2008-10-10

Politics and society in 19th century Europe October 10th Military anarchy in the Roman Empire in the middle of the 3rd century (235-284) => change in the political outlook -> Diocletianus (284-305) -territorial division was practiced and officialised -tetrarchy : 2 emperors & 2 associates (caesars) -the Byzantine form was institutionally articulated -the emperor was seen as the head of the structure; The Senate invested with significant powers consuls - had a word to say; monarchy = The Principality (Augustus) -Diocletianus invented the Dominate - the emperor ruled as an absolute monarch, while his divine aura was threatened -Constantine the Great - 306 - East - abolished the tetrarchy in 324; 337 - the end and was important for further articulating the system of absolute monarchy, while shifting the center of Roman power to the East. 330 - founded the second Roman capital: Constantinopole. -Roman Empire - irretrievable crisis after 375 - great migration of the nomadic peoples started The triggering event of the great migration = the great attack of the Huns against Ostrogots which were settled at the time at the North of the Black Sea (Ucrainian plain) -Theodosius, 379 - 395; his death marked the definitive division of the Roman Empire -The City of Rome - 410 - conquered by Visigoths under Alaric, and the Western Roman Empire never recovered -476 - the last emperor was deposed by Odoacer (Germanic barbaric king) and the insignias of power were sent to Constantinopole -Germanics = represnatives of the Roman Empire with the throne in Constantinopole -30 - begginings of Christianity (crucification) - 49-50 - Christianity departed from Judaism - the Council of Apostles in Jerusalem entrusted the apostles with missionarism outside the Jewish community, mostly Greece. -the separation was further underscored after 66-73 - the Jewish community attempted a military revolt in which Christians refused to take part against the Roman Empire. -The Christian religion and church were crystalized by a succession of struggles with various religious disidencies/heresies (gnosticism, arianism, nestorianism, monophycism, iconoclasm) -Arianism, initiated in 300 by Arius, differed from Orthodoxy by denying the doctrine of the Holy Trinity - diminished the divinity of Christ. -Some branches of Christianity took separate paths in subtle matters of dogma and ritual => Armenian, Coptic, Jacobite, Ethiopian Churches -Orthodoxy in Rome (centered) took shape in the same period by the means of a series of ecclesiastic councils, each being summoned in order to condemn a type of heresy (335 - 869 - Ecumenic Councils) -869 - 8th council (4th of Constantinopole) - a division between the Eastern and Western branches occured over an arti - cle of the Christian dogma about filioque = how the Holy Spirit was conceived to act; the council was followed by other struggles which led to the Gread Division in 1045 - mutual excomunication (which ended with the second Council of Vatican in 1965)

-The relationship between the State and the Church - transformations marked by persecutions - then tolerance - ending in the adoption of Christianity as single and official religion of the Roman state -Two subsequent edicts of toleration: 260 (Galliemus), 313(Constantine the Great) - the Edict of Milan = officialization. -Christianity had already been officially adopted by the kingdom of Armenia in 301 -In the Roman Empire, Christianity has been officially adopted under Theodosius in 391 => state religion -The Church was organised in 5 Patriarchail seats: Alexandria, Jerusalem, Antiohia, Rome, Constantinopole -St. Augustine lived in Africa (intense romanization) between 354 - 430 -The ecclesiastic structure (bishops and patriarchs) was to be accompanied by a parallel monastic structure, which consisted of monastc orders; first order: The Benedictines, founded in 629 by Benedict of Nursia. -476 - No Empire in the West, survival in the East (for 1000 years) -6th century - important reversal of this framework took place - Justinian conquered Italy from the Ostrogoths + the largest part of North Africa from the Vandals. -Reign of Justinian: 527-565; this interlude of Byzantine power in Rome => a new conquest by Germans: Longobards, second half of the 6th century, after Justinian -The Medieval period was congruent with the Byzantine Empire -The Mediterranean Basin was sharply divided into ares of civilisation => contacts and exchanges Areas: -Byzantine Empire -The Medieval West -The Islamic World -Kiev and Russia Catholic West - 4 periods: 1) Early Middle Ages - the Merovingian Era (5th-8th century) 2) The Carolingian Era (9th - 10th century) 3) Classical Middle Ages (11th - 13th century) 4) Late Middle Ages (14th - 15th century) 1) The Merovingian Era -no stable state stryctyre existed - Barbarian Germanic Kingdoms of fluid territorial structure -the Patrimonial Conception of Monarchic Rule: -no distinction between the public and the private domain of the king => kingdom in the patrimony of the ruler -the officials = servants of the ruler (administrators of a private domain) -division towards male offsprings -stable and continuing institutional structure: the Church - Papacy = the real inheritor of the Roman Empire (1651, Leviathan: "the Pope stood on the throne of the caesars") 2) The Carolingian Era -restauration of the Empire in the West - Charles the Great (800); Otto the Saxon (962) = the first ruler of the Holy Roman Empire of German nation. -political fragmentation by feudalism diminishing the Carolingian Empire -feudalism -> ruler = the first among equals

-regalian powers: -to make law -to enforce law (army) -to administer law (justice) -Weber: the state as the sole administrator of violence -feudalism as a result of lack of protection in front of the last wave of migrators: Vikings, Sarrazins, Hungarians -economic decrease, atrophy: a) urban life disappeared b) disarticulation of commercial roots c) self-sufficient (subsistence) economy - trade with luxury items. 3) The Classical Middle Ages -rapid economy growth -reurbanization of the West -increase in population -greater productivity of agricultural economy -gradual recentralization of the political units -the golden age of the conflict between Papacy and the Empire -cultural style -> chivalresque culture -expanstion of Christianity through crusades 4) Late Middle Ages -crisis => cultural edifices faded away -J.Burkhardt, J. Huizinga - Amurgul Evului Mediu -great incongruence between forces of production and population -decline in population (malthusiam adjustment): The Great Bubonic Plague, The Hundred Years War -the Great Schism within the Catholic Church -the structure of the Papacy - Leo the first (1440 - 1461) firmly asserted the principle of the supremacy of the holy see of Rome over the others. -privileged relationship between Francs and the Papacy -Francs - 1499 - Clovis was baptized -Other Germanic peoples - Arianism (Goths, Lombards) The Church: -own sources of revenue - after the Synod of Macon in 585 -pope Gregory the Great (died in 604) - structure of episcopates and institute the rules of monastic life & Papal state as a separate political unit - Patrimony of St. Peter by a fake document, "The Donation of Constantine". -Merovingian dinasty of Clovis evolved => the emergence of a new parallel dinasty whose members were mayors of the palace - Carolingians; they put down the Merovingians and placed themselves on the throne - Pepin the Short; -751 - alliance between Carolingians and the Papacy against Lombards: the Papacy needed defence, the Carolingians needed legitimacy => exchange. Two episodes: 1)756 - Pepinian donation - Papal state was constituted 2)800 - Chares the Great was crowned as emperor by Pope Leo the third -Treaty of Verdun - empire divided: a) Western segment - Charles the Bald - future kingdom of France b) Eastern segment - Luis the Pious - future kingdom of Germany c) Lothard, son of Luis, inheritor => Lotharingia (vanished later) -The Empire of the West - reconstructed the second time through inheritors of Luis;

-King Otto the Saxon - political legitimacy after defeating the Hungarians in 951 at Augsburg (emperor from 962) -A great declin of the church - cultural crisis