You!

131

Appendix-C (Afan Oromo Version)

Addis Ababa University School of Graduate Studies Department of Educational Psychology Gaaffiiwwan Maattii fi Ijoollee durbaatiif qophaa'an Kabajamoo Hirmaattoata Qo’annoo kanaa, Kaayyoon qo’annoo kanaa Aadaa fi Gocha tokko tokko, keessumaanuu , Gocha dubartoota irratti raawwatamuu fi akkaataa isaa irratti xiyyeeffata. Qaamni qo’annaa kana raawwatu, gargaarsi isin asirratti gootan gayee guddaa taphatuu qofa osoo hinta’in, yaada isin kennitanii fi hirmaannaa keessan malee qo’annoon kuni fiixan bayuu hindanda’ua jedhee amana. Hirmaannaa keessaniif ammoo Galata guddaa isinii galchaa, gaafiiwwan asii gadii kana deebisuuf qabxiiwwan kanniin irratti akka xiyyeeffatan isin hubachiisa. 1.Gaafiiwwan kana keeessatti, deebiin “sirrii” ykn “dhugaa” ta’e inumaa hinjiru. Kan dhugaa jedhamee fudhatamu, yaada gara keessaniin argamu qofa. 2.Maqaa keessan katabuu hinbarbaachisu. 3.Yaanni isin kennitan Qaama biraatiif dabarfamee hinkennamu. Icciitiin qabama. 4. Gaafiiwwan Filannoo qabaniif deebii sirrii ta’e qofa filatuudhaan deebisaa. Filannoo ka hinqabneef ammoo, gabaabinnumaan katabuun deebisaa. 1.Gaafiiwwan haala Hirmaattotaa ibsu 11. Saala: 12. Umrii:

a) Dhiira

b) Dhalaa

___________

13. Amantii : a) Musliima

b)Orthodoksii

c)Kan biraa,__________

14. Fuudhaa fi Heeruma : a) Heerumee/Fuudhee jira

b) Qubee hidhadhee jira

c)Hinheerumne/Hinfuune Kan heerumte yoo taate,woyita heerumte umriin kee meeqa ture? _________

15. Saba: a) Oromoo b) Amaara c)Guraagee d) Kan biraa, (ibsi)___________ 16. Barumsaa fi sadarkaa barumsaa: _____________________________________ 17. Yoo ta heerumte/ka fuudhe taate, Ijoollee niqabduu? A) Ee

b) Lakki

18. Ijoollee yoo qabaatte baay’inni isaanii meeqa? a) Durba_____Dhiira______ 19. Dubartii kittaanuun Aadaa keessan keessatti jiraa ?

a)ni jira

b)hinjiru

20. Kittaanniin dubartii isin biratti yoo jiraate, yeroo baay’ee namoota ,saalaa fi umrii kammiittu kittaana ?______________________________________________. 11.Ati gara keetiin kittaannii ijoollee durbaa ni deeggarta mo’o nimormita? A)ni deeggara

b) ni morma

132

12.Ati amma sirni kittaannii sirratti raawwatee jiraa? a) Ee

b) Lakki

13.Yoo sirratti raawwatee jiraate, rakkinni sirra gaye yoo jiraate mee gabaabbinnumaanibsi. 14.Isin biratti yeroo baay’ee durba yeroo kami kittaanani? 15.Akka yaada keetiitti sababni durba kittaananiif maal sitti fakkaata? 16.Mee sababa kittaannii qabxiiwwan asii gadii kana keessaa kamtu isa dhuga jettee yaadda? Sababa irra caalu filadhu. a)Sirna durbummaa xumuranii gara heerumaatti seenuu agarsiisa b)Amantitu ajaja

c)Kabaja Aadaaf kennamu agarsiisa

d)Durbummaa qabaatuu isii

ittiin hubatuuf 17. Akka Aadaa keesaniititti, durbi takka osoo hinkittaanamin heerumuu dandeessii? a) Ee

b) Lakki

18. Osoo hinkittaanamin yoo heerumte maal taati jettee yaadda? 19.Hawaasa keessan keessatti,Yeroo baay’ee dubartiin sirna kittaannii kana akkamitii ilaalti? a) haala gaariin ilaalti

b)haala badaan ilaalti

20. Namoonni durba kittaanan kuni meeshaan isaan ittiin fayyadaman maali? ____ 21.Dimshaaahumatti, kittaanniin fayyaa fi qaama dubartii irratti rakkinna ni fida jettee yaaddaa?

a) Ee ni fida

b) Lakki, womaa rakkinna hinqabu

22.Haala Fuudhaa fi Heerumaa keessaa, isin biratti kamtu bay’innaan beekama? a) Wolgara

b) Gabbara

c) Butiinsa d)Hundinuu bay’ee beekama

23.Durba butuun isin biratti jiraa? a) Ee nijira

b) Hinjiru

24.Durba butiinsi yoo jiraate, Aadaa keessanitti fudhatama qabaa? a) Ee

b) Lakki

25.Yeroo ammaa kana durba butuun isin biratti, hagam baay’ata? a) Bay’ee jira

b)nixiqqaata

c) bay’ee xiqqa

26. Isin biratti, sababni durba butaniif keessumanuu maali? a) yoo isiin bareeda taate

b) yoo maatiin isii qabeenna qabaate

c) Baasii cidhaaf bayu

hambisuuf d)yoo maatiin intalaa nama isii kadhate sani dhoowwate 27. Aadaa keessan keessatti durbi umrii xiqqeennaatti, fakkeennaaf woggaa 15 gaditti heerummun jiraa?

a) Ee nijira

b) hinjiru

28. Umrii jedhame kanaa gaditti heerumuun yoo jiraate, sababni isaa maali ? 29. Intalli takka heerumaaf yoo geesse, akka aadaa keessaniitti, nama itti heerumtu eennutu filaafi?

a) maatii isiiti b)ufumaa filatti

c) Hiriyyatu filaafi

30.Hawaasa keessan keessatti durbaa fi dhiira keessaa kamtu yowaan heerumaa akka deemu taasifama?

a) dhiira

133

b) durba

gara fuudhaa fi

Yaanni addaddaa kan haalaafi gocha dubartii illalutu asii gaditti tarraawee jira. Yaada kana keessatti wonti “Dhuga” ykn “Sirrii”ta’e hinjiru.Yaaduma isin kennitanitu sirriidha jedhamee fudhatama. Kanaafuu,yaada kana erga sirritti dubbiftanii hubattaniin booda deebii isin “sirri” jettanii amantan qofa filadhaa.Yaada hundumaafuu laakkofsi”1”irraa hanga “4”kennamee jira. Laakkofsi kunniin hiikkaa asii gaditti kenname qabu. Isinis haaluma kanaan, yaada kenname kanaaf, deebii ufii itti amantan, qajeela lakkofsa dalgatti tarreeffame jelatti mallttoo “X” godhuudhhaan deebisaa. “1” jechuun yaada kana baay’ee deeggara jechuu yoo ta’u,

2= ni deeggara, 3=ni morma, 4=Baay’ee morma,

jechuudha.

Qabxii Iskeelii Afuritti hirame La kk.

Yaada 1

1

Dhimmi dubartii dhimma dhiiraati

2

Uumamumaan dhiiraa fi dubartiin wolqixa.

3

Hawaasa keenna keessatti, dubartiin dhiira caalaa gocha miidhaa qabuuf saaxil baati.

4 5

Hawaasa keenna keessatti yeroo baay’ee durbi akka barattu osoo hinta’in akka heerumtu barbaadama. Mirgi dubartii mirga dhala nammati.

6 7

Durbi takka osoo hinkittaanamin heerumuu hinqabdu . Durba kittaanuun hafuu qaba.

8 9 10

Durba kittaanuun mirga dhala namaa, keessumaanuu kan dubartii dhiiba. Kittaannaan dubartii Aadaa keenna waan ta’eef baduu hinqabu. Durba kittaanuun fayyaa isaanii irratti rakkoo kan fidu yoo ta’u,keessumaanuu dhibee Eedsii itti fiduu danda’a. Ani gara kiyyaan ijoollee durbaa, yooqabaadhe, kittaanamuu isiiitti ni amana. Durba butuun gocha fudhatama hinqabne. Durba butuun Aadaa keenna waan ta’eef baduu hinqabu. Hawaasa keenna keessatti, dhiirti intala fuudhuuf Horii fi Qarshii baay’ee waan gaafatamaniif,haalli kuni butiinsa intalaatiif sababa ta’a. Aadaa keennatti intala butuun akka dalagaa gaariitti ilaalama. Durba butuun mirga intalaa dhiibuudha. Durbi takka yoomiyyuu umrii woggaa 15 gaditti heerumuu qabdi jedhee amana. Intala takka umrii xiqqeennaatiin heerumsiisuun, isii fi ijoollee isiin deessu irrattis rakkoo uuma jedhee amana.

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

19

Akka amantii keennaatti, durbi takka umrii woggaa 15 gaditti heerumuu qabdi.

20

Yeroo baay’ee sababni intala takka umrii xiqqeennaatti heerumsiisaniif, Horii fi Qarshii ittiin argatuufi.

2

3

Galatoomaa !

134

4

Appendix – D (English Version)

Addis Ababa University School of Graduate Studies Department of Educational Psychology A questionnaire to be completed by the Parents and the Girls-out-of Schools (Interview Formats: English Version)

Dear participants, the purpose of this study is to look at and investigate some major gender-related Traditional practices with especial focuses on Female circumcision, Abduction and Early marriage. To this effect your genuine cooperation in providing us with relevant information is highly acknowledged. Please notice that, 5) There is nothing “right” or “wrong” answer here and, rather what you respond is just regarded and taken as a correct answer. 6) No need of writing your name. 7) The information you give will be kept confidential. 8) For the multiple choices, choose the letter you think “correct” and for the openended items, give your own comment shortly.

1. The Socio- demographic Characteristics of the Respondents 1. Sex: a) male

b) female

2. Age: ____________ 3. Religion: a) Muslim 4. Marital Status

b) Orthodox Christian c) Other (Please Specify)______

a) married

5. Ethnicity a) Oromo

b) engaged but not yet married

c) Single

b) Ahmara c) Gurage d) Others, (Please mention) ______

6. Educational Status _______________________ 7. If you are married, do you have Children, 8. If you have children, how many?

a) Yes

b) No

a) Girls ____ b) boys _______

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2. Issues Related to Circumcision, Abduction and Early Marriage 9. Is there practice of female circumcision in your culture? a) Yes

B) No

10. If there is female circumcision, who operate it? ________________________ 11. Do you personally accept or reject the circumcision of females? a) Accept

b) reject

12. Have you undergone circumcision so far? a) Yes

b) No

13. If you were circumcised, would you please tell us the problem you faced? 14. In your culture, when do girls are being circumcised? ______________________ 15. In your opinion, what are the reasons for female circumcision? 16. Which of the following do you think is the major reason for female circumcision? a) a mark of transition from girl hood to womanhood b) religions demand c) respect for tradition

d) to check virginity

17. In your culture, can a girl get married before being circumcised? a) Yes

b) No

18. What if, she get married before passing through circumcision? _______________ 19. How do girls in your locality perceive female circumcision? a) Good b) Bad 20. What instruments are used for the operation of circumcision?_________________ 21. Do you think, in general that, female circumcision could have the health and physical effect? Yes

a)

b) No

22. Which type of marriage is the most common in your locality? Marriage by: a) Sister exchange

b) bride price c) abduction

23. Is there abduction in your community? a) Yes

d) all are common

b) No

24. If there is abduction, does your culture encourage it? a) Yes

b) No

25. To what extent does abduction occur here? a) very high b) low c) very low 26. Which of the following is the major reason for abduction in your locality? c) the beauty of the girl

c) to reduce wedding Ceremony

d) If her parents are rich

d) When the parents refuse to give their daughter

27. Do girls happen to get married at their early age, for example below 15? a) Yes

b) No

28. If the girls get married at their early age, why it happens so? ________________ 29. Who is responsible, in your culture, to choose a marital partner or husband, for a girl? a) Parents b) the girl herself

c) her friends

30. In your Society, is it boys or girls that are encouraged more to get married early? a) boys

b) girls

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These are twenty Statements below. For each of them, the possible answers range from 1 to 4. In other words, each of the statements has a four point-scale. Read thoroughly and choose the number of the correct answer that you want. The numbers have such a meaning that: 1 = Strongly agree 2 = agree 3= Disagree and, 4 = Strongly disagree. Four Point- Scale

Statements The issue of females is the males’ issue too. Inherently, males and females are equal.

In my own culture, girls are more vulnerable to harmful traditions than boys. ciety, girls are more encouraged to “marriage” than to “education”. The Rights of females is the Human Rights. A girl should not get married before being circumcised. Female circumcision should be eliminated. FGM violate the Human Rights of females. Being it is our tradition; Female circumcision should not be eliminated. FGM could result in health effects on girls, particularly Can cause HIV/AIDS. I Personally believe that my daughters (if any) should be circumcised. Abduction is an act to be condemned. Abduction is our tradition and, therefore, shouldn’t be avoided. The major reason for abduction is to reduce wedding expenses. Abduction is encouraged in our locality. Abduction violates the Human Rights of the girls. A girl should get married earlier than 15 years old. Early Marriage could have adverse effects, both on the girls and her children. As to our religion, a girl is supposed to get married before 15. Usually the major reason for early marriage is to get money either, in cash or in kind.

Thank You!

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Appendix-E: The key informants' Interview Guide:(Afan Oromo version)

Kaayyoon qorannaa kanaa waa'ee kittaannii ijoollee durbaa durba buttaa fi umrii malee heerumuu ijoollee durbaa irratti xiyyeeffata. Kanaafuu gaafiiwwan asii gadii kanniin irratti yaanni isin nuu kennitan cimina hojii kanaatiif bakka guddaa waan qabuuf, yaada isin nuu kennitaniif guddifnee isin galatoomfanna. Gaafiiwwan akkana jedhu:

1. Kittaanniin dubartii isin biratti jiraa? 2. Kittaanniin dubartii isin biratti yoo jiraate, yoom akka eegalee fi akkamitti akka eegale mee nuu addeessaa. 3. Akka aadaa keessaniitti sababni durba kittaananiif maal isinitti fakkaata? 4. Hawaasni sirna kittaannii kana akkamitti ilaala ykn amantii akkamii irraa qaba? 5. Yeroo baay'e umriin durbi itti kittaanamtu woggaa meeqa ta'a isinitti fakkaata? 6. Sirna kittaannii kana yeroo baayee eennutu raawwata? 7. Durba butuun isin biratti jiraa? 8. Durba butiinsi yoo jiraate, sababni isaa maali? 9. Akka Aadaa keessaniitti butiinsi ijoollee durbaa kuni akkamitti ilaalama? 10. Isin biratti yeroo baay'ee durbi umrii woggaa meeqatti heerumutu irraa eegala? 11. Abbaa worraa filatuu gayeen ijoollee durbaa maal akka ta'e mee nuu himaa. 12. Akka Aadaa keessaniitti, durbi umrii xiqqeennaatti, fkf, woggaa 15 gaditti heerumuun jiraa?

Galatoomaa

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Appendix-F: Key Informants' Interview Guide: (English version)

The purpose of this study is to investigate and understand issues related to female circumcision, abduction and early marriage. To this effect, the responses that you give us concerning these issues will help us to understand them and make this study meaningful. The information you give us will be kept confidential and we are very grateful for your cooperation.

1.Is there a practice of female circumcision in your locality? 2.If there is such a practice, would you please tell us when or how it has been started. 3.What do you think are the possible reason(s) for this practice? 4.What cultural and social beliefs are associated with this practice? 5.What is the relative age, at which a girl is supposed to get circumcised? 6. Who perform the circumcision of females in your community? 7. Is there marriage by abduction in your society and its culture? 8. What major reason(s) contribute to abduction in your society? 9. How does the society perceive the act of abducting a girl? 10. In your community, what is the relative age at which a girl gets married? 11. What is the role of a girl(s), in your community, to choose her own marriage partner by her own? 12.Do girls in your locality involve in marriage at their early age, for example, below 15 years of age?

Thank you very much!

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