08_chapter3.pdf

CHAPTER 3 SURVEY OF RELAlED LITERATURE

The i n f l u e n c e o f c o u n s e l l i n y o r a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t h ~ bs? e n t h e of research s t u d i e s for long a l l over t h e

w~~rld. A

number o f t h e s e s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n on u n d e r a c h i e v e r s

e:;pxielly

subject large on

matter

the

r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e non-cognitive factors;

achievement. the

ant1

a-ad~lmic

As r e g a r d s t h e s t u d i e s on c o u n s e l l i n g t h t ? l o w - a ~ : h i e \ l ~ , r s ,

r e s e a r c h e r , i n s p i t e o f a w i d e s e a r c h , c o u l d come a c r o s s

~nl.) a

few. S i n c e some o f t h e l o w - a c h i e v e r s a r e i d e ~ t i f i e da s u n d e ~ a c h i e v ~ r s , s t u d i e s on u n d e r a c h i e v e r s are a l s o ~ x a m i n e d . In done

t h i s chapter a g e n e r a l and r a p i d survey o f t h e exploring

the

c o u n s e l l i n g i s made. present

study.

insights picture

to of

complex

factors

involved

and

T h i s p r o v i d e s t h e background and c o n t ~ x l : t o

the

problems i d e r t i f i e d

and

area.

enable further scrutiry i n t h e the

in

311.6.ady

guicla~ic?

An a t t e m p t i s made t o g a t h e r up

all

work

in

c l a ~ i ' y 1,heir I\

these

conlp::eieris.ive studje:;

is

an

imperative f o r f u r t h e r research.

3.1.0.

Guidance and counselling This

sectlon

g i v e s q u i t e a ncmber o f g u i d a n c e

end

a r e c o n d u c t e d i n view o f h e l p i n g t h e

programmes

which

achievers

overcome

their

diffic~lties.

They

are

c o ~ ~ n ; e l i. nl g lov,

acadr:mic

reF,ort?d

in

considerable

details.

The f o c u s i s on t h e e f f e c t

of

(311idsnce and

c o u n s e l l i n g on t h e l o w - a c h i e v e r s .

3.1.1.

The e f f e c t o f g u i d a n c e a n d c o u n s e l l i n g o n l o w - a o h i e b e r s

Marjorie counselling students She

programme

out

treatment

upon

the

effect

low-achieving

of

an

extendec.

College

twelfth

grade

Hispanic:

t h r e e Los A n g e l e s U n i f i e d Sctiool D i s t r i c t

in

found

~ u n k e r l studied

given

that

an

extended

or

special

High S c h ~ ~ o l s .

college

t o a p o p u l a t i o n of a c a d e n ~ i c a l l y low

co~nsellinq

achieving

12th

g r a d e H i s p a n i c student:^ c a n i n f l u e n c e t h e i r d e c i s i o n t o co:?tirlue t h e i r e d u c a t i o n beyond t h e 1 2 t P g r a d e .

.

Mary Lee ~ i l l i a m s "compared t h e e f f e c t s o f t u t o r i n g c ~ ~ m b i n ewd i t h

counselling loth

on a c h i e v e m e n t , s e l f - e s t e e m ,

n i o t i v a t i o n and a t t i t u d e ;

g r a d e s i n 'Remedial Mathematics C l a s r t e s ' and found o ~ t th a t

t u t o r i n g combined w i t h c o u n s e l l i n g would be more e f f e c t i v e t h a n tutoring to

alone.

increase

Her c o n c l u s i o n s was t h a t s t u d e n t s c a n be

t h e i r academic achievement

through

in

need o f h i g h e r s e l f ' - e s t e e m , g r - a t e r mof:ivation and

the Aass

ir~flusnced

counse.lling.

s p e c i f i c and d i r e c t e d e f f o r t s were recommended f o c u s s i n g

of

More

111 i n d i v i d u a l

mote

positike

attitudes.

0. A . 5chmieding3 u n d e r t o o k an i n v e s t : ? g a t i o n f o r d e t e r n i r t i n q e f f i c i e n c y o f c o u n s e l l i n g and g u i d a n c e p r o c e d u r e s w i t h f a i l i n ! ]

the

Junior

h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s and found o u t t h a t t h e c o u n s e l l i n g r e s t N e d i n :

1.

Higher academic achievement arlong f a i l i n g s t u d e r ~ t sas

deterrained

by semester grade p o i n t averaqe.

2.

Counselling

was

achievement

among

equally

c?ffective

in

s t u d e n t s " a i l i n g i n one

improvirl~g academic:

acs~jemic

ccursa

as

c o n t r a s t e d w i t h those f a i l i n g i n more than one.

3.

The number o f problems r e p o r t e d by t h e c o u n s e l l e d grrldp was

less

than those by t h e uncounselled group.

Dosajh

N.

I.

and

tsharma

4

e x ~ l o r e dt h e

c o u n s e l l i n g o n academic achievement.

impact

of

g ~ i t l a n c ea r d

bout

What was c o n s p i c u o u i

i s t h a t i t i n v o l v e d o n l y a s m a l l nunber o f 46 s t u d e n t s b u t

study

programme

was

intense

with a variety

o'

activities,

namt:ly,

this the the

e x p e r i m e n t a l group was g i v e n c o n s t a n t c a r e e r t a l k s , c a r e e r f : x l ~ i t i t i o r i , career v i s i t s and i n t e n s i v e c o u n s e l l i n g . Changes i n t.he ach:.e./enient o f e x p e r i m e n t a l group was a s q r i b e d t o c o u n s e l l i n g and guidance p:ogrammf?.

Ann

Carns

and M i c h a e l Carns

5

design-d

and

presented

study s k i l l s approach t o improve scademic achievement: i n students

by i n c r e a s i n g s e l f - e f f i c a c y

and awareness

of

guidance

intsrmc!dia:e n~e:a=ogr~iti'~e

s k i l l s , l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g i e s and 1c:arning s t y l e i n f o r m a t i o r i .

Fir~dinqs

from 1118 f o u r t h g r a d e r s showed t h a t p a r t i c i p a n t s malie imllr~vemc?rit i n a l l C a l i f o r n i a Test o f B a s i c s k i l l s sub t e s t s g r e a t e r thari # h a t

would

be

expected from t h e elapsed t i m e .

study

is

that

the

approach. theory w i l l

of

achievement

What i s s p e c i a l about t h i s

prob11:m was

tackled

using

Here t h e c o u n s e l l o r mirjht have f o l l o w e d t h e c o u n s e l l i r i g which say!; t h a t any change :In

r e s u l t i n changes i n t h e consequenct:.

;he

illdirect

B~?ha~iou:ists' th?

I n other w o r k ,

precdence in-.rease

in

the

study s k i l l s r e s u l t e d i n increase

Guidance

and

counselling

was t h e

in

acaden~ic achi~?verrent.

stimuLating

fact.or.

In

short,

c h a n g e s w e r e b r o u g h t a b o u t m a i n l y by c h a n g i ~ i gt h e l e a r n i n g mt:tliocls ant1 learning style. The

comprehensive g u i d a n c e and c o u n s e l l i n g

conceptual

framework

for the delivery of

guidance

and

s e r v i c e s f o r a l l s t u d e n t s i n g r a d e s K-12 k n ~ w na s CGCF' for

the

Montgomery

county

to

integrate the various facts

intellectual, student (2)

Career a n d e d u c a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g

development

as

defined

terms

a

st.udent. of'

the

individual

planning,

programme

report.

individual

school needs.

as

of

s o c i a l , p h y s i c a l and e m o t i o n a l .

development i n t h r e e major a r e a s :

in

3ublic

wa:

performance abilities

of

orgarised

s c h o o l s (IICJS)

t

in

d~v~?l~prnent-.-

The CGCP

responsive

time

f'o~:usserl

Academic

components:

counselling allocations

and

group

were

was

gui~jance, anj

!;c:hool

detmrnined

The e x p e c t e d s t u d e n t o u t c o m e s rrt:r:

a s p e c i a l e m p h a s i s programme f o r

social

t b ~ e ~CGCP

services

on

a1:hievc:rnen-t

(3) Personal

The c o u n s e l l o r ' s r o l e i n follorring

Actual

(1)

student

t h e improvement o f t h e a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t o f a l l

implementing

c~)uisellinq

The programme was d e v e l o p m e n t a l i n n a t ~ r e a n d

R o c k v i l l e s , Mary Land. attempted

(Mary L a n d )

(CGCFI--a

programme

by

dei'ined

s t . ~ ~ d e n t s ,t h e

improvcd

academic

a n d e x t r a - c u r r i c u l a r p a r t i c i p ~ t i o no f m j i o r i t . : ~ s t u d t : n t l s to

become i n d e p e n d e n t . e a r n e r s , r e s p o n s i b l e

e f f e c t i v e g r o u p members.

c:rtizens

What was r e m a r k a t ~ l ea b o u t t . h i s [).:ogramn~:

and is

t h a t t h e p r i o r i t i e s a n d g o a l s o f t h e CGCP r 8 e r e a s h a r e d r a ~ i p o r s i b i l i t y of

counsellors, teachers, adminis:rators,

o u t c o m e s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y p o s i t i , / e .

s t u d e n t s and p a r e n t s .

The

H.

Marsh

and

R i c h a r d s G.'

d e s i g n e d arl o u t w a r d

sound

b~idging

c o u r s e , which was a s i x - w e e k r e s i d e n ~ i a lproqramme t o i m p r o v - a r : a d e n i c achievement

and

self-concepts i n low-achieving

high

scho2l

malzs.

D u r i n g 1980-1984, f i v e c : o u t s e s w e r e c o n d u c t e d f o r s i x t y - s i x k s t r a l i a n high school males. the

basis

Most o f them w e r s n i n t h g r a d e s t u d e n t s , : t o s e n

o f p o o r a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e . Afl:er

the f i r s t

twc

on

years,

s t a n d a r d i z e d m a t h e m a t i c s a n d r e a d i n g t e s t s , t:he s e l f - e s t e e m i r s t : r u m e n t (SEI)

and

before,

self-description, questionnaire

d u r i n g and a f t e r e a c h c o u r s e .

were

(SDO)

admjn~stered

The programme was f o u n d t o

be

e f f e c t i v e i n improving academic achievement and academic s e l f - c o n c e p t . The s c h o o l w i t h i n low-achievers

improve

8 s c h o o l (SWAS) progr.3mme was clesignetl

;I

t h e i r academic achiegement.

This

examined f i v e programme a s p e c t s : ( 1 ) I m p l e m e i t a t i o n ,

(3) Self-concept,

help

-20

evaluation

( 2 ) Ach..e/eni~nt,

( 4 ) P e r c e p t i o n s c f s t u d e n t s , t e a c h e r s , cco::dinat o r s

and p r i n c i p a l s , and ( 5 ) S t u d e n t a t t e n d a n c e . individual

instruction

evaluation.

The r e s u l t s showed t h a t . , f o r t h e most p a r t , st11dl:nt.s were

attentive low. on

to

were

of

S t u d e n t - t e a m 1ea::ning a n d

particular

l e a r n i n s a c t i v i t i e s and d i s c i p l i n e

interest

for

t.his

i n t ~ : r r u p t . i ~ n s were

The SWAS s t u d e n t s h a d h i g h e r s c o r e s t h a n t h e c o m p a r i s t l n s t u ~ j t ! n t s

It

t h e t e s t s o f a c h i e v e m e n t and p r o f i c i e n c y r e a d i n g t e s t .

he..ped

t h e s t u d e n t s d e v e l o p a b e t t e r o u t l o c ~ kon t h e l e a r n i n g proce:js a n d n a k e some was

p r o g r e s s t o w a r d s o v e r c o m i n g t h e i r acac:emic particularly

posrtive

about

t h e SWA:

defi-iencies.

programme

students

l i k e d t h e pel-sonal a t t e n t t o n t h a t t h e y r e c e i v e d

teachers.

T h i s was p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e o f t h e s m a l l c l a s s

is

ttat

What the

froni

their

sire.

lhis

programme

have been s t i l l more e f f ' e c t i v e i f t h e

would

;tuclent;

had

i n d i v i d u a l c o u n s e l l i n g and person.31 a s s e s s m e n t s o f t h e i r ; t r ~ ! n g t i sand weaknesses. Mary

L.

programme

F.'s

for

9

report describes a

model

academic

18 T h i r d G r a d e r s w i t h low-.achievement.

in~prodement Iata

from

a

q u e s t i o n n a i r e f i l l e d out. by f o u r t e a c h e r s and from o b s e r v a t i c ~ n s 3y t h e t e a c h e r s r e v e a l e d t h a t s t u d e n t t a r g e t e d f u r t h e programme c e n l o n s t r a t e d low

l e a r n i n g r e a d i n e m s k i l l s , which r e s u l t e d i n l e s s t h a n

behaviour,

study

enhance

performance

implemented.

The

in

these

In

performance.

areas,

a

programme i n c l u d e d t h e

10-week (1)

ord?r

prj3gramme

Asaertiv?

to was

discipline

i n which t e a c h e r s r e c e i v e d t r a i n i n g c o n c e r n i n . 3 c l i s c i p l i n e

programme competence,

(2)

excellence

Growth

Roll

s k - ~ l l s , and academic

desirable

Programme.'

study-skills plan

enhancement

plan,

(3)

and

which i n c l u d e d t.he ' B r i n g up

1;racies

S t u d e n t ' s p r o g r e s s a f t e r 10 weeks was

q u e s t i o n n a i r e s F i l l e d o u t by t e a c h e r s .

Ac3defiic Honor

ass,ess?d

Rc!sults i n d i c a t e d a

by

decreased

number o f b e h a v i o u r problems, i n c r e a s e d l e a r n i n g r e a d i n e s s s l . : i l l s

and

improved academic perf'ormance. Roberta Instructional school

J.

Support

students

teacher

Programme

a t Washington.

a

assignments,

counselling,

Bilingual

f o r one hundred

and

and

developing

reading

p a r e i t involvement

and

high

~ n eresource ~ s s i s t s d in

s t ~ c y s
!jtaff were

kfainstream

seventy

The l a t t e r

o u t r e a c h and t r a n s l a t i n g s e r v i c e s .

development

EHL

T h i s was c o n d u c t e d by

and t h r e e i n s t r u c t i o n a l a s s i s t a n t s .

completing

materials

and o t h e r s 1 ° r e p o r t e d

c e\~elopmer~t,

a.Lsc

important

aspects of t h e programme. implementation examining

and

The e v d u a t i o n l o o k e d a t b o t h t t e pro3rarr.me

s t u d e n t outct~mes. The l a t t e r

students'

academic

success

and

were

other

me~lsur2d b y

indications

of

s u c c e s s f u l p r o g r e s s toward g r a d u a t i o n such as attendance r a t ~ , s , grade point

averages, and c r e d i t s toward g r a d u a t i o n .

statistically test for

signif.lcant

effect

i n rai:;ing

The progczmnle had students'

stcindardised

scores, grades o r a t t e n d a n c r a t e s when compared w.itb l i k e i n a s i m i l a r b u t unserved c:omparisons

students

narrative

data

indicators

administration

suggested

and

teacher

grojp.

responses,

t h a t t h e programme had a

no

data

Hodever,

ar~d

significmt

other

positive

imoact.

conducted regular Junior

in

Washington

( D i s t r i c t o f Columbia)

High Schools.

support

delivering

improving

the

counsellor, results

social

school

in

services

atmosphere.

guidance

and

to The

a psycho1ogi:;t

t h a t t h e r e 'gas a

showed

i n

to

was the

four

inprcve

The a c t i v i t i e s c o n s i s t e d o f prov.ijinc1 ac!iderric

the

extended

achievement and attendance r a t e .

enabled

su3plement

The e x p e c t s d s t u d e n t outcomes were

a s o c i a l worker,

participation

and

to

e d u c a t i o n a l [programme t o t h e l o w - - a c h i e v i n g atudt:'its

grades and attendance.

The

11

i n t e n s i v e c a r e and s c h o o l invo1v~:mentprogramme (1C:;IP)

An

potential team

was

corn~cse!d

correlnbion

a

services

and

tl-e

b?tween academic

The above mentioned re!;?arch

c o u n s e l l i n g programme:;

3 f

and

and an e t t e n d w c r ! o f f i c e r .

positive

school

~::JF-c~uts

indicate

that

studies

they

have

t h e l o w - a c h i e v e r s t o dev,?lop b e t t . e r l e a r n i n g pro-es::, t o

make

p r o g r e s s i n academic performance, t o e x p e r i e n c e success a i c t.o t h e number o f problems.

ced~ce

There

are

othe:?

studies

which

t r e a t m e n t produce p o s i t i v e e f f e c t . study

on

counselling

and

also

show

shows

counselll.ng

0 . A . Sckm:.eding's

For example,

achievement

that

that

cnurselling

e f f e c t i v e n o t o n l y i n i m p r o v i n g academic 8chievement o f faj1:ng high

school

students Dosajh

reported. personality

N.

pattern.

but a l s o i n reducing t h e

number

results

revealed

cf

problems

coun:,e.ling

that

is

Juni.or

l.14 s t u d y was on t h e i m p a c t o f c n u r s e l l i n g The

13

on has

d i r e c t l y changed t h e p e r s o n a l i t y t o w a r d s a p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n .

De-K-

Monteith

other

J . and De Wet j.15 i n t h e i r s t u d y on p e r s o n a l i t y

characteristics value

of

t h e underachieving g i f t e d p u p i l s

emphasized

o f g u i d a n c e and c o u n s e l l i n g i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l

education

programme.

variables

like

goals,

and

ar,d

remedial

They examined t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between learning

styles,

the

certain

stress

test-anxiety,

academic achievement among t h e p o t e n t i a l l : / drop-out c o l l e g e

and

freshmen.

The r e s u l t r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e above v a r i a b l e s a r e s i g n i f i c a r t ; . ~r e l a t e d to

academic performance and t h a t c o u n s e l l i n g h a s p o s i t i v e

developmental

tasks:.

The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y a r e v e r y

effect useful

on for

t e a c h e r s and p a r e n t s . We

have s o f a r been examining some o f t h e s t u d i e s t h ~ t f o c u s s e d

on t h e p o s i t l v e e f f e c t o f c o u n s e l l i n g . guidance that

they

There a r e i n s t a n c e s where

and c o u n s e l l i n g programmes were n o t s u c c e s s f u l i n t h e have n o t o b t a i n e d t h e d e s i r e d r e s u l t s .

For

t.he sense

example,

an

eight-week c o u n s e l l i n g s t u d y s k i l l s programme c o n d u c t e d FOI n i n e t y - s i x low a c h i e v i n g freshmen s t u d e n t s r e v e a l e d : h a t t h e i n t e r v e n t i ~ ~dni d riot influence college.

either

the

academic

achievement

or

the

3 e 1 , s : ~ s t a n c ei n

3.1.2.

Counselling t h e underachievers Guidance and c o u ~ ~ s e l l i nhga s been found e f f e c t i v e i n d e s l i q g w i t h

underachievers. Mercy Abraham's s t u d y on t h e f a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o

undi:rachis,lement

concludes

with the f i n d i n g s t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e of s c o r e s , i n a

in

attitude

their

t o w a r d s Engl.ish c a n tse a c h i e v e d

'youp,

well

t h r ~ ~ u g ka

d e s i g n e d p r o c e s s o f t e a c h i n g supplemented by g u i d a n c e . She g i v e s a d e t a i l e d descript:ion o f how much a t e a c h ~ ? rc o u n : j e l l o r can

help

the

students

eliminate

their

ma1adju:;tment

and

underachievement. She o b s e r v e s : Good

t e a c h i ~ n gconducte(J i n a d e m o c r a t i c c;lassroorn

with

full

understanding of t h e individual

ar~tj k i s

could be o f very g r e a t tielp i n e s t a b l i s h i n g bet:er adjustment.

For

extreme

location of cases early taking

appropriate

will

located

adjustment. which

will

problems,

go

cases

of

l e v e l s of the

enough i n t h e i r s c h o o l c a r e e r ,

long

way

toward

i ~ r indirectly

directly should

ever

play

effec:inc

lead a

the!

3s

Not o n l y c h a t t h e s c h o o l s s h o u l d

they

worth

maladjus:mer~ts,

r e m e d i a l m e a s u r e s a s soon a

climate,

are

better

do

to

and

anfthing adju:?tment

positivs:

rol?

in

l o c a t i n g , d i a g n o s i n g and t r e a t i r ~ gc a s e s o f rnala~jjustrneilt. A good

team

guidance themselves oriented

of and

teacher.; well-versed i n mental

adjustment,

the

~ ~ c i n c . i p l ? os f

co-oper,3ting

c a n p u t i n t o o p e r a t i . o n a programme ~f teaching.

S i ~ c h a s),stem e x t e n d e d

iveI

among

guijancea

long

period

of

factors

leading

feeling, etc.

time w i l l n a t u r a l l y l e a d t o t h e to

maladjustment.

test-anxiety

can

be

Factors

irrational

e l i m i n a t e d by a good

team

w o r k e r s working a s a team.

together

with

of

great

extent,

guilt

teachers

and

3djustment,

o t h e r p o s i t i v e f a c t o r s , w i l l be O F

very

of

d3y-dreaming

Improved

e s t a b l i s h i n g h i g h e r achievement l e v e l s . a

like

hostility,

guidance

to

el.:.mination

help

in

Such m e a s u r e s w i l l ,

in

help

elimlrrating

underachievement.

It

i s a v a l u a b l e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t Mercy Abraham makes

p o s s i b i l i t y o f guidarrce-oriented teaching. to

Such t e a c h e r s a:?e e x p e c t e d

know t h e main p r i n c i p l e s o f g c i d a n c e and c o u n s e l l i n g .

foremost, climate and

a~out. the

First

a guidancc-oriented teacher c r e a t e s a democratic which i s c o n d u c i v e t o l e a r n i n g , u q d e r s t a n d s

accepts

them

a s p e r s o n s o f worth.

The

the

existence

and

-1a:sroom :.njividuals

o"

guidance

o r i e n t e d t e a c h e r s d o e s n o t , however, e x c l u d e t h e n e c e s s i t y o f h a b i n g a guidance-counsellor teachers

and

ir-I

schools.

guidance-counsellors

On

the

contrary,

is strongly

tean

rec:ommerdnd

work

by

of'

the

author herself. Natalia

S. ~ i l s o r i l ' s t u d i e d t h e e f f e c t s o f a c l . a s s r a o n

u n i t on s i x t h g r a d e r s ' e x a m i n a t i o n

guidance

p e r f o r n a n c e . Guidance c o n : s i s t e d o f

s t u d y s k i l l s t r a i n i n g end c o u n s e l l i n g s u p p o r t i n s t r u c t u r e d o ? l e a d e r directed

format i n group s e t t i n g .

participated

in

Forty-seven

.

failing sixth

e i t h e r t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l programme

or

graders

norl-rrestment

control

programme.

s t u d e r ~ t s were

Experimental

found

to

have

s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher examination a,,erages than d i d c o n t r o l s t c d e n t s . Other s t u d i e s s u c h a s t h o s e of G. D. \layo,19 W . J . P o v e l l a l l j

M.

~ o u r a r d , " 5. D. S p i e l b e r g e r e t

that

normally

adjusted

counselling to

anc

maladjusted

W h i t ~ ? i" s

and W. E.

a n x i o u s s t u d e n t s perfbrm l e s s ;

and

si:udent,s.

happy

They

well

their

personal

problems

ard

to

'ound

thaq

the

s ~ g g e s t per!jonal

t o a s s i s t . t,he a n x i o u s * u n s t a b l e and m a l a d j u s t e d

overcome

S.

facilitate

students academic

achievement. G. L . Kcppers

effect

of

and 5 . W . ~ a ~ l ~ on n ,t h' e ~o t h e r hand, s t u d i e d t h s

counselling

underachievement

and

in

working

with

students

with

xholastir

of

3uffic:ient

found o u t t h a t c h a n g e s were n o t

magnitude

t o f u r n i s h s t r o n g s u p p o r t f o r t h e approach f o r

of

a c h i e v e m e n t problems.

under

programme

was

students

might

reactions

on

it was c o n d u c t e d a f t e r

that have the

Reason f o r t h e low

resented

part

the if

students,

though

of t h e

effect

class

it. i n w a r d l y

rmediation

not

of

ho~rs. opcmly.

this The Sucl'l

insiqr~ificant. in

a p p e a r a n c e , c o u l d have s e v e r e c o n s e q u e n c e s i n its e f f e c t s .

3.1.3.

Types o f c ! o u n s e l l i n g

The types

of

problem of' academic a c h i f v e m e n t i s a p p r o a c h e d usin11 variou:; counsel1:ing.

counselling, following

yroup

.

The most commonly u s e d

counsel.li.ng

and

ecl?ctic

s t u d i e s il.l.ustrate t h i s point.

are

the

.in-Ji\,idual

counsellit~q.

3. R . Callltrun

24

Tht:

;~p~~rc~~ohed

individual

c o n f e r e n c e s w i t h a n e x l ~ e r i m e n t ~g lr o u p d u r i n g

year.

these

In

counsellor

and

i n t , e r v i e w s , t e s : r e s u l t s were the

pupils

were

a l l e v i a t e t h e i r underachievement of

:hree

p r o b l e m o f a c a d e n i i c a c h i e v e m e ~ l t i n e i q h t g r a d e s by h o l d i r g

the

the

reasons

encour~iged t o

develop

The r e s u l t s

indicated

that

to

the

statjsti:ally

R a t i n g o f p ~ l p i l si n t . e r e s t i n s c h o o l

favoured t h e experimental group. underachievement

plans

the

b a s e d on t h e s t u d e n t s ' oSvn a n a l y s e s

For t h i s p r o b l e m .

margin.

31:hool

i n t e r p r e ~ e d by

s c h o o l n a r k s o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p were b e t t e r by a significant

the

wc~rk a l s o

The a u t h o r c o n c l u d e d t h a t s c : h o l a s t i c

which a p p e a r s t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h complex

c o u l d b e s u c c e s s f u l l y d e a l t w i t h obi a n i n d : . v i d u a l i s e d

factors

basis.

C a l h o u n ' s c h o i c e o f i n d i v i d u a l c o u n s e L l i n g a p p e a r s t o b e t h e most appropriate

one

in

the particulx

stud:/

because

the

counsellirtg

s e s s i o n s c o n s i s t e d of t h e c o m m u n i c ~ t i o no f t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i c n o f t e x t s and

the

knowledge c ~ ft h e a s s e t s a n d

liabilities.

Such

s..tuations

r e q u i r e p e r s o n a l e n c o u n t e r b e t w e e n t h e c o u ~ i s e l l o ra n d t h e c c u n s e l l e e s .

Group

counsell.ing

is a n o t h e r a l t e r n i a t i v e .

Freeman

Couchman 8obZ5 e x a m i n e d t h e i m p a c t o f g r o u p c o u n s e l l i n g performance that

of

82 c h . i l d r e n o f d i v o r c e d f r m i l i e s .

Phonda tht:

OII

Result:;

c h i l d r e n i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p showed g r e a t e s t

and

schocll revealed

e\.idence

g a i n a n d c h i l d r e n whose p a r e n t s w e r e simultaneously i n v o l v e t l made

c~f the

b e s t improvement. A group

third

a l t e r n a t i v e is t h e combination of both

counselling.

Anne

winchellZ6

established

inci\ritlual the

Programrnc t o a s s i s t s t u d e n t s who b e g a n t h e i r p o s t - s e c : o n d a r y

and

Nf?w $tart,' ?ducation

a t c o o p e r a t i n g s e n i o r c o l l e g e s , b u t encountered academic there.

dil'f.iculties

The programme o f f e r e d i n d i v i d u a l a n d g r o u p c o u n s e l l i r ~ gt o h e l p

participants

overcome p r e v i o u s d i f f i c u l t i e s a n d work

success.

t o t a l o f 8 0 2 s t u d e n t s from 1 0 c o l l e g e s

A

towards

future

participated

in

' N e w S t a r t ' d u r i n g i t s f i r s t 4 y e a r s , w i t h e n r o l l m e n t s grading from 51

i n f a l l 1985 t o 416 i n s p r i n g 1989. three

Liberal

curricula:

By

Accounting.

the

Arts,

E n r o l l r a e n t s were c o n c e n t r a t e d Business

in

Administration,

e n d o f s p r i n g 1989, 20.1% o f

and

'NEW S t a r t '

all

s t u d e n t s had g r a d u a t e d from KCC a n d / o r t r a n s f e r r e d t o s e n i o r c o l l e g e s ;

465

were

planning

t o c o n t i n u e a t KCC a f t e r

spring

22% h a d

1989;

d r o p p p e d o r s t o p p e d o u t ; .and 11%h a d b e e n a c a d e m i c a l l y d i s m i s s e d

from

KCC.

A n o t h e r r e m a r k a b l e t h i n g a b o u t t h e a b o v e m e n t i o n e d programme was

that

no

'New S t a r t ' g r a d u a t e who a p p l i e d t o a

senior

college

hac!

f a i l e d t o b e a d m i t t e d by o n e o f t h e c o l l e g e s o f h i d h e r c h o i c e . The way t h a t t h e y p l a n o u t t h e p r e s e n t a n d f u t u r e p r o , j e c t i s a l s o v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g a s f a r a s c h o o l c o u n s e l l o r is c o n c e r n e d . prospective advisement counselling. considering process

and

students session To

attend before

a they

group

orientation

enroll,

and

s u p p l e m e n t t h e s e s e r v i c e s , 'New

and

receive Start'

adding individual counselling sessions t o t h e are

w o r k i n g on t h e f u r t h e r

development

Cu~,rently,

of

academic individual staff

are

ednlisaions z

12-hour

course. L . L . L i g h t and C. E. ~ l e x a k o s " s t u d i e d t h e e f f e c t o f i n t l i v i d u a l and

g r o u p c o u n s e l l i n g on s t u d e n t s ' s t u d y h a b i t s w i t h t h e

helping

them t o i m p r o v e t h e i r s t u d ! h a b i t s .

S t u d e n t s were

xrpose

of

assaigneo

to

3

gropus:

Group

of

coirnselling

counselling.

Student

t e s t f o r c o r r e l a t e d rneasu~:ements z n d a n a l y s e s o f , ~ a r i a n ~ : t ? on

records

of

:he

s~hool.

we::e

between p r e - and p o s t - c o u n s e l l i n g s c o r e s

analyse the data. on

the official

post.-co~nselling

were

changes

from

and

end

periods

the

obtained

S t u d e n t s ' g r a d e s on p r e -

No

20-item

at the

s c a l e were a d m i n i s t e r e d bo-h a t t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d

the

anrj

W r e n n ' s i n v e n t o r y OF s t u d y k ' a b i t s (WISH) a n d a

counselling. rating

counsellin~], Individual

us2d

The r e s u t l s i n d i c a t e d i ~ c r e a s ei n s t u d e n t s '

t h e WISH a n d on t h e q r a d e s i n I l n g l i s h uf t h e

scores

coirnsel?~:d 5tudl:nts.

The g r a d e s o f t h e c o u n s e l l e d s t u d e r i t s i n G ~ o m e t r yr e m a i n e d b u t t h o s e o f t h e u n c o u n s e l l e d groul, d e c r e a s e d .

to

unchanged,

D i f f e r e n c e : ; ansong

t h r e e g r o u p s w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t on t h e WISH s c o r e s , g r a d e s i n

the

Geometry,

a n d r a t i n g b y t h e t e a c h e r s o f Engl.ish a n d Cieornetry.

G.

L. Marx

counselling.

28

compared t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f i n d i v i d u a l a c d

The c o u n s e l l e e s s e e n i n d i v i d u a l l y point

made

group

singnificantly

i n ~ p r o v e m e n tt h a n t h e c o u n s e l 1 t : s s

wen

greater

grade

groups.

A l s o more o f t h e s t u d n e t s i n t h e c : o u n s e l l e d g r o u p s

in

the

completed

t h e s e c o n d semester t h a n d i d t h o s e i n t h e c . o n t r o 1 g r o u p .

3.1.4.

C o u n s e l l i n g approaches The

three

client--centered explored

the

m a i n c o u n s e l l i n g : a p p r o a c h ~ : sa r e and effect one

e c l e c t i c mezhod. of

these

three

diwctive,

the

the 29

J o h n F . Kremer

a ~ i d 0tht.r~

c:ounsellin(]

str.3te<;ies o n

component O F a s t u d y

skills

compliance

with

monitoring

and r e p o r t i n g s t u d y t i ~ n ei n 201 s t . u d e n t s .

prog::3nm~l,

gelf-

Rewlt:

slowed

l l l r ~ t student.:; who c o m p i l e d i n i t i a l l y w i t h t t i e i n s t r u c t o r ' s s c g ~ j e s t i o n c

to

w ~ ~ more le l i k e l y t o c o n t i n u e t o selF-lnonito? t h a n s t u d e n t s 111

comply

with i n i t i a l l y .

T h i s snows t h a l . e c l e c t i c method

~ ~ l f e c t i vt l he: ~ r l c l i e n t - c ~ ? n t e r e do r d i r e c t i v e methods I l ~ c , r e was

:ictlve

p a r t i c i p a t i o n on t h e pa1.t o f

irl

the

faile? 1.s

nore

the iense

that

couniellee

and

~ ! ; : i ~ s t ; l n or1 c c ttir p a r t r ~ f t h e c o u n s ~ : l l o r .

The

5outti

C a r o l i r i a S t a t e L'ourlcil on

vocational

30 ~ ! ~ l l ~ c a t i o n , Columbia, made a statewide s u r v e y o f wl{.iltional

i:rntt:r

and

techmica1

approxj.nately

d i r c : c t o r s , q u i d i ~ n c ea n d p l a c e m e n t

p e r s ~ ~ n n e l ,and

v l r t . a t i o n a l t e a c h c r s on t.he i s s u e o f how v o c a t i o n a l e d u c a t i c ~ r i ? a n r!~t?t?t

educatjon.

The re!;ults

of t h e survey

revealed

I..linre w e r e no s p e c i F i c g u i d e l i n e r e ~ l a r d i n ga s s e s s m e n t a n d

placement.

that

t:o~nse.l!.ing

1wt>grammes t h a t o f f e r t h e most r e a l j s t i c o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r su':ces:; ,11111

[lest

t h e n e e d s o f some 3 0 , 0 0 0 l o w - a c h i e v i n g s t u d e n t s who d o n 3 t p u r s u e secondary

I

550

T h i s st.ucly b r i n g s t.o l i g h t a n e x i s t i n g factt: t h a t

and the

L r ~ w - a c h i e v i n g s t u d e n t s d o n o t usua1l.y r e a c h h i g h e d u c a t i o n u n l e s s t.hey underachievers

I

11t:l:ide

ant1 e v e n t h e u n d e r a c h i e v e r s

t o rneet c h a l l e n ( ~ i n ge d u r - a t i c ~ n a l g o a l s .

need

ass:.stance

I t i s hopecl

:hat

to the

\nil,jority o f l o w - a c h i e v e r s w i l l b e n c f ' i t more from j o b ol-ientc:d cour!ies. Il1l.s is i n d e e d a v e r y u s e f u l a n d r e l e v a n t s t u d y b e c a u s e t h e I

the

ittitiate

lack

of s p e c i f i c g u i d e l i n ~ l s h e l p s

thls activity.

awart?rless

guidance-coun:;eLlors

T h i s s t u d ) i n d i c a t e s t h a t tht?

to

lcv'-;3~9if?\~ers

11eed i n f o r m a t - i o n concern:.ng

j o b - o p p o r t u n i t i ~ s , skill-t.rain:.ng

etc.

A

~ i c l i o o l g u i d a n c e - c o u n s e l l . o r c a n hell1 them e c p e c i a l l y i n a s s ~ ? s s i n g t h e tltudents'

a b i l i t y , a p t i t u d e a n d i n t e r e s t wkich i n t u r n may h e l p

:hem

l o make wise v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e s .

F a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o acadcmic achiebement

1.2.0.0.

This

section

?il.~ldy s k i l l s ,

i s a n 3 n v e s t i y a L i o n o f t o w much s t . u d y

tiasits

academic m o t i v a t i o n andn s e l f - c o n c e p t a r e

t~r:admeic a c h i e v e m e n t .

.:elsted

I t .is hoped \.hat a n a d e q u a t e krlowletllje a f

~ l i r f r e n t i a t e sLow-actiiev~ers from h i g h a c h i e b e r s w i l l e i a b l r :

and to what

gbidance-

i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ n s eto l l hoerl sp t h e Former r e m e d i a t e t h e i r s h o r t c o i n i n g .

3.2.1.0.

Study h a b i t s and s t u d y s k i l l s

Studies contribute

have

shown t h a t b e t t e r s t u d y h a b i t s

b e t t e r achievement.

correlation

positive

between

and

st.udy

The f o l l o w i n g are s t u d i e s study

habits

and

study

sl<.tlls

t h ~ t !;how :;kills

and

orgsnise~i for

the

academic achievement. A

one-credit

study s k i l l course

31

has been

s e c o n d s e m e s t e r c o l l e g e f r e s h m e n on a c a d m e i c p r o b a t i o n . took

part

ilnprovements academic persisted

in

it.

in

grade

hours

Results

showed

ctatistica1.ly

p o i n t a v e r a g e , acaclmeic

e a r n e d d u r i n g t h e same

acsdemic

hours year.

a f t e r o n e ancl two y e a r s , a n d r e t r , n t i o n d a t a

the treatment.

3514 c t u d ( : n t s iiigrificant al.:enced

and

I)iffers?nces al:ji>

favo~red

Michael design

H.

to

32

used t h e p r e - t e s t and p ~ t - t e s t c o u n t e r

a t t r i b u t ~ b . , e t.c tht?

determine d i f f e r e n c e s i n achievsment

a p p l i c a t i o n o f a n i n t e n s e s t u d y s k i l l s t r a i l i n g programme. study

a t t i t . u d e form H and a s t ~ d ys k i l l s

h a b i t s and

used.

result

The

wa!; t.hat a s t u d y s k i l l

Ibal~nced

Survey

invenl:ory

programme

help:;

of were?

inl~rovt?

achievement. Mary of

~ a g r o a r examined t ~ ~ ~ t h e l e a r n i n 3 s t r a t e g i e s anc

college

l a n g u a g e s t u d e n t s and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p

language l e a r n i n g . (1)

to

a:tj.tude:; suc,:ess

in

Three r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n ; were a s k e d :

Which

associated

self-reportec with

language

study

achievement a s measured

s t r a t e ~ ] i ? s were by

c1a:isroon

or

o t h e r p r o f i c i e n c y t e s t s ? ( 2 ) Whici a t t i t u d e and no1:idat.i o n a l factors

predic:ted

between

thelje

s u c c e s s and w i a t

factors

and

study

was

t.he

re:.a:ic~rship

strateqies?

(3)

d i s t i n g u i s h e d s t u d e n t s who c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h o u t c n e r e a r

What of

second l a n g u a g e s t u d y frcm t h o s e dho dropped o u t ; Two

l a r g e g r o u p s o f v o l u n t e e r s , C o l l e a e s t u d e n t s o f Cp;rnish

.Japanese,

completed

tbok

initial

year

were

course

questiornilicea

l a n g u a g e s k i l l t e s t s , and t h x e who p e r s i s t e d

re-administered the prcficiency t e s t s .

g r a d e s were c c ~ l l e c t e df o r e a c h q u a r t e r .

indicated wi.th

a t t i t u d e and s t u d y s t r a t e g y

Exam

acatiernic

success,

i;panish and .lapancse.

a l t h o u g h some

differences

were

and

for

one

scores

and

A n a l y s i s c f tlie

t h a t c e r t a i n s t u d y s t r a t e g i e s were c o n s i s t a n t l y

and

data

;~s;oc:jated 'o~ntl for

Chabbari study

34

I;en15

h a d a r ~ a l y s e dC o r n e l l O r i e n t a t i o n I n v e n t o r y

h a b i t s a n d t h e i r r e l a t i v e v a l u e s i n ~ r e d i c t i o no f

on

~ct~i~:venent.,

The r e s u l t o f t h e a n a l y s i s showed t h e i n l p o r , l t n c e o f a s t u c y h : a h i t s

irl

s t u d e n t s ' academic achievement. S t ~ ~ t ica ~ , s1 lt y

significant

relationships

between

l ~ ~ v e n t o r i e : ;o f s t u d y h a b . i t s a n d m e a s u r e s O F s c h o l a s t i c

36 Younfj

succ:e:js

or1 have

U. B r o o k s a n d 3 . C. Hes-;on, 35 5 . 14. S c , i e l e : ; s e r a n d

I)~:r:n r e p o r l . e d b y F .

I:. W .

st,o::es

and

Harold

D.

Carter.

37

Noel

~ n t w i s t l ~ ? ' : ~ 's t u d y

r e p o r t e d t h a L t h e s t u d y s k i l l c o u r s e s a r e u!;ually f o l l o w e d b), t~cadernic: Thomas J o h n e t a 1 .

improvement.

39

c o n c l u d e r i t h a t a c a d e m i c a t h:.evement

d e p e n d s on thr? n a t u r e o r t h e s t u d y 3ctiviti1:s s t u d e n t ! ; f o l l o r , . D.

Carter's

study

indicated that

one's

study

methods

Harolcl

correlated

s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h g r a d e s when a b i l i t y was c o n t r o l l e d . The a b o v e s t u d i e s q i v e s u f f i c i e n t b a s i s t o b e l i e v e t h a t t t ~ e r e i s significant academic habits

c o r r e l a t i o r ~ between

achievement.

study

habits,

stc~dy i l l s

I t s h o w s tht3t t h e erihancement o f p r l p e r

a n d s t u d y s k i l l s may h e l p h w - a c h i e v e r s

experience

anc study

sholastic

success.

3.2.1.1.

P r o g r a m n e s t o e n h a n c e s t u d y skills;

Most help

of

improve

examined

t i l e l o w - a c h i e v e r s who h a v e a c a d e m i c t h e i r study s k i l l s .

formal

and

d i . f f i c o l t i ~ s ,qeed

John R . Knapp a n d

inf~:rrmal h e ~ p s e e k i n g

hehavi.3ur

students.

Five

degree

n e e d f o r h e l p w i t h c o u r s e s o r g e n e r a l stucly

of

hundred and seveni:y-three

Stua't

students

11f

A . I(.

40

College

e x p r j ? s s ~ d ;ome s l l s

The

f o l l o w i n g a r e some f o r m a l s t u d y s k i l l s deve.Lopment t r a i n i n g F'rogrammes. t o help achieve t h i s goal. Many s t u d e n t s i n si:andard C o l l q e not

Pre1,aratory ProgralnnesL"

r e a c h i n g t h e i r p o t < : n t i a l l e v e l ; o f ach:.evement.

undertaken,

in

to

Massachusetts, course

for

Information gathered

the

spring

1736

at

Marshfieltl

c t c ~ d y was

H i g ~ Sch301,

d e t e r m i n e t h e need f o r i:he p o s s i b l e content.

improving about

from

of

So a

#ere

t h e academic performance

stuclent

surveys

of

study habits, s k i l l s

and

01.

a

st.udelts.

aticitutles

(50

completed o f 110 s t u d e n t s

sophomores, and 30 j u n i o r s ) t h e i r p a r e n t s

their

of

was

f r ? s h n ~ e n , 30

g u a r d i a n s , and 48

sciool

s t a f f members. R e s u l t showed t h a t tlie t i m e s t u d e n t s s p e n d on hcjme ~ o r k

is

only

what t h ~ e i rt e a c h e r : ; f e e l i:; a s s i g n e d :

4 . 8

majority of s t u d e n t s 8

tha:.

large

€1

9 and p a r e n t s (95.5%) want s t u d y h a t i t s and

1

s k i l l s improved, and t h a t a c o u r s e in s t u d y and time nanageinent. s k i l l s

is

wanted

by 56.9:; o f t h e s t u d n e t : ; and 8 1 . 5 % o f

indicated

study

t h a t t o improve s:udent

the:

achievement,

palr1:nts.

The

not

the

only

s t u d y h a b i t s and s k i l l s b u t a l s o t h ~ ?academic m o t i v a t i o n anlj

ctuds?nt-

t e a c h e r r e l a t i r ~ r i smust be improved.

Richard factors

Doriria

and

42 others i:onductecl a

project

that

contribute

t o t h e a~:ademic s u c c e s s

clisadvantaqed

vocational

s t u d e t n s and t o clevelop a

enhance

Persistant

the

Pe::sistant

mountain

f u t re.

( T e x a s ) were d e v i d e d i n t o :wo g r o u p s , namely, t h e and

at

I:ie

ccmmunity

(PNAs)

studelits

t h ~ t, v i l l

plan

view

Non-Achiever

disadvantaged

determine

ed~cation~lly

s u c c e s s o f p e r s i s t a n t non-:>chievin!l s t u d e n t s i n

Educationally college

of

to

High

Achieve:

(pH.4~).

I'HAs.

Approximately 150 studecltr; were c l t ~ s s i f i e da s a PNAs and l.!)O a s Among t h e r e a s o n s g i v e n by t h e PNA!; were

grade-poiit-av~?rage

For t h e i r low

poor time management and l a c k o f gooc s t u d y h a b i t s .

The

concluded t h a t t h e s e s t u d e n t s need t o be o f f e r e d e x t e n d e d

study

orientation

arid s t u d y s k i l l s c o u r s e s a s w e l l a s i n d i v i c u a l s u p p o r t i v e "ollow-up t o a s s i s t i n t l i e i r c o l l e g ~s u c c e s s . s t u d y 4 > e x p l o r e d whetner i r ~ s t r u c t i o ni n v o l v i n g a n t!m>has.i:;'

A

atudy

skills

could

help seventh

encountered i n s c i e n c e c l a s s e s i n school

in

organizer

New J e r s e y . as

a

grade k

students

overall

retai.11 rnatclrials

p r e d o m i n a n t l y w h i t e , rn:.dile

The e x p e r j m e n t a l group summary o f a

received

textbook

ai

chapter

s t u d y i n g t o h e l p them i n o r g a n i z i n q t h e c o n t e n t .

on

class advanc?

they

wen?

The:$ wert! i n t r l ~ d u c e d

t o t h e c h a p t e r , were t o l d t o l o o k a t h e a d i n g s , p i c t u r e s ar~tl diaqi.ams, pronounced and d e f i n e d v o c a b u l a r y t.errns, and n o t e d names 01' places

relevant t o the chapter.

lesson

was

group were

the

conductetl b e f o r e t h e new l e s s o n was begun.

was t a u g h t w i t t i o u t t h e u s e c4f any l e a r n i n g a i d . tested

significant the

Each day, a r e v i e w o f

at

the

end

of

each

chapter.

3eop.L(? and prer~iou;~

Yh? Al.1

Results

cor~trol stutlent:;

:.njicated

d i f f e r e n c e between t h e means o f t h e s a m p l e s i r ~f a v o u r

experimental treatments.

The f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t t h a t st.ujy

a OF

skills

can help students r e t a i n science material content.

3.2.1.2.

Study h a b i t s o f t h e l o w - a c h i e v i n g and h i g h achiev:.ng s t u d e n t s

Numerous s t u d i e s r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e low-achievers have p,or hablts.

The

r e s u l ' t o f a c o m p a r i t i v e s t u d y c o n d u c t e d on

bright

ritudy and

poor

students

observations

sing

by

questionnaire:

interv:tews

cr

direct

showed t h a t t h e r e is a c t u a l c l i s c r i m i n a l . i o n t11:tw~en good

and poor s t u d e n t s on t h e b a s i s o f : ; t l ~ d y h a b i t s c o r e s . P r a t i b h a Deo a n d Kanwar S a i n

4Q

I n v e s t i g a t e d t h e 3 a t t e . n ~o f s t u d y

methods o f t h e h i g h a n d low achieving s t u d ~ n t so f t e n t h g r a d e :

[heir

s t u d y showed f a u l t y 1 e a r n i . n g a n d b a d s t u d y h a b i t s among o t . t ~ e r f a c t o r s related

to

underachievement.

The r e s u l t s

also

showed

significant

d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s t u d y h a b i t s s c o r e s on h i g h a n d low a c h : . e , e r s .

.I. L . anri Wet J . J

Monteith

. compared ~ ~ fifty

qiftetl

a2hit:ver:;

w i t h f i f t y ~ ~ r i d e r a c h i e v e ~ , sThe . sutmjects w e r e o b t a i n e d f r c n ~ :he

total

standard

:*tat(:

Afrikans

10

iltepublic academic

of

Sc~uth A!-rica).

actiievement

between

speaking

2nd

Cohort

ii

the

Orange

Amcng t h e f a c t o r s

study

habits.

F

ex;minecl

Substantj.al

e wsrc!

the

d..fFerence:;

a c h i e v i n g and u n d e r a c h i e v i n g g i f t e d p u p i l s w e r e fcurid i n

all

s t u d y h a b l t s and a t t i t u o e v a r i a b l e s e x c e p t 3tudy t i m e , s u g c e t i t i n g l e s s efficient

study-methoas

by

underachie~ing

students.

C,i

fted

u n d e r a c h i e v e r s had l e s s f a v o u r a b l e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s c h o o l . Mabel K . Holtzman, from

urn,^^

u s i n g t h e s u r v e y o f s t u d y h a b i t s a n d a t t i l : u d e s by

found t h a t a c a d e m i c d r i v e d i f f e r e n t i a t e s t h e

t h e underachievers.

become

easily

discouraged

ove1ac:hievers

Her s t u d y revealed t h a t t h e l a t t - I t,end when c ~ n f r o n t e dw i t h

l o n g ant

tn

d:.fficult

a s s i g n m e n t s and a d m i t t h a t u n l e s s t.hey l i k e t h e c o u r s e t h e y E x e r t 3 n l y The

less

s u c c e s s f u l s t u d e n t s show a marked t(:ndency t.oward p r o t : a s t i n a t i c t n

dith

the

minimum

effort

required

t o get

a

passing

grade.

regard

t o a s s i g n m e n t s ~ These s t u d e n t s stcldy i n a random

depending upon ' i n s p i r r L d ' moods. distraction in

engaging other

than

the

-.hey tenc t o be most2 s u s l : e 3 t i b l 1 ? t o

b e t t e r students.

They

waste

hand, spend most o f t h e i r t l m e on s t u d i e s , do good

too

n ~ c h time

-he o v e r ~ c h i e v i n g student:^,

social ac:tivities.

promptly, have

prcposition

s t u d y h a b i t s and g e n e r a l l y

the

have

on

the

assign~nents

a

f2elinq

of

academic effectiveness.

Juliana of

the

Lazara

47

surveyed t h o s t u d y h a b i t s o f Fseshn~t:n s t l ~ d e n t s

Hicol I e a c h e r s C o l l e g e i n r e l a t i o r t o

The i n s t r u m e n t used was t h e S S t i A by Holtzman. following

(1)

academic

i~ciievenent.

The s t u d y r . t ! l t e a l e d t h e

results:

Among t h e males t h e r e was s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i 3

SSHA and academic achievement.

( 2 : The h i c h a c h i e v i n g men

between

i1

the

BTC

(:3!

Th?

sample were compared a n ~ jwere fount1 t o d i f f e r i n SSHA scores. low

achieving

achieving

women

women.

found t o be more heterogeneous

than

The d i f f e r e n c e between t h e i r means was

the

hig7

signif..cant

a t t h e one Des c e n t l e v e l .

E.

Angelina

48

Hamirez

compared

t h e work

method

of

the

low more

a c h i e v i n g and t h e h i g h ;achieving s t u d e n t s ~ n found d out t h n t the scholastically

success~ul. students

o r g a n i z a t i c ~ n and

gathering, counterparts.

had b e t t e r

prt:sentatic,n

of

techniquc!~ i n ideas

data

khan

They s u c c e s s f u l s t u d e n t s ccnform t o prescr:.bsd

>;heir fl~rrns,

carefully

f o l l o w i n s t r u c t i o n s and g e t t o h o r k w i t h c:m3ncer1':ration

and

interest.

They have a more posit:.ve a t t i t u d e towarcl s c h o t ~ lworl<

and

have motives o t h e r t h a n p r e s t i g e

ill

p u r s u i r g a c o l l e g e cotr::se.

The

c i t e ( ! above r e v e a l a

stildie:;

direct

r e l a t i o n s h ~ . p bei:\reen

s t u d y h a b i t s and s t u d y s k i l l s and ac:ademic a c h i e v e m e n t . The. s J r v e : l study

habit:;

academic

enables

us

t o real;.se t h a t

the

atud~:nts

with

p e r f o r m a n c e need h e l p a s t n how t o o r g a n i z e t h e i r

l>ow t o u s e their s t u d y time more e l ' f e c t i v e l y . programmes

may

tie

an

e f f e c t i v e means o f

Guidance

extending

of poor

'qork

and

c:o~nsel..ing

such

help

to

students.

3.2.2.0.

Academic m a t i v a t i o n a n d ac:admeic a c h i e v e m e n t

A c c o r d i n g t o a well-known e d u c a t o r , W i l l i a m A . K e l l y ,

is

m3tivat;ion

a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r which i n f l u e n c e s l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s .

are

studies

on

the

impact

of

proper

motivatior

8:oll~~b~ing

on

academic

achievement.

Adele E . G o t t f r i e d ' : ; elementary

and

significance education. be

of

49

junior

high

academic

As p r e d i c t e d ,

sigriificaritly

s t u d y or) a c a d e m i c i n t r i n s i c rnot.:.vation school

intrinsic

stbdents

detnonst.i.ates

motivation

for

the

clildcnn'a

a c a d e m i c i n t r i n s i c m o t i v a t i o n wa!; found

and p o s i t i v e l y c c ~ r r e l a t e c w i t h

in

to

c h i l d r e r ~ ' ; s~:liool

a c h i e v e m e n t and p e r c e p t i o n s o f a c a d e m i c competence. A l i s n i ~ i n y ~i n' v e s t j g a t e d t h e t : f f e c t s c f s t u d e n t s ' serl!;e c f :;l:lf-

d e t e r m i n a t i n a s a m o t i v a t . i c ~ n a l forct: i n a r t l e a r n i n g . sixth

graders participated i n the study.

P 1 1 four

Seve:al hundred outconi~: I r e a s u r e s

r e v e a l e d d i f f e r e n c e s f a v c ~ u r i n gt h e :;t.udent-choice c o n d i t i o r i . words, sense

both of

a c h i e v e m e n t and a t t i t u d e s a r e

improved

s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n i s enhanced and i t is

motivating factor i n learning.

when en

In orher stud-nts'

irifjis~ensable

Those

who a r e a c a d e m i c a l l y mcitivated g e n e r a l l y ,2ossa:;s

spl?l:ific

c h a l l e n g l n ~ jg o a l s i n l i f e and have d e f i n i t ~j o b o r i e n t a t i o r ~ . Kathlec?ii iinplicatiuns students study.

J.

51:ol;t

of

goal

and

Steven

instabilit:,

for

in l e a r n i n g s k i l l s coursc:.

Robbins5 1

€3.

Nona

lollefson's

the

~ c a d e r n i c p ~ r f o r r a a n c e among

S i x t y s t u d e n t s took p a r t in

R e s u l t s showed t h a t s t u d e r l t s w i t h h i g h g o a l

lower g r a d e - p o i n t - a v e r a g e

sllujied

inst.abi1it.y

the had

t h a n s t u d e n t s w i t h low g o a l i n s t . a b i l i t y .

52

s t u d y showed t h a t t e a c h e r s

most.

frequc:ntly

a t t r i b u t e d low a c h i e v e n ~ e r ~t to t y p i c a l p a t t ~ r no f low effor.:.

Thi:;

is

515 who s u r v e y e d 117 c o l l e q e

students

r e g a r d i n g f r i c t o r s t h a t a f f e c t e d t h e i r s u c c ~ . s sand f a i l u r e i n

college.

confirmed by Ronald V . and o t h e r s

Persistent academic failure

and

active

success, was

s t u d y was t h e most common

f o l l o w e d by s e - : t l n g

challening

a t t r i b u t e d t o l a c k o f s t u d y , poor t i m e

reason

given

goal:;.

for

Acatjemic

manaqenent,

and

inadequate goal--setting.

3.2.2.1.

Parents

are

influent.ia1

fact.ors

in

the

actiev~zment

motivation of t h e i r c h i l d r e n Schiamberg and o t h e r s 5 ' educational

and o c c u p a t i o n a l l i f e p l a n s and achievement o f

r u r a l low income a r a s was

given

concept, The

made a 1 4 y e a m l o n g i t u d i n a l u t u c y a f t h e

to

contributioins

s i x south eastern s t a t e s .

how p a t e n t s '

metntal

findings

i17

behaviours

influence

a b i l i t y , and aciademic and

indicate to

the

the

'family

attainm8:nt

Specific ~ t t e ~ ~ t i o n children's

achievement

in

school'

of

youths'

)out11 i n

makes

self-

motivation. siqnificant

educstior~al

and

occupational involve

The f i n d i n g s s u p p o r t t h e need fs~r ~t~ju:ator:;

goals.

t h e llarriily i n !;chool

l e a r r ~ i r ~agc t i v i t i e s ,

incluct..n3

to

s~ence

education.

3.3.3.0.

Self-concept

Self-concept

:and academic: a c h i e v e m e n t

i s fuund t o b e one o f ti-e m a i n

w i t h l o w achievement.

factors

3ssoc:~ate3

The s e l f - c o n c e p t c a n b e d e f i n e d a s : . n J i v i d t ~ a l ' s

r e p e r t o i r e o f s e l f - d e s c r i p t i v e b e h a v i o u r s u c h a s self-knorr..e3ge,

:;elf-

esteem and s e l f - l d e a l w h i c h can b e measured b y p h y s i c a l r n a l . u r i t y , p e e r r e l a t i o n s , academic s u c c e s s and s c t ~ o o la d a p t i v e n e s s .

3.3.3.1.

relationship

The

between

ar~cl

self-concept.

acedemic

achievement

Several concept

and

studies

were

academic

made on t h e

ac:hievement.

relationship

U. 55

M.

Barbara

i m p o r t a n c e oi s e l f - c o n c e p t and acaclemic a c h i e v e m e n t a:j o f academic t r a c k mcmbei.ship i n h i q h s c h o o l .

three

and

academic a c h i e v f m e n t .

di.!;crimin;~tors

self-concepl;,

Academic

:;elf-

: ; t ~ d i e d th:

N i n e hundrecl a i d

s t u d e n t s were t e s t e d u s i n g measures o f

self-concept

bel.w3en

s:.xtyac;3rlemi':

self-c:oicept

was

f o u n d t o b e r e l a t e d t o academic a c t ~ i e v e m e n t .

Three

self-esteem the

research

guides,

56

C a l i f o r n i a Tusk F o r c e

based

collected

from

supported

t h e a s s u m p t i r ~ nt h a t l o w s e l f - e s t e e m

to

on

re:;earch

data

p r o n ~ ( ~ t e:;elf-e!jl:eem, i s d i r e c t l y r?latc:d

t 3

l o w s c h o o l a c h i e v e m e n t and s c h o o l ~ l r o p o u t . A p o s i t i v e c o r i ' e l a t i ~ ~was ~i found

between t h e e f f e c t o f s e l f - c , o n f i d e n c e

and

sch1101 [ ~ e r f o r m ; ~ n c e .

The

g r o u p c o u n s e l l l r - i g Has t h e s u g q e s t e d m ~ t h o dt o inlsrove: self-#::;teem

and achievemerit l e v e l s for. drop-out. p r o v e n t i o n .

Parnela between cirrd

a n d David L e s t e r 5 7 e x p l o r e d

L a e l l .

isel F-r:~1rrccpt a:id a c a d e m l c p e r f o r m ~ n c ei n

the

Jalnaicat~ t e e m g e r s

t h c r-c!,ult r:ntiflrni~:d p o s i t l v e r e l a t i o r s h i p betwe8.n

d

aisociation

tht?

two

with

t o ff,~n;rlc st.irdent:;.

Robinson

i ii

examin.;.d

t h e r e l a t j o n s h i ~ between

self'--c3nccl1l;

a c a d e m i c a p t i t u ~ l e ,1"laths a n d v e r b a l s k i l l s , a n d

ability,

a-hievement

i n technolorj.1cal1.y o r i e ~ i t e dc o l l e g e : c u r r i c u l a r i n c o l l e g e l'r?shmeri

= 302).

R e s u l t s i n d i c a t e 1 1 t h a t se:.f-concept

of

(\I

of

c o r r e l a t e d w i t h academii: !;uccess.

Kindergarten

chilriren

59

were: a d m i n i s t e r e d

concept

t e s t in order t o investigate the

concept

and a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t .

a d m i n i s t e r e d the: I.latrint;.k-Zaicakowsky Results

Two weeks l a t e r ,

the

r?searchers

s e l f - c o n c e p t s c a l e f.11r c h i l d r e n .

of a c u r r e l a t i o n a n a l y s l s i n d i c t e c t h a t

self-coric:e3t

:;[:ores

were significant p r e d i c 3 t o r s o f a c a d e m i c s L c c e s s .

B r o o k o v e r , 60

in

hi:;

study, argued

that

the

self'.-c?ncepl:

a b i l i t y i s t h e p a r t o f s e l f - c o n c e p t most c l o s e l y

of

linked

to

achievement

i n s c h o o l -tnl:l t h e r e f o r e , i s mcre i n f l u e r - ~ t i a l. n term:;

of

achievement

outcomes.

academic

1,000

ablity

s e v e n t h cjradc s t ~ ~ d e n tfound s out a correlatior-I of

academic that

Ile u s i n g : ; e l f - c o n c e p t o f

self-c!irlcept

an11 a c h i e v e r l e n t ( G . P . A . ) .

s c ~ l e over 11.5

tle a l s 1 1 f c u n d

s t u d e n t s who were r e p o r t e d t~ h a v e lcw s e l f - c o r ~ z e p t s o f

r a r e l y p e r f o r ~ n e d a t abo'de a v e r a g e L e v e l s .

bt.':ween out

ability

Cryst.al

Kijykendall

6L

c o n d u c t e d an e x p 3 r i m e n t a l s t u d y t o

students' a c h i e v e m e n t by e n t a n c i n g s e l f - i m a g e .

Black that

effective

Instruction

has

E

p o s i t i v e impact

a c h i e v e m e n t o f B l a c k and l i i s p a n i c s t u d e n t s . positive

academic

students

and

belief

in

identity

is

crucial

in~~rovt?

R e s ~ l ; s :it~owell on

tte

3catlemit:

I t was a.Lso f t ~ u n dt h a t for

underachieiing

t h a t t e a c h e r s p l a y z major r o l e i n

i-1

E;lacl<

buildir~rl studf!nts'

and r e s p e c t f o r t h e m s e l v e s by p r o v i d i n g a n

atnlojphel-E!

ill

which s t u d e n t s c a n e x p e r i e n c e s u c c r : s s .

a r e s t i l l o t h e r s who found

Therr: self-concept Chapman,

and

62

acaclemic

achie\,enient.

associ:it.i:d

Among

cor:elat.:oi them

64 0 and 1T . A ~ . Heeder. ~ ~ Their

bictor ~

t h a t o f a v o ~ ~ r a b lsce l f - c o n c e p t i . are

positive

wltti

.

art:

br:t:weei .lame!;

stucl..ei

W.

sul~port

p o s i t i v e f e e l i n g s at111ut t h ~ ?s e l f

good a c a d e m . . ~a c h i e i e m e n t and

a

poor

concept

w l t h l e s s dr:sirable performance.

We c a n c o n c l u d e from t h e a b o v e s t u d i e : , t h a t a n i n c r e n : ; e d p o s i t i v e

will

self-concepl also

on

the

individual.

h a v e i m p a c t n o r o n l y on a c a d e m i c

personal, Parent the

social

attitudes

:and

vocational

i ? the

f:imily

s c t ~ o o l enviroiment,

attitudes

in

community

environment--all

and

ach.i:ven~ent

but

d t : v e l o l ~ n e n t oF envrronmeit,

peer

teacher

a t t i - ~ c e in

work t o g e t h e r t o form tl:e

an

cliild s

tke self-

c o n c e p t and t o i n f l u e n c e h i s a c h i e v e m e n t .

3.3.3.2. While ability

The a c a d e m i c s e l f - c o n c e p t a n d g l ~ ~ b sa el l f c o n c e p t

the

academic s e l f - c o n c e p t i n c l u d e s ttle

feelinqs

t o p e r f o r m at:aclemic work, t h e g e i e r a l s e l f - - c o n c e p t :

c'n

the

ir~cludt?~

the

i n d l v l d u a J ' s f e e l ~ n g so f b e l o r ~ g l n g n e s s , s e l f - w o r t h ,

cxrpetl:nce,

s e l f - a c c e p t a n c e and a c c e p t a n c e by o t h e r s , e t c .

Both academic s e l f - c o n c e p t a n d g l o b a l s e l f - c o n c e ~ t wc!?e found have

How~:ver, a

p o s i t l v c c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h academic achievement.

investigators related

found

the

academic s e l f - c r ) n c e p t t o

t o a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t tlian t h e q e n e r a l

be

to few

ri~lre c l ~ l s e l y

self-conce~t.

The

f o l l o w i n g a r e some o f t h e s t u d i e s on t h i s m a t t e r .

65 A . Altmann and S a n d r a F . Dupor~t t e s t e d

Harold

the

hypotlieses

t h a t a c a d e m l c s e l f - c o n c e p t is a b e t t e r p r e d i c t o r o f r e p o r t ca1.d g r a d e s than general self-concept.

S u b j e c t s were clne h u n d r e d a n d l i n ~ t y - ? i g h t

s t u d e n t s i n t h i r d t h r o ~ ~ gshi x t h q r a d e s .

Rt?sults i n d i c t e d tkat.

c h i l d r e n ' s academic s e l f - c o n c e p t a f f e c t s t h e i r s c h o l a s t i c

either

achievment

o r t h a t c h i l d r e n ' s s u c c e s s a n d f a i l u r e i n :ichool a f f e c t t h s i r a c a d e m i c This q u e s t i o n s t i l l remains t o be explored.

self-concept. may

be

should

t h c ;iriswcr, i r r ~ p r o v i n g s e l f - c o n c e p t ; i s good i n i t s e l f

tho

one o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s .

The

~ n t e r ~ d st o st~o,., t h a t t h e enhancement o f s e l f - c o n c e p t ~ s s u ei n r

M.

concept

I4.

c

pres13nt

and

it

research

must t e a

majclr

~ p l zu~ n n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e l ~ t .

lklbuya6' s t u d i e d t h e r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e o f

and s e l f - c o n c t ' p t o f a c a d e m i c a b i l i t y i n

achievement.

229

Whatever

gl
predictin!]

aczdemlc

tie examined s e l f - c o n c e p t and a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e r l e n t

grade students.

F!esults revealed

t h a t global

self-cont:ept

among and

self-concept

o f a c a d e n ~ i ca b i l i t y c o r r e l a t z d p o s i t i v e l y w i t h

ac~dem:~c

achievement,

but

ac:~tdem.ic

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between s e l f - c o n r : e p t

o'

ab.tlity

arid

academic: a c h i e v e m e n t c o r r e l a t e d more s t r o n g l y

than

the

r e l a c i c ~ n s t i i , between g l o b a l s e l f - c o n c e p t and t h e a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t .

H.

Kevin fernale

Kelly

eighth

and Laverne K. Jordan

67

compared

grade:; r e p r e s e n t i n g v e r y h i g h ,

90

moderately

male

and

high,

and

averaye Levels o f achievement on measures o f academic and s o c i a l s e l f concz~t..

Tile r e s u l t : : i ~ i d i c a t e da p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n between

s e l f -concept. and t h e ..eve1 o f a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t . gi:ls

had

Richard

Average a c h l e v i r r g

lower academic s e l f - c o n c e p t s c o r e t h a n a l l J.

5havelsl:m

and

Royer

Bolus

68

point

acaden~lc

other

groups.

the

casual

to

pr:don~inanct: o f s e l f - I - ' o n c e p t o v e r a c h i e v e m e n t .

The r e l a t i o n betweer1 s e l f - c o n c e p t

3.5.3.11.

and a b s e n t e e i s m

F ' c ~ s i t i v es e l f - - i m . i g e a p p e a r s t o c o r r e l a t e w i t h h i g h r a t e o f s c h o o l attentlsnce

and

liiyh~:.r g r a d e s .

Paul 8.

~ a r i o n ~ 'i n v e s t i g a t e d

r e l a t : . o n s h i l ~ o f s e l f - i m a g e it>h i g h s c h o o l w i t h a t t e n d a n c e point

average

ana1y:;r.s

at

p.:lsk

secondary

educational

the

and

grade

institutions.

The

c f d a t a r e v i ! a l e d a 1 : o n s i s t e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between

positive

i n h i g h sc i o c ~ land h i g h e r c o l l e g e o n g o i n g r a t e s and h i g h e r

self-:.toage

g r a c e : ; i n posL s e c o n d l ~ r ye d u c ; i t i o n .

I:.

~eid'"

schco.1

i n d i c : ~ t e stha:: p e r s i s t e n t a b s e n t e e s a t

an

i n South Wale:; had s i q n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r s e l f - c o n c e p t and

e s t ~ e r ~ mclre , deprive:j socio-economic backgrounds, lower l e v ~ l : ; and Remtd.la1

inner-city

rnore

nleasure:;

e d i ~ c a t i o n a l problems for

a b s e n t e e i s m was

than

two

suggested

intelligence

control by

self-

groups.

focussing

r a i s , i n g s e l f - c o n c e p t and c h a n ~ i n ga t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s c h o o l .

on

3.J.3.4.

The c h a r a c t ~ ? r i s t i c ss e l f - i m a g e p a t t e r n o f u n d e r a c h i e v e r s

Comparative s t u d i e s o f a v e r a c h i e v i n g and underachieving r e t e a l c e r t a i n charac:eristic:;

students

regarding t h e i r self-concepts.

Result

o f a s t u d y o f 2 1 VIItli g r a d e s t u d e n t s r e v e a l e d t h a t u n d e r a c h i e v e r s a r e less

self-confident,

l e s s s o c i a l l y and e m o t i o n a l l y m a t u r e , l e s s

t o f o c u s on one conce:,n a t a t i m e , l e s s a c c u r a t e i n t h e i r

perceptions

a b 3 u t t.hemselves arid : h e i r work, a n d l e s s h a r d w o r k i n g t h a n C. F .

Combs

aclievers around

71

able

achievers.

e x p l o r ~ ! dd i f r e r e n c e s i n t h e way t h a t u n d e r a c h i e v e r s and

perceived

them.

.hemselvf:s and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o

Achie:gers

and u n d e r a c h i e v e r s

showed

the

world

significant

c o i s i c t e n t d i f f e r e n e e l ; i n t h e way t h e y saw t h e m s e l v e s .

and

Underachievers

s e - t t ~ e m s e l v e sa s l e s , a d e q u a t e , l e s s a c c e p t a b l e t o o t h e r s , t h e l r p e e r s a s 1e:;s a c c e p t a b l e , a8:iult a s i e s s a c c e p t a b l e . and

effective

less

approach t o problem,

They showed i n e f f i c i e n t

showed

less

freedom

and

ad-quacy o f e m o t i o n a l e x p r e s s i o n s . E..

E.

~ s r n i r e z ' : js ~t u~d y o f

underachievers

revealed

u n d e r a c h i e v e r s h o l d a low c o n c e p t o f t h e i r a b i l i t i e s .

3.3-3.5.

Factors

the

Such c o n c e p t i s

d e $ e l c \ p e d by r e p e a t e ~ jp e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s o f f a i l u r e a n d by f e e d - b a c k s t h e y re1:eive

that

reinforced

a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s from s i g n i f i c a n t a d u l t s .

c o n t r i b u t i r ~ gt o t h e development o f

negative

self-

concept l t u r l negatjve

c o r ~ f l i ' : t s appclars

self-concep:.

colfrtlr>ted

by

4meri1:aii

to

be

a

contributin~j factor

D a r l i t , l I e ~ a n d e r s t ~u d~i e d t h e inrlian

students

in

clash

predontlri;~ntly

of

values whltu

c1a:s:~ooms

and

devt-lol~ment o t

founrj c ~ u tt h ; l t c u l t u r a l c o n f l i c t s c o n t r i b u t e r1:gative : ; e l f - i m a g e and

1

the

faililre

to

to

the

achieve

acaceliically is a funiltlon o f t h i s negative self-concept.

teecher,

I\

who c h e r i s h c : ~ and c a r e s f o r t h e c h i l d r e n , who h a s

p e r : o ~ l n l a p p r o a c h w i t 1 :;tuden':s they

a n d r e s p e c t s them and a c c e p t s them

a r e end where t i e y a r e , c r e a t e s a c l i m a t e c o n d u c i v e t o

and

{;hen l e a r n i n g be::on~es an e x c i t i n g e x p e r i e n c e .

can

damage

neg;t..vely

a

child's

posit:ive s e l f - i m a g e

o r by s a y i n g n e g a t i v e r e m a r k s .

possesses

the

detsi:.ed

by

as

learnlny

Similarly labelling

teacher the child

I n o t h e r words, a

teacher

joyous.

A

clarify

the

f o l l o w e d a c h i l d from b i r t h t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y

age

power t o make a c h i l d ' s l i f e m i s e r a b l e o r

description

a

o f an i n c i d e n c e g i v e n below

will

thesis.

case study

/

74

eigl-t c e c o r d i n g h l s e a r l y s u c c e s s e s w i t h l e a r n i n g language and r e a d i n g skills,

as

and t h e n d i s 2 u s s e d h : ~ s a c a d e m i c d e c l i n e a f t e r b e i n g

a ' l o w a c h i e v e r ' 3nd a c a n d i d a t e f o r r e m e d i a l c l a s s e s .

labelled The

child

had 1 t : a r n e d t u c o n s t r ~ c tword:; from m a g n e t i c l e t t e r s a t a n e a r l y a n d by a g e f i v e h e wa; a r e 1 a t : i v e l y i n d e p e n d e n t r e a d e r . and

f r ~ r s t grade

facilrtatinc] gr3de whsn

h i s r e a j i n g a b i . . i t y and o t h e r s k i l l s .

a

Kindergarten

capable

learner

However,

during

two a s u b s t i t u ~ et e a c h e r c r i t i c i s e d t h e monotone v o i c e h e reading

conplcted. work

reinforced h i s self-concept a s

age,

a l o u d 3nd n o t e i l t h e number o f work s h e e t s

Ihe c h i l d was

continued

he

used

had

not

p l a c e d i n a r e m e d i a l c l a s s where h i s s c h o o l

t o d ~ ? c l i n e . tie had a d a p t e d t h e l a b e l g i v e n

to

him,

'r?mecl:.al s l : u d e n t 1 , and behovt:d a s a s l o w l e a r n e r would. T r a n s f e r t o n e d sc,tiool = o r h i s t k ~ i r dy e a r r e v e r s e d t h e problem.

a

H i s t e a c h e r began

to

i.e~uild hls

encoc~raging h i s in;urli;ious and

s e l f - c o n c e p t , r e g a r d i n g him f o r endeavours.

Implications

of

improved the

work

is

study

and that

l a b e l l i n g can s e r i w s l y tamper a c h i l d ' s academic p r o g r e s s

damage h i s o r h e r s e l f - e s t e e m .

Additionally,

remedial

n e ~ , dt s b e i n c l u d e d a r d e n c o u r a g e d r a t h e r t h a n d e n i e d t h e

students

possibility

f o ~ticademir: a c h i e v e m e r ~ t .

3 . 6 .

Action progr arrmes t o r a i s e students' self-image

~ r o g r a ~ n m e swere '~ conducted t o r a i s e t h e s t u d e n t s ' self-image view in

of r a i s i n g t h e academic achievement. .:he

Newark

(New

pol:ential

drop-outs,

included

individual

pai'ticipatim Sy:;t,?m1 stud?nt.s

and were

Jersey) to and

School

raise

their

group

A programme was

District

students,

self-esteem.

conuselling

Two h u n d r e d

conducted who

were

The

programme

sessions,

parents'

a n d thc: u s e o f t h e 'Toward A f f e c t i v e t h e 'Pun~:;ey S e r i e s ' .

in

and

Development seventy

randumly a s s i g n e d t o a t r e a t m e n t g r o u p a n d

a s ! j i ~ n e dt o a c o n t r o l cjroup t b a t r e c e i v e d n o t r e a t m e n t .

(TD)

at-risk 183

were

More t h a n 3/4

o f t i e studr!rits i n b o t h g r o u p s were B l a c k , w h i l e t h e r e m a i n d e r w e r e o f Hi:;p3ri.c o r P o r t u y u e s t : b a c k q r c u n d s .

The g r o u p were compared u s i n g t h e

follorj.ng pre- and p o s t - t e s t measures:

(I.)

The c o o p e r s r i . ~ t h s e l l ' - e s t e e m i n v e n t o r y

(!

Attendance

(I\)

The Califori1.i.a t e s t o f b a s i c s k i l l s (CTBSj

(0)

Parerit p a r t ir:ipatior~

(

5)

P a r t i c i p n t i o r r i.n c : o u n s e l l i n g s e s s i o n s

The f o l l o w i r g h i g h l i g h t s a r e d i s c u s s e d : 1.

on

S ~ c i a le x p e r i e n c ~w i t h p e e r s seemed t o have more o f a n e f f e c t s e l f - e s t e e m t h a n e i t h e r home o r s c h o o l e x p e r i e n c e s .

2.

A-ademlc

self-concepts

were

significantly

associated

with

c l a s s r ~ ~ o pme r f o r m a n c e , f o r B l a c k s and m a l e s . 3.

W i i l e t h e progranme d i d have a s i g n i f i c a n t impact on r a i s i n g o v e r a l l s e l f - e s t e e m , ~t d i d n o t have a s i g n i f i c a n t impact on academic s?lf-concept.

4.

Tie

h ~ g ha b s e n c e r a t e s o f o l d e r s t u d e n t s i n d i c a t e t h e

l ~ n g e r , more

irtensive

A

academic s , ~ p p o r tgroup76 f o r 2 1 h i g h

structured

intervention with

this

need

for

group. ability

but

~ ~ n c e ~ . a : h i e v . l n g u n d e r q r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s r e s u l t e d i n improved s t u d y

and

~;elf--m.3nagenlentskills,, p e e r s ~ p p o r t ,improvements i n s t u d e n t G P A , and im~rciv:d s e l f - c o n c e p t s c o r e s . Physical 1:orcE:p:.

e d u c a t i o n seems t o have a n e f f e c t i n r a i s i n g t h e

Uobert

Pangraz

/ /

s a y s t h a t physical education can

: i t r o r ~ gimpact on t h e development o f s e l f - c o n c e p t . posit.*~ely oriented

and

who h a s a s e n s e

of

selfhave

a

The s t u d e n t who

belonging,

worth

is

and

conpt!tt:nce p o s s e s s e s a s t r o n g f o u n d a t i o n f o r l e a r n i n g .

4

H t m and f a m i l y e n v i r o n m e n t

Hoine

and f a m i l y environm1:nt

;,cad~,mic a c h i e v e m e n t

seems t o have a n impact n o t o n l y

b u t a 1 3 1 on s t u d y h a b i t s ,

s e l f - c ~ ~ n c e p t . ,I . Q . arid h e a l t l i .

academic

on

motivaton,

Hence, i t w i l l be t r e a t e d h e r e a s

a

s p ~ : c i z J . f a c t o r i n f l u t ? r ~ c i n ga c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t .

There is a need

to

1o11k i n t o t n e e n v i r o n r ~ e n t a l f z c t o r s i m p i n g i n g on t h e l e a r n e r .

The whole f a m i l y comes t o school

3.9.1. There

are

man),

reasors

for

low-achievement.

Quinn

Aaron

S a ~ : t a i n ' ~ s a y s t h a t ,.he i n a b i l i t y t o c o n c e n t r a t e i n s t u d y i n g due

to

emotional

d:.stracticns.

Some

students

are

may

worried

be

about

f i n a i c e s , o r a r e a n x i r ~ u sa b o u t t h e i r a b i l i t i e s o r a r e h a v i n g c o n f l i c t s wi':h

t.heir

parents.

Such f ~ e l i n g si n t e r f e r e w i t h

Th~:s? i d e a s a r e complc!mented b y B e r n a r d .

79

effective

study.

He s a y s :

b o y ' s s c l ~ o l a s t i ca p t i t u d e s a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e p a t t e r n

A

r e l a t i o n s h i p s h e h a s had w i t h h i s f a t h e r . his

family

The c h i l d

t o s c h ~ o li n h i s worry

about

home,

or

illness

at

because

these

may

family q u a r r e l s make

it d i f f i c u l t

of

brings

family

welfare,

financial

problems

for

the

child

to

e m c e n t r a t e on s c h o o l a c t i v i t i e s . Miller

8U

e l a b o r a t e s t h i s i d e a by s a y i n g t h a t t h e

abnormal

home

r e . ; a : i c ~ n s h i ? s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d e s e r t i o n , s e p a r a t i o n , and l o n g i l l n e s s , di!;corc, of

e ~ r ~ o t i o n aand l m a r i t a l i n s t a b i l i t y , low c u l t u r a l v a l u e s

2 o n f i d e - ~ c e betwc:e:n p a r e n t s and c h i l d r e n , l a c k o f

lack

acceptance

arid

derio(:ratic rrspects oP t h e horne i n t e r a c t i o n , p a r e n t s s e t t i n g h i g h g o a l s for

their

childrcr~, lack

of

encouragement

of

self-reliance,

disatjreement between p a r e n t s a b o u t s t a n d a r d s o f behaviour e x p e c t e d

of

tht!i:

of

c h i l d r e n , s e v e r : . t y o f d i s c i p l i n e , and p a r e n t a l d o m i n a n c e - - a l l

tht!s~: h a v e

been

~e~.fs~rn~ance.

found

to

be

associated

with

children's

school

Ine extent,

c ~ ~ l t u r a al r ~ il n t e l l e c t u a l a t m o s p h e r e o f t h e home, in'luence the achievenent of t h e students.

t h t c:aJse o f u n d e r a c h i t ? v e m e n t E . G . W i l l i a m s o n

81

While

to

some

explaining

states:

The c u l t u r a l a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l a t m o s p h e r e o f t h e home may so

inferior

t h a t the potentially superior student

t c ~ maxlmum e f f o r t .

e!jtlmated

Frequently

keep the

.

.

p e r m i t s u c h 5 ; t u d e n t s t o aim h i g h enough

parents

.

is

not

do

not

t h e y want

t h e i r s o n on t h e farm o r i n t h e f s n i i . 1 ~ b u s i n e s s result

desire

that

for

the son's f a i t h i n h i s

greater

achievements

and

be

ability higher

to with

and

goals

his are

thwarted.

3.4.:!.

Causes o f c c r ~ f l i c t s

Wi1liar:lson (1: same

82

-C2mparlson:

cescribes

the

causes

of

conflicts

as:

Many p a r e n t s e x p e c t a l l t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o f i t i n

3attei-n of behaviour.

Deviation brings

about

the

dissatisfaction.

I\la<~g..n~ and u n f a v o u r a t l e c o m p a r i s o n s o f t h e o f f e n d i n g c h i l d w i t h o t h e r c h j l d r ? n may r e s u l t i r c o n f l i c t s . ;arjst: between

(2)

Clash:

A s e r i o u s c o n f l i c t s may

s t u d e r t and p a r e n t s a s a r e s u l t o f t h e

rnoclern i n f l u e n c e s and outrnoded c u s t o m s .

( 3 ) Envy:

clash

between

The s t u d e n t b e g i n s

t o corn3are h i s f a m i l y w i t h t h o s e o f h i s companions a n d becomes ashamed of

1.h:

l a c k o f educatiori and s o c i a l g r a c e s , d r e s s o f t i s own.

idea!; a n d ca1ryi3g

or,

the

intimate

and

( 4 ) Limited space: relationships

of

the

old-fashioned

The

necessity

family

life

conip;~r3tive..y l l i r ~ i t e c s p a c e o f inany o f t h e modern d w e l l l n q rhe

p3ssibtlltles

o f f r i c t i o n and c o n f l i c t .

Ihe 1imltt.d

in

of ttie

increases arnount

111

s p a c e i n a s m a l l home d e p r i v e s t h e i n d i v i d u a l members o f t l i e f i ~ m i l yof' the

degree

o f p r i v a c y which i s s o necessa;:y

for

hsrmoniois

social

interaction.

Thc t y p e o f r e l a t i o n s h i p i n t h e fxmily and t . h e i r

3.4.3.

r:onnectior~

t o actiievcment

type

The

of re1atil:)nship of s t u d e n t s with t h e

f a m i l y h a s an e f f e c t on h i s s c h o o l p e r f o r m a i c e . Ruth

83

Strang.

other

member

mind

She s a y s t h a t t h e n a t u r e 3f

of'

student.

re1al:inn

or

Q u a r r e l l i n g of

in

hi:$

T h i s i n a b i l i t y t o g e t alonc: w e l l

dissatisfactjons,

parents

with

taking

members o f t h e f a n l i l y r e s u l t i n u n p l e a s a n t outcome s ~ c : ha s

disagreement

tht:

T h i s i s s ~ p l ) o r t e c by

o f h i s f a m i l y a n d w i t h h i s a g e m a t e s may b e

off h i s school subjects.

the

member:;

irritations

and

is p a r t i c , u l a r l y d e t r i m e n t a l

with clver;

annayarlces.

tie

to

nrlrmal

e m o t i o n a l development c ~ fc h i l d r e n a s i t g i v e s r i s e t o c o n f ' u s i o n

:ill

tha

mind. Ramires," W.

a n d R . ~ o t h , ' J~. K u r t s

Morrow and R . C . w i l s o n B 7 a n d H a r o l d W .

R.

those

Hillard

who

Ramirez achievement relations feeling Parental

Bernard

s t u d i e d thr: r i o n - i n t e l l ~ t c t u a l f a c t o r s

achievement.

E.

and

Swenslln,

8 €1

are

~nong

a f ' f e c t ~ i n g aca'iemic

I h e i r f l n d i n g s a r e nummarist'd below: studied the non-intellective and

found

o u t t h a t :he

factors affectilq

underachievers

acajemic

per:ei\,e

their

w i t h t h e f a m i l y members t o b e u r l s a t i s f a c t a r y , e x F r t ! s s i n g that

86

the

c l i m a t e a t hom?

is

r1:strictive

a u t h o r i t y i s viewed a s s t i f l i n g and l i n e s

and of

a

~npleasant. con~municatic~n

w i t h ~ a r e n t sa r e seldcim o p e n znd c o m f o r t a b l e . dislike

Underachievers t e n d

to

t h e i r parent:; f o r b e l n g c r i t i c a l , q u a r r e l s o m e , i r r i t a b l e

and

l a c k i n g i n real a f f e c t i o n and sympathy.

T.

H i l l a r d a n d E. Hoth f o u n d o u t t h a t m o t h e r s o f a c h i e v e r s

more a c c e p t i n y o f the1.r c h i l d r e n t h a n were m o t h e r s o f

were

underachievers.

Tht? L a t t e r were r e j e c t i n g o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n a n d u s u a l l y a t t e n d e d

only

t o t n e f a i l ~ r e so f t h e i r c h i l d r e n w h i l e i g n o r i n g o r t a k i n g f o r g r a n t e d thf:i : s u c c e s s e s .

a n d Swenson f o u n d o u t t h a t t h e p a r e n t s o f

Kurts had

pride,

confidence,

whf!rt?as, t h e lallt(?r d i d

a f f e c t i o n and

interest

u p p o s i t ? was t r u e f o r p a r e n t s rrot

of

high

in

achievers

their

children

underachievers.

expc!~:t much o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n a n d

had

very

The little

r e s p ~ ? c tf o r a n d r a p p o r t w i t h t h e i r c h i l d r e n . Morrow theii:

and

W~l:.i>n o b s e r v e d t h a t p a r e n t s o f h i g h

c h i l ~ j ~ e more n

u n t l e . ? s t a n d i ~ l y ,a n d

Bsrnard

that

p a r e n t s who t a k e a n

parents

interest

in

who h a b ~ !t h e t i m e a n d i n c l i n a t i o n t o t a l k t o

t h e . ~ rq u e s t i o r s h a v e h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n o f c h i l d r e n

high

tests and do h e l l i n s c h o o l .

Miner vari;ables

8iJ

investigated t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

and

s o c i o - :conoriic

academic

success i n public

and

than

an:;wt!r 01

gave

more i n t e r e s t

closer t o their children

wt.1.e

remarkec

c h j . l ~ i r - n and

p r a i s e a n d a p p r o v a l , showed

achiever

school.

family

them who

their and score

background

Variables

s t a t u s , r e l i g i ~ r ~s i, b l i n g s t r u c t u r e , f a m i l y

of

size

were and

the like. related nor

She found o u t t h a t b i r t h o r d e r ~ n df a m i l y . s i z e i a p ~ e a rt o be t o the achievment variables.

intelligence

relationships. tend

to

irl

to

Jn

these

a

direct

a h i g h e r l e v e l t.han t h e

larger

provide

have

:;tatus

influence

c h i l d r e n a n d c h i l d r e n i r ~ smai.1

First-born

achieve

children should

appear

Neither socio-economic

families.

later-born

ch..l3ren

and

the

home

The l a c k c f o n e p a r e n t

t h e c k ~ i l dw i t h sorle d e g r e e

of

fam:.lies

j.11

cultural

d2priv;ation

e l t h e r thl-oi~cjti the l a c k o f s t i m u l a t . i o n o r t h r o u g h t h e i n s e c : u r i t y o f normal

home

environment.

There

is a

slight

negative

-ffect;

a

oa

academic p e r f o r m a n c e .

The f a m i l y b a c k g r o u n d o f l o w - a c h i e v e r s

3.4.4.

I t i s r e l e v a n t t o examine c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e fami..y s i t u a t i o n i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e s p e c i f i c e f f e c t s o f t h e c h i l d ' s acaclt!mic s1Jc:cess not

only

at

beginning of t h e c h i l d ' s

the

schooling

t111t a l s u

at

s u c c e s s i v e p o i n t s throughout h i s academic c a r e e r . Gladys

I.

ats son^'

achieving

students.

achieving

often

come

made a st.udy on t h e h i g h a c l i i e v j r ~ g a n d

He

from home s i t u a t i o r s

b r u t a l i z i n g , over-powering, reject

found o u t t h a t t h e

that

extremt:ly d e s t r u c t i v e .

are

nlio

are

des-ribed

low as

Parent.!; nay o p e n l y

t h e c h i l d o r may more s u b t l y r e j e c t him by o v e r p r ~ > t - c t i n ~oj r

making t o o g r e a t demands o n him. in

students

lo#

i n some i n s t a n c e s t.here i s r o figther

t h e home, o n l y a m a l i c i o u s , h o s t i l e m o t h e r , o f t e n o n e who

o f h e r own f a i l u r e s , h a t e s a l l men.

b~xause

A few s t u d e n t s i n th:.!~ g r o u p h a v e

reacted

t ~ y!ret.reat anli w i t h d r a w a l .

They f i n d s a f e t y i n h . t d i r g .

They

f l n d i t ? i f . f i c l ; l t t o speak i n c l a s s . 'I 1

ftamirer, Filiplno have

ir, h e r a r t i c l e " L o r ~ c e p t u a lModel f o r l J n d e r ! ; t g n d i n ~ ] t h e

I l n d e r a c t i i e v e r ~ s , " remark:; t h a t t t e model

been

raised

aspirations

by a dpminant a n d r e j e c t i n g

u n d e r a ~ h i e v e r may

mother

r r t ~ o s e sl:rong

f a r t h e academic achievement c f h e r c h i l d r e n c o n p e l s

t o push h e r c h i l d r e n t o o f a r i n t h e i r s c h o o l t a s k s , a n d negative who is

r e i n f o r c e m e n t s by w i t h d r a w i n g h e r a f f e c t i o n from

f a i l s t o come up t o h e r i n o r d h a t e e x p e c t a t i o n s . aggravated

relationship academic model

rrtro

by

the

presence

of

a

father

who

a

achievement.

The chi1d1,en a c c e p t t h e f a t h e r

as;

an

among f a m i l y members a r e l i k e l y

lhere

to

grr?vent (2)

The

family

the The

setting

in

adverse

P a r e n t s ol't:n

remark

a b o u t t h e c h i l d ' s f a i l u r e t o a c h i e v e l i k e t h e ot.tler

a.itding

t

i

a

child

w i t h h i s more ' s u c c e s s f ~ u l ' s i b l i n g .

display

suffers

home.

fron

comparison

and

the

s e t t i n g i n which b o t h p a r e n t s may h o l d h i g h v a l u e s f ~ r!jc:hool

b u t b o t h p a r e n t s f a i l t o a t t e n d t o t h e n e e d s o f t h e chi1drc:n a t

unkindly

arm?

I . Ihe family

c h i l d r e n from d e v e l o p i n g a n a t t i t u c l e For s c h o o l achievement..

(3)

for i~dult

i n which t h e i n c o n s i s t e n c y i n v a l u e s h e l d f o r s c h o o l a n d

relationships

family

poor

w i t h t h e mother a n d who h a s r e l a t i v e l y l o w e r value:;

t h r e e t y p e s o f f a m i l y s e t t i n g mentioned by t h e a u t h o r :

poor

child

situi~tion

holds

and r e j e c t t h e m o t h e r who i s a c a d e m i c a l l y o r i e n t e d .

setting

emp:.oyee the

This

her

preferential t r e a t m e n t i n t h e i r r e w a r d i n g

system.

The

s e n s e o f b e i n g d i s c r i m i n a t e d a g a i n s t b r i n g s i n e m o t i o n a l ti'alma t o tht? l e s s a c h i e v i n g members n f t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l l y endowed f a m i l y .

The d e t r i m e n l : a l e f f e c t o f p a r e n t a l p r e s s u r e

3.4.5.

'Williarn;ono2 s a y s t h a t f r e q u e n t l y p a r e n t s e x e r t s o much on

c h i l d r e n t o g e t g o t ~ dg r a d e s t h a t t h e r e s u l t i n g l o s s o f

and

lnorals

may

low

grades.

Other

parents

confidence

exhibit

such

attitudes toward t h e s t u d e n t s ' s c h o o l work t h a t tie i s n o t

ind..fferent notivated

caust.

pressure

tc

achieve

at

h i s l e v e l of

aptitude.

Because

of

the

d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t uporl tlhe s t u d e n t ' s e m o t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r , t h e s t u d e n t a c h l . e 5 / e s l e s s t h a n optj~nurrt s u c c e s s and s a t i s f a c t i o n i r i s c h o o l . rs-lationship:;

fail

tcl

s a t i s f y a n d o f t e n become

Soclal

irritating

to

the

s t u c l e l ~ t a n d h i s a s s o c i a t e s , s c h o l a s t i c work i s no l o n g e r a s o u r c e sati.s'action Effcrrl:

to

and Learn

the

student is not

be con,^:

motivated

to

exert

half-hearted with t h e r e s u l t

that

of

himself. the

able

s t u d e n t becotries an u n d t r a c h i e v e r and t h e l e s s a b l e s t u d e n t f a i l s .

Co?flicts result.

of

abiliti3s

clash of

tryjn~] to

betweer

the

iurcu

t h e s t u d e n t and h i s f a m i l y o f t e n a r i s e

betw~:en t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f

the

parents

s t ~ d e r i t . P a r e n t s s o m e t i m e s make t h e s t u d e n t t o l i v e up

an

the

arbitrary

3 c h i e ~ e 1 n e nwhich t h a s bt:come t r a d i t i o n a l i n t h a t f a m i l y .

goal

o f t e n attempts t o achieve t h e impossible i n h i s tip2rova.l

the

limitations :olIer]e a JF

i

i

of

until

level. y

the he

family.

He

often

r e a c h e s t h e more

remains

specialised

He tt-c:n b e g i n s t o l o s e g r o u n d ,

and

and

a the

mistake

of

standard

of

The

:.s u n a b l e t o a t t a i n t.he d e s i r e d g o a l o r i s u n i n t e r e s t e d

dho

as

student in

that

desire to

meet

unaware

of

his

fields

at

the

eventually

his

t r , a t t a i n t h ~ s! t a n d a r d s e t by h i s f a m i l y g i v e s him f e e l i n g s

r.nFeriority

and

I'utility

which

act

as

jr:velclp~nent of t h e t a l e n t s w h i c i h e d o e s p o s s e s s .

inhibitions

to

the

Underactiievernent [nay be c a u s e d by o r Williamson

9<

r e s u l t of' s i b l i r ~ gr i v a l r y .

.I

siivs:

S l t ~ l ~ r i gjeal.ousy

Lo

L J ~ an

i s a c a u s e o f c o n f l i c t wl-ich marly

1.nevitable r e s u l t

or

the

natural

bct.ween

chil.dren

o f t h - same f m i l y f o r

persons

they u s u a l l y admire most, t h e i r

c.oripetitictn

favour

futile

with

~arents.

c o n f l i c t s o c c u r most f r e q u e n t l y where t h e r e i s a i n mental age.

believe

the

Sibling

d:.fferenc:e

The weaker o f t h e c h i l d r e n may r e t r t l a t

resentment,

day-dreaming and

other

in

which

int.0

revenge

compensatory

ar d

is

prominent

motif,

reactions.

As a r e s u l t , h e tend:; t o l o s e h i s c o i f i t l e n c e

a

escape in

h l m s e l f and becomes r e l u n t a n t t o a s s e r t h i r r s e l f .

I n some c a s e s , u n d e r a c h i e v e m e t i t h a s been d i s c o v e r e d ? J be! a of

aggressive reaction against parental oppression.

have

form

rney

The s t u d e n t

a d e q u a t e c o n t r o l o f h i s l i f e s i t u a t i r ~ nb u t h e u s e s f a i l u r e a s

weapon

of adjustment t o 'even up' with masterful

s.ignifixnt.

a

adults

w i t h whom he i s p o w e r l e s s t o contebid o p e n l y . Felips

94

studied the associatzd relat-onship of m a t e r i ~ l c o i t r c l

t o a c a d e m i c achlevernent o f 1 0 0 p r i n a r y s c h r ~ o lc h i l d r e n .

t

d

below

a r e her findinys:

1.

The

type

children's most

of

th?

].eve1

cf

Tht? t y p e o f c o n t r o l

which

is

m a t e r n a l c o n t r ~ lh a s a b e a r i n g

academic achievemsnt.

f a c i l i t a t i v e o f c h i l d r e l ' s achic!vement i s

permissive typc.

on

the

rwturant--

2.

Low

achievers

attended

tenti t o come from homes w h e r e i n t h i s

w i t h dprnirlance o r ~ e r m i s s i v e n e s s . Th:is

stutjy

t h e r e i s a n e e d f o r l e s s d o m i n a t i o n a n d .Lt:ss

that

control

o f c h i l d r e n a t home.

neg1t:c:t

is

j.n;pli~:s

~~u:h~rit.arien

T h e r e n u s t b e s o n e c o r t : r o l t r ~ ~ it t

must b e on r e a s o n a b l e g r o u n d s i n o r d e r t o p r e v e r i t t h e ~ j e v e l c ~ p m e n t of n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e s o f c h i l d r e n toward

3.4.6.

t h e i r parert!;.

The p h y s i c a l a s p e c t o f home e n v i r o n m e n t So f a r wc have beer1 d e a l i n g h i t h t h e ~ s y c h o 1 o g i c : a l aspc:c:

environment.

o f horne

One c a r i n o t , however, i g n o r e t h e o t h e r d i m e r s . . o ~ i rame.ly

the physical aspect.

ranke el"

i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e physical aspects of t h e

t h e a c h i e v i n g and t h e u n d e r a c h i e v i n g g r o u p s . indicated

no d i f f e r e n c e s

falmili~s of

Questionnaire-res~onscs

between t h e two g r o u p s wit.h r e $ p e c : Lc

number o f p e o p l e l i v i n g a t home, ( 2 ) s i z e 3f t h e famj.ly, 3 rooms

i n t h e home, ( 4 ) number o f d i s r u p t e d f a m i l y p a t t e r r s

birth

order of subject.s.

background results, order

variable

Bet.ty

i, h e r s t u d y

a f f e c t i n g school achievement

:;he found t h a t t h e s o c i o - e c o n o m i -

; I I I ~

(1)

iurnter of anc

(1;)

on s o c i o l c g i c a l

yielded

$different

s t a t u s , f a m i l y ! ; i c e , bir+.h

t.he l i k e have d i r c c t i n f l u e n c e on academ1.c

sLcc:e;s.

She

a l s o f o ~ ~ r it.17:rt d t h e f i r s t b o r r ~ c h i l d r e n and c h i l d r e n i n sna1.l f a n i l i e s tend

to

;i::liieve

a higher l c v e l than t h e

c h i l d r r r i iri larr-jc families.

later

born

ch:.l,jrer

and

Nore r e s e a r c h ~ s ,u s i n g t.he ssmc! : o o l s a r ~ d

methods and tiavlnq t h e same s a m p l e s , may c o n c l u s i o n or1 t h i s \ l e b a t a b l e s u b j e c t .

% a b l e u s t.o make a d s f i n i l 2 e

. ~ n v e s l . i g a t o r s have been t r y i n g tr, determine: t h e f;actor:

Many adjustm~:rit, Sandefuc

o r n ~ i ~ l a d j u s t m e nt h t a t a r e i n h e r z n t i n home l i v i n q .

97

made

a study w i t h t h e purpose

of

providing

01'

1.

st:atistical

evidence tx:~s u p p l ~ r tthe. assumption t h a t a d o l e s c e n t s have per:;oial s o c i a l [problems rrhich f i f f e c t t h e i r school/a:hievement. Check and

grade s t u d r n t s .

He found h i g h

and

Mocnc!y prcblero

2..7

l i s t s and t.he SI(A achievement s e r i e s were giver1 t o ninl-li

correlatitrns

eighth

tehwt3en

the

number of problt?~naof liome and t a i n i l y r e p o r t e d and t h e achieveinerit the

student..

[ : ' o r r e l a t i o n s s i g r ~ i f i c a n ta t t h e 0.01 l e v e l

between

home

skill,

charts,

;and fam1.ly probltnms and ;ichi-vement

comniutatiori, sigriificent problents

arid at

trt-id

reatling the the

with

wt!rt?

achievemsnt

score.

0.115 l e v e l . were found between

;-lchieve~ner~Li n

the

sul~ject of

01'

found

reft:renc!e

cor~~pcehension, vocabulary,

composit.e

J..

to

;irithneti(: Col.rt?lat i o n s

home

ar~d femily

c a p ~ . t a l i s a l ; i ~ m and

p u n c t u a t i r ~ t ~s,p t : , l l i r ~ q ,al:ithrnet.~c c o n c e l ~ t s . The o n l y

non-s:.gnificant:

r e l a t i r ~ n s t ~ if p o ~ t n dwas between home and f a m i l y problem and achievement: l r i r;lranirna r

The

; ~ l ~ o v tt* i e s

phyr;ic:il are

. to

coriclud~ tiat.

and p s y c t ~ o . l ~ : ~ ~ laspt?ct.s ical o f t h e home and f a r n i l y

clr)sc!ly

Hence,

q i v e :r~ough reasons

t

i

1 i.nked

~ i t thh e academic performance

pr.!~blemo f low-achit?vement cannot

be

without

f i r s t t a c k l i n g the family.

members

need s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n s i n c e i t has l o t of

the learner.

of

envirc~r~ment tte

generall:/

The r e l a t i o n s h i p

the

betvw:n

learner. tackled family

repert,u,;siori$;

on

15.4.7.

l : o r ~ c l ~ ~ d i r lr!ejm a r k s e1.lempl.

Arl

~connecl.ed

to

made

i

i n t h i s chapter

low--achievement..

Certain

to

examine

major

the

factor:;

st~dies

that

are

d i r e c t l y r t : l a t c , l t.o z~cadernic a c l i i e ~ e r n e n ta1.e i 1 l u s t r ; l t e d w i t h r e l 2 v a n t rt?sr:arc:t~ :;l.udir!s. s u f f'icierlt imd

Itie!je

stujiej

are

11r~111It:rnso f

low-schi.evln
bel:r:~nlr: ilwirrl o f ' I:tic:

will

p r o v i j ~ us

bacl..grnur~dknowltrd~]~: regarding t h e needs, student:;.

~ : t ~ a ~ : a t : l . t i r i ~ i t . ~ cof: : tIle1.r c o u n t t : c p a : t s

u!;

r~eant to

(hi$

charact e r i j t i c s

Knowledge

abctut

a c h i e v i r q stud1:nts)

week p o i r i t s o f l o w - . a c h i e v e r s .

5ur:h

ijoal

with

c h i l d r e n in -.heir s c h o o l a n d

the helps

knowledge

I l e l j ~!lot i ~ n l y thr! kluidannt:--i:ounsellc~rs b u t a l s o a l l

direct.1)

with

ttose

family

who

set-up

u n d t > r s t a r ~ dt h e l a t t e r a n d t o t a k e ; i p p r o p r i ~ l t em e a s u r e s t o !;olbe

to

:heir

problems.

The scope

proce1:ding

survey of research s t u d i e s thus char:s

o f the subject.

problem::;

irivo1,ved.

out

the

of

the

I t a l s c ~tle.lps a s s e t s t h e comp1exil:ies

I t i s a g a i n : ; t t h i s background and on

this

t h a t t h o prcseril; r e s e a r c h e x a m i r ~ f r st h e modes o f t a c k l i n g and l o w - a c h i e v e r s o f t h e 51econdary s ~ : h o o l si n K e r a l a .

l~asis

tre,~ting

REFERENCE 5

Related l i t e r a t u r e 1

Msrjorlt?

Counselliriq

D u n k e r , F-d. D . ,

S.

Proqrammc!

upon

Effe(,t -

Low-Achievinq

of

an

Extendcld

Hispanic

Twell'tli

Grade

IlicJ~--S c h-.o o l s ,

i n Thcee Lo:i A n q e l e s U n i f i e d 5ch11ol D i s t r i c--t

Studento

Collecg

D o c t o r a l D i s s e r t a t i o n , P e p p e r d i n e U, 1 9 8 7 : 1 5 6 . L

M;.~ry Lee

Tutorinc~or

W i l l i a m s , EIci. D . , A l a r i s o n

---

o f-- thr? - E l ' f e c t-- o f

Ttrtorinci C o m b i n e d x t h Counsc:llinq on

the

Ac h;.evement.

__ .ji

Self-€st-eem,

Mptivation,

a n d A t t i t u d e o f T e n t h G r a -o e r s

ir

Remedial

D o c t o r a l Dissertation. U o f San F r a n c i s c o ,

19E6:

195.

3

[I.

A . !3ctimietling, "Coun!;e l l i n g anti Achievement ," Z o ~ ~ r n a ol f

C o u n s e--l l i n ~ ~ . c t ~ o l o3q (1356: y : 75-82. 4

I ) I : I ~ ~Iri.J ~ I . , e t a l . ,

Academic.: Arhit:vement,"

5

" I m p a c t c ~ fGtridance a n d

Co1~isellin3an

---

R e c e n t 1 r e n d s i n E d u c a t i o n 1, 2 (197C) : 28-50. "Teaching

5I:~oy S k i l l s ,

C o g n i t i v o S t r a t e g i e s and M e t a - C o g n i t i v e S k i l l s Through

Self-Diag3osed

Arir!

W . I:erns a n d M i c h a e l 13.

Carns,

learn in^,] f i t y l e s , " J o u r n a l : S c h o c ~ li : o u n s e l l o r 6

Mrint<]ocnery C o u n t y

Comprehensive

Guidance

Public

Schools,

38 ( 5 May 19111): 3 4 1 - 3 4 6 .

-------- S t u ' j i e s :

Program

a n d C o u n s ~ : l l i n q P ~ . o q r a mK-.l;;,

MCPS Board o f E d u c a t i o n , Rockvj l l e . M a r y l a n d , 1 9 8 6 .

11'

Repc~rt o f

the

7

M;:~rsh llerpert; arid G a r r y K i c h a r d , The Outwa~:!J

Course

for

Low-Achie#il-lq

liirlh

School

Males:

Bc~unL Bi:.dqi:lg

Effect

Achievenlent and M u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l S e l f - C o n c e p t s , D o c t c ~ r a l[

--

Academic

01

~ i : ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . : l t l O l l ,

U o f A u s t r a l i a , 1986. 8

Kanas C i t y S c h o o l ,

N a t i o n o f t h e School within

:chor~l

3

1984-86 (SWAS) D i s t r i c : t , M. 0. 1985. 9

Mary L . F o r d , "A Model Programme

Academic

Performanct:

of

t3

Low-Achieving

Improve S t u d y Third

Grade

k

and S:uclents:"

D i s s e r t a t io n A bs t r a c t 7 ( 1 9 9 1 ) : 1051. 10

J . ,, t:t a l . , w i n q u a l / E l ? L

Roberta

Support

Mainstream I n : , t ~ ' u c t i o n a t l

l ' r o q r a ~ n do f Year E v a l u a t j o n i t e p o r t f o r 1989-91.,

Seattle

P u b l i c S c h o o l s , Washiiigton, 1 9 9 0 , Vo. 90-96. lvnluative

Research

Rep3rt of D:.strict

Public

C o l u m b i t ~ , E v a l u a t i o n - o f t h e J u n i ~ rHiqh S c h o o l &covemerlt

'chools

cf

Intensivll'are

ard

Proqram ( I C S I P ) , Washington DC: 1990: 1 2 .

l2 E l s i e M. Bruno, F o l l o w - u p S t u d y on Guidacne

Students

7:

C o l l e q ~ Su8:cess

a t Columbia C o l l e q e , 1989-90, Columbia C o l l e g e ,

Califo-nnia,

199[1.

13 14

Sc:hmieding,

.

c i t . , 75-02.

D o s a j h , o p . c i t . , 28-50.

l5 De

K.

Montr::ith

J . and [)e Wet

:.,

Personality

C h a r a c t e r i z i t i c s o f tht? U n d e r a c h i e v i n q L i f t e d P u p i l ,

3nd

llther

R e s e ~ ~ r zRhe p o r t .

Orange f r c e S t a t e , R e p u b l i c o f S O U ~A.f ~r i c a , 1984.

l6 Mercy

Abrahtlm,

F a c tors Relatinq

E n q l i s l i , 0 c 1 c t o r ; ~ lU. i s : ~ e r t a t i o n , U 17

Illid.,

238-239.

to

-

Unde::.achit!v:ment ---

o f K e r a l a , 1.978: 2.57.

-- i n

l8 Nal.alla W . S . , " E f f e c t o f r Cla:jsrc,om Guidance U n i t or, Graders'

19

L.

Students

I . P l y

.

W.

and

1 9 8 5 ) : 70-79.

"1)ifferentiating Char;lcteristics of

I l , ~ v i n q Psychological

P s y c l i o l o [ ~ ,48 20

Journa.1 Humanist LC Edl~c:t:.on

Exnminc~tion Performance, "

Development, 2 5 , 2 (Dcc

Sixth

Problen~s,"

Journal

G~,oup of'

3

of

Etluc:atlonal

1 9 5 7 ) : 359-370.

.I. Powell and 5 . M . J o u r a r d , "Some Objective

1mmaturit:y in Underachieving C o l l e g e Studen:s,"

Lvldc:nce

of.

J o u r n a l of Counsellinq

I J s y c h o l o c ~ ,10 ( 1 9 6 3 ) : 267-282. C . D. Spielberrger e t a l . , "Group C o l ~ n s e l l i n g and t h e

Performance

of

Anxious

Collecje Freeman,"

Journal

of

Acacemir:

Counsel-

psycho lor^^, 9 ( 1 9 6 2 ) : 195-204. 22

E.

U.

Whiteis,

E d u c a t i o n a l Revi,%, 23

L.

C.

Academical1.y

"Poor

Scholarship

College,"

Harvard

3;! ( 1 9 6 2 ) : 53-70.

Kepperr; and 5. W .

Able

in

Caplan,

"Group

Underachieving studc?nts,"

[:ounsel.~ng with

New Mexico - -S1:u3ies -- --

irl

E d u c a t i o n al Research -B u l l e t i n , 1 ( 1 9 6 2 ) : 12-17.

24

5.

K.

Calhoun,

"The E f f e c t a f C o u n s e l l i n g on

z

Group

o:

E i g h t h Grade U n ~ l e r a c h i e v e r s , " D i s s e r t a ti o n A b s t r a c t s , 1 6 (1'355): 93738.

2 :,

A

F reemari Rhor~da and Couchmen Bob, "Coping w i t h Famj 1 I

Modc.1

for

adolescent.^,"

ihertspeutic .Journal:

Group

Counselling

Ct111jren

with

School-gui d a n c e - w o e , 40,

Change:

'7

and

(ME), 1985 i : 4 4 -

SO. 26 Anne W i n c h e l l ,

June 19139, -

New S t a r t f'roqram.

R e p o r t : 5eptemt,er 19l3!,

K i n ~ ~ s b o r o e ~Community gh C o l l e g e , Brooklyn, New "ork:

t3

L1)89.

L . L . L ~ g h tand

27

Group

Counselling

on

C. E . Alexakos, Study H a b i t s , "

"Effect of

Ths

I n d i v . . d ~ a l and

Journal

of

E~ju:at.ional

R e s e a r c h , 6 3 ( 1 9 7 0 ) : 4:)O-454. 28

G. L . t l a r x ,

" I \ Comparison o f t h e E f f e c t i v e n e : ; ~ o f Two Method:;

o f C o u n s e l l i n g w i t h Ac;idemic U n d e r a c h i e v e r s , "

Dissert.atior /\b;trzcts..

20 ( 1 9 5 9 ) : 2144-45. 29 John F . Krerner. ~ : at l . , "Enhancing :ornplience

Strategies:

Techniqur?~ t o

w i t h S!.utJy 5 k i l : i

In~prove S e l f -monitorin(], "

J11urna1 ol-

C o l l e q e S t u d e n t P e r s o n n e l , 2 , 6 (Nov. 1 9 8 3 ) : 518-524.

30

South

Education,

Carolina

S t a t e C o u n c i l on

h a t i n a l , Education and t h e

Survey of Vocational Education,

31 Skills

Vocational. .ow-achievinq

on

Probationary

Tt:chrica:L

5tlldi:nt.:

i!

Columbia, 3 ( 1 9 8 6 ) .

S a l l y A . L i p s k y a n d S t e v e n C . I . E,der, Course

anc

Students'

"Impact c f

Academic

s

Study

P~rI'o?marce,"

Journal o f-t h e r r e s h m a n Year E x p e r i e n c e , 2 , 1 ( 1 9 9 0 ) : 7-15. 32

I

.

Michael

Hoeprich.

Jr.

d . I.,

The

Effect:;

b ~ r e h c n s ~ v I.e.i t u d y 5 k i l l s Proqram on t h e qchievement. o f 6 t h

of

:!

Grzderri

i n S o c i a l -!.itudlc:s and ,Sc:ience_, D o c t o r a l D i s s e r t a t i o n , N o r t t e r n Ar.izona U , 50 ( I l l : 213. j3

i.l;ir.y 1.11: G r o o r t y , U n i v e r s i t y F o r e i g , Language

PretJicLr<

I

:

--a

?

r

E c l ~ ~ c o t i o n a lRe,ort

Learn:nq:

Soris.s,

What:

Ct:ncre

for

Languayc L:ilucat.iorl anil l i e s e a r c h , C a l i f o r n i a U, L a s A n q e l e s , ..938. li4 P. Chahl,azi, on

Study

1labit.s

Achievement,"

" A n a l y s i s o f C o r n e l l 3 r i e n t a t i o r 1 Invenl.o:y

and t h e i r R e l a t i v e Value i n P r e d i c t . i o n

o-

Item:; Cclllegt?

. J o u r n a l o f E x p e r i m e r t a l E d u c a t i o n , 6 1 ( 1 9 6 7 ) : 1!6.

.;'j

Stucy

F . U. i3ruoks and J . I:. I i u s t o n ,

Hab~ts lnvent~ry,"

(1915 I :

.Journal o f

"The V a l i d i t y of' I t e m s Educational

in

Psycholoqy,

a

31;

257-270.

.ib

G.

Sch1ciist:r and C . W . Young,

1.1.

"Study

and

Work-Habitti,"

Schco.. R e v ~ e w1 53 (19!k5>: 05-89. 57

ti.

ID. C a r t e r ,

" O v e r a c h i e v e r s and U n d e r a c h i e v e r s i n t h e Jun.i.or

High Iichool C a l i f o r n i a , J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , 1 2 ( 1 9 6 1 ) : .)R

U. I ? . E n t w i s t l e ,

Review," :1'3

-Ihe

"Tlie E v a l u a t i o n o f Study S k i l l

Thomas

P s s h--~ ~ l o q y1 ,2 , -

and

A

J o u r n a l of' E d u c : ~ t i o r r a lR e s e a rc h , 53 (1960: 247-251. John

W.

et

al.,

Dif f e ~ : s n c e ~i ,n Academic Study i n y , "

"Grade-Level

and

Course-Specific

J o u r n a l : Contemporary

Educatiorlal

4 ( 1 9 8 7 ) : 381-85.

.John H . Knapp and Stuclrt A . K a r a b e n i c k ,

"I'

Courses:

"Incidence o f

:nForiiial Academic H e l p - s e e k i n g i n Higher E d u c a t i o n , "

C o l l e ~l eS t u d e n t ---

Fori~lai

Journal

ap

Developnlent, 29, 3 (May 1988): 223-27.

Michael D. S c ~ e w a r t r , i h e Need f o r and P o s s i b l e C o n t e n t of .- o Coursrt t o ----

Help Undera2hit:vinq C o l l e q e P r e p a r a t o r y Hiqh School Studenl-!j

(15C ) M a r s h f l e l d Wigh S c h o o l , M a s s a c h u s e t t s , 1986. 1,::

R i c h a r d [Ionna e t a l . , Arr l n t e r v e n t i o n System

Nan-at:hievtrs

t
for

Persi5t.g

Dallas,

Tax.

198E. lt

.,.

3

Ck8ndaco 1

i a l d

,

[:an Improvement. I I I

fteter~tion of-t!,~:

5citn1:e Coriterit--Area be had i ) y (.the A d d i t i o n o f ljtutly 5k:illsY Keseer<:l~ -Repcrl., Neb, J e r s e y , 1387 .

L LI

r

i

Iler~ ~a l ~ dKmwar S a i n .

An

P a : t e ~ r i s ol Study Me:hods o f t h e Hiqh and Low A c h i e v i n q T e ~ i t hGrade:, f I,

0

Master':; Thesis, U

the

Investic~ation into Students

of'

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M o n t e i t h and N e t , o p . c i t . , p . 5. Mabel K . Lucn,

" A Comparison o f U n d e r a c h i e v i n g Female

J o u r n a l o-f E d u c a t . i o n a 1 P s y c h o l o q y ,

St~derlts,"

Collsge

lil ( J u n e 1 9 6 0 ) :

.l[:l9-.

113. L.7

Jul.taria Lazars, Study H a b i t s o f Freshmen Student!; o f t h e H i c o l

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I

r ~ fLtle I'hi Ld~ppines, Uuezon C i t y , 1966.

A n q e l i n a L . i
Scloo,.

Acai:emlc

"Non-intellective F a c t o r s in

tlchi?veaenl. of' High A b i 1 i . t : ~Stuclenl:~.

P h i l i y t p i n e l { e s e a r c l ~ s i n Guidance 1961-1970, o f thr? -----

M a s t e r ' !;

"

the

len

Years

Manila Research

P t i l l p p l n e i ; ~ . i d a n c e and -P e r s o n n e l Assoc j*!,

t11cll1 of

Proiecl.

(June

1971 ) :

125. I;!?

Adele

t.

C8,~tiried:

"Academic

Elener11:ary

and J u n i o r High Si:hool S t u d e n t s , "

F'sychrlloqy, -

7 7 . 6 ( 1 9 3 5 ) : 631-45.

!)I1

A 1 isin King,

Adolescent

Art SLudeits,"

( S e p t 1YB:'): 1

198: )

Motivation

Journal of

of

J l ~ u r n a l : S t u d i e s i n Art Educ:-,

Youn~ll 24,

1

187-94.

tor

A c ~ d e ~ n i cI'erformance Among

"Global I n s t a b i l i t y : Student!:;

in

C o ~ c s e s , " & ~ r n a l o f C u l l e q e S t u d e n t P e r s o n n e l , 26, 2 129- 33.

ill

Educational

A c h i e v e n e n t and S e l f - c o n c e p t

K a t h l e c r ~J . 5 - o t t a n d S t e v e n 0 . R o b b i n s ,

lmplitior Skill!;

"A!]ency.

Intrinsic

Learr~iriy (Marc:h

-

c,, 1.

Lo,r

Norla [ e l l e f s ~ l ~ ei ,t a ] .

Fc;hievt:mernt:

C a r e g c ~ . i e s",

,

"Teacher's Attrit rel="nofollow">ul.ions l o r Student'y

A V a l . i d a t i o n o f Cooper

and

Good's

Attributi:onal.

Jouriial: i'sychulogy i n t h e Schools, 27, 1

(Jan.

19911)

75-83. S'li

Honald

Te:hnj.ques

1'. S~:,irnclzer e t a l . ,

"Using

the

Critical

1ncidt:nl.

t o Uetermiiie R e a s o r ~ s f o r S u c c e s s a n d F a i l u r e s o f U n i v e r s . i t y J o u r n a l \IF -Collecle S t u d e n t P e r s o n n e l , 2 8 , 411 (May

St~derlt-s,"

1987):

261-6tt. !)L+

Famil!,

Lawrence H .

on t d u c a t i o n a l- a n d 0cc:upational Achievement o f

d -

A r g ~ , An E c o l o g i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e

R u r ~ l Low-Income

,~ I 3

U s r t i a ~ . : ~1.1. 3yrr1e,

1rivtsi:igatjntj Memte1::;hip

j ~5

Ycuth, --j7

their

In

(Sep't. l Y Y [ l j :

Adolescents,~ liesearch

Rep~:~rt.

Acadeniic

importance a s Discriminators of

Achievemetlt:

Academic

Track:

15,

2

173-82.

V. Alonrm Ururin, e t a l . , Drop-out P r e v e n t i o n f o r R u r a l At-Risk Doc:toral L ) i s s e r t a i o n , L o u i s i a n a Tech. U

,

1990.

Parilela L i a r ~ u r e l l ia n d David L e s t e r , " S e l f - c o n c e p t a n d Acadc!mir: Jamaicarr l e e i a q e r s , "

5 (Ucl. LYtlYj:

j8

" S e l f Concept and

High S ~ z h o o l , " C a n a d i a n J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n ,

P e r l ' o c ~ ~ a n c c : lr1

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Social

Psycholcw,

725-26.

K[ib~iison A . Ilebra a-id S t e w a r t E . C o o p e r ,

Sell'-2oncept

The

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un A c a c e ~ n i c S u c - e s s i n T e c h n o l o g i c a l C a r e e r s , "

of 1 : o l l e q e S t u d e n t P e r s o n n e l ,

K i n d e r ~ j a r t e nC h i l d r e n , "

15'8 7 ) : l j 3 ' ; - $ 7 .

of

Journal

2 5 , 2 (March 1 9 8 4 ) : 145-49.

59 G l u r i ; ~C . C o r r ~ z r oa n d James E . T u r n e r , of

.- o f

lYt:7.

(n. p

liY,

The I n f l u e n c e

j c h i a m b e r g a n d Chin Chong Hee,

Journal:

"Self-concept Measures

C h i l d Development, 58, 5

(1:Ict..

'(I

B. Brooke;:,

W.

2831 --

Micliiyani

f

Stale

H.

Vaiant ha, Pu3licntion,

''I

--F i n a l

111, "

A c i i e \ ement

e t al.,

"Self-concept

of

Ability

Repclrt o n C o o p e r a t i v e Research P r o , j e c t , N -& Univr:rsity,

S.e l f - c o n c e p t

and

Est

Lamsing,

1967.

Achievement,

C r y s t a l Kuykf!ndall,

Trivandrum

Improvinq Black Student

by

Radtla

Jarnes

W.

Cliapman,

Journal:

,&

Actiievement

D o c t o r a l D i s s e r t a t i o n , Department

Ps(chc~kogy, American I l n i . v e r s i t . y , Washington, D. C . ,

coxepts,"

Cited

1973: p . 110.

Ensiaric,1nq S t u d e n t s ' 51:lf-imaqc,

fS2

and S c h o o l

"Learning

of.

1989. Children ' s

Disabled

Se.1 f-

3

Review o f E d u c a t i o n a l Research, 58,

(1980):

347-71. victor

~ o l l ,

"Children's

Perception

F e 2 l i r 1 i j s Towards l h e r n - - R e l a t e t i t o S e l f - p e r c e p t i o n , and

E:ehavlour,"

Jou-nal

of

their

Teachers

S c h o o l Achievemelit,

o f Experimental Education,

29

(Dec.

1960):

107-118. '14

of

1 . A . Heeder.

Seif-concept,

Di;se~.t;atioii t,!i

Betwef!err

Ac3demic A r h i e v e m e n t ,

Abstract:,

Harold

A.

Academic

Aciie\,t:ment

,"

" A S t u d y o f Some R e l a t i o n s h i p s Between

15 5

A:mann

and

Classroom

Levels

Adjustment,"

No. 2472.

and Sandra F. Dupont,

S'zlf-concept,

Global

"The

Self-concept

Canadian J o u r r ~ a lo f C o u n s e l l i n g ,

22,

3

Relationships and

Academic

(July

1988) :

173-71. .

(>ti

b l z o b a n r i M. l.lboya,

c o i c e ~ ~ t aiirl

:>elf-:oricept

A d ~ l e s c e n c e, 24, 93 ( 5pr.

"The R e l a t i v e I m p o r t a n c e o f G l o b a l of

Academic

19811) : 39-46.

Achieven~ent,"

Self-

Journal:

57

K r ~ b l nR .

K e l l y a n d L a v e r n e K.

Ach.evemenl.

arid

Gercler

Rtp..i:atiori

S t u d y ,"

on

Academlc

Jordan, and

"Effects

Social

of

Acadel~iic

A

Self-concept:

J o u r n a l o f C o u n s e l l i n q a n d Development,

69,

2

L e t . 1 9 9 0 ) : 173-77.

J. !,havelson a n d Roger B o l u s ,

Rtchard

I r ~ t t ? r > l a yu f l h e o r y znd M e t h o d s , "

"Self-concept:

Journal of Educational

[hr:

Psycholocu,

7 L , 1 ( F e b . 19821: 3- 1 7 .

59 wjtli

1

8. i

" R e l a t i o n s h i p s o f S e l f - i m a g e i n High

n

4tteri1ianct: and I , ~ . a d eP o i n t Average a t Post-:iecondary

Ir~si;itutioris,"

.1ourr1al:

School

Educatior\aL

G l l e r l e a n d U n i v e r s i t y , 60, 4 (Sum.

1985):

32'8--35. 70

K . e l , ' I h c S e l f-concept and P e r s i s t e n t School Absenteeism,"

B1,ii;lsh J o t ~ r n s lo f E c l u c a t i o n a l P s y c h o l o q y , 5 2 , 2 (;June 1 9 8 2 ) : 179-87. 71

I..

F.

Iamb?;,

"Perception

of

Self

Urid~?rachieier~teritin t h e t \ c a d e m l c a l l y C a p a b l e , " Jc~u.:rial, 42 ----

72 73 tile

(UOL..

ar~d

Scholastic:

P e r s o n n e l and G u i d a n s

lYt,ll): 47-51.

Ralr,irer, up. (;it..,

p. 1 5 .

D a r i e l l e i;antlers,

" C u l t u r a l C o n f l i c t s : An I m p o r t a n t F a c t o r .in

A c a d e ~ r i c f a i l u r t ? ~ o f American

Indian

journal,^^

Students,"

I-lul : i c u l t u r a 1 L'ourtsel_liriq a n d Llevelopment, 1 5 , 2 (Apr. .L987): 81-911. 74

Mclra F r a s e i J u l i e b o and J e a n E l l i o t t ,

"The C h i l d

Fits

tht?

L:~bf:l," &'.view o f E r & ~ c a t i o n a R l e s e a r c h , 5 3 , 4 (Win 1 9 8 3 ) : 51.

7' er;tl:en

t l a i i i r 14. W ~ l k e r , Chariging S e l f - e s t e e m : CIi:riqes

Edu~:etion,

on

t i t - R i s k S t u d e n t s Achievement,

NCW .ler:;t:y

Office of Research,

The Irrlpact o f Neward

Ev;lluation

and

51+1f.-. -.

Board

lit'

Testing,

7 5 E. 5 t e w a r t Cocper a n d 4 . G. Debra Robinso~.r, "The E f f e c t s o f a : ; t r u i : t ~ r e d Acailellllc

and

Self-concept

of

J o u r n a l : -.T ~ c h n i q u e s , 3 , 4 ( O c t . 1 9 8 7 ) : 260-64.

Abil:.tf," 77

S u p p o r t Group on G . P . A .

Hot~ert Pangrari,

"?hysical

Education,

Self-concept

and

53, 9

, l c h i t : v ~ m e n t , " Journal. of P h y s i c a l Education, Recreation--Dance, (Nr~v-1ecem. 19823: It - 1 8 . 73

I j i ~ l n ~ i Aarcn

Understandinq

Human

Behaviou,~,

York: I4c [;raw-Hill Book Co., 1 9 6 2 ) 277.

--

-P x c l ~ o l o q y ;New

73

!iartain,

Hai:olrI W . U e r n a r d ,

Psycholoqy o f Learninq and Teaching,

3rd

IKd. Nzw Yozk: I.lc G r a b . - H i l l Buok Co., 1 9 7 2 ) 121. 83

1

:'

Cardun W. M i l Ler, J. ournal

" F a c t o r s i n S c h o o l Achievement a n d

of Ec!~cetional Psycholoqy,

81 L . G . W i l l i a m s o n ,

Soci;rl

6 1 ( F e b . 1 9 7 0 ) : 260-269.

-How t o C o u n s e l S t u d e n t s (New York: M c Graw-

I i i l l 133ok C I J . , I n c . , 11139) 394. I b i d . , 2LY-Z3I. -83

I?uiti

itrany,

r w t i l l O ~ o k0 83

.

, I

l h e A d o l e s c e n t Views Himself

.

,

(New

York:

Mc

1 9 5 7 ) 271.

Rarnirez, o p . c l t . , p. 1 5 .

85

T.

H l l l a r d ~ r I?. ~ d Roth,

.achi~:vernent S y r i d r o ~ n e , '

Personnel

"Maternal A t t i t u d e s and

the

Nun-

a n d Guidance

47

(Jon.

Journal,

19tn9 ) : 424-434.

" .I. Kurts arid 6. Swenson, ant1

Underatrh~evernent i n

Factors Related t o

Schouls.

C i t e d by Kendel

~ n i [ ~ r c ~ v i nlAcI~levennnent q Behavluur lhrouqh

.r3rcg:anme ---I

Dactoral Cissertatiuri, U

Planned

Overachievement. !;uriico

Group

Tang

in

C o u n s e m

o f H a w a i i , May 1 9 7 0 , p . 4 .

W . I < . Marrow s n d R . C . Wilson,

'j7

"Family R e l a t i o n s

High ,\chievil-$9arid U n d c ~ . a c h i e v i n gHigh School Boys,"

Bright

C i t e d by

Kendel

u., 4.

Sun:.c!) Tang.

B e r n a r d , Op. C j l . , Betty

39

of

Miner,

S c h o o l Achievement.

154.

"Sociological

Background

Variable

Affecting

2 1 u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , 6 1 ( A p r i l 1968):

573-38I~.

9c

Gladys ti. Wat:;on.

"Emotional Problems o f

P e r s o n r ~ e land Guidance J o u r n a l , 9:.

9:: 9.1 YCI

39 ( O c t . 1 9 6 0 ) : 98-106.

Rarnirer, op. c i t . , 1 2 . Williamson,

& . ,

581.

-I b i t l . , 220-22b. Flora

V.

Felipe,

Relaticin t o t h e Acader!ic Jacirit3

Students, "

Gifted

Clementary

Phi l:p3ine,

5 3 t t e r n of

Material

Control

t h e.-i r

and

Achiedement o f Primary School C h i l d r e n i n s a n

School,

,.tarbate,

Master's

Thesis,

of

U

the

Quezon C i t y , 1969.

9 5 Edward F r a n k e l , "A Comparative S t u d y o f Achieving High

a o y s of Hiqlr 1 n t e l l e r : t u a l A b i l i t y ," J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l

School

Research,

53 (March 136U): 172-:80. 968 57

Miner, op. c i t . . 1 . .I.

,

373-:80.

Sandefui., e t a l . , "An I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e

b e ~ w e t r ~Rec:ognired P:oblems c ~ f A d o l e s c e n t s and

School

Relationsllip Achievement,"

J o ~ r n z l .of t:ducationa.l. Researc,h, 59 (July-August 1 9 6 6 ) : 473-474.