1.why Study The 1960s

A Sixties Social Revolution? British Society, 1959-1975 Lesson 1

Why study History? Why the 1960s? LO: To explain why History is important To identify the contribution of Social History

History students don’t just become archaeologists and professional historians. History graduates have successful careers in media, marketing, advertising, journalism, government, the civil service, the law, and business… So why study History?

Make a list of the benefits of studying history with the person sitting next to you Now join with another pair. Compare your lists. Add any good suggestions to your list Is it possible to categorise the reasons? See if you can divide them into groups Pick your best three reasons and be prepared to feed back to the class

Trains your mind and teaches you how to think and process information

Knowledge of the world

Transferable skills

An opportunity to develop informed attitudes on current and previous events and issues

Provides the skills needed for working effectively with others and for problem solving Helps to widen students' experience and develop qualities of perception and judgement

Promotes understanding between cultures and between national traditions

Helps you understand the origins of modern political and social problems

Aids study skills such as essay writing, note taking and discussion that will benefit you in other subjects as well

a lack of historical knowledge prevents people from truly understanding the world they live in

Historians can work alone, are ideasorientated and develop a sceptical and questioning approach to evidence

Why Study History? Helps to look beyond the headlines, to ask questions properly, and to express your own opinions

Inculcates critical yet tolerant personal values

Helps to develop skills such as analysis, evaluation and argument- the key skills employers are looking for

Defending your opinions in discussions will help to develop your self confidence

Personal Growth

An ability to analyse material and present conclusions objectively is appreciated by a diverse range of employers

Of subject degrees held by the directors of the top 100 British companies, History is ranked 4th

History students are rounded individuals who develop an understanding of both past and present

Career Prospects

What is Social History? Social history is an area of historical study, considered by some to be a social science, that attempts to view historical evidence from the point of view of developing social trends and ways of life. It is often described as 'history from below' or 'Grass- roots history' because it deals with the every-day people, the masses, and how they shape History rather than the leaders. It is concerned with processes and patterns more than with events and is often difficult to interpret or explain.

“The closer social historians get to their own times the more difficult it is for them to be sure that they have grasped what is essential about their period. This is largely a matter of vantage point. Some essential features of the pattern may not yet be visible.” Asa Briggs (1983)

Background to the 60s- A Timeline Colour according to categories of change: Red= political, Black= economic, Blue= social, Green= international/place in the world

1950

1951

1952

February Labour government is reelected

Bevan resigns from Labour cabinet over introduction of charges in the NHS. Labour Party is split. Conservative govt, is elected

6 February Elizabeth II becomes queen 4 October Britain successfully explodes its first atomic bomb

Iron and steel industries are denationalised

1955

1956

1957

1958

Harold Macmillan replaces Anthony Eden as Conservative PM

CND is founded

Eden becomes PM. Conservatives win general election ITV, a second and independent commercial TV channel is launched

Suez Crisis reveals Britain’s limited world status John Osborne’s play Look Back in Anger symbolises attack of “Angry Young Men” on the Establishment

Macmillan’s “Never had it so good” speech

1953

Race riots in Notting Hill, London

1954 July End of food rationing Opening of the first purpose-built Comprehensive school

1960 Compulsory National service ends Production of the Contraceptive Pill

Background to the 60s- A Timeline Colour according to categories of change: Red= political, Black= economic, Blue= social, Green= international/place in the world

1950

1951

1952

February Labour government is reelected

Bevan resigns from Labour cabinet over introduction of charges in the NHS. Labour Party is split. Conservative govt, is elected

6 February Elizabeth II becomes queen 4 October Britain successfully explodes its first atomic bomb

Iron and steel industries are denationalised

1955

1956

1957

1958

Harold Macmillan replaces Anthony Eden as Conservative PM

CND is founded

Eden becomes PM. Conservatives win general election ITV, a second and independent commercial TV channel is launched

Suez Crisis reveals Britain’s limited world status John Osborne’s play Look Back in Anger symbolises attack of “Angry Young Men” on the Establishment

Macmillan’s “Never had it so good speech”

1953

Race riots in Notting Hill, London

1954 July End of food rationing Opening of the first purpose-built Comprehensive school

1960 Compulsory National service ends Production of the Contraceptive Pill

What do you think of when somebody mentions the 1960s?

Discussion Were the 60s really ‘Swinging’? • “An era of psychic liberation” • “embalmed in retrospect with memories of Carnaby Street and the Beatles”

Activity Create a poster which can act as a cover page for your notes. Include some of the images and events you associate with the 1960s

Consumer culture Consumer culture of the Beatles, Mary Quant and Carnaby street giving notions of “Swinging London” (In line with rest of Europe) Britain enjoyed high growth rates: Economic boom, low inflation, low u/e 1-2%, encouraged stability- raised standards of living Scientific advances- spread of penicillin, better understanding of nutrition Women emerged from traditional role to enjoy new opportunities in service industries Numbers in higher education doubled New supermarkets with self service, new urban shopping centres, television replacing “steam radio”, credit cards, Mary Quant’s first shop BBC lost its monopoly in 1955- between 1956 and 1960 no. of tv licenses doubled, Steady growth of TV created a common culture From 1955-60 proportion of population using refrigerators rose from 6-16%; Washing Machines from 2544%, Owning a motor car 18-32%, Houses became warmer inside as a result of the development of central heating Innovations eased mundane tasks- more leisure time 1958 opening of the Preston Bypass heralded a new age of motoring for the masses Cars transformed urban communities- new roads ran riot through the country side Slum clearance and provision of new housing often in tower blocks altered cities Perhaps to escape such surroundings increasing numbers took holidays abroad Changes in outlook Ferdinand Zweig (Sociologist) discerned a “deep transformation of values” By late 1950s talk of “youth culture” increasingly common- 16-21 age group have more disposable income There were changes in attitudes, behaviour and outlook. Growth of youth culture, emancipation of women- spread of feminism, collapse of Christian moral framework- spread of drugs and sexual liberation. Young people experienced a collective wealth unknown before- and found a new identity 1968- student protests against Vietnam in Grosvenor square – Musical “Hair” on London stage celebrating sex, drugs, and nudity (same year as Powell’s Rivers of Blood speech) Disappearance of “old fashioned” manners and unwritten rules about acceptable behaviour and lifestyles

Sexual freedom encouraged by the new contraceptive pill Advent of mini-skirt, jeans, and the pill accompanied by a challenge to many established institutions In 1960 TWTWTW introduced barbed satire In the era of mass media, scandals like the Profumo Affair of 1963 could no longer be hushed up “Swinging London” so christened by Time Magazine in 1966 appeared as a monument to self indulgence and free expression by the young New clothing, fashion and cosmetics were outre and daring- Carnaby Street and Kings Road in Chelsea became the new mecca for the youthful consumer, with designers such as Mary Quant as the new idols. The much cherished miniskirt was an omnipresent symbol of sexual liberation. The bisexual mods and the sadomasochistic masculine rockers also predominated. Pop culture reached new heights in the astonishing success of the Beatles and Rolling Stones. Everywhere there seemed to be experiment in lifestyle, including the use of (usually soft) drugs There were disciples of the San Francisco guru of “flower power” drug culture, Timothy Leary, advocating the philosophy, “turn on, tune in, drop out” The mood spread to the Football field where new cult hero George Best exemplified values totally different from the modest ill-paid artisans of the recent past Patterns of authority in society were changing- in schools/universities students asserted their claims, in hospitals and railways matrons and stationmasters no longer ran their little empires. Football referees were suspect as were the police. At the personal level the sixties were momentous- Victorian sacred cows were slaughtered wholesalerelics of sexual puritanism and sabbatarianism- unquestioning civil conformism, mindless patriotism- class, gender, regional stereotypes- An era of psychic liberation Government Reforms Wilson/ Heath from lower-middleclass backgrounds broke the tradition of aristocratic governance Brought forth a stream of liberalising legislation- relaxing censorship, decriminalising homosexuality, legalising abortion and providing equal pay for women. Through 1960s parliament initiated humanitarian and egalitarian measures which marked a change in attitudes to morality- Suicide, Homosexuality, Abortion, Contraception, Divorce, Gambling etc – Freeing people from restraints

Harold Wilson’s Labour party appealed to the sense of alienation felt amongst the intelligentsia, the media and the young Their record of domestic reform was considerable- public building projects- defining legacy was the spread of comprehensive secondary education A remarkable innovation was the open university- marked a dramatic breakthrough towards lifelong learning for ordinary citizens- eg housewives In 1969 James Callaghan (home sec) forced through the permanent abolition of hanging. Reform of the laws on homosexuality also succeeded- again with the support of the government Womens groups also hailed the passage of the legalisation of abortion in 1967 Wilson’s govt presided over these movements with bemusement but realised there was mileage to be gained in benign encouragement of the cult of youth England and the labour govt seemed to march side by side in these advances in cultural self expression (well the young urban middle class at least) The ending of empire “east of Suez” was correct and long overdue- Even the trauma of devaluing the pound had merit in replacing old economic shiboleths (full employment and price control) with new forms of management reflecting changes in the global economy Impetus was given to social mobility, educational opportunity and publicly funded artistic experiment Maybe “revolution” is too strong a term; not as cataclysmic as Orwell’s predictions of 1940 (Only revolution can save England)- But there were changes- those born just before 1960s had different lives than the generation before Perhaps the revolution was averted by the Labour welfare reforms of the late 1940s- poverty and social divisions were lessened Economic freedom bred social freedom- in legislating to enshrine such in law- the government was responding to changes that had already taken place

Problems “Whats wrong with Britain?” asked a series of Penguin specials 1962-3: Anthony Hartley’s A State of England (1963) spoke of a sense of frustration in English society In “Encounter” magazine Arthur Koestler wrote of the suicide of a nation- today this seems extraordinary- 60s are embalmed in retrospect with memories of swinging London The cheerful hedonism of the late 50s, of Macmillan claiming, “You’ve never had it so good”, gave way to deepening uncertainty. Rate of economic growth 1950-1970 was ½ to 3/5ths of that of other industrialised countries Decline in numbers employed in industry by 12% 1965-75 1961 opinion poll showed pessimism- belief that other countries were doing better- Britain was falling behind International survey by OEEC showed an old country lagging behind its European neighbours in productivity and investment Michael Shanks’ The Stagnant Society (1963) exposed a lack of dynamism and modernisation in the economy There was social imbalance too- deep structural divisions/ an entrenched class system Saturday Night and Sunday Morning, A taste of Honey exposed the gritty realities of traditional working class life

Anthony Sampson’s Anatomy of Britain (1962) examined a wide range of institutions run by a tiny group of public school/Oxbridge “top people”. By 1963-4 there was a palpable sense of National disenchantment- Britains historic greatness was fragile By summer 1964- faced with a massive deficit the govt had to deny they would devalue the pound- which they eventually did in 1967 Similar indirection in foreign policy- alliance with US thrown into disarray by Suez in 1956. In 62 US Defence Sec. McNamara withdrew funding for the Skybolt missile defence system- revealing the stark fact of our dependence on America for protection “ Forced to exchange illusions of world power for a blunted recognition of its limitations” When de Gaulle vetoed entry to the Common Market in January 1963 it created a feeling of isolationWilsons attempt to join the EEC left international relations in limbo, dangling between a patronising America and a dismissive Europe – the Commonwealth provided no kind of alternative Dean Acheson (former Sec of State) “Britain had lost an Empire, but had yet to find a role” Decision to withdraw from East of Suez was a decision with historic consequences- no longer would colonial bases be maintained across the world- Empire had ended with a whimper The spectacle of remorseless colonial withdrawal, accompanied nevertheless by continued expensive defence commitments “east of Suez” was damaging to the National psyche, and the sense of being a great power

For all the excitement sixties England was not a happy land Beneath the surface of the consumer-led society, the social and economic problems of the early years of the decade were everpresent The nadir of Labour’s economic difficulties came in the third week of June 1966. There was a huge fall in the reserves and exchange rate of sterling which followed a damaging Seamen’s strike. A new low was reached with the devaluation of the pound on November 18 1967- from $2.80 to $2.40- In a tv broadcast delivered at the moment of crisis he told the nation “the pound in your pocket” would not be devalued- its very untruthfulness made it a personal disaster Jenkins replaced Callaghan as Chancellor – his first budget took £923 million out of the economy-for people facing a credit squeeze and severe cuts in foreign exchange for overseas holidays it was severe Decolonisation and economic prosperity brought an inflow of immigrants- new food and music but also new tensions entered British society. Race relations loomed large after the massive commonwealth immigration of the fifties- the flames were fanned by maverick Tory MP Enoch Powell- there were marches by east end dockers in support of his racist message Limits to change Hitherto the rebelliousness of youth had been confined to cultural or moral themes but in the late sixties became political- ie anti Vietnam- but the authorities coped quite effectively The government easily dismissed an attempt to legalise cannabis Onslaughts on family life, neighbourhood values and respected institutions had gone too far- Callaghan knew that the traditional grassroots English working class liked student revolt no more than the rural Tory of the shires- older working classes were resistant to permissiveness- public opinion strongly supported the rope and locking up queers Even young people were not in the main politically or culturally militant- they were more concerned with their job prospects

In 1970 election most students who voted, voted Conservative- as did women The contraceptive pill appears to have been used by only 9% of single women in 1970 Aspects of England in the 60s hardly changed at all overcentralised parliament, crude adversarialism of industrial relations, entrenched corporatism, them and us- despite all the excitement the process of change was limited Macmillan, the all-powerful Supermac of cartoonists in the late fifties now looked like a survivor from the Edwardian Grouse Moors- He was ridiculed mercilessly in Beyond the Fringe, TW3, Private Eye etc Measures to liberate women made slow progress- it was only in 1970 that The Female Eunuch was to appear When the Latey Committee on The Age of Majority recommended in 1967 that the voting age should be reduced from 21 to 18 its authors pointed to the conformity of the younger generation In the same year after a Rolling Stone was imprisoned on drugs charges an opinion poll showed 85% of teenagers agreed with the sentence or thought it too lenient Hippies and flower people who turned to a psychedelic counter culture were a small middle class minority Measures brought in by the government were essentially conservative. Due to qualifications and limitations in practice- the social legislation of the 1960s increasingly failed to satisfy militant minorities who wanted to press their claims further Traditional class divisions and attitudes remained strong- public school educated elite unchanged No major political upheaval- developments a continuation of changes heralded in the 1950s 1960s saw both change and continuity- old social structures were never destroyed- there was a huge diversity of individual experience